Unit 1 The concept of tribe ; tribe and caste

The Concept of Tribe

Definition and Characteristics of Tribes

 Tribes are indigenous, social groups that live in relative isolation from mainstream society.
 They are often defined by:
1. A common language or dialect.
2. Strong sense of kinship and solidarity.
3. Distinct cultural practices, traditions, and religious beliefs.
4. A self-sustained economy, often based on hunting, gathering, or agriculture.
5. Geographical isolation, often in hilly or forested regions.
 Legal Definition: In India, tribes are referred to as Scheduled Tribes (STs) under Article 342 of the
Constitution.

Historical Background

 The term "tribe" originates from the Latin word tribus, denoting divisions in ancient Rome.
 Early European colonial anthropologists classified Indian populations into hierarchical structures,
which included “tribes” as distinct from “castes.”
 Post-independence, the Indian Constitution adopted the term Scheduled Tribes for affirmative action
policies.

Cultural, Social, and Economic Features

1. Cultural Features: Unique festivals, songs, dances, and art forms (e.g., Warli paintings, Chhau dance).
2. Social Features: Egalitarianism is often a key characteristic; however, some tribes have internal
hierarchies.
3. Economic Features: Dependence on natural resources, practicing subsistence agriculture, pastoralism,
or forest-based livelihoods.
4. Religion: Tribal religions are often animistic (belief in spirits), but many have incorporated elements of
Hinduism, Christianity, or Islam.

Tribes as a Sociological Category

 Tribes are often contrasted with other social categories like caste and class. They are seen as societies
in the "pre-state" phase, though many tribes today interact significantly with the state and market.
 Anthropologists like Verrier Elwin and G.S. Ghurye debated whether tribes should assimilate into
mainstream society or preserve their distinctiveness.

Major Tribal Communities in India

 Some prominent tribal groups include:

o Gonds (Central India)
o Santhals (Jharkhand, West Bengal)
o Bhils (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra)
o Todas (Tamil Nadu)
o Nagas (Northeast India)

Issues in Defining Tribes

 Anthropological challenges: Tribes exhibit diversity in language, culture, and lifestyle, making a
singular definition difficult.
  Administrative challenges: Government classifications often focus on economic backwardness and
isolation, which may not fully capture tribal identities.

Tribe and Caste

Differences Between Tribe and Caste

Aspect Tribe Caste

Origin Pre-agricultural, pre-state societies Social hierarchy within settled, agrarian societies
Hierarchy Generally egalitarian Highly hierarchical (varna system)
Endogamy May allow inter-tribe marriage Strongly endogamous
Occupation Subsistence economy Occupational specialization
Political System Informal tribal councils Linked to traditional Hindu polity

Tribe-Caste Continuum

 Concept by sociologists like N.K. Bose and G.S. Ghurye to explain the overlap between tribal and
caste systems.
 Tribal groups, through contact with mainstream society, often adopt caste-like characteristics (e.g.,
hierarchy, rituals).
 Example: Some Gond tribes have integrated into the caste system as Raj Gonds, claiming Kshatriya
status.

Interactions Between Tribes and Castes

 Tribal groups often coexist with caste-based communities, particularly in central and eastern India.
 Interaction occurs through:
1. Trade: Tribals exchange forest produce for goods from caste-based communities.
2. Cultural Borrowing: Tribal groups often adopt Hindu rituals or deities.
3. Labor: Tribals may work for caste-based landlords.

Colonial Influence

 British colonial policies classified tribes as “criminal tribes” or “aboriginals,” reinforcing their
distinctness from castes.
 This reinforced a binary view of tribes and castes, though many communities historically moved
between these categories.

