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 NOT FOR SALE
This PDF File was created for
educational, scholarly use ONLY.
 This book contains all the information required The step-by-step exercises explain how to ap-
to begin drawing with different media: charcoal proach drawing a model, and presenting and
and its derivatives, sanguine crayon, chalk, dry evaluating the different media, while imparting a
pastel, graphite, colored pencils, and oil-based basic understanding of color theory.
crayons and pastels. All the media discussed can The fact that so many different media are
be used for drawing lines, shading (in the cases of covered does not mean that this book is unfo-
charcoal and graphite), and coloring. They are cused. To the contrary, it provides an overview
applied to a support, usually paper, following a of all that is essential for making progress in
series of procedures that are referred to as dry drawing and painting. Basing lessons on the ob-
techniques. And although they possess similar servation of a model, this book analyzes each
characteristics, their differences require different drawing and the light that illuminates it, teaching
techniques and render results that are very differ- the reader to mentally situate the areas of light
ent as well. The various media and effects, com- and shadow and to apply a range of tonal values
bined with the personal working style of each art- and colors necessary for modeling the volumes.
ist, all contribute to the wide range of expressive Dry media are ideal for realistic representations
possibilities. All the dry media will be covered in because during the learning phase the applica-
this book, each one requiring the development of tions and techniques emphasize depth.
good drawing skills and a mastery of color.
 Francese Crespo drew a large still life with charcoal and

Dry Techniques
added a note of color with sanguine crayon.

T here are media that can be applied using dry

techniques without the need for additives or
complementary products, such as charcoal, sanguine
crayon, chalk, and soft pastel. But graphite, colored
pencils, wax crayons, and oil pastels are also consid-
ered to be oil-based media because of their grease,
oil, or wax components. Techniques common to all of
them include line, shading or coloring, gradating,
blending, and rubbing. The effects and results pro-
duced by each of these techniques, and others that
are not common to all, depend on the medium that is
used. A general overview comparing work done with
different media will make this quite clear.

SKETCHING MEDIA

It is obvious that a
sketch can be made
with the same medium
that is going to be
used to make the final for use in the pre- most used media for
drawing. However, it liminary sketch for sketching.
is not always done another medium. For Although a work of art
this way, since the example, the volatil- can be done entirely in
characteristics of one ity of charcoal causes charcoal, sanguine crayon,
medium make it ideal it to be one of the chalk, pastel, graphite pen-
cil, colored pencil, or oil
pastel, these media are of-
ten used to create the pre-
liminary sketch of a draw-
ing or painting that is then
done in another medium.
Charcoal, chalk, and soft
pastel are usually used to
make sketches for oils and
acrylics. Watercolors, on
the other hand, require
sketches done with graphite
or colored pencils, even
water-soluble ones. Oil
This is a character portrait, pastel, which can be dis-
L'Arnau, done completely in solved with turpentine or
charcoal by M. Braunstein using mineral spirits, can be used
the basic techniques of line,
gradation, and rubbing.
in the sketch for a painting
that will be completed in
oils. A line drawing is the
usual technique for a
sketch, the elements and
main shapes representing
the model being loosely
Gabriel Martin used charcoal and black chalk to create
this Still Life. drawn on the surface of the
support.
 PERFECT MEDIA DRY MEDIA ARE COMPATIBLE
FOR SKETCHING White chalk is used to highlight a charcoal
drawing. Sepia is used to darken sanguine
Charcoal, sanguine crayon, and white chalk is used to lighten it.
crayon, chalk, pastel, The historic technique aux trois crayons mixes
graphite and colored charcoal, sanguine crayon, and white chalk,
pencils, and oil pastel which can be used to achieve a perfect repre-
can be used to make sentation of volume. Charcoal and sanguine
sketches using line, crayon are perfectly compatible with colored
shadow, and color to chalk and the soft pastels. The same is true of
indicate the light and soft pastels and the colored chalks, which are
shadow of the model. nothing more than hard pastel.
In addition, the tech- Sanguine crayon, chalk, or pastel can be
niques of gradating used over a sketch made with charcoal. In any
and some blending and case, it is always a good idea to draw lightly
rubbing can be applied
with the charcoal so the medium applied over
t o mo r e d e v e l o p e d
it will not become dirty.
sketches. The sketch
can be achromatic The graphite pen-
(charcoal or graphite pen- cil is a very inter-
cil), monochro-matic, with esting tool, since it
can be used to
one color of sanguine make a small
crayon, chalk, dry or oil drawing with a lot
pastel, or colored pencil), of detail.
or done in several colors.

Head of a Girl, by Jean Baptiste Greuze, illustrates the three pencil

drawing techniques: charcoal pencil, sanguine pencil, and white
chalk highlights.

