1.

0 lntroduction

This chapter includes the background of the study, probiem statement, purpose of the

study, objectives of the study, research questions scope of the study, significance of the

study, operation key definitions

1.1 Backçround to the study

In the media today, a nunber of issues have emerged as aritical outside the journalists'

or journalistic work. A key focus is on issues surrounding ownership. Globally, there

seems to be a connection between ownership and the editorial stance of both state run

and privateiy owned media. Criticai political economy of media studies reveał the

emergence of concentration oí ownership and that of monolithic media corporations like

Rupert Murdock's News Corporation, Time Warmer, Betelsmann, Viacom among

others. Similar patierns are developing in the Ugandan media. Of significant enquiry is

the top two leading media organizations namely: Vision Media Group (VMG) and

Moniior Publications (MP) which continue to expand rapidly.

Over the past 40 years the relationship between the Ugandan government and the

media has been iurbulent. Up until the year 2015, broadcasting media for example have

been wholly controlled by the Ugandan government through the Ugandan

Communication commission (UCC). This scenario has changed rapidly with the

emergence of several newspapers, radio and TV stations. With this liberalization of

broadcasting, factors of cross ownership and concentration have emerged. Tycoons like

the Aga Khan, the majority shareholder of monitor publication and Mr. Kabushenga

owner of the Vision Group, since the late 90's have acquired vast interests across both

broadcasüng and print media. The latter, in eerty 2000 brought to the newspaper

industry The Bukedde Newspaper, while VG has increased its newspaper titles through

Bukedde which has since folded up, The New vision, The Orumuli and the local editions
of Etop and Flair magazines. Private owners have as a result been castigated by the

government for cirectly or indirecily influencing the direction their media outiets take in reiation to the
news and programming delivered. ThG Ugandan government has on

many ocoasions voiced concerns over the increasing cross media ownership patterns

(Winsbury, 2000:252-256).

In a bid to control these patterns of ownership and their influence on media messages,

the President Yoweri Kaguta Museven's regime has on numerous occasions been

heavy handed in its attempts to coerce private media into giving it favorable coverage.

Media coercion has also affected the curent regime of President Museveni. Given the

importance of the fourth estate as a pillar of democracy, this is a worrying trend for the

young Ugandan democracy. This situation is however not unique to Uganda. Critical

political economy of the media has demonstrated that factors like ownership and

advertising are imporiani in influencing media messages. Media on their part shape

public opinion and the political direciion by holding politicians accountable. This is

however not ihe case the world over, with ernerging evidence in studies of the British

press that media sometimes can lean to a particular direction with the aim of furthering

their expansionist economic interests. in other words, the market can give rise not to

independent watchdogs serving the public interest but to corporate mercenaries that

adjust their critical scrutiny to suit their private purpose (Curran, 2000:124).

These assertiorns form very rich grounds on ownership influence of media that this

research explores. Vision Group (VG) is iargely owned by individuals and was viewed

as pro government before the 2011 elections by the then opposition parties, nmainly

NRM, which has since taken over the reigns of power in Uganda.

Also, Studies from a critical political economy of the media perspective point to other

lesser factors that affect and shape media messages. These include professional ethics

and biases anongst news gatherers and producers, and internal processes of
censorship within reporters themselves" (Curran, 2000:123). Critical political economy

theory also raises questions of how internal reporting siructures within the newsroom

are not democratic enough to allow for the free determine New vision of what really

makes the news (Bagdikian, i997; Curran, 2000; Curran & Seaton, 1997; Golding & Murdock, 1994;
Holingsworth, 1986). This study explores these aspocts. It is

noteworthy that extensive studies have been done in the area of critical political

economy and on how media ownership affects media messages and discourses, and

how these messages shape interlay public opinion (Curran & Seaton, 2000; Golding &

Murdock, 2000).

This research critically examines how media ownership patterns shape content in the

Ugandan media.

1.2 2tateinent o the problen

Mass media ownership and its effects on different aspects of mass media performance

were the subject of mary studies. This research attracts many scholars due to

importance of mass media in social liíe of society and its ability to affect publics, Mass

media are seen as a social medium that contributes to building strong New visions,

feelings of unity by transmitting values and norms in messages. Mass media play role of

an agent of the secondary socialization process and can contribute to successful

socialization of individuals into existing socia! life.

When new companies appeared, mass media was not longer subsidized by government

and gained profit from advertisement placarnent. Content of mass media messages

shifted: rnore entertainment programs appeared, the iime devoied to children programs

decreased, etc. As there is no policy in sphere of content regulation addressing issues

of diversity and education oí popuiation, Ugandan scholars and politicians are

concerned with the quality of mass media content and its inability to serve the needs of

society.
This research addresses the question of media ownership effects on ability to serve the

public interest in society through transmission of values, knowledge and addressing

interests of different groups of people present in certain society. Serving the public

interest is part of a long-term welfare policy of government; it helps to build sociaily

healthy society.

