Cognitive Psychology: What is happening within our

minds?
Agata Grajner
Cognitive psychology investigates many aspects of human behaviour, including how we think, use
language, process information, and perceive our environment. By gaining a deeper understanding of
the human brain, research into these processes helps scientists develop new ways of helping people
cope with psychological difficulties.
the stores actually do. On the other hand, in case
of long-time memory it is unlikely that we can
store all the knowledge that we acquired, such as
the rules of subtraction and how to ride a bike, in
one place. Also, a variety of different long-
memory types have been identified, for example:
episodic (events), procedural (knowledge of how
to do things) and sematic (general knowledge).
Although Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s model
generated a lot of research, making it very
effective, it was criticized for over-simplifying
STM as single storage system. The diagram below
illustrates the model.
by Unknown Author is licensed under

Psychological Models of Memory

The Multi-Store Model of Memory developed by
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, illustrates
the relationship between permanent systems of
memory: the sensory register (SR), short term
memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
The SR stores information from the senses but it is
only retained for a short period of time before
being forgotten. When sensory information is
Figure 2 - https://d1e4pidl3fu268.cloudfront.net/8b48cdfc-0537-
registered it moves into the STM for temporary 4939-8a8d-70a509a4f31c/Multistore.jpg
storage and will be encoded as an image, sound or
through its meaning. In general, STM can hold
between 5-9 items and last approximately 30
seconds. However, it is possible to increase its
capacity by dividing a string of items into The working memory model - an alternative
multiple, larger pieces, e.g., number 489367284 to model proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham
489 367 284. By rehearsing information via the Hitch states that STM stores small amount of
rehearsal loop, information is retained in the STM, information without much processing. According
and can be consolidated into the LTM, which is to it, working memory consists of four
predominantly encoded semantically. One of the components, each with different functions. The
strengths of this model is that it gives insight into most important of them is the central executive,
the structure and process of the short-term which is responsible for making decisions and
memory, and this allows researchers to expand on problem solving. Additionally, it controls
this model. They can do experiments to improve attention and synthesize information, both from
on this model, make it more valid and prove what the subsidiary system and from the LTM.
Although it is flexible and can work with any type
of information, it does have a limited storage
capacity, which means it can only handle a limited
Levels of processing theory
number of things at once. Speech-based sounds
are believed to be stored in the phonological loop. The Levels of Processing theory proposed by
It consists of two components – the phonological Craik and Lockhart suggest that rather than
store (inner ear) that allows acoustically coded separate memory stores, it is the depth of
items to be stored for a short period, and the processing that produces stronger memories.
articulation process (the inner voice) for repeating According to this theory, as information is
sub-vocally the items stored in the phonological processed deeper within memory, the longer a
store. The visuospatial scratch pad is another memory trace will last. In contrast to the multi-
important component, it stores the visual and store model, this approach is not structured.
spatial information and functions as the inner eye. Memory
Figure 4 is believed to be merely the result of
It enables us to create, control and manipulate processing information, and a clear distinction
https://tutor2u-net.imgix.net/subjects/psychology/studynote-
mental images. It is similar to the phonological images/working-memory-model1.png?auto=compress
can't be drawn between short-term and long-term
%2Cformat&fit=clip&q=80&w=800
loop in that it has limited capacity, but the memory. The theory indicates that repetition of
limitations of both are different. For instance, it is information does not result in transfer of
possible to practice a set of digits in the information to the LTM and that this is just a form
phonological loop and simultaneously plan the of maintenance rehearsal. Memory must be
spatial layout of a set of letters on the visual understood and have meaning for it to be
spatial scratch pad. In 2000 Baddeley suggested transferred to LTM through elaborative rehearsal.
another component – the episodic buffer which Craik and Lockhart stated that verbal information
integrates and manipulates information, has a is processed on three levels – structural (what the
limited capacity and a high dependence on word looks like) acoustic (what it sounds like) and
executive functions. It gathers together semantic (what it means). As semantic require
information from various sources into chunks or more processing, it leaves a longer-lasting
episodes, hence the term ‘episodic. One of its memory trace, whereas structural processes are
main functions is to recall material from LTM and shallower and as result leaving a weak memory
integrate it into STM when needed. Unlike the trace.
multistore model, the working memory model
explains a wide variety of tasks, from verbal
reasoning to comprehension, reading problem-
solving, visual and spatial processing. It is also
based on considerable experimental evidence.
However, in terms of how the central executive
works and what it does, there is little direct
evidence. Also, its capacity has never been
measured. As STM is the only component of
working memory, it isn't a comprehensive model
of memory (since it does not include SM or
LTM).