Portrait of a Figure was done with silver

point, a very old medium that cannot be cor-
rected. Carlant drew on a smooth paper
covered with a thin layer of dry gouache,
using a silver point and a copper wire in a
lead holder.
 The characteristics of
DRY MEDIA AND soft pastel gradations
OIL-BASED MEDIA lend an expressive accu-
racy and painterly style
The techniques of blending to the modeling of this
and rubbing create a very figure done by
similar effect with charcoal, Oscar Sanchis.
sanguine crayon, chalk, and
dry pastel, although the spe-
cific characteristics of each of
these media and their deriva-
tives do present some slight
differences. Rubbing adds a
special dimension to grease-
based pastels, whether they
are wax or oil, while the ef-
fects of blending and rubbing
graphite or colored pencils
greatly depend on the quality
and hardness of the lead. With
colored pencil, rubbing can
even be done by drawing
hatching or over areas of
color. That is, the tool that
applies the color does the
rubbing, while with dry media
this is usually done after the
line or color is applied, with
It is possible to draw quick sketches on large sheets of
the fingers or a blending stick.
paper with chalk. This way you learn to loosen the wrist
Practice will show that it is and gain confidence in your freehand lines using very
not always a good idea to use inexpensive materials. Drawing by M. Braunstein.
these techniques if you wish
to avoid smudging the draw-
media's range of tone, ing more or less pres- and sanguine crayon),
ing. MODELING sure to the draw- the tonal ranges can
color, and gradations.
Achromatic or mono- ing tool and observing be increased by using
Dry techniques
chromatic tonal ranges the effect on the color white chalk. Color and
allow perfect modeling
can be created with of the support, which tonal ranges are
of the forms in the
any of the media that can be white or any achieved using chalk,
representation of the
are covered in this color. In the case of the dry and oil pastels,
subject thanks to the
book simply by apply- dry media (charcoal and colored pencils.
Applying these ranges
using the gradation
technique will model
the forms, and thus
create the impression
of three dimensions on
the two-dimensional
support.

Sanguine is useful for mak-

ing quick sketches like this
one by Oscar Sanchis. In
this case, he resolves the
drawing using figures and
perspective.
 THE MEDIA AND ever, it is easier to
THEIR DERIVATIVES make hatching with the
pencil, while the stick
is ideal for laying down
A work in charcoal
color in large areas.
can be strengthened
The lead of pastel
using a compressed
pencils is like a hard
charcoal stick or a
pastel and that of col-
charcoal pencil. These
ored charcoal pencils is
two derivatives of
as hard as compressed
charcoal have charac-
charcoal. They are very
teristics that are
useful media for intro-
somewhat different
ducing contrast or for
from vine charcoal.
making sharp outlines.
Compressed charcoal
There are so many
colors the support
products and so many
more and it is less
varieties of professional
voiatile than vine char-
and student quality that
coal. Charcoal pencil,
it is a good idea to sur-
on the other hand, be- Oscar Sanchis used a
render to curiosity and
cause it is oilier, is the technique of drawing
make a systematic
least volatile of the opaque lines with soft
study of them. You pastel to create hatching
charcoal derivatives
may find it interesting and optical color mixes.
and the one that most
to evaluate the charac-
darkens the support. It
teristics of each product
is not surprising that DRY TECHNIQUES
and to find out which media, the subjective
many artists, aware of AND INTERPRETATION abstraction can lead to
media and techniques
these differences, use
will be useful. areas of color or dis-
one or more of these
forms in a single draw- Interpretation is a torted forms.
ing to give it greater part of all works of art.
depth and introduce It could be the amount In Field of Wild Poppies M.
variations of texture, of synthesis or abstrac- Braunstein shows the possibili-
Sanguine crayon and tion of the form or the ties of wax crayons using re-
sanguine pencil do not color, or of both. With serves, rubbing, and sgraffito.
differ as much as the achromatic media like
charcoals. How- charcoal or graphite, or
in monochro matic
drawings, the interpre-
tation consists of the
artist's definition of the
Here M. Braunstein used chalk on the rough side of brown forms and the represen-
wrapping paper. In The Pipe Corner the strong colors and tation of light and
the contrasts between them stand out. shadow. With color
 Charcoal
C harcoal is, without a doubt, the
most traditional medium used for
initiating a drawing. Furthermore,
charcoal is the most universal drawing
medium, whether used for simple
sketches or complete works of art. Its
line has a characteristic freshness, es-
pecially in large formats. Available as
sticks, pencils, or powder, it enriches
artwork with its contrasts in intensity
of line, shadow, and texture.