2.1 The nature of media ownGrshiy

This critically examines how media oWnership patterns shape content in the Ugandan

media, This is tackled in four main chapters.

The researcher argues that indeed ownership of media matters because it affects the

way in which the media industry is abie to manage the resources available for media

provision. A global overview of media Ownership patterns is also discussed in this

theoretical fraework. The researcher also traces the development of media

th

conglomeration at the turn of the 20 century both in Uganda and abroad. In so doing,

the Big Five media organisations (Viacom, Time Warner, News Corp Bertelsrnann and

Disney) as merntioned earlier are studied to shed light on how ownership patterns affect

or infiuence rnedia messages.

"He who pays the piper calls the tune is a common staternent in the nedia. Ownership

has continued to piay an influentiał role in the editorial policies of media organisations. lt

is so bad in some media organisations that the ethics of journalism are exchanged with

the opinions and decisions of the proprietors of the organisation. McQuail(2005) while

writing on the influence of ownership on mass media content said, " there is no doubt

that owners in market based media have ultimate pOwer over conlent and can ask for

what they want to be included or teft." This is against the ethics of journalism.
The inuence of media ownership is felt more by government owned media

organisations especially in Africa. in couritries like the United States of America and

Britain, there are laws meant to check the excesses of owners. In Britain, there is imited

(if any) influence on the content produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation by government.
According to McQuail (2007), "Meyer's (1987) survey evidence confirmed

that US journalistic ethics frowned on owner intervention, although editors reported a

fair autonomy in practice."

Contrary to this survey, Schultzs (1998) study of Australian journalists showed strong

Support for the fourth estate role but also a recognition that it was often compromised by

commerciai consideration and owner pressure. According to a report compiled by Media

Development and Diversity Agency in South Africa, control of any media company can

be divided into three: Shareholdings and equity, general management and editorial

control. According Melody (1978) in his t report, "There are codes of good practice that

govern how media controllers (editor and station managers) interact as laid out by

requlatory bodies." But how many media owners stick to these codes? in Africa.

government has continuously used the state owned media to crush the voice of the

opposition. Many governments have used these media to their advantage during

presidential elections carnpaigns actoss the contineni, especially if the government in

power is contesiing. In such casa, the opposition wouid have to turn to God for a

miracle. Melody (1978) in Meier (2008), stated that "in addition to ownership

concentration of the mass media industry, content provision, packaging and distribution

have also become a standardized production and marketing process in which the

messages communicated are contained and direcied in both quantity and quality to

meet the economic imperatives of media owners." Giddens (1999) in Meier (2008) said,

"The media have a double relation to democracy. On the one hand the emergence of a

global iníormation society is a powerfu! democratizing force. Yet, television, and the
other media, tends to destroy the very public."

Within the context of supporting democratic iransitions, the goal of media development

generally should be to move the media from one that is directed or even overtly

controlled by government or privale interests to one that is more open and has a degree

of editorial independence that serves the public interest.

There has beern a tendency in the nedia world that companies merger into iarger media

giants in order to reach a better, more secure financial status and to constitute stronger

firms. Hunt and Ruben highlighted another aspect to media company mergers. They

say, the world had become one large marketplace and, as the investment jargon

suggests, a few "players" dominate the distribution and the production of services and

the goods in the wortd. This is also true to the media business.

As the mass media offers huge and fruitful monetary opportunities, sone of the most

inf'uential businessnien and investors dove into the media industry, forming huge media

branches with concenirated ownership, like ihe Australian Rupert Murdoch, who

became the strongest and richest media rnogul of our time. By controlling such large

perceniages of the mass media, Murdoch has great power in his hands, which might

mean certein dangers towards the public. In our modern society, the media enjoys

enormous importance, since the overwhelming majority of the people familiarize

themselves with current affairs, the happenings of their surroundings and the

happenings around the world through the mass media. Doyle (2002:13) suggesied that

he sirongly betieves, that such concentration of media ownership, overall, is harmfu! to

the public.

Concentration of ownership, they argue, is most marked in the national press with the

"Big Five" accouning for well over 80% of the circulation of both the national dailies and
the Sundays. Whai then is corncentration of ownership? Doyle (2002:13a) argues that

concentration of ownership involves the owning of several media outlets and means of

communication by few rather than many different owners. Doyle (2002:13a) argues that

in whatever form they take, media concentrations impły that the supply of media is

dominated by a handful of peole rather than various individuals. She argues that

concentraiion of media ownership may involve a number of alternative coniigurations.