Present-Day Overlaps

 Some tribal communities have adopted caste-like practices (e.g., hierarchy, dowry).
 Urbanization and migration have blurred distinctions further, leading to a mix of tribal and caste-based
identities.
 Example: Tribal groups in Rajasthan, like Bhils, have adopted some practices from Rajput culture.
 Unit 2 classification of tribes

1. Hunters and Food Gatherers

 Description: These tribes depend primarily on hunting animals, fishing, and gathering fruits, roots, and
other forest products for survival. This represents one of the oldest forms of livelihood.
 Lifestyle:
o Nomadic or semi-nomadic in nature.
o Live in close harmony with forests and natural resources.
o Use simple tools like bows, arrows, and traps for hunting.
 Cultural Traits:
o Deep knowledge of forest ecology and wildlife.
o Animistic religious practices and worship of nature.
 Examples:
o Sentinelese (Andaman and Nicobar Islands).
o Chenchus (Andhra Pradesh, Telangana).
 Issues:
o Threats due to deforestation and restrictions in protected forest areas.
o Loss of traditional knowledge due to modernization.

2. Shifting Cultivators

 Description: These tribes practice shifting or slash-and-burn agriculture (locally called jhum
cultivation). Land is cleared by burning vegetation, cultivated for a few years, and then abandoned to
regenerate.
 Lifestyle:
o Semi-nomadic; they move to new areas once the soil fertility depletes.
o Cultivate crops like millets, rice, and vegetables.
 Cultural Traits:
o Strong community cooperation for clearing land and cultivation.
o Festivals and rituals are often tied to the agricultural cycle.
 Examples:
o Mizos (Mizoram).
o Nagaland Tribes (Nagas).
 Issues:
o Decline in land availability due to legal restrictions.
o Environmental concerns over soil erosion and deforestation.

3. Nomads

 Description: These tribes are highly mobile and move from place to place in search of food, water, and
livelihood.
 Lifestyle:
o Lack of permanent settlement.
o Engage in diverse activities such as hunting, gathering, and occasional trade.
 Cultural Traits:
o Strong oral traditions, with stories and songs passed down generations.
o Minimalist lifestyle due to constant movement.
 Examples:
o Lambadi or Banjara (Rajasthan, Maharashtra).
o Van Gujjars (Himalayan foothills).
  Issues:
o Marginalization due to lack of property or legal recognition of their land rights.
o Difficulty in accessing education and healthcare services.

4. Pastoralists

 Description: These tribes rear and depend on animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and camels for their
livelihood. Pastoralism is their primary mode of subsistence.
 Lifestyle:
o Nomadic or semi-nomadic, depending on seasonal migration for grazing lands.
o Livelihood includes selling dairy products, wool, and livestock.
 Cultural Traits:
o Festivals and rituals revolve around livestock and grazing seasons.
o Indigenous knowledge of animal care and grazing patterns.
 Examples:
o Gaddis (Himachal Pradesh).
o Toda (Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu).
o Bakarwals (Jammu and Kashmir).
 Issues:
o Loss of traditional grazing lands due to urbanization and deforestation.
o Restrictions in protected forest areas.

5. Peasants and Settled Agriculturists

 Description: These tribes engage in settled agriculture, growing crops on permanent farmland. This is
considered a more "advanced" stage of economic activity compared to shifting cultivation.
 Lifestyle:
o Permanent villages or settlements.
o Use of simple agricultural tools like plows and irrigation methods.
 Cultural Traits:
o Social hierarchy may develop within the tribe due to economic differentiation.
o Community cooperation during sowing and harvesting seasons.
 Examples:
o Bhils (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan).
o Oraons (Jharkhand).
 Issues:
o Vulnerability to exploitation by non-tribal landlords or moneylenders.
o Land alienation due to debt or displacement.

6. Artisans

 Description: These tribes specialize in handicrafts and traditional industries, such as pottery, weaving,
blacksmithing, and basket-making.
 Lifestyle:
o Sedentary, living in villages or towns near markets.
o Depend on the sale of handmade products for their livelihood.
 Cultural Traits:
o Rich artistic traditions, with skills passed down generations.
o Strong reliance on community networks for trade and support.
 Examples:
 o Kondhs (Odisha) – Known for terracotta and pottery.
o Saharas (Chhattisgarh) – Skilled in weaving and crafting tools.
 Issues:
o Competition with industrially produced goods.
o Decline in demand for traditional crafts due to modernization.