ITS ORIGIN AND

COMPOSITION FORMS VINE CHARCOAL cess must be very uni- COMPRESSED
form to ensure a consis- CHARCOAL
tent hardness through-
Charcoal is the oldest Vine charcoal, com- Vine charcoal is
out the stick while
medium, used by hu- pressed charcoal, char- available as 5 - to 6-inch
maintaining the same Charcoal sticks,
mans in prehistoric times coal pencil, and pow- (13-15-cm) long sticks,
quality for shading. The made by pressing char-
for their representations dered charcoal are the with a diameter ranging
best known brands are coal powder in molds,
of the hunt and customs different forms available. from as small as 3/32
Koh-i-Noor, Grum- are very regular cylin-
or for decoration. The It is very useful to know inch (2 mm) to almost
bacher, Lefrane, and ders with a consistent
smudge became very the compositional char- 3/4 inch (2 cm). Select
Taker. The sticks are hardness. They are very
durable when mixed with acteristics of each one of the straightest sticks with
soft, medium, or hard, useful because of their
some kind of grease. these products, since the the least number of
depending on their ori- low cost and because
Today's charcoal is a drawing depends on their knots. The most common
gin and the carbonizing they do not have incon-
vegetable carbon, and it effects. are thin branches of wil-
process. The intensity venient natural irregu-
is made from a complex low, linden, and walnut.
of their "black" is less larities. Knots and im-
burning process. The carbonizing pro-
than that of charcoal perfections cause vine
pencils and compressed charcoal sticks to break
charcoal. more easily when heavy
pressure is applied
while drawing. Some
compressed charcoal
sticks have a little clay
as a binder, available in
1/4-inch (7-8-mm) di-
ameter cylinders, like
those sold by Pitt and
Faber-Castell. They arc
available in varying
degrees of hardness,
with the softest render-
ing a very intense
black, and each has its
own characteristics
when it comes to color-
ing ability. Thus, they
can be used for differ-
ent purposes.

Vine charcoal sticks,

Vine charcoal is sold in bulk or as
besides being available
individual sticks. The thickest ones
in different widths, also
usually have a protective foil cover-
have varying levels of
ing on one half.
hardness.
There are boxes that arc sold with an assortment of charcoal prod- Charcoal pow-
ucts, although most artists prefer to assemble their own drawing box. der is another
Shown here arc white chalk and sanguine sticks and pencils, since it option.
is a common practice to make a trois crayons drawings.
THE FRAGILITY
CHARCOAL PENCIL Conte pencils come in CHARCOAL COLOR OF VINE
AND LEADS six grades of hardness, POWDER CHARCOAL CHARCOAL
from soft through me-
The charcoal pencil, a dium to hard. The Although a charcoal There are also color It is best to buy
derivative of vine charcoal, leads have the same stick, compressed char- charcoal pencils. This good vine char-
is also known as the Conte formula and work best coal, or even a lead can is an interesting prod- coal, even though
pencil or crayon. It is a when used with a lead be pulverized manually uct, since it adds color it is expensive;
lead made from vegetable holder. The Conte using a craft knife or to the volatile charac- when drawing, you
charcoal that contains bind- Pierre Noire pencil is sandpaper, the quality of teristics of the charcoal. can depend on the
ing agents, and it is pro- the greasiest and most the powder that is ob- It is very interesting to quality and inten-
tected by a wood case. resistant to blending tained will not be very compare the results of sity of its line. Fur-
and rubbing. consistent. Manufac- color charcoal pencils
thermore, because
tured charcoal powder, with those of chalk and
vine charcoal
on the other hand, is hard pastel pencils. The
perfectly pulverized and former can be blended breaks so easily, it
works better for any and spread very easily; is a good idea to
blending that requires the latter have more use the one that
subtlety. coloring power and has the most con-
adhere better. sistent hardness.
You can only draw
well when you
Esther Rodriguez drew Female trust your tools.
Figure with Shawl using a com-
pressed charcoal pencil.

The "blacks" of the charcoal de-

rivatives share neither the same
intensity nor the same finish.
 Sanguine
I n crayon or pencil form, sanguine
is one of the very best media to
use for modeling the figure. It has
been used since about 1500, and it
continues to be used today. In all
the academies and schools of art it is
the media that is typically used after
having begun the drawing in vine
charcoal. Sanguine has better cover-
There are boxes with an
ing power, and because it is less assortment of sanguine
volatile than charcoal it requires crayons ami pencils.
more control of line and coloring to White and black chalk are THE PENCIL AND
avoid mistakes and later corrections. always included with THE LEAD
them.
The sanguine pencil is
COMPOSTION oxide, and it usually FORMS THE CRAYON made from a lead and a
contains a small
wood protector or case.
amount of chalk.
Conventional san- Sanguine is avail- The sanguine The thicker lead is cylin-
When using sanguine,
guine comes in the able in crayon and crayon is a square drical and usually used
it is usual to carry a
form of a stick or pencil form and also stick about 3 inches (8 with a lead holder. San-
darker colored crayon,
crayon. It is composed as a cylindrical stick cm) long. Depending guine does not need as
such as sepia. In fact,
of ferruginous clay or or lead. It is a good on the brand, the sides much agglutinate as char-
there is a range of
iron oxide or iron per- idea to practice and can be from 1/5 to 1/4 coal to strengthen the
chalk used with san-
become familiar with inch (5-7 mm). Its lead, although the Conte
guine: white, two
all the variations and hardness and covering method requires some
blacks, and sepia.
to use the appropriate power vary according baking. The pencils are
one at the opportune to its quality and the available in sanguine,
time. amount of time it is sep i a, a nd wh i t e.
baked during the There is also an oil-
manufacturing proc- based sanguine pencil
ess. that should not be con-
fused with the normal
A range of sanguine colors is sanguine pencil. Its lines
available in both crayon and
can be used as reserves
pencil form. The white is used
for highlighting and the black that can later be colored
and sepia for shading and block- with the dry version of
ing-in drawings. the pencil.

The square crayon is the

most common form. But the
length and girth of the
crayon will vary depending
on the brand.
 PIECES

As soon as one begins

to draw with sanguine, it
becomes apparent that the
cray-on breaks relatively
easily, although it is
harder than charcoal.
Nevertheless, all the
pieces can still be used.
The side may be used to
draw wide lines and to
color large surfaces. There
is also a very useful
square crayon holder or
extender to hold the pieces
and ensure good control
for accurate freehand
drawing.

The different applica-

SANGUINE the crayon is scraped CHARACTERISTICS is difficult to erase if tions of color vary
POWDER lightly. Even the san- AND COLOR applied with much from one brand to
guine powder created pressure. A crayon of a another, but the dif-
One way of coloring when sharpening the The characteristics of different hardness will ference is especially
with sanguine without point of a pencil can be each form of sanguine have more or less in- pronounced between
leaving visible streaks used to introduce a little and the particular mark tense color. Non-oil- the crayon and the
is to apply it very care- variety to the composi- each makes on the sup- based sanguine pencils pencil, and with the
oil-based pencil
fully with the side of the tion of the crayon pow- port can be very instruc- arc drier and harder
(from left to right:
crayon. But sanguine der. All the powder can tional when all the prop- than crayons and wear two crayons of differ-
powder can also be used also be sifted through a erties are used in one more slowly. Oil-based ent hardness, pencil,
for this task. It is very piece of woven fabric to drawing. For example, pencils, on the other and oil-based pencil).
easy to make this powder eliminate the largest the crayon covers well hand, have little cover-
using a crayon and a craft particles and get a very and ing power.
knife. The powder is fine powder.
quite homogenous if

The point of a a sanguine

pencil lead can be cleaned up
with sandpaper.
A holder for square
crayons can be very
useful for drawing
controlled lines.

Powder can be made

with a sanguine crayon
and a craft knife.
 Beginning to Model with Sanguine TAKING ADVANTAGE
OF THE SKETCH

The color is applied follow-

A
ing the sketched outlines of the
still life with several objects is a good subject to practice model- forms. The volumes are drawn,
ing with a sanguine stick. The preliminary sketch is outlined with lightly at first, with the flat
very light lines. Once the shapes have been established, shading be- side of the stick on the paper.
Gradually, more tonal values
gins to create a light tonal guide. The darkening of the colors that are added by darkening the
follows this step is done to reflect the contrasts of the actual objects. colors that need to be dark-
The procedure consists of combining the chiaroscuro with some gra- ened, adding more layers with
dations, using the fingertips to adjust the tones and an eraser to es- the same sanguine stick. Mod-
eling continues by darkening
tablish the highlights. the drawing.

This still life containing a variety of shapes is a good exercise for mod-
eling. 1. The sketch is drawn with very light lines to avoid smearing the paper.

2. Tile first color is applied very lightly as well. 3. An attempt is made to begin coloring by laying out the basic shapes
and shadows.
 5. This drawing lends itself to modeling by erasing, and some highlights
are added to finish the scene.

4. When the placement of

the objects has been estab-
lished satisfactorily, the
tones are darkened as
needed.

6. The potential for applying chiaroscuro with sanguine arc visible in this drawing by Mercedes Caspar.
 Texture and Chiaroscuro TEXTURE WITH
PENCILS
with Sanguine The textured details of the

T
hair are represented with thin
o enhance the chiaroscuro effect of the sanguine and to create a lines using pencils and the
textured appearance, it is necessary to introduce the contrast of sides of the stick. It is not nec-
sepia and pencils. The objects immediately acquire richer depth, and essary to draw it all, but only a
few lines that indicate the di-
the finest texture can be created in detail with ease. A medium- rection and inflection of the
textured absorbent paper, your hands, sticks and pencils, sanguine hair. It is important to differen-
and sepia, a cotton rag, a blending stick, and an eraser are all that is tiate the hair from the ears,
needed. from the nape (it may fall in
different directions depending
SEPIA TO DARKEN on the hair's natural disposi-
THE SANGUINE tion), the neck, and so on.
The snout, the eye, and the
The effect created by using horns require more contrast
the dark sanguine tone is very and good outlines. They are
different from that created by laid out with short expressive
using the dark sepia tone. In- lines.
troducing sepia to darken the A more in-depth study can be
sanguine tones increases the achieved with an exercise that in-
color options in the darker volves textures, like that of the hair.
range. The artist can use tonal
gradations of both colors,
which arc incorporated in the
background, that is, the con- Greater contrast is achieved by using
trasting atmosphere as a back sanguine and sepia, either in pencil or
drop for the image of the cow. stick form. An eraser is required for
Some areas are darkened making highlights.
with sepia by layering it over
the sanguine used to represent
the animal. This gives the
scene a more realistic look
against the backlit effect. 1. In the sketch, a very soft color
defines the most important areas
of shadow.

3. Blending with the fingertip inten-

sifies the values, and the features
begin to emerge.

2. It is a good idea to begin

highlighting the figure. To do
this, the top area is darkened
considerably using color gra-
dations.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Remouchamp, 471, 474

Ressaulier, 435, 436

Restorations, Knight, Charles R., frontispiece, 358;

McGregor, J. Howard, 9, 79-82, 87, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 203,
242, 243, 273, 293, 300, 301;
Rutot-Mascré, 73, 101, 484, 495

Retouch, 169-172, 248, 269, 306, 308, 310, 331, 332, 338, 339,
358,
389

Rey, 331

Rhens, 284, 314

Rhinoceros, 38, 39, 43, 44, 62, 76, 123, 221, 245, 289, 337, 356,
365, see Dicerorhinus;
Etruscan, 34, 95-97, 101, 109, 110-112, 117, 125, 134, 144, see
D. etruscus;
Merck's (broad-nosed), 27, 43, 47, 93, 94, 97, 102, 109, 119,
124, 125, 134, 147, 148, 151, 155, 157, 161, 164, 165, 177, 182,
186, 187, 192, 205, 263-265, see D. merckii;
woolly, 11, 13, 40, 41, 117, 148, 174, 187, 190, 191, 196, 199,
205, 206, 208-210, 213, 218, 223, 225, 281, 285-288, 314, 319,
324-326, 348, 363, 366, 372, 400, 409, see D. antiquitatis

Riss, see Glacial Epoch

River-drifts, 5, 11, 12, 23;

formation, 24-27, 90, 119, 154-157, 186;
stations, 114-116, 119-124, 154-156;
terraces, 20, 23, 24-28, 34, 85, 90, 104, 154-157, 162

Robenhausen, 471, 495

Roccamorice, 167

Roche au Loup, 307, 314

Rochette, La, 245, 246

Rock Shelters, 32, 33

Rodent Layers, 447;

 Lower, 206, 207, 211, 281, 314;
Upper, 281, 361, 363, 446

Romanelli, 306, 314

Rüderbach, 167

Rüdersheim, 167

Rupicapra, see Chamois

Ruth, Le, 314, 331, 435

Rutot-Mascré, see Restorations

S
Sablon, 162, 167

Sabre-tooth tiger, 34, 43, 62, 69, 70, 72, 94, 102, 110-112, 117,
125, 144, 147;
see Machærodus

Sagaie, javelin point, see Pointe de sagaie

Saiga antelope, 44, 46, 194, 287, 289, 333, 357, 362, 366, 373,
374, 376, 449

Saiga tartarica, see Saiga antelope

Salitre, 435

Saint Acheul, 5, 14, 16, 109, 116, 119-124, 127-129, 149-152,

155, 162, 163, 166, 167, 170, 244, 245, 249, 283, 314, 331, 435,
440

Saint Lizier, 435

Saint Martin d'Excideuil, 331

Saint Prest, 17, 67-69

San Isidro, 109, 126, 149, 152, 167, 245, 246

Sciurus vulgaris, 367;

see Squirrel

Schmiechenfels, 372, 435, 469

Schussenquelle, 372, 435, 442

Schussenried, 435, 441;

see Schussenquelle

Schweizersbild, 286, 361, 364, 370, 435, 441, 442, 444-447, 449,
460

Scraper, see Racloir

Sculpture, 317, 320-323, 328, 329, 347-349, 356-358, 392, 393,

395, 396, 427-434

Second Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Second Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Seven Oaks, 471, 475