Mono Medie concentration (Horizontal), which refers to concentrated ownership within a

single sector of activity, e.g. newspaper publishing, radio or television broadcasting.

Cross-media concentrations sometimes referred to as 'multimedia' concentration

reflect either vertical or diagona! integration or both (Doyle, 2002:13a). Vertical integration' refers to
common ownership across different phas@s in the supply chain for

a media product, e.g. television programme making (production) and television

broadcasting (distribution). 'Diagonal integration' means common ownership between

different media sectors e.g. television and newspapers, or newspapers and radio

(Doyie, 2002:13a).

Doyle (2002:13a) further argues that Concentration of ownership interferes with

pluralism. Pluralism she agues, is generally associaied with diversity in the media; the

presence of a number of different and independent voices, and of differing politica

opinions and representations of culture within the media (Doyle, 2002:11a). The main

perceived danger is that excessive concentration of media ownership can lead to

overrepreseniation of ceriain political viewpoints or values of certain forms of cultural

output (i.e. those favoured by dominant media owners, vwhether on commercial or

ideological grounds) at the expense of others (Doyle, 2002:13a). The reason why

diversity of ownership is important for pluralism is because media ownership can

translate into media power (Meier & Trapple, 1998:39). Since it is difficult to monitor the

intentions of media owners, or o futly regulate iheir conduct in respect of editorial

media is to prevent media power from being monopolised i.e. by ensuring that the

supply of media invotves a range of autonomous and independent organizations (Doyie,

2002:19a).

As far as Britain is concerned, some owners of national newspapers have clearly used

their titles to further their own political or commercial aims at the expense of balanced

and responsible journalism (Curran & Seaton, 1997:72-7). Previous studies have

chronicled the tendency of at least some owners e.g. Victor Mathews (Owner of the

Express titles from 1977 to 1985), the late Robert Maxweil! (owner of the Mirror titles

from 1984 until 1991) and Rupert Murdoch (Current owner of the Surn, The News of the

World and the Times) to intervene in editorial decisions in such a way as to dictate and

standardize the political lines of their newspapers (Doyle, 2002:19-20a). Doyle argues

that editorial interference by owners has frequent!y been indirect, for example through the selection of
key personnei, or through the establishrrient of a culture of obedience

and self censorship as wel! as direct censorship i.e. through literaily rewriting editorial

leaders (Doyle, 2002:19-20a).

Research carried out in relation to other European countries such as France, Germany

and ltaly confirms that ihe practice of direct and indirect editorial inierference by media

owners, with detrimental consequences for media diversity, is by no means confined to

the newspaper industry or UK media proprietors (Doyle, 2002:20a). For example, the

tendency of Robert Hersant (owner of the second largest media company in France

and with additional media inlerests in Belgium and elsewhere) to intervene arnd

standardize news and editorial content across many of the titles within his control for

political or commercial reasons has been highighted by several writers (Coleridge,

1993: Tunstall & FPaimer, 1991).

An especially good example of the darnage which concentrated media ownership may
inflict on political pluralism and on democracy more generaly is provided by the case of

Sivio Berlusconi using his three TV stations reaching 40 percent of the fialian audience

to give unremitting support to his own political party in Italy during the March 1994

elections (Graham &: Davies, 1997:32). Subsequent research has revealed not only that

there was a bigger swing to the right (3.5 perceni more) among Berlusconi viewers than

the (ltalian) electorate in general, but also that this swing could not be explained by the

fact that viewers of the Berlusconi channels were already more right wing (Doyle,

2002:20a). Viewers of these channels were found to be at middle of the road and onty

shifted iheir voting after watching the Beriusconi channeis. Doyle (2002:20a) argues

that the Berlusconi case provides compelling evidence of a casual connection between

concentrated media ownership and an undesirable narrowing in the diversity of political

opinions available io the public via the media.

2.2 The different types of corterts

In publishing, art, and communicaion, content is the information and experience(s)

directed towards an end-user or audience. Content is "something that is to be expressed through some
mediurn, as speech, writing or any of various arts". Content

can be delivered via many different media inciuding the internet, television, audio CDs.

books, magazines, and iive events, such as conferences and stage performances

(Holifield (2006).

Content itself is what the end-user derives value frorm. Thus, "content" can refer to the

information provided through the medium, the way in which the information was

presented, as wel! as the added features included in the medium in which that

information was delivered. The medium, however, provides little to no value to ihe end-

user without the information and experiences that make up the content. Communication

theory philosopher MershalH McLuhan famousły coined the phrase, "The medium is the

message." In the case of content, the channel through which information is delivered,
the "medium", affecis how the end user perceives content, the "message" Kolisova

(2001).