Unit 3 socio cultural profile

Characteristic Features of Tribal Society

1. Geographical Isolation

 Tribal societies traditionally inhabit remote regions such as forests, hills, and mountainous areas.
 Examples: Santhals in Jharkhand, Gonds in Central India, and Nagas in the Northeast.
 This isolation helped preserve their distinct cultures but also led to socio-economic marginalization.

2. Distinct Language and Dialect

 Tribes have their own languages or dialects, which are often unwritten.
 Examples:
o Santali (Santhals).
o Gondi (Gonds).
o Ao and Angami languages (Nagas).
 These languages often express their worldview and oral traditions.

3. Simple Technology and Economy

 Tribes typically rely on simple technology and subsistence economies based on hunting, gathering,
fishing, agriculture, or pastoralism.
 Economic activities are sustainable and adapted to their environment.
 Examples:
o Toda (pastoral economy).
o Chenchus (hunting and food gathering).

4. Animistic Religious Beliefs

 Tribal religions often involve animism, the worship of spirits believed to inhabit natural objects like
trees, rivers, and mountains.
 Tribes have sacred groves, ancestral worship, and belief in shamans or spirit mediums.
 Examples:
o Khasis (Northeast) worship U Blei Nongthaw (creator god).
o Bhils worship local deities and spirits.

5. Egalitarian Social Structure

 Most tribal societies are relatively egalitarian, with minimal class or caste distinctions.
 Leadership is often informal and based on community consensus rather than hereditary positions.

6. Community Life and Collective Ownership

 Tribal life revolves around strong community bonds and collective ownership of land and resources.
 Property, especially agricultural land, is often shared among the community.

7. Festivals and Art Forms

 Festivals are connected to nature, agriculture, or hunting cycles.

  Rich traditions of dance, music, painting, and handicrafts.
o Warli Paintings (Maharashtra).
o Chhau Dance (Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal).

8. Strong Kinship Ties

 Kinship forms the basis of social organization, governing relationships, inheritance, and marriage
practices.
 Extended families or clans play a key role in decision-making and rituals.

9. Resistance to Change

 Tribal societies have traditionally resisted outside influences to maintain their cultural identity.
 However, modernization and contact with non-tribal groups have led to significant cultural
transformation.

Social organisation in tribal society

1. Family Structure

 Nuclear Family: Common in smaller tribes, with parents and children living together.
 Joint Family: Extended families are common in larger tribes, with multiple generations living
together.
 Families are the primary unit for economic production, socialization, and rituals.

2. Kinship System

 Kinship governs relationships and determines marriage, inheritance, and social roles.
 Kinship terms are unique and vary across tribes. For example:
o Gonds have specific kinship terms for paternal and maternal relatives.
o Nagas use kinship terms that reflect their clan-based society.
 Kinship ties reinforce unity and cooperation within the tribe.

3. Clan System

 Many tribes are organized into clans (gotras or khels), which are exogamous units (marriage outside
the clan is mandatory).
 Clans often trace descent from a common mythical ancestor or totem.
 Examples:
o Santhals have totemic clans like Hansda (duck) and Murmu (Nilgai).
o Nagas identify themselves based on clan affiliation.

4. Tribal Councils

 Informal tribal councils (panchs) resolve disputes, enforce community norms, and manage tribal
affairs.
 Decisions are made collectively, reflecting their egalitarian ethos.
 Examples:
o Khasi Durbars in Meghalaya.
 o Ghotuls (youth dormitories) of the Muria in Chhattisgarh act as centers for education and
governance.