Shelters, abris, see Rock Shelters

Š
Šipka, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 247, 248, 435, 449

Sireuil, 314, 322, 395

Sirgenstein, 201, 202, 245, 248, 285, 314, 331, 370, 372, 435, 441,
460

Sivapithecus, 511

Siwalik, see Fauna

Solutré, 16, 279, 283, 286, 288, 294, 314, 330, 331, 341-345, 373,
435, 436, 438

Solutrean, 14-16, 18, 41, 270, 271, 276, 278, 280;

art, 347-350, 357;
burial customs, 332;
chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362;
climate, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 332, 333;
fauna, 332-334, 343, 348, 366;
human fossils, 279, 334-337;
industry, 275-278, 330-332, 334, 338-348, 351, 352, 354, 358;
stations, 326-328, 331, 337, 340-348, see Origin

Somme River, 12, 110, 112, 114-117, 119, 120, 122-125, 127,
162, 252, 276

Sorde, 279, 378, 435, 438

Souzy, 435

Spermophilus rufescens, 194, 373;

see Suslik

Spear-point, see Pointe

Speech, power of, 4, 58, 60, 139, 140

Spiennes, 127, 128, 495

Spy, 162, 214, 244, 245, 311, 314, 331;

man, 7, 181, 214, 218-220, 226, 228, 229, 231-233, 235-237,
244, 256, 257, 490

Squirrel, 447, 498;

see Sciurus vulgaris

Stag, 43, 44, 95, 106, 119, 187, 201, 202, 264, 265, 288, 333, 364,
367, 370, 372, 405, 426, 429, 456, 461, 463, 468, 469, 481, 488,
497, 498;
see Cervus elaphus and Deer, red

Stegodon, 76, 134

Strassberg, 435

Stratification of Castillo, 164;

Enfants, Grotte des, 265;
Heidelberg, 97;
Madeleine, La, 385;
Mas d'Azil, 461;
Ofnet, 476;
Piltdown, 133;
Placard, 333-334;
Saint Acheul, 122, 123, 150;
Schweizersbild, 447;
Sirgenstein, 202

Subsidence, see Continental outline

Sureau, Trou du, 435

Sus, arvernensis, 63;
scrofa, 71;
scrofa ferus, 147, 165, 368, 469;
scrofa palustris, 499;
see Boar

Suslik, 206, 289, 447;

see Spermophilus rufescens

T
Tables, see Lists

Tardenoisian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian

Tasmanian compared with Neanderthal, 232, 233;

see Neanderthal

Taubach, 119, 167, 214

Tectiforms, 283, 284, 403, 404

Terraces, see River-drifts

Teutonic race, 458, 486, 488, 499-501

Teyjat, 388, 394, 396, 435;

see Mairie, Grotte de la, and Abri Mège

Thiede, 314

Third Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Third Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch

Throwing stone, see Pierre de jet

Thumb, opposable, 55, 58, 60, 240

Tibia, shin-bone 237-239, 241, 266, 298

Tilloux, 109, 149, 152, 167

Torralba, 109, 126, 149, 152

Tourasse, La, 471, 486

Trilobite, Grotte du, 314, 324, 326, 331, 340, 341, 344, 347, 440

Trinil race, see Pithecanthropus

Trogontherium, 45, 69, 94;

see Beaver, giant

Tuc d'Audoubert, 32, 395, 396, 406, 427-431, 435

Tundra, see Climate, glacial;

see Fauna

Turbarian, Lower, 361;

Upper, 363

U
Upper drift, 191

Upper Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers

Urochs, Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and Cattle

Ursus, arctos, 102, 147, 211, 469;

arvernensis, 63, 94, 102;
deningeri, 102;
spelæus, 45, 183, 210, 211, 369;
see Bear and Cave-bear

V
Vache, Grotte de la, 435, 437, 471

Valle, 435, 466, 471, 474

Venosa, 167

Villejuif, 30, 167, 176

Volgu, 331, 339, 345

Völklinshofen, 284, 314

Vulpes, 469;
see Fox

W
Warm fauna, see Faune chaude

Weimar, 167

Wierschowie, 245, 248, 331

Wildcat, Felis catus, 43, 63, 95, 287, 498

Wildhaus, 314, 435

Wildkirchli, 200, 201, 245, 247, 256

Wildscheuer, 286, 314, 370, 435, 442, 444

Willendorf, 30, 279, 311-315, 322, 395

Winterlingen, 435

Wisent, see Bison

Wolf, 43, 44, 71, 95, 147, 165, 187, 206, 264, 265, 287, 288, 333,
343, 348, 356, 366, 441, 447, 468, 498;
see Canis suessi and Cyon alpinus fossilis

Wolvercote, 167

Wolverene, glutton, 44, 46, 71, 193, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468,
498;
see Gulo luscus

Würm, see Glacial Epoch

Wüste Scheuer, 471

Z
Zonhoven, 471, 474

Zuffenhausen, 314
 Larger Image

THE PRINCIPAL CAVERN REGIONS OF SOUTHWESTERN EUROPE INCLUDING

THE CAVERNS THAT CONTAIN PALEOLITHIC MURAL DECORATIONS

Region traversed in the author's motor tour of 1912 through the

Palæolithic caverns of Italy, France, and Spain.