The author, producer, or publisher of an original source of information or experiences

may or may not be directly responsibłe for the entire value that they attain as content in

a specific context. For example, part of an original article (such as a headline from a

news story) nay be rendered on another web page displaying the resulis of a user's

search engine query grouped with headlines from other news pubiications and related

advertisements. The value that the original headline has in this group of query results

from the search engine as a medium may be very different from the value that it had as

message content in its originai articie (icCullagh (2002).

Content also leads to influencing other people in creating their own content, somelimes

in a way that the original author didn't or couidn't plan or imagine. This feature adding

the option of user innovaiion in a mediumn means users can develop their own content

from existing content.

Traditionally, content was edited and tailored for the public through news editors,

authors, and other kinds of content creators. However. not all information content

requires creative authoring or editing. Through recent technological developments, truth is found in
philosopher Marshall McLuhan's idea of a giobal village: new technologies

allow for instantaneOus movernent of irnfoimation from every corner to every point at the

same time has caused the giobe to be contracted into a vilage by electric technology,

such as rmobile phones and automated sensors. These new technologies can record

events anywhere for publishing and converting in order to potentially reach a global

audience on channels such as YouTube. Such recorded or transmitted information and

visuals can be referred to as content. Content is no longer a product of only reputable

Sources; new technology has made primary sources of content more readily available to

al. For example, a video of a politician giving a speech compared to an article written by
a reporter who witnessed the speech (Napoli, 2006).

Media production and delivery technology may potentially enhance the value of content

by formatting, filtering, and combining original sources of content for new audiences

with new contexts. The greatest value for a given source of content for a specific

audience is often found through such elecironic reworking of content as dynamic and

real-time as the trends that fuel its interest. Less emphasis on value from Content stored

for possible use in its original form, and more emphasis on rapid re-purposing, reuse,

and redeployment has led rnany pubiishers and media producers to view their primary

function less as originators and mnore as transformers of content. Thus, one finds out

that institutions, that used to focus on publishing prinied materials, are now publishing

both databases and software to combine Content from various sources for a wider-

variety of audiences (Demers, 1996).

There's no single reason we follow brands, but it's certainty rooted in the idea that we as

consumers, supporiers and fans want to have a deeper relationship with them. But just

because a fan wants to follow your brand doesn't mean you're entitled to provide them

with any content you wish. On the contrary, a fan can opt out of receiving your brand's

conteni with a singie click, so it's imperative that they're receiving the type of content

that's valuable to them.

To that end, we've put together a list of5 things your audience really wants from your

social presence.

2.2.1 Fan Content

Accordirng to Park (2005), he suggests that have you ever been to a concert and just

wished that the singer would pul! you onto the stage with Fans Of course, that rarely

happens at concerts, and chances are that if it does, you're not the one who's puled up
there. And just like a stage, social media is a platform that overlooks a large audience.

The ultimate thank-you, which takes tittle time and hardly any money, is to celebrate the

content created by fans. It's not that fans necessarily want to see content from other

fans (though often they do), but that they want to krnow there's a possibility that their

content will be shared.

2.2.2 Behind-the-scenes Content

The casuai fan may be content with the limäed irteraction they have with a brand.

Simply buying and wearing the hat, eating the candy or watching the show is enough for

them. But the true fans want to go deeper. They want to look behind the curtain to a

place only a certain number of people can sea. They want the unreleased footage, the

photos of the aciors on set and the outtakes, fike this cooi photo set of aciors laughing

in between takes (Venedikiov, 2002).

2.2.3 Shareabie Content

Simone (1991) used to wonder why Face book pages like "WTF Crazy Videos" and

Twitter profiles that just post quctations existed. But as spammy as they seenn, people

do follow them beceuse they provide users with conient to share. He not suggesting

thai your brand siart auto-scheduling quotations or scouring Reddit for the latest fai!

video, but when determining your content pian, think about this: Where's the content

that audiences will want to share with their audiences? is the content you're creating

actualy worth shering?

2.2.4 Exclusive Conteni

Lacy (1991) suggested that why would a fan foilow your brand's content if everything

you posi there is accessible elsewhere? If you're just posting your readily available

commercials on YouTube or links to your producis on Face book and Twitter, there's no value in actually
subscribing to, liking or following your brand's accounts. Consider

releasing content only on a specific channet. This can be anything from video blogs to
sneak previews to coupons to presaie codes, but make sure fans can't get it anywhere

else. The Boston Celtics made more than $200 off me recently when they senta special

presale code for playoff tickets to their email newsletter list. He hadn't planned on going

to a game, but when the code provided me with great seats before most other people,

my plans were set. It ended up being one of the greatest games (and days) of my life.