5. Marriage Practices

 Tribal marriages are often arranged within the framework of kinship and clan rules.
 Types of marriage:
o Monogamy: Common in most tribes.
o Polygamy: Practiced by some tribes, especially pastoralists.
 Bride price is common in many tribes (e.g., Gonds), while dowry is uncommon.
 Cross-cousin marriages are preferred in some tribes like Todas.

6. Status of Women

 Women enjoy relatively higher status and autonomy in many tribal societies compared to caste-based
societies.
 They play key roles in agriculture, household management, and social rituals.
 Examples:
o Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghalaya follow matrilineal inheritance, where property is passed
through the mother’s lineage.

7. Rituals and Festivals

 Rituals are tied to the agricultural cycle, seasons, and life events like birth, marriage, and death.
 Examples:
o Hornbill Festival (Nagaland).
o Karam Festival (worship of Karam tree by the Oraons).

8. Religion and Spiritual Leaders

 Tribal religion is often guided by spiritual leaders or shamans, who mediate between the tribe and the
spirit world.
 Some tribes have started following Hinduism, Christianity, or Islam due to outside influence while
retaining traditional practices.

9. Economy

 Subsistence-based economy, with limited surplus production.

 Collective ownership of land ensures equitable distribution of resources.
 Barter systems often replace monetary transactions.
Unit 4

1. Kinship in Tribal Societies

Definition

 Kinship refers to the system of relationships that define family and social bonds within a tribe. It
governs social interaction, inheritance, marriage, and political roles.

Features of Kinship in Tribes

1. Descent Systems:
o Patrilineal: Descent traced through the father (e.g., Bhils, Gonds).
o Matrilineal: Descent traced through the mother (e.g., Khasis, Garos of Meghalaya).
2. Kinship Terminology:
o Unique kinship terms are used for different relations, which may reflect respect, affection, or
duty.
3. Role in Social Organization:
o Kinship defines roles in rituals, marriage, and dispute resolution.
o It binds individuals into extended family or clan units.

Types of Kinship

 Consanguineous Kin: Blood relations (e.g., parents, siblings).

 Affinal Kin: Relations through marriage (e.g., in-laws).

Functions of Kinship

 Regulates marriage alliances.

 Governs inheritance and property distribution.
 Provides emotional and material support within the group.

2. Marriage in Tribal Societies

Definition

 Marriage is a socially recognized union that establishes relationships between families and kin groups.

Types of Marriage in Tribes

1. Monogamy: One spouse at a time; most common.

2. Polygamy:
o Polygyny: One man with multiple wives (e.g., Bhils, Gonds).
o Polyandry: One woman with multiple husbands (e.g., Todas of Tamil Nadu).
3. Cross-Cousin Marriage:
o Preferred in tribes like the Gonds, where a man marries his mother’s brother’s daughter.
4. Bride Price:
 o Payment made by the groom’s family to the bride’s family as compensation (common in
Santhals and Bhils).
5. Levirate and Sororate:
o Marriage with the widow of a deceased brother (Levirate).
o Marriage with the sister of a deceased wife (Sororate).

Functions of Marriage

 Ensures continuity of the family and kin group.

 Regulates sexual relations.
 Strengthens alliances between families and clans.

Marriage Ceremonies

 Tribal marriage rituals are simple and symbolic, often involving nature or ancestral worship.
 Example: In the Bhil tribe, marriages are solemnized with offerings to deities and ancestors.

3. Family in Tribal Societies

Definition

 A family is a basic unit of social organization comprising individuals related by blood, marriage, or
adoption.

Types of Family

1. Nuclear Family: Parents and children (e.g., prevalent among the Santhals).
2. Joint Family: Multiple generations living together (e.g., Bhils, Gonds).
3. Extended Family: Includes uncles, aunts, and cousins; common in many tribes.

Functions of Family

 Economic: Acts as a production and consumption unit.

 Socialization: Teaches children tribal customs, norms, and values.
 Emotional: Provides support and security to members.
 Ritual: Conducts life-cycle rituals like birth, marriage, and death.