Footnotes:
[A] The folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire
extent of the author's tour.
[B] Lucretius was born 95 B. C. His poem was completed before 53
B. C. In the opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy
and science to the Greeks. See Appendix, Note I.
[C] Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M.
Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890.
[D] Horace was born 65 B. C., and his Satires are attributed to the
years 35-29 B. C. See Appendix, Note II.
[E] Æschylus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note III.
[F] Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of
Buffon's opinions and theories see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 130-9; also
Butler, 1911.1, pp. 74-172.
[G] Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier
de Lamarck (b. 1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the views of
Lamarck see Osborn, 1894.1, pp. 152-181; also Butler, 1911.1, pp.
235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck's opinions.
[H] References are indicated by numbers only throughout the text.
At the close of each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and
reference number for every citation. A full list of all the works cited,
including those from which illustrations have been taken, together
with complete references, will be found in the bibliography at the
end of the book.
[I] The best reference works on the history of French and German
Palæolithic Archæology are: Cartailhac,(12) La France Préhistorique;
Déchelette,(13) Manuel d'Archéologie, T. 1; Reinach,(14) Catalogue
du Musée de St.-Germain: Alluvions et Cavernes; Schmidt,(15) Die
diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands; Avebury,(16) Prehistoric Times.
[J] The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as
Neolithic, and therefore not contemporary with the mammoth or the
cave-bear.
[K] Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunæ, etc., in
this volume are given not in chronological but in stratigraphic order,
beginning with the most recent at the top and ending with the oldest
at the bottom.
[L] This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his Mensch
der Vorzeit.(38) To each period of the chronologic reckoning should
be added the 1900 years of our era.
[M] Bison and wild cattle are grass eaters, and their natural habitats
are the open plain and meadow regions. They also range into open
forest lands where grasses can be found. The prehistoric 'urus' and
'wisent' of Europe were both found in forests, but this may not have
been their natural habitat in Palæolithic times. See Appendix, Note
IV.
[N] A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth
known specimen of Dryopithecus, lately discovered in northern Spain
(see Woodward, 1914.2).
[O] There is a vast Pithecanthropus literature. That chiefly utilized in
the present description includes Dubois,(13) Fischer,(14) Schwalbe,
(15) Büchner.(16)
[P] In the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial
capacity is 900 c.cm.
[Q] These horses are now identified respectively as E. mauerensis,
E. mosbachensis, and E. süssenbornensis.
[R] This glaciation as it occurs in northern Europe has been termed
Polandian by Geikie; in the Alps Penck has termed it the Riss; in
America it is known as the Illinoian from the great drifts it deposited
over the State of Illinois.
[S] This stage is known as the Helvetian or Dürntenian of Geikie; it
is the Riss-Würm of Penck's terminology and the Sangamon of the
American glaciologists.
[T] Modified after Schmidt.
[U] The weakness of Penck's argument for placing the Chellean in
the Second Interglacial was exposed by precise observations of
Boule(5) and Obermaier(6) in the Alps, the Jura, and the Pyrenees.
[V] The writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. l'Abbé
Henri Breuil for their observations on this fauna and culture period.
[W] Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same
age, is distributed all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape.
[X] Schmidt regards the Strépyan implements, which are considered
by Rutot and others to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and
the Chellean, as closely similar to the Pre-Chellean of France and
probably of the same age.
[Y] The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read
before the Geological Society of London, December, 1912, and
published as a separate pamphlet in March, 1913. A discussion as to
the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others was held at
the time of the reading of the original paper.
[Z] By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard
McGregor of Columbia University and Doctor William K. Gregory of
Columbia University and of the American Museum of Natural History.
[AA] Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, 1915.1.
[AB] The reconstruction (Fig. 66) of the Piltdown skull made by
Professor J. H. McGregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm.
The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very narrow and low in the
prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the
reconstruction the cranial region is in the main very like the second
restoration by Doctor Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some
respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as a right lower canine, is now
placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the conclusions of the
author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the
American Museum of Natural History. The dental arches are more
curved, thus more human and less ape-like than in the Smith