2.2.5 Participatory Content

According to Croteau (2001), Most of our personal social-media activity is passive

stalking...he meant monitoring. But this doesn't mean that social rnedia users aren't uD

for a good game or contest! One of my favorite examples is from the wGN America (a

Story client) iow I Miet Your Mother Facebook page, where WGNA has creatęd albums

of its fans suiting up (an homage to Neil Patrick Harris's character, Bamey Stinson) as

part of a yearly "Internationa! Sit Up Day." Giving your fans a way to participate is a

great means of activating them, and in iun they'l be on the lookout for your content.

Every brand is different, so not al! this content is applicable to every brand; but iry io be

open to sharing new types of content. It not only solidifies the relationship between your

brand and its fans, but also gives your fans a reason to foliow it.

2.2.6 Animated GIFe

Animated GIFs have tong been used on chat boards and forums online, but they weren't

exactly mainstream on ihe internet. But recently, the biogging platform Turmblr has

brought GIFs back into fashion with a passion, and we think these fun animations can

add an interesting visual element to your marketing content. Try incorporating animated

GIFs on your website and landing pages (as we've done with the GIF to the right io

show off pages of one of our marketing analytics eBooks) to enhance your content and

stimulate your visitors. They're easy to make, and fun to find as a visitor (Croteau,

2001).
2.2.7 Comics/Cartoons

Comics and cartoons are another type of content that marketers can have fun creating

- and prospects can have fun seeing. Even better, though? They're excellent social

media sharing fodder. Funny cartoons that are relatable to people in your industry are

sure to garner you more social shares than the average text update and they'l! stick

around on the web longer, likely generating some valuable inbound Iinks and trafic as a

result. For instance, recently stumbled upon one of Hub Spot's older cartoons

(originally published in 2009) that someone shared on Twitter recently, poking fun at the

differences in sociai networks (Donohue, 2009).

2.2.8 ConcepdContent Visualizations

Not to be confused with info graphics, concept visualizations are anoiher great content

type to add to your marketing toof belt. These visualizations more easily explain abstract

or dificult-to-understand concepts that are hard to describe through text. The most

effective ones are illusirated as one wouid pages in a children's book simply, colorfully,

and cleariy. Content visualizations can serve as great trump cards in the back pockets

of content creators when it comes to getting prospecis and leads to undersiand difficult

concepts that your products and sevices help io solve. At HubSpot, for example, we

frequently make use of concept visualizations to illustrate various inbound marketing-

related concepts in blog posts, eBooks, webinars, social media, etc. Check out this one

we creaied to visualize the concept of closed-ioop marketing (Croteau, 2001).

2.2.9 Con'roversial Content

We all know that a bit of controversy can drive a ton of traffic, comments, and inbound

links. Why? Because controversy is compelling. It stirs up emotion and inspires passion,

and passion moiivaies action. When executed well, coniroversial content can increase

engagemeni and brand awareness, as well as reinforce your brand's particular breed of
thought leadership. Just be sure that if you're taking on a controversial topic in your

indusiry, you're not jusi doing it for the sake of siring up controversy. Make sure you

have the opinions, and supporiing argumenis io back it up (Croteau 2001).

2.2.10 Live strearming Vicdeo

According to Croteau (2001), Speaking of live strearning video, why not add that to your

list as weli? These serve a dual purpose: traffic and content. During the ive stream of

your video, traffic will be fiooding into your site. You can insert calls-to-action or

product/service information if you'd like, though don't turn your show into a tive

infomercial. Appiy the same type of logic to your conteni here as you would to your blog

posts is the content relevant to your industry? Does it display thought leadership,

discuss an interesting or new data, or otherwise present a relevant and interesting take

on a popular topic?

This sort of content is excellent for real-time social engagernent. Create a hashtag to

accompany your livestreamed content, and spark discussion online before, during, and

after ii streams. Afterward, make sure you offer a recording of the livesiream for on-

demand viewing.

2.2.11 Embedded Tweets

We'l be discussing user-generated content in a minute, but embedded iweets deserve

their own mention because they're painfully easy and chronically under-used. You'd

publish testimonials if they were submitted in other forms, right? if you have users who

are tweeting positively about your company, you should be showing it off on your

website. It's easy to do, and it offers the exira bonus of promoting your social media

presence right on your website site. What's more thev're versatile. To find out how to

embed tweeis yourself and the various usas of embedded tweets, check out this simple
guide (Lacy 1991).