4. Religion in Tribal Societies

Definition

 Religion in tribal societies refers to the set of beliefs and practices concerning the sacred, often tied to
nature, spirits, and ancestors.

Characteristics of Tribal Religion

1. Animism:
o Belief in spirits residing in natural objects like trees, rivers, mountains, and animals.
o Example: The Santhals worship Marang Buru (Great Spirit).
2. Ancestor Worship:
o Reverence for ancestors, who are believed to protect and guide the tribe.
o Example: Bhils perform rituals to honor ancestors.
3. Totemism:
o Belief in a symbolic connection between the tribe and a totemic object or animal.
o Example: Santhals have clan totems like Hansda (duck) or Murmu (nilgai).
4. Shamanism:
 o Shamans (spiritual healers) act as intermediaries between humans and spirits, performing
healing and rituals.

Functions of Religion

 Explains natural phenomena and life events.

 Reinforces tribal identity and unity.
 Regulates moral and ethical behavior.

Festivals and Rituals

 Tribal festivals are linked to agricultural cycles, hunting seasons, or ancestral worship.
 Examples:
o Hornbill Festival (Nagaland): Celebrates the rich cultural heritage of the Nagas.
o Karam Festival (Oraons): Worship of the Karam tree for prosperity.

5. Magic in Tribal Societies

Definition

 Magic refers to the use of rituals, spells, or symbols to control supernatural forces or achieve specific
outcomes.

Types of Magic

1. White Magic: Used for positive purposes like healing or bringing rain.
2. Black Magic: Used to harm others or protect oneself from harm.
3. Sympathetic Magic:
o Based on the principle of similarity (e.g., creating an image of an enemy to control or harm
them).
4. Contagious Magic:
o Belief that objects once in contact with a person retain a connection (e.g., using hair or nails in
rituals).

Functions of Magic

 Provides psychological comfort in uncertain situations (e.g., illness, crop failure).

 Reinforces social control by punishing wrongdoers through magical practices.
 Strengthens belief in the supernatural and tribal traditions.

Magico-Religious Practitioners

 Shamans: Perform rituals to invoke spirits and heal illnesses.

 Sorcerers: Practice black magic to harm enemies.
 Diviners: Predict future events or identify the causes of misfortune.

Comparison Between Religion and Magic

Aspect Religion Magic

Objective Worship of supernatural beings for blessings Control of supernatural forces for specific outcomes
Practices Collective rituals and ceremonies Individualized rituals and spells
Belief System Involves morality and ethics Lacks moral dimensions
Examples Worship of deities, ancestors, nature spirits Rainmaking rituals, protection charms
1. Sanskritization in Tribal Societies

Definition

 Sanskritization is a process where tribal or lower caste groups adopt the customs, rituals, and lifestyle
of upper castes, particularly the Brahmins, to improve their social status.
 Coined by sociologist M.N. Srinivas.

Features of Sanskritization

1. Adoption of practices such as vegetarianism, Brahminical rituals, and wearing sacred threads.
2. Renunciation of practices considered "impure" or "tribal," like meat consumption or animistic worship.
3. Naming practices and language are modified to align with upper-caste norms.
4. Tribal deities may be merged with Hindu gods and goddesses.

Impact on Tribes

 Positive Effects:
o Enhanced social prestige and acceptance in the mainstream Hindu society.
o Integration into the larger cultural framework of India.
 Negative Effects:
o Loss of tribal identity, traditions, and customs.
o Internal divisions within tribes between those who Sanskritize and those who resist.

Examples:

 Bhils adopting Hindu practices and worshipping Hindu deities like Shiva.
 Gonds integrating Hindu festivals and rituals into their traditions.

2. The Impact of Colonial Rule on Tribal Society

Changes During Colonial Rule

1. Land Alienation:
o Introduction of private property rights and forest laws led to the alienation of tribal land.
o Tribes like the Santhals and Mundas were displaced as forests were declared state property.
o Exploitation by zamindars, moneylenders, and colonial administrators pushed tribes into
bonded labor.
2. Economic Exploitation:
o Tribal lands and forests were exploited for resources like timber, minerals, and agricultural
expansion.
o Tribes were forced to work in plantations, mines, and construction under harsh conditions.
3. Loss of Political Autonomy:
o Tribes lost their traditional self-governance systems as British laws replaced tribal councils
and customary laws.
o Example: Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908) aimed to address land alienation but was not
fully effective.
4. Introduction of Christianity:
 o Missionaries established schools, hospitals, and churches in tribal areas.
o While education and healthcare improved, many tribes converted to Christianity, altering their
cultural and religious identity.
o Example: Conversion of tribes like Khasi and Naga in the Northeast.
5. Rebellions and Resistance:
o Tribal uprisings against colonial exploitation included:
 Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856).
 Munda Rebellion under Birsa Munda (1899–1900).
 Bhil Uprising and other localized revolts.

Consequences of Colonial Rule

 Economic impoverishment and marginalization of tribes.

 Cultural erosion due to the imposition of alien administrative and legal systems.
 Emergence of tribal leaders who fought to preserve their autonomy and identity.

3. Post-Independence Scenario

Constitutional Safeguards for Tribes

1. Scheduled Tribes:
o Tribes were recognized as "Scheduled Tribes" under the Indian Constitution to ensure
protection and upliftment.
2. Fifth Schedule:
o Governs administration and control of Scheduled Areas in states other than the Northeast.
o Provides for the establishment of Tribal Advisory Councils (TACs).
3. Sixth Schedule:
o Provides for autonomy and self-governance in tribal areas of the Northeast.
o Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) manage land, forests, and local governance.

Policies and Programs

1. Economic Development:
o Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED) promotes tribal
products and fair trade.
o Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs) for holistic development in tribal areas.
2. Education and Employment:
o Reservation in education and government jobs for Scheduled Tribes.
o Establishment of tribal schools and universities (e.g., Indira Gandhi National Tribal
University).
3. Forest Rights Act (2006):
o Recognizes the traditional forest rights of tribes and protects them from eviction.

Challenges Post-Independence

1. Continued Land Alienation:

o Industrial projects and large dams (e.g., Sardar Sarovar Dam) led to tribal displacement.
o Poor implementation of rehabilitation policies.
2. Cultural Erosion:
o Modernization and globalization have led to the loss of traditional practices, languages, and
rituals.
3. Economic Marginalization:
o Tribes remain among the poorest sections of society despite affirmative action.
o Limited access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure in tribal areas.
4. Political Marginalization:
o Tribal communities often lack representation and voice in policymaking.
Positive Developments

1. Tribal movements for rights and identity have gained momentum (e.g., Narmada Bachao Andolan,
Jharkhand Movement).
2. Greater awareness and advocacy for tribal rights through NGOs and international organizations.
3. Revival of tribal art, culture, and festivals to preserve their identity.

1. Poverty

Definition

 Poverty refers to the inability to meet basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing.

Causes of Poverty Among Tribals

1. Economic Exploitation:
o Low wages and poor working conditions in agriculture, forestry, and mining.
2. Lack of Employment Opportunities:
o Tribal areas often lack industries, infrastructure, and skill-based jobs.
3. Displacement:
o Loss of land and resources due to industrial projects and development schemes (e.g., dam
construction, mining).
4. Dependence on Primary Sector:
o Heavy reliance on agriculture and forest produce, which are often seasonal and inadequate.

Impact of Poverty

 Malnutrition and poor health among tribal populations.

 High infant mortality rates.
 Increased vulnerability to exploitation and debt.

2. Illiteracy

Definition

 Illiteracy refers to the inability to read or write, which hinders access to education and empowerment.

