IKS UNIT 4

Aesthetics of Indian Classical Music, Dance, and Theatre

Indian classical performing arts—music, dance, and theatre—are deeply
interwoven with Indian philosophy, spirituality, and cultural heritage. Their
aesthetic foundation lies in the Nātyaśāstra, which outlines the theory of Rasa
(aesthetic emotion) and Bhāva (expression).

1. Indian Classical Music

Aesthetic Features:
 Rasa Theory: Music is a medium to evoke emotions such as shringāra
(love), karuṇa (compassion), and vīra (heroism).
 Nāda Brahma: The belief that sound (nāda) is divine, elevating music to a
spiritual experience.
 Raga and Tala: Aesthetic beauty is achieved through intricate ragas
(melodies) and talas (rhythmic cycles), each carrying specific moods and
energies.
 Improvisation: Artists creatively interpret ragas, creating a personal
emotional journey within a traditional framework.
 Bhāva in Voice: Vocal modulation and instrumental nuances help convey
deep emotional states.

2. Indian Classical Dance

Aesthetic Features:
 Dance is a visual manifestation of music and narrative, aiming to create a
Rasa experience.
 Abhinaya (Expression): Divided into:
o Angika (body language and gestures)
o Vāchika (speech, music, and song)
 o Āhārya (costume and makeup)
o Sāttvika (inner emotion)
 Each movement is codified yet expressive, with deep symbolic meaning.
 Nritta (pure dance), Nritya (expressive dance), and Nāṭya (dramatic
dance) together form a complete aesthetic experience.
 Dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Odissi, Kathak, etc., each have unique
aesthetic principles, but all aim for rasa niṣpatti (culmination of aesthetic
emotion).

3. Indian Classical Theatre

Aesthetic Features:
 Based on Nātyaśāstra, theatre is not just entertainment but a spiritual
ritual (yajña).
 A synthesis of music, dance, drama, and narrative that aims to transport
the audience beyond the mundane.
 Rasa remains central; the performer must transform inner emotions
(bhāva) into a shared aesthetic experience for the audience.
 Use of gesture, voice modulation, costumes, and stagecraft are essential
in conveying dramatic tension and spiritual depth.
 Traditional forms like Kutiyattam, Yakshagana, and Ankiya Naat blend
regional storytelling with classical aesthetics.

Conclusion
The aesthetics of Indian classical music, dance, and theatre reflect a union of
art, philosophy, and devotion. Each art form serves as a path to transcendence,
aiming to elevate both the artist and the audience through the experience of
rasa. Rooted in centuries-old traditions, these forms continue to inspire and
transform through their profound emotional and spiritual resonance.

Traditions of South Indian (Carnatic) and Hindustani Music

Indian classical music is broadly divided into two major traditions:
 Carnatic music (South India)
 Hindustani music (North India)
Both evolved from a common origin but diverged due to historical,
geographical, and cultural influences.

1. Origins and Historical Development

Carnatic Music:
 Originated in South India: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
Kerala.
 Strongly rooted in Bhakti movement and devotional compositions.
 Influenced by Sanskrit and Dravidian traditions.
 Key historical figures: Purandara Dasa (considered the father of Carnatic
music), the Trinity of Carnatic music—Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar,
and Shyama Shastri.
Hindustani Music:
 Developed in North India.
 Influenced by Persian, Mughal, and Central Asian musical traditions.
 Evolved as a court tradition, blending indigenous music with Islamic
aesthetics.
 Key figures include Amir Khusrau, Tansen, and later, great maestros of
various gharanas.

2. Fundamental Similarities
 Both use Raga (melodic framework) and Tala (rhythmic cycles).
 Aim of both is rasa realization (emotional or aesthetic experience).
 Use of improvisation and spiritual expression is central.
 Both draw upon Nātyaśāstra and other ancient texts for their theoretical
base.
3. Key Differences
Feature Carnatic Music Hindustani Music
Region South India North India
Language of Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil, Mostly Hindi, Urdu, Braj,
Compositions Kannada Persian
Strongly vocal-centric; even
Both vocal and instrumental
Vocal Emphasis instrumental music follows
traditions are well developed
vocal style
Compositional Khayal, Dhrupad, Thumri,
Kriti, Varnam, Kirtana, Tillana
Forms Tappa
More rigidly codified; fixed More flexible; allows
Raga System
structure extensive improvisation
Complex and varied talas like Fewer talas; popular ones
Tala System
Adi, Rupaka, Khanda Chapu include Teentaal, Ektaal
Done within set compositions; Emphasizes alap, taan, and
Improvisation
structured extempore creativity
Veena, Mridangam, Violin, Sitar, Tabla, Sarod, Santoor,
Instruments
Flute Harmonium
More expansive,
More compact, fast-paced,
Performance Style contemplative, and
and rhythmically intricate
improvisational