Woodward restoration, and the chin region is made somewhat
deeper, thus giving a somewhat less prognathous aspect to the face.
[AC] The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows:
bison, 'wisent,' wild ox, 'auerochs,' 'urochs' (the 'urus' of Cæsar).
The urus survived in Germany as late as the seventeenth century,
while a few of the bison or 'wisent' survive to the present time. The
bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its
contemporary, the urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Dürnten,
near Zürich, remains of the urus are found associated with those of
the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of Merck's rhinoceros. (See
Appendix, Note IV.)
[AD] The author was guided through this station by Doctor Hugo
Obermaier in the summer of 1912.
[AE] The entire fourth glaciation has been termed Mecklenburgian
by Geikie;(6) the recession may correspond with his Fourth
Interglacial Stage, the Lower Forestian. It is the Würm of Penck in
the Alpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by
the recession known as the Laufenschwankung. In America it is the
early Wisconsin with the Peorian recession interval, followed by the
late Wisconsin, which is the final great glaciation of America.
[AF] Obermaier, Breuil and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the
transition between late Acheulean and early Mousterian times.
[AG] The climate of the tundras is extreme, the winter temperature
falling on an average to 27°F. below zero, while in summer the
temperature is about 50°F. In the subarctic steppes the average
January temperature hardly exceeds 30°F., while that of July is 70°F.
[AH] The last of this very primitive race of the great island of
Tasmania became extinct in 1877.(62)
[AI] This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of
anthropological research, was not carefully explored in reference to
the all-important horizontal bedding of the layers of flint flakes and
of animal remains.
[AJ] See Appendix, Note VI.
[AK] Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose
generous gifts and personal interest made the adequate exploration
of these grottos possible.
[AL] This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his
Diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands.(10)
[AM] Obermaier,(19) R. Martin.(20)
[AN] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.
[AO] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.
[AP] Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form.
[AQ] Breuil,(34) Schmidt.(35)
[AR] The writer had the privilege of visiting all these caverns in the
company either of Professor Emile Cartailhac, or of the Abbé Breuil.
[AS] Despite Schwalbe's statement, the supraorbital ridges in this
skull appear to form a complete bridge. Doctor Hrdlička regards the
related Předmost skull as distinctly showing Neanderthaloid affinity.
[AT] Obermaier,(45) R. Martin.(46)
[AU] From notes by Doctor Robert H. Lowie (Nov. 16, 1914) of the
American Museum of Natural History on the opinions of Marett
(Anthropology) and of James.
[AV] After Obermaier,(10) R. Martin,(11) and others.
[AW] This custom is observed again in Azilian times in the burials at
Ofnet on the Danube (see page 475).
[AX] The whole history of these successive discoveries, beginning
with the finding of an engraved bone, in 1834, in the grotto of
Chaffaud, and concluding with the discoveries of Lalanne, and of
Bégouen, in 1912, is summarized in the admirable little handbook by
Salomon Reinach.(23) This convenient volume also includes outline
tracings of the more important drawings and sculptures found in
western Europe up to the present time.
[AY] Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been
published, such as the famous mammoth of Combarelles; the entire
work is in the hands of Breuil.
[AZ] The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited
by the writer, under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in
August, 1912.
[BA] Letter of October 23, 1912.
[BB] J. Bayer(34) has lately expressed the opinion that the industry
of the open 'loess' stations of Munzingen, Aggsbach, and Gobelsburg
is not really of Magdalenian age, but represents an atypical
Aurignacian.
[BC] Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M.
Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890.
[BD] Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne, Discours sur l'Histoire universelle
(first published in 1681), pp. 9, 10. Edition conforme à celle de 1700,
troisième et dernière édition revue par l'auteur. Paris, Librairie de
Firmin Didot Frères, 1845.
[BE] The Satires, Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace, the Latin Text
with Conington's Translation, pp. 29, 31. George Bell & Sons,
London, 1904.
[BF] Æschylus, Prometheus Bound. Elizabeth Barrett Browning,
Poetical Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, pp. 148, 149. Oxford
edition, 1906. Henry Frowde, London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, New
York, and Toronto.
[BG] Kobelt, W., Die Verbreitung der Tierwelt, pp. 403-7. C. H.
Tauchnitz, Leipsic, 1902.
[BH] Abercromby, Hon. John, The Prehistoric Pottery of the Canary
Islands and Its Makers. Royal Anthropological Institute, November
17, 1914. Nature, December 3, 1914, p. 383.
[BI] Verneau, Dr. R., Cinq années de séjour aux îles Canaries.
(Ouvrage couronné par l'Académie des sciences, 1891.)
[BJ] Bunbury, E. H. History of Ancient Geography, vol. I, pp. 318-
333. John Murray, London, 1879.
[BK] Authors' names are given in the bibliography and in the
reference lists at the end of each chapter.
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