2.2.12 vent iniorrnation

H's not enough to simply announce your participation in evenis, and then allow the blog

post vou wroie about it to get lost in the oblivion cí buried pages on vour website.

Instead, add a page on your website that clearly ays out al! of the events your company

will be atiending in the foreseeable future. For each event listed, there should be a link

to the event site, your company's location at the event -- if that's relevant, since not all events are trade
shows -- and any available social media information for the event that

you're using (you know the drill - hashtags, location-based check-ins, etc.) (Lacy 1991).

2.3 The effects of ownerstiip on content

Within an organization, factors on the organizational level are the key to understanding

the presence ofa certain type of content. Decisions about the target audiernces and type

of content are made on this leve.

Ownership structure, as one of the factors on the organizational level, also affects the

content of mass media messages. Research usually indicates three basic types of mass

media ownership: government owned (or government party owned), privately owned,

and own both by government and private organizations or individuals (Press Freedom.

1997). Government-owned media outlets usualily seen by social scientists as pursuing

goal of social welfare and harmony, while privaiely owned media are seen as pursuing

interesis that are determined by desire to make profit, although it is not aways the case.

The fact that media are (partly) owned by government does not mean that channels and

content are totally conirolled by government. Usually, if not subsidized, these channels

have to make profit, which means independence to certain extent from government

ideological interests.

Efects of ownership on serving the public interest are part of a bigger theme of effects

of mass media ownership on content. There are number of studies that were able to
determine effects of ownership on content, although there are some that present the

opposite view. These studies looked at different effects in different areas.

One of the areas of research that examined media ownership effecis on content deals

with consolidation of media, which occurred in order to pursue economic and

organizational advantages. Chain ownership in the newspaper industry received a lot of

attention.

Studies found that the oditoriałs of the big chain-owned newspapers were more ikely to

express positions on some issues and less likely to vary in positions taken than

editorials of nonchain- owned nevwspapers (Akhavan-Majid, Rife & Gopinath, 1991).

Another study found that editoriai's endorsement patterns changed when newspapers

were purchased by chains

(Rystrom, K., 1987). Thrift (1977) found that the editoriais of the chain-owned papers

tended to have less argumentative editorials on local controversial issues. The location

of newspaper's headquarters (out of state place of headquarters is the case for chain

newspapers) was also found to affect the way local conflicis were presented in papers

(Donohue, Olien & Tichenor, 1985).

News reporting paiterns were found to be connected to the type of ownership.

independently owned daily newspaper had more stories that require more reportorial

efforts and used more enterprises newS Sources than chain-owned (Fradgiey &

Niebauer, 1995). A study by Olien, Tichenor, and Donohue (1988) found a strong

correlation between the type of ownership and coverage (frequency and proportion) of

non-loca! business. Another study found that the mOre characterisics of the corporate

form of organization newspaper had, the more emphasis was placed on quality of news

coverage (Demers, 1998).

As a source of political information, rmass Imedia may affect public behavior on eleciions.
Scholars examined the effects of newspaper's consolidation on endorsement of politica!

candidates. In a study by Wackman, Gillmor, Giano, and Dennis (1975) they found that

chain owned newspapers in comparison to independent nevwspapers were more likely to

endorse candidates for president, support ihe favored candidate of the press and be

homogeneous in endorsig candidates during observed election periods. The authors

concluded that "chain ownership of newspapers discOurages editorial independence in

endorsing presidential candidates" (p 420). Another study concluded that newspaper

ownership was an important factor in endorsement, although chain newspapers were

found to be homogeneous to lesser extent (Gaziano, 1989). A study by Busterna and

Hansen (1990) found no significant differences in endorsing he press-favored candidates. Chain-owned

been found in other research. This difference in results can be consequence of different

methods as concluded by authors.

A study of the effecis of foreign ownership on content by Hollifield (1999) found

significant differences between donestically-owned and interNew vision ally-owned

newspapers in the coverage oi local stories. Control for circulation size and size of

newspapers did not diminished these differences.

There were also studies that reported no effects of ownership on content of

newspapers.

For exarnple, Akhavan-Majid and Boudreau (1995) compared the editorial role

perception of chain-owned and independent newspapers. With contro! for the size of

newspapers there was no difference in editorial role perceptions. Perception changed

due to size of newspapers, not due io ownership.

Sorme siudies addressed quesiions about effects of ownership and ihe size of

newspapers on spece and allocaion of differeni kinds of content. Lacy (1991) found

that ovwnership dicd not have an efect on how news were allocated. Yet group-owned
newspapers, when compared to independently owned ones, had shorter stories and

devoted more space and stories to editorial and op-ed material.

Although results of studies on effecis of ownership on conients are contradictory, this

area of study stilil attracts scientists and is among the most highly debated. Some

studies did in fact show that mass media ownership has impact on the diversity of its

messages on two leveis: 1) presenting different points of view or different perspectives

on some issue (for exampłe, while endorsing, news paper either endorse one favorable

candidate, or presents several); 2) presenting a variety of issues in general.

The inpact of media ownership on output has been a major subject of research over the

past four decades. Golding and Murdock (1974; 1989; 2000) offer the seminal works in

this area, and argue that rnedia proprietors do determine the editorial line and cultural stance of the
newspapers and broadcast stations they own (Golding & Murdock.

2000:74). They operate within structures that constrain as welf as facilitate their said

influence, imposing limits as wel! as offering opporturities for editorial control. Analysing

the nature and sources of ihese limits is a key task for critical political economy of

culture (Golding & Murdock, 2000:74).

sUMMARY, DISCUSSIONs, CONCI.USION AND RECONADATIONS

5.1 introduction

This chapter discusses the findings from the fieid reporied in chapter four. In addlition it

composed of the summary of the key fincings, discussions of the findings, conciusion

and recommendations which are presented objective by objective and the limitations to

the study and further areas of further.

5.2 Suminary

The sex of the respondents revealed that majority with 51.3% were male, the Highest

Academic Qualification of the respondent was degree with 51.3%, most of the
respondents were in the age bracket of 26 - 30 years with 51.3%, the media ownership

houses were all registered with 89.7%, majority of the respondents were in the editoria!

departmeni with 51.3%, majority of the respondents were in the production depariment

with 64.1%, the respondents hacd worked for media ownerships for a period of 5 - 10

years wiih 64.1 % majority of the respondents were aware of the different companies in

Uganda with 89.7% majority of the respondents were supported Vision group with

46.2% majority of the respondents said that they were aware of the different types o f

media contents that media ownership companies offer in Uganda with 89.7% majority of

the respondents said yes that media ownership has an effect on media content with

76.9% majority of the respondents said media ownership aífecis public behavior on

elections with 51.3%.

5.3 Discussion

S.3,1 The nature cf Tiedia owiersliip in Ugarda

The findings revealed thai majority of the respondents were aware of the different media

Ownership companies in Uganda with 89.7%.

These firndings were in line with those of McQuail (2005) who argues that that indeed

ownership of media matters because it affects the way in which the media industry is

able to manage the resources avallabie for meclia provision. A giobal overview of media

ownership patterns is also discussed in this theoretical framework. The researcher also

traces the development of media conglomeration at the turn of the 20 century both in

Uganda and abroad. In so doing, the Big Five media organizations (Viacom, Time

Warner, News Corp Bertelsmann and Disney) as mentioned earlier are studied to shed

light on how ownership patlerns afíect or infiuence media messages.

"He who pays the piper calls the tune is a common statement in the media. Ownership

has continued to play an influentiat rote in the editorial policies of media organizations. It
is so bad in some media organizations that the ethics of journalism are exchanged with

the opinions and decisions of the proprieiors of the organization. McQuail (2005) while

writing on the influence of ownership on mass media content said, there is no doubt

that owners in Imarket based media have utimate power over content and can ask for

what they want to be included or left." This is against the ethics of journalism.

5.3.2 The diierent types of inediu Contents

The findings from chapter four show that majority of the respondents were supported

Vision group with 46.2% Majority of the respondents said that they were aware of the

different types o f media contents that media companies offer in Uganda with 89.7%.

These findings were in line with those of Cuman's (2000:129) argument that

representing people to authority is, in iberal theory, a key democratic function of the

media. He arques ihat the iniroduction of opinion polls as those analyzed in the article

"Opinion pol: Museveni is ahead of the others" took sorne wind out of this 'fourth estate'

argument. More often now, the claim is made sinnply that the media speak for the

people, and represent their views and interests in the public dormain. The results

published from the above articles on opinion polls discloses a different outcome to the

assumption that: 'the broad shape and nature of the press is ultimately determined by

readers because the press must respond in a competitive market-place to what people

want, and express their views and interests (Curran, 2000:129). As a consequence the

privately owned press, and by extension, the privaiely owned broadcasting system

speak up for the peopie. This argument is so frequently acvanced that it is necessary to

explain why it is fundamentaily flawed. In the first place, it invokes an ldealzed view of

market competition. in reality, most media markets have deveioped in ways that weaken

consumer infiuence (CuIran, 2000:129). An analysis of data from the articles in this
category vindicates Curran's argument of a weakened consumer infiuence.