Causes of Illiteracy

1. Lack of Educational Infrastructure:

o Remote tribal areas often lack schools, teachers, and learning materials.
2. Language Barrier:
o Tribal children struggle with mainstream languages like Hindi or English, as their primary
language is often their tribal dialect.
3. Economic Constraints:
o Families prioritize earning a livelihood over education, leading to high dropout rates.
4. Cultural Factors:
o Some tribes see formal education as alien to their way of life.

Impact of Illiteracy
  Limits awareness of rights and government schemes.
 Increases vulnerability to exploitation by moneylenders and landlords.
 Restricts access to better jobs and upward social mobility.

3. Indebtedness

Definition

 Indebtedness refers to the inability to repay loans, often leading to a cycle of poverty and exploitation.

Causes of Indebtedness

1. Low Income Levels:

o Tribals often borrow money to meet basic needs or emergencies like illness or weddings.
2. Dependence on Moneylenders:
o Lack of access to institutional credit forces them to borrow from moneylenders at exorbitant
interest rates.
3. Crop Failures:
o Poor agricultural practices and dependence on rain-fed farming lead to recurring debt.

Impact of Indebtedness

 Bonded labor or forced migration to repay debts.

 Loss of land and assets to moneylenders.
 Psychological stress and reduced quality of life.

4. Land Alienation

Definition

 Land alienation refers to the loss of tribal land due to legal, economic, or social factors.

Causes of Land Alienation

1. Encroachment:
o Non-tribals often encroach on tribal lands through fraudulent means.
2. Industrial Projects:
o Land acquisition for dams, mines, and factories often displaces tribal communities.
3. Forest Laws:
o Colonial and post-independence forest laws declared tribal lands as state property, restricting
their access.
4. Indebtedness:
o Tribals sell or mortgage their land to repay loans.

Impact of Land Alienation

 Loss of livelihood and food security.

 Forced migration to urban areas for low-paying jobs.
 Erosion of cultural identity tied to ancestral land.

5. Agrarian Issues

Definition

 Agrarian issues refer to problems related to agriculture, which is the primary livelihood for most
tribals.
Causes of Agrarian Issues

1. Small Landholdings:
o Limited and fragmented land makes agriculture less productive.
2. Lack of Modern Techniques:
o Tribals often rely on traditional farming methods, leading to low yields.
3. Deforestation:
o Loss of forests affects shifting cultivation practices and access to forest produce.
4. Market Exploitation:
o Tribals face exploitation by middlemen while selling their produce.

Impact of Agrarian Issues

 Increased poverty and food insecurity.

 Dependency on daily wage labor in non-agricultural sectors.
 Migration to cities in search of work.

6. Exploitation

Definition

 Exploitation refers to the unfair treatment of tribals, depriving them of their rights, resources, and
dignity.

Forms of Exploitation

1. Economic Exploitation:
o Low wages, unfair trade practices, and resource grabbing by outsiders.
2. Social Exploitation:
o Discrimination by dominant caste groups and non-tribals.
3. Political Exploitation:
o Manipulation during elections and lack of representation in decision-making bodies.
4. Cultural Exploitation:
o Appropriation of tribal art, music, and traditions without fair recognition or benefit.

Impact of Exploitation

 Perpetuation of poverty and inequality.

 Loss of cultural identity and self-esteem.
 Resistance movements and tribal unrest (e.g., Naxalite movement in tribal regions).

Efforts to Address Tribal Problems

Government Initiatives

1. Constitutional Safeguards:
o Articles 46, 244 (Fifth and Sixth Schedules), and 275 provide protections and special
provisions for Scheduled Tribes.
2. Forest Rights Act (2006):
o Recognizes the rights of tribals over forest land and resources.
3. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP):
o Allocates funds for the socio-economic development of tribal areas.
4. Education and Skill Development:
o Establishment of residential schools like Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) and
vocational training programs.
5. Employment Schemes:
 o Programs like MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act)
provide employment opportunities in tribal areas.

NGOs and Civil Society