13.
Frankfurt School and Critical Theory
Today, I’m going to talk about Frankfurt School and Critical Theory
Introduction
First of all, "Critical theory" is a term that refers to a group of philosophical
approaches aimed at critiquing and transforming society by combining normative
ideals—such as justice, equality, and freedom—with deep, evidence-based studies of
society’s problems. In a narrow sense, “Critical Theory” refers specifically to the
work of the Frankfurt School, a group of scholars working primarily out of the
Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany, from the 1930s onward.
The Frankfurt School: Origins and Development
The Frankfurt School was not a school in the traditional sense but a network of
philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, and political theorists who sought to renew
Marxism in light of 20th-century developments. Founded in 1923 at the University of
Frankfurt, the Institute for Social Research was directed by Max Horkheimer from
1931. He proposed an interdisciplinary research program that brought together
philosophy, economics, psychology, and sociology to understand modern capitalist
society.
The Frankfurt School: Origins and Development
The first generation included Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, Herbert
Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm, and others. Their work was shaped by the
political rise of fascism, the failures of socialist revolutions, and their experiences of
exile. During the Nazi era, the Institute relocated to Geneva, then to Columbia
University in New York, and later Los Angeles, before returning to Frankfurt after
World War II.
A second generation, most notably Jürgen Habermas, emerged in the post-war period.
He took up Horkheimer’s position in 1964 and introduced new ideas such as the
theory of communicative action.
The Frankfurt School: Origins and Development
A third generation includes Axel Honneth, Seyla Benhabib, and Nancy Fraser, who
have expanded critical theory to include feminism, race, and global perspectives.
Influences and Innovations
The Frankfurt School combined Marxist theory with other intellectual traditions to
critique modern society:
Karl Marx: Marx’s critique of capitalism and political economy was
foundational. However, the Frankfurt School recognized that Marx’s ideas
needed to be updated to explain why the working class did not become a
revolutionary force in modern capitalist societies.
Max Weber: Weber’s ideas on rationalization, bureaucracy, and the “iron
cage” of modern life influenced critiques of instrumental reason—thinking
focused purely on efficiency and control rather than values and meaning.
Georg Lukács: His concept of reification—how social relations become
objectified and depersonalized in capitalist societies—was a key concept for
early critical theorists.
Key Themes and Contributions of Frankfurt school were:
Critique of Enlightenment and Modernity: In Dialectic of Enlightenment
(1947), Horkheimer and Adorno argued that reason had become oppressive,
serving domination rather than liberation, especially under fascism and
advanced capitalism.
Culture Industry: Adorno and Horkheimer criticized how mass media turns
culture into a product that pacifies the public, discouraging critical thinking
and reinforcing conformity.
One-Dimensional Man: Herbert Marcuse’s book (1964) showed how
technological society and consumer capitalism limit individual freedom and
create false needs.
Recognition and Identity: Later thinkers like Axel Honneth focused on the
role of recognition and respect in developing individual identity and social
justice.
Broader Critical Theory and Legacy
Though rooted in Marxist and European philosophical traditions, the Frankfurt
School’s approach inspired many other critical movements. These include:
Feminist Theory
Critical Race Theory
Queer Theory
Postcolonial Theory
Each of these has adapted the critical method to explore how power and domination
operate through gender, race, sexuality, and global inequality. Furthermore, figures
like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, while not part of the Frankfurt School, are
often discussed within the broader umbrella of "critical theory" because of their
critiques of power, knowledge, and language.
Conclusion
The Frankfurt School developed a unique and influential form of critical theory that
continues to shape contemporary thought. Through their interdisciplinary method and
commitment to emancipation, they offered powerful critiques of modern society,
focusing on issues such as culture, authority, reason, and power.