Figure 3 -
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10509559/35/images/6/Levels+of+p
rocessing+Shallow+processing+Deep+processing+Structural.jpg

In order to investigate how deep and shallow

processing affects memory recall Craik and
Lockhart carried out a lab experiment in which
participants had to recognize words presented in
structural, acoustic and sematic way. Participants
were asked to answer one of three questions about #19 (9) #14 (5)
60 words. Each of the questions represented three #20 (10) #15 (7)
levels of processing, e.g.: Is the word written in Average recall: Average
capitals? (structural level), Does the word rhyme 83/10=8,3 recall:47/10=4,7
with car? (acoustic level), Does the word fit into
the following sentence…? (semantic level). It was
found that participants who had processed the The result from the replicated experiment supports
words at a semantic level remembered more than the original experiment findings. As it can be seen
the ones who had processed them at structural in the table, first and last words presented had
level. The result of experiment supports the twice the average recall than the middle ones.
theory; however, it is unclear whether the
How cognitive research has influenced practice
questions really led participants to process the
in dementia
words at the three different levels, as there is no
independent measure of the depth of processing Dementia is a disease which affects mental
caused by the questions. The study also does not abilities and due to its degenerative nature, the
explain how deeper processing affects the strength symptoms eventually start to interfere with daily
of memories. Nevertheless, it is still likely that tasks to the extent that a person affected is unable
memory is more complex than Atkinson and to lead an independent life anymore. Even though
Shiffrin’s multi-store model suggests, and the in the current state of science it cannot be cured,
levels of processing model provides a good basis cognitive research has played a key role in
for this more complex aspect of memory. understanding its basis, developing new
treatments and finding ways to improve the care
A study conducted by Glanzer a Cunitz (1966)
of those suffering from it. Owning to the cognitive
showed that when participants were given a list of
neuroscience and modern brain scans, there are
words, they were more likely to recall the first few
more precise indications of the brain areas that are
and last few words, while forgetting those in the
involved in memory process, and scientists are
middle. This experiment has been replicated for
able to observe how this process changes when
the purpose of this article. Materials used to
affected by brain tissue damage. Main memory
conduct it included: a list of 20 unrelated words,
functions in the brain are associated with the
20 numbered cards with the words from the list,
limbic system, which integrates with the cerebral
lined paper, blank ink pens and a timer set for 2
cortex. Each section of the limbic system and
minutes. First, the participants were shown all the
areas of cerebral cortex are responsible for
flashcards, and after that they were told to write
different function and damage to elements of these
down all the words they remembered in any order.
systems is common in most forms of dementia.
The outcomes from the replicated experiment are
For example, the frontal lobes are responsible for
listed below:
storing and processing information, which enables
List A: Primary/Recency List B: Remote (middle) a person to make logical decisions and
(beginning and end) Position and number of judgements. Damage to this part results in
Position and number of times a word was personality and behaviour changes, as well as
times a word was recalled problems with organization and decision-making.
recalled It also affects concentration and the way that a
person response to social situations.

#1 (10) #6 (7) Functions of the parietal lobe include perception,

space awareness and magnitude. The impaired
#2 (10) #7 (5)
function of this area may make it difficult to
#3 (9) #8 (2)
perform skilled movements and gestures. The
#4 (8) #9 (1)
temporal lobe primarily regulates memory and
#5 (6) #10 (5) language. It is also responsible for naming objects
#16 (6) #11 (6) and memorizing events and episodes. The
#17 (7) #12 (6) temporal lobe is more complex than other parts of
#18 (8) #13 (3) the brain, as it connects vision and speech, which
is necessary to recognize faces and recall events
from the past. This part of the brain is most
commonly damaged in Alzheimer’s disease, and
because of this, individuals with Alzheimer tend
to remember things and events from their
childhood but struggle to recall what happened a
just a few days ago. The reason for this is that
childhood events are more often recalled and
rehearsed.

This knowledge enables clinicals and practitioners

to better understand the disorder and modify their
treatment approaches for patients. Since dementia
is not curable, scientists mainly focus on work
towards prevention of the disorder. Due to the
continuous research done in the field of cognitive
psychology along with other disciplines, dementia
treatment has evolved over the years. There have
been a number of research findings recently which
have led to advancements in the dementia field. A
significant advancement has been made in blood-
based biomarkers, which are less invasive and
easier to access than investigation based on CSF
or PET. Thus, they can be used across the
spectrum of Alzheimer’s disease to detect it
earlier and more accurately. A blood-based
measure of tau181 has been shown to predict
neuritis, detect and distinguish Alzheimer’s
disease from other neurodegenerative disorders.
Another study indicated that also p-tau217 may be
a sensitive marker of Alzheimer’s disease
presence and associated changes such as amyloid
accumulation, tau burden, brain atrophy and
physical degradation. The fact that plasma p-
tau217 does not predict such changes in patients
with other disorders, means it is also specific to
Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore, it may be useful
in clinical diagnostic and monitoring of the
disease, which is especially important in terms of
dementia modifying interventions. Nevertheless,
in order for p-tau217 to be widely adopted as a
diagnostic test, it requires large-scale validation.

While the understanding both the causes of the

disorder and prevention methods of the disorder
has certainly advanced, research is still ongoing,
what gives hope to many patients and their
careers.
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and verbal
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Figure 1- Figure 2 -

5(4), 351-360
https://d1e4pidl3fu268.cloudfront.net/8b48cdfc-
0537-4939-8a8d-70a509a4f31c/Multistore.jpg
Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage Figure 2-
mechanisms in free recall. Journal of verbal https://slideplayer.com/slide/10509559/35/images/
learning and verbal behaviour, 5(4), 351-360. 6/Levels+of+processing+Shallow+processing+De
ep+processing+Structural.jpg
Figure 3-
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Figure 4- 4
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