5.3.3. The effect of rnedia owiership on conteit

The findings in Chapter four revealed that majority of the respondents agreed that

mecia ownership has an effect on media content ith 76.9% majority of .the

respondents said Media ownership affecis public behavior on elections with 51.3%.

These findings were in line with those of Meier (2008), who found that the influence of

media ownership is felt more by government owned media organizations especially in

Africa. In countries like the United States of America and Britain, there are laws meant

to check the excesses of ovwners. in Britain, there is limited (if any) influence on the

content produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation by government. According to

McQuait (2007), "ieyer's (1s87) survey evidence confirmed that US journalisic ethics

frowned on owner iniervernticn, although editors reported a fair autonomy in practice."

Contrary tio this survey. Schultz's (1998) study of Australian journalists showed strong

support for the fourth estate role bui also a recognition that it was often compromised by

commerciei consideraüon and owner pressure. Accorcing to a report compiled by Media

Development and Diversity Agency in South Africa, control of any media company can

be divided into three: Sharehoidings and equity, general management and editorial

control. According Melody (1978) in his t report, "There are codes of good practice that

govern how media controlHers (edior and station nanagers) inierzct as laid out by

regulatory bodies." But how many rnedia owners stick to these codes? In Africa,

government has continuous!y used the state owned media to crush the voice of the

opposition. Many governments have used these media to their advantage during

presidential elections campaigns across the continent, especially if the government in

power is contesting. In such case, the opposition would have to turn to God for a miracle. Melody (1973)
in Meier (2008), stated that "in addition to ownership

concentration of the mass media industry, content provision, packaging and distribution
have also become a standardized production and marketing process in which the

messages communicated are contained and directed in both quantity and quality to

meet the economic imperatives of media oners." Giddens (1999) in Meier (2008) said,

"The media have a double relation to democracy. On the one hand the emergence of a

global information society is a powerful democratizing force. Yet, television, and the

other media, tends to destroy the very public."

In the article "Cases of rigging, violence worries donors" the FDC was widely quoted as

castigating the national broadcaster UBC as being out-rightly biased in favour of

government in its coverage. Curran (2000:125) argues that such developmeni arises

from the fact that public broadcasiers have been censored by restrictive laws and

regulations; undermined by being packed with government supporters; squeezed by

refusals to increase public funcling: intimidated by public and private criticism; and

crushed through sackings of staff and threat of privatization. This was indeed the case

in the run up to elections as UBC was packed with pro government administrators. As

media magnate, Rupert Murdoch succinctly put it: "pubiic service broadcasters in this

country [EBriain} have paid the price for their state sponsored privileges. That price has

been their freedom' (cf. Curran, 2000:121). Incdeed UBC has suffered under some of. the

factors mentioned by Curran. By pointing towards their satisfaction with The New vision

and The Daily Monitor's balanced coverage, the FDC's view also laps into the liberal

theorists' argument that media can also be viewed in a more expansive way, in liberat

theory, as an agency of information and debate that facilitates the functioning of

democracy (Curran, 2000:127).

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the folowing recommendations

were made, in line with the specific objectives of the study.

policies which essentially cover issues on how news should be covered and how

journalists should professionally go about their work. This may also help editors avert

undue ownership infuence of their work. However, it is a difficut feat to achieve as

some owners are aggressive towards editors who fail to adhere to their whims. Editors

the world over have had to resign or are forcefulily disrnissed when they stick to their

professional inclinations which makes the adherence to professional values a bit tricky.

Another factor that could help achieve balanced news coverage is the employment of

professional journalists with forrnal journalistic training. This has not been the cese in

Uganda. The ourrent crop of journalists are people with no formal jourmalistic

qualifications. These journalists thrive on the fact that they have gained valuable

"experience" in ihe course of wriüng news stories. They have also used the need of

work experience to technically eliminate fresh graduates from various schools of

journalism from available jobs.

The government shoutd also enact laws that vvill requlate unhealthy cross media

onership trends that may eveniualy stile diversity in news coverage. This can be

done by enacting laws that create an enabling business environment with few barriers

to new entranis and availing a level playing field to all business people. This scenario

will create competition which ensures that news coverage is balanced and fair and that

there are wider opinions, views and perspectives hat the greater public may usė to

arrive at important decisíons. It has been noiable thai while media puts pressure on

governmenis to embrace democratic principles, their internal structures are quite rigid

and undemocratic, hence the need to comnission a study of how the internat news

gathering processes can be revitalized to ensure balanced and accurate news

5.4 Area of furiher rasgarch

The researcher proposes the following areas for further research:

The impact of media ownership content on influencing elections.

The effect of media ownership on the promotion of democracy in a country.

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