4. Aesthetic and Spiritual Dimensions

 Carnatic music focuses on bhakti (devotion)—the compositions often
praise deities and are used as vehicles for spiritual upliftment.
 Hindustani music emphasizes emotional depth and personal
expression, often aiming for aesthetic transcendence through rasa and
bhava.
5. Contemporary Practice
 Both traditions are taught through guru-shishya parampara (teacher-
disciple lineage).
 Music festivals and global platforms have helped popularize both forms
worldwide.
 Cross-influences are emerging, but core identities remain distinct.

Conclusion
While Carnatic and Hindustani music share a common foundation and aim at
spiritual and emotional elevation, they have evolved into two rich, distinct
traditions. Both are embodiments of India’s diverse cultural heritage, and
continue to thrive through dedicated practitioners, rigorous pedagogy, and
devoted audiences.

Bharatanatyam and Other Classical Dances of India

India is home to a rich and diverse tradition of classical dance forms, each
rooted in regional culture, mythology, and the treatise Nātyaśāstra. These
dance forms are not just artistic expressions but also vehicles for spiritual and
emotional experience.

1. Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Overview:
 One of the oldest and most popular classical dance forms.
 Originated in temples of Tamil Nadu, performed by devadasis as an
offering to the deities.
 Revived and restructured in the 20th century for the proscenium stage.
Aesthetic Features:
 Combination of ‘Bhava, Raga, Tala, and Natya’ – which gives the name
‘Bharata’-natyam.
 Emphasizes geometric precision, strong footwork, and sculptural poses.
  Divided into nritta (pure dance), nritya (expressive dance), and natya
(dramatic performance).
 Themes often focus on devotion (bhakti) and mythological storytelling.

2. Other Classical Dances of India

Below is a brief overview of the other officially recognized classical dance forms
of India:
Dance Form Region Key Features
North India Court dance; emphasis on intricate footwork,
Kathak (Uttar spins, and rhythmic improvisation; blends Hindu
Pradesh) and Mughal aesthetics.
Inspired by temple sculpture; known for fluid
Odissi Odisha torso movements, sculptural poses, and
devotional content, especially to Lord Jagannath.
Andhra Similar to Bharatanatyam but more graceful and
Kuchipudi
Pradesh theatrical; includes speech, singing, and dance.
Dramatic dance-drama form; features elaborate
Kathakali Kerala costumes, make-up, and facial expressions;
based on epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana.
A graceful solo dance form by women;
characterized by swaying movements and
Mohiniyattam Kerala
feminine elegance; named after the enchantress
Mohini.

3. Common Elements Across Classical Dance Forms

 All are based on the Nātyaśāstra and the theory of Rasa (aesthetic
emotion).
  Incorporate abhinaya (expression), mudras (hand gestures), tala
(rhythm), and costume as integral parts.
 Dance is both aesthetic and spiritual, aiming to evoke rasa in the
audience.
 Most are narrative in nature, drawing from Hindu epics, mythology, and
bhakti poetry.

Conclusion
Bharatanatyam stands as a prominent pillar of India’s classical dance heritage,
representing both spiritual discipline and aesthetic beauty. Along with other
classical dances like Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, and Manipuri, it showcases the
regional diversity, cultural richness, and philosophical depth of Indian
performing arts. Together, these dance forms uphold India’s intangible cultural
legacy.

Treatises on Classical Music and Dance

The classical traditions of Indian music and dance are not only oral but also
have a strong textual foundation. Several ancient and medieval treatises serve
as pillars of theory, practice, and aesthetics, laying down principles that guide
performers and scholars alike. Among them, Nāṭyaśāstra, Saṅgīta Ratnākara,
and Abhinavabhāratī are of paramount importance.

1. Nāṭyaśāstra by Bharatamuni (c. 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE)

Overview:
 Considered the foundational text of Indian performing arts: drama
(nāṭya), dance (nṛtya), and music (saṅgīta).
 Attributed to Bharatamuni.
 Comprises 36 chapters and over 6,000 verses in Sanskrit.
Key Contributions:
 Rasa Theory: Explains how aesthetic experience (rasa) arises from the
interplay of emotions (bhava). Describes 8 rasas (later expanded to 9).
  Abhinaya (Expression): Four types: angika (body), vācika (speech),
āhārya (costume), sāttvika (emotions).
 Tala and Rhythm: Introduces concepts of time, beat, and rhythm.
 Music Theory: Discusses svara, raga, and instruments (both stringed and
percussive).
 Dance Grammar: Codifies gestures (mudras), movements, and
performance structure.
Significance:
 Basis for all Indian classical dance forms.
 Integrates music, dance, drama, and aesthetics into a single
performative philosophy.
 Seen as a manual for divine art, connecting performance with ritual and
spirituality.

2. Saṅgīta Ratnākara by Śārṅgadeva (13th century CE)

Overview:
 Written by Śārṅgadeva, a musicologist in the court of the Yadava king
Singhana of Devagiri (present-day Maharashtra).
 Considered a seminal treatise on Indian classical music and an
important bridge between ancient and modern traditions.
 Composed in Sanskrit; consists of 7 chapters.
Key Contributions:
 Integration of Śāstra and Prayoga (theory and practice).
 Covers svara (notes), rāga, tāla (rhythm), alankāra (ornamentation),
vocal and instrumental music, and dance.
 Classifies ragas and discusses their emotional appeal.
 Provides details of 32 tala-systems.
 Describes both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions in their embryonic
forms.
Significance:
 Serves as the last pan-Indian text before Hindustani and Carnatic music
diverged.
 Still referenced in both traditions.
 Systematic and encyclopedic in its approach—equally important for
musicians, dancers, and theorists.

3. Abhinavabhāratī by Abhinavagupta (c. 10th–11th century CE)

Overview:
 A commentary on Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra, written by Abhinavagupta, a
Kashmiri Shaivite philosopher, aesthete, and mystic.
 Merges performance theory with philosophy, especially Kashmir
Shaivism.
Key Contributions:
 Elaboration of Rasa Theory: Abhinavagupta’s interpretation is the most
influential; he emphasized rasa as a universal experience, independent
of personal emotions.
 Introduced the idea of the ‘sahridaya’ (ideal, sensitive spectator).
 Viewed art as a spiritual experience—a pathway to liberation (moksha).
 Provided deeper psychological and metaphysical foundations for
concepts in Nāṭyaśāstra.
Significance:
 Elevated rasa from a mere emotional reaction to a philosophical and
transcendental experience.
 Greatly influenced later theories of aesthetics (alankara shastra) and
Indian art criticism.
 Stands as a philosophical lens through which Nāṭyaśāstra is most often
understood today.

Conclusion
These treatises—Nāṭyaśāstra, Saṅgīta Ratnākara, and Abhinavabhāratī—are
cornerstones of Indian performing arts. While Nāṭyaśāstra laid the theoretical
foundation, Saṅgīta Ratnākara codified music in a practical and expansive way,
and Abhinavabhāratī offered deep philosophical insight into performance and
aesthetic appreciation. Together, they represent a continuum of artistic
wisdom, shaping Indian classical music and dance into living traditions.

Major Indian Dramatists: Bhāsa, Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti and the Tamil Concept
of Nāṭaka

1. Bhāsa (circa 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE)

Contributions:
 One of the earliest known Sanskrit dramatists.
 Authorship was long disputed until 13 plays were rediscovered in the
early 20th century by T. Ganapati Sastri.
 Famous for his play "Svapnavāsavadattam" (The Vision of Vasavadatta).
Characteristics:
 Known for dramatic innovation, such as using flashbacks and breaking
classical unities.
 Simplified language and emotional appeal.
 Often adapted episodes from the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Legacy:
 Laid the foundation for classical Sanskrit drama.
 His works show practical stagecraft and popular appeal.

2. Kālidāsa (circa 4th–5th century CE)

Contributions:
 Regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist.
 Major plays:
 o "Abhijñānaśākuntalam" (The Recognition of Shakuntala)
o "Mālavikāgnimitram"
o "Vikramorvaśīyam"
Characteristics:
 Blends aesthetic beauty, philosophical depth, and emotional richness.
 Master of Rasa and Alankara (poetic ornaments).
 Combines classical form with lyrical imagination and human psychology.
Legacy:
 Widely translated and admired globally.
 Influenced later poets, dramatists, and even European romantic
literature.

3. Bhavabhūti (circa 8th century CE)

Contributions:
 Known for serious, philosophical dramas.
 Major works:
o "Mahāvīracarita" (Life of the Great Hero – Rama)
o "Uttararamacarita" (Later Life of Rama)
o "Mālatīmādhava" (a romantic and political drama)
Characteristics:
 Known as the "Shakespeare of India" for his psychological insight and
emotional depth.
 Focused on karuṇa rasa (pathos) and dharma (duty).
 Philosophical and spiritual tone, influenced by Vedantic ideals.
Legacy:
 Considered a dramatist of high moral seriousness.
 His depiction of tragic conflicts and idealism makes his plays enduring.
4. Concept of Nāṭaka in Tamil – as Part of Muthamil
Muthamil (Threefold Tamil):
Tamil literary theory classifies Tamil expression into three forms:
 Iyal (literature/poetry)
 Isai (music)
 Nāṭakam (drama/performance)
Nāṭakam in Tamil Tradition:
 Nāṭaka is viewed as the embodiment of all three Muthamils, integrating
poetry (Iyal), music (Isai), and dramatic enactment.
 Strongly present in Sangam literature and later in Bhakti-era temple
traditions.
 Koothu (folk and classical performance) and Therukoothu are traditional
Tamil theatrical forms.
 Silappadikaram, an ancient Tamil epic, contains dance-dramatic
elements, blurring lines between literature and performance.
Aesthetic and Spiritual Dimensions:
 Like Sanskrit drama, Tamil Nāṭakam is devotional, didactic, and
aesthetic.
 Emphasizes moral values, social messages, and Bhakti (devotion).
 Played a major role in temple rituals and community storytelling.

Conclusion
The legacy of Indian drama, shaped by masters like Bhāsa, Kālidāsa, and
Bhavabhūti, forms the intellectual and emotional heart of Sanskrit literature. In
parallel, Tamil Nāṭakam, grounded in Muthamil, reflects the regional and
cultural evolution of theatrical arts in South India. Together, they represent the
plurality and depth of India's dramatic tradition, balancing entertainment,
education, and spiritual upliftment.
Thirunavukkarasar, also known as Appar, was one of the most revered Tamil
Shaivaite saints (Nayanmars) of the 7th century CE. His hymns in the Thevaram
(a part of the Tamil Saiva canon) are rich in devotion, philosophy, and
descriptive references to temples. In his hymns, he narrates various types of
temples, reflecting not only architectural variety but also spiritual and
symbolic dimensions of the temple.

Types of Temples as Narrated by Thirunavukkarasar (Appar Nayanar)

Introduction
Thirunavukkarasar composed numerous hymns in praise of Lord Shiva and
visited hundreds of temples across Tamil Nadu. In his poetic verses, he
identifies temples not merely as structures, but as living embodiments of
devotion, philosophy, and the divine presence. He refers to different types of
temples based on location, form, environment, and spiritual significance.

1. Karai Kovil (Riverbank Temples)

 Built on the banks of rivers like the Cauvery, Vaigai, or Tamirabarani.
 These temples symbolize purity and prosperity, with the flowing river
seen as a sacred element.
 Appar often praises such temples as being spiritually elevating.
Example: Thiruvaiyaru Temple (on the banks of Cauvery)

2. Kurinji Kovil (Hill Temples)

 Temples located in hilly or mountainous regions.
 Symbolize spiritual ascent and seclusion, akin to meditation in nature.
 These temples are seen as abodes of intense tapas and divine revelation.
Example: Thiruvannamalai (Arunachaleswarar Temple)

3. Marutham Kovil (Temples in Fertile Plains)

 Located in agricultural plains or villages.
  Represent the connection between divinity and daily life.
 God is seen as the protector of crops, prosperity, and family life.
Example: Thiruchendur, Thiruvarur

4. Mullai Kovil (Forest Temples)

 Built in dense forests or groves, often associated with sages or siddhas.
 These temples have a naturalistic and mystical aura, emphasizing
oneness with nature.
Example: Sirkazhi (birthplace of Thirugnanasambandar)

5. Neithal Kovil (Seashore Temples)

 Situated by the sea or coastal regions.
 Symbolize eternity, change, and the cleansing nature of water.
 Appar describes the sound of waves merging with temple bells and
chants.
Example: Thiruchendur Murugan Temple (though Murugan, it fits the Neithal
concept)

6. Paalai Kovil (Temples in Deserted or Arid Lands)

 Rare, but referenced to indicate temples in barren or dry lands.
 Symbolize austerity, detachment, and intense inner devotion.

7. Madakovil (Elevated Temples)

 These are temples built on raised platforms or hillocks, possibly for
protection from floods.
 Appar refers to them as places that elevate the soul both literally and
symbolically.
 Chola kings, inspired by Appar's descriptions, often built madakovils.
Example: Kanchipuram’s Kailasanathar Temple

8. Thirupathi Kovil (Special/Abode Temples)

 Refers to sacred sites where the deity is believed to have resided or
revealed Himself.
 These temples often have legendary and mythological significance.

Symbolism and Devotion in Appar's Temple References

 Appar viewed every temple as a spiritual path, a site of divine grace,
and a sanctuary for the soul.
 He emphasized devotion over ritual, often contrasting ornate temples
with the purity of sincere prayer.
 His poems suggest that a temple is not just a structure but a
manifestation of Shiva's presence everywhere — from mountain caves
to riverbanks.

Martial Art Traditions of India: Dhanurveda, Silambam, Kalarippayattu, and

Valari Veechu
I. Introduction
India has a rich tradition of martial arts that blend physical discipline, spiritual
philosophy, weaponry, and combat science. These arts evolved not just as
techniques of warfare but also as systems of holistic training, emphasizing
agility, strength, morality, and inner control.

II. Dhanurveda – The Science of Archery and Warfare

 Dhanurveda is one of the Upavedas (auxiliary Vedas) associated with the
Yajurveda.
 Considered the ancient treatise on martial arts, warfare, and weaponry.
 It systematized the training of warriors in:
o Archery (Dhanurvidya)
 o Sword fighting, mace combat, chakras (discus), hand-to-hand
combat
 Included military strategy, formation of armies, and moral codes of
battle.
 Influenced epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, where heroes
were trained in Dhanurveda.

III. Silambam – Martial Art of Tamil Nadu

 Originated in ancient Tamilakam and mentioned in Sangam literature.
 Silambam involves the use of a bamboo staff (silambam), often over 5
feet long.
 Weapons training includes:
o Long staff, deer horns, knives, swords, and whips.
 Focuses on:
o Footwork (kuttu varisai)
o Striking patterns
o Agility and rhythm
 Traditionally taught in Kalari (training ground) and associated with self-
defense, battlefield training, and royal army regiments.
 Silambam was also a form of entertainment and demonstration during
temple festivals.

IV. Kalarippayattu – Martial Art of Kerala

 One of the oldest martial arts in the world, said to be over 3000 years
old.
 Originated in Kerala, linked to warrior clans and later codified by Siddha
and Ayurvedic practitioners.
 Key features:
o Meythari (body conditioning)
 o Kolthari (wooden weapon combat)
o Ankathari (metal weapon combat – swords, spears, urumi)
o Verumkai (bare-handed techniques, including locks and pressure-
point attacks)
 Combines physical training, yogic techniques, breathing exercises, and
Ayurvedic healing.
 Kalaris served as training grounds for warriors and later cultural spaces.

V. Valari Veechu – Throwing Weapon Technique of Tamil Nadu

 Valari is a boomerang-like weapon used by Tamil warriors, primarily in
ancient southern regions.
 Valari Veechu is the art of throwing the Valari with precision to:
o Hit enemies at a distance.
o Injure or incapacitate without close combat.
 Practiced by tribes and rural warriors, especially in the Sivagangai and
Madurai regions.
 Mentioned in Tamil folk traditions and oral histories.
 Declined under colonial rule due to disarmament policies, but now
seeing a revival as cultural heritage.

VI. Cultural and Philosophical Dimensions

 These martial arts were never just about combat—they included:
o Ethical codes (Dharma)
o Spiritual practice (Yoga, Meditation)
o Healing systems (Ayurveda, Siddha)
 Practitioners were often trained in music, dance, and poetry, showing
the holistic approach to training the body and mind.

VII. Conclusion
India's martial arts like Dhanurveda, Silambam, Kalarippayattu, and Valari
Veechu are testimonies to a vibrant warrior tradition that emphasized skill,
discipline, and inner balance. Today, these arts are being revived as symbols of
cultural identity, self-defense, and heritage preservation, with global
recognition of their value.

Temple architecture
Indus valley civilization
Rock cut and monolithic to be studied in pdf