CONSCIENCE AND IT'S ROLE IN DECISION- -the place of the innermost encounter

MAKING between God and man; the voice of God

CONSCIENCE -Devine center of the person where he is
addressed by God and in it he is aware
-derives from the Latin Cum (together)
of God and the soul.
and scientia, scire (To know).
BONAVENTURE AND GREAT MYSTICS
-Con (with) + scientia (knowledge)
[From I’mscire (to know)]. - as the scintilla animae – the spark of
the soul.
-is our lived knowledge of good and evil,
- Peak of the soul; the center of the
our judgment about how we should act,
soul where man encounters God and
and our commitment to do so.
is at least accessible to the
- “Our most secret core and sanctuary, contamination.
where we encounter God; our heart"
CONSCIENCE IN THE SCRIPTURE
-the person's moral faculty, the inner
OLD TESTAMENT
core and sanctuary where one knows
oneself in confrontation with God and Syneidesis – a greek word for
with fellowmen. (Bernard Haring, CSsR) the conscience appeared only in the
book of wisdom.
- “An inward moral impression of one's
actions and principles... as the inward -the emphasis is more on man
faculty of moral judgment... as the listening to the word of God rather than
inward moral and spiritual frame " an inner moral authority
(Analytical Greek Lexicon)
NEW TESTAMENT
- a law inscribes in our hearts by God
and recognized as our own; its voice Paul refers conscience as good,
calls us “to love and do what is good clear, blameless, his values and
and avoid evil” standards in conformity with God’s
standards; a faculty to evaluate good
-our moral compass that directs us to and evil.
good or evil
 A God-given capacity for human
2 Parts of Conscience being to exercise self-evaluation.
1. SYNDERESIS - Discover very basic
moral principles. The use of right reason  A witness
by which we learn basic moral principles  A servant to the individual’s value
and understand that we have to do good system
and avoid evil. (The starting point)
2. 2. CONSCIENTIA - Practical reason  A universal endowment of all
which tells us what to do in particular human being.
situations. (End - judgment of IN THE PROCESS OF TIME
conscience)
1. ANTECEDENT
-Judgement on morality of action
CONSCIENCE according to: and obligation to perform or omit is
AUGUSTINE AND FRANCISCAN passed before action is translated to
SCHOOL reality.
 2. CONCOMITANT - It cannot form a definite judgment on a
certain action because of fear to commit
-Refers to one’s actual
mistakes or evil acts.
awareness of being morally responsible
for the goodness and the badness of the 6. LAX CONSCIENCE
particular act while one is doing it.
- It is manifested by indifferent acts in
performing an act, either good or bad.
3. CONSEQUENT
- It is the process of looking back
to review and evaluate the morality of
what we have done.
LEVEL OF CONSCIENCE
ACCORDING TO THE OBJECTIVE TRUTH
1. FEAR CONSCIENCE
1. CORRECT OR TRUE CONSCIENCE
-Focuses on the command
- It judges good as good and evil as evil.
-Focuses on escaping punishment,
2. ERRONEOUS OR FALSE CONSCIENCE
-On being restored to the good graces
- It judges good as evil and evil as good.
of the authority figure.
2 KINDS ERRONEOUS CONSCIENCE
2. MORAL-ETHICAL CONSCIENCE
I. INCULPABLE CONSCIENCE;
-Looks beneath the command of the
“Juan used fake money to
authority to the inner moral good or evil of
purchase goods from the grocery
the act
store.” Juan is inculpable
because the act was not -The inner good or evil is judged in
maliciously committed terms of the value of the human person in
community.
II. CULPABLE CONSCIENCE
“Juan used fake money to 3. CHRISTIAN CONSCIENCE
purchase goods during rush -Operates on the religious level
hours in the grocery to ensure
that he could use the money.” He -Using ethical reason
is culpable because he voluntarily -But now strengthened and illumined by
and maliciously performed the act Christ’s revelation and grace.
with evil motive to cheat the
cashier. 4 WAYS TO CORRECT OUR CONSCIENCE

3. CERTAIN CONSCIENCE FIRST, we have to endlessly search to

find the real truth by using our
- It is based on a subjective assurance intellect, will, and freedom.
of an act that is lawful or unlawful.
SECOND, we have to consistently
4. DOUBTFUL CONSCIENCE perform good acts, until good becomes
- It cannot form a definite judgment on a better, then best, and finally developed
certain action because of doubt. into virtues that can help us in making
sound decisions.
5. SCRUPULOUS CONSCIENCE
 THIRD, we have to translate the 4. PROMOTING INTEGRITY – By guiding
principle of “doing good and avoiding evil" in individuals towards acting in accordance
our daily lives until it become part of our with their values, conscience contributes
system, and become as natural as we to the development of integrity and
breathe. moral character.
FOURTH, we have to exercise our real 5. NAVIGATING MORAL DILEMMAS –
and authentic freedom to become Conscience helps individuals navigate
responsible person. complex ethical situations and make
sound judgments when faced with
Conscience as a practical moral judgement:
conflicting values or difficult choices.
the “dictate of conscience “
6. PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY –
Conscience
Conscience emphasizes personal
 is a practical moral judgement (ultimate responsibility for actions and their
practical judgement) on the morality of a consequences, encouraging individuals
particular action commanding to do what to take ownership of their choices and
is good and to avoid what is evil. their impact on others and society.
 When in doubt to obey or not
 Inferential reasoning using principles
natural law. UNDERSTANDING HUMAN ACTS AND
 Connecting link between law and ACTS OF MAN
individual acts.
-For Agapay (1991), ACTION constitute
Two basic elements of conscience a person, an individual in control of himself
and accountable to himself.
1. Moral judgement that discerns what is
right or wrong. To know whether an individual human act is
2. Moral obligation or command to do the morally good, three things are considered.
good and avoid evil. These are called the determinants of morality,
namely,
ROLE IN ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING
a) the object of the act - the act itself.
1. ETHICAL GUIDANCE – Conscience
acts as an inner voice that helps b) the end, or purpose - intention of the
individuals discern between right and acting subject or what inspires the acting
wrong, good and bad, and ethical and subject.
unethical actions.
c) its circumstances. - of time, place,
2. MORAL COMPASS – It provides a and persons have their part in determining the
framework for evaluating actions and morality of an individual act.
making decisions based on moral
principles and personal values.
HUMAN ACTS
3. FACILITATING ETHICAL
AWARENESS – Conscience helps  It is an act of free will
individuals become more aware of the
moral implications of their choices and -is a rational act done with full
actions, promoting ethical decision- knowledge and full willingness or
making. deliberation
-Voluntary act
  Responsibility is a part of human act
-The degree of responsibility depends Essential Elements of Human Acts
on the degree of knowledge or
Knowledge – An action must be done by a
deliberation.
conscious person who knows what he is doing
 It is the expression of the self and the consequences of his actions.
-It is man’s own act; not others Freedom – an action must be done by a
conscious person who is acting freely using his
 Acts of virtue
abilities, capabilities, volition and powers.
-conform to a standard to determine
Voluntariness – an act must be done by
whether they are good or bad, right
conscious person who willfully makes the
or wrong, moral or immoral
decision to do the acts without coercion coming
-Norms of the society from any person and/or circumstances.

-Cultural/religious
 Something done knowingly, willingly CIRCUMSTANCES OF HUMAN ACT
and freely
This is another determinant of morality.
 A human act is action performed
ACTS OF MEN knowingly, freely, and voluntarily.

 Neglect on the exercise of the free • An act is good or bad based on

will the determinants of morality
which define the action.
-Are done without full knowledge or full
willingness or full deliberation or both • An act is bad its nature it is truly
bad, and a good act is good if by
 Acts done with no reasons nature it is truly good.
-without thinking and mechanical, when  The act itself is being considered as
a person is sleeping or under another determinant of morality.
anesthesia are instinctive, such as
physiological in nature.  An act that is good or bad depends on
the motive of the doer.
-Involuntary actions
 Acts of passion
The Circumstances of human act are:
 Results to weakness of character
1. Who (Circumstance of person)
-These are actions done under the
circumstances of ignorance, 2. What (Circumstance of the nature of the
passion, fear, violence, and habits act)

 In principle, acts of man are not 3. Where (Circumstance of Place)

concerned with morals since they are
4. With Whom (Circumstance of
not voluntary
Accomplices)
5. Why (Circumstance of Motive)
 6. How (Circumstance of Manner)  Antecendent - a characteristic of an act
that arises without the command of the
7. When (Circumstance of Time)
will
• ex. when a man meets his crush
When can an action considered as “acts on the corridors, his heart starts
of men”? to beat faster.
Factors are:  Consequent - arises by command of
the will or with its consent.
1. Ignorance – absence of knowledge
affects responsibility and accountability. • ex. an arous of hatred with a
two types: person (antecented) but if a
person starts to shoot the person,
 Vincible ignorance is the then it becomes consequent.
absence of knowledge which due
diligence can dispel. 3. Fear - a person can act out of fear or
Suspine or Gross ignorance - through fear, in which case he is not free
occurs when scarely any effort and therefore is not responsible of his
has been exerted. act.
Ex. when one does not know the time of the • ex. a bank telller acting out of fear
day in a bank robbery. (he could
panic and hand the money to the
Crass Ignorance – occurs when gunman, when normal conditions
a person who ought to know but he would not hand in money in
does not know. his custody.
Ex. a civil engineer who does not know 4. Violence - is the use of force to compel
strength of material a person to act
Affected Ignorance - occurs • ex. if a bank teller is hog-tied and
when a person deliberately is threatened to be shot if the
refuses to know in order to give teller will not open the vault, so
ignorance as an excuse. he will open the vault just to save
Ex. one who refuses to know the law in order to his life.
give ignorance as an excuse.
 Invincible ignorance is the FEELINGS
absence of knowledge which no
amount of diligence can dispel. Feelings - are subjective, conscious
ex. experiences of emotions. They are our internal
responses to stimuli, reflecting our
• Mans from rural area with interpretation of events. “Feelings are the
no access of technology colors of life. They make it vibrant and
• Absence of knowledge of meaningful.
computer technology - “Feelings are not facts, but they can be
2. Concupiscence - is an impulsive indicators of facts”
tendency towards a sensible evil / bad. THREE LEVELS OF FEELINGS
two kinds
 1. SUPERFICIAL - When we talk about Sympathy and Moral Pleasure:
issues without factual basis then we are
Hume believed that we act virtuously not
simply sharing. In lay term this level is
because reason tells us it’s right, but because
called “tsismis”.
doing the right thing feels good, providing a
kind of “moral pleasure”.
2. INTELLECTUAL - When we talk about
things with factual basis, be it your own Emotions as Motivators:
opinion supported the existing facts or
be it a narrative of already acceptable Emotions like sympathy, empathy, and
factual claims. guilt can motivate ethical behavior, while
emotions like anger and disgust can
3. GUT LEVEL - When we share things discourage unethical actions.
that emerged from our feelings. 2. The Role of Emotions in Moral Decision-
WHY ARE FEELINGS IMPORTANT? Making:

Guide our decisions. Feelings provide Emotions and Intuition:

valuable information about what’s important to Experts suggest that it’s impossible to
us and what we should prioritize. make important moral judgments without
Motivate our actions. Feelings are powerful emotions, as they provide crucial insights and
motivators. intuitions.

Shape our relationships. Our ability to Inner-Directed Emotions:

understand and express our feelings, and to Negative emotions like guilt,
empathize with the feelings of others, is crucial embarrassment, and shame can motivate
for building and maintaining healthy ethical behavior, while positive emotions like
relationships gratitude and admiration can prompt prosocial
Enhance our well-being. Experiencing a full actions.
range of healthy emotions is essential for Outer-Directed Emotions:
overall well-being.
Negative emotions like anger, disgust,
Increase self-awareness. Paying attention to or contempt can be directed towards those who
our feelings helps us understand ourselves have acted unethically, discouraging similar
better. Our emotional responses reveal our behavior.
values, beliefs, and needs.
Promote creativity and problem-solving.
Emotions can be a source of inspiration and 3. Different Perspectives on the Role of
creativity. Emotions:
Aristotle’s Ethics of Virtue:

ORIGIN OF FEELINGS Aristotle’s ethics of virtue emphasized

the importance of emotions, viewing them as
1. Feelings as the Basis of Morality: Hume’s central to moral development and character.
Theory of Moral Sentiments:
Kant’s Perspective:
Philosophers like David Hume argued
that moral distinctions are not derived from Immanuel Kant, on the other hand,
reason but rather from sentiment, or feelings. argued that actions should be based on reason
and universal moral principles, rather than unreliable as a universal guide for ethical
emotions. behavior.
Modern Psychology: Emotional Instability
Modern psychology emphasizes the role Emotions can be volatile and fluctuate,
of emotions in moral judgment, with studies leading to inconsistent ethical judgments.
suggesting that emotions can influence our
Oversimplification of Complex Situations
evaluations of actions and people.
Ethical dilemmas often involve complex
factors and competing values, which can be
difficult to navigate solely through emotions.
Justification of Harm
Emotions can sometimes be used to
justify unethical actions or behaviors.

4. The Biological Basis of Emotions:

Ignoring Objective Principles
Limbic System:
Ethical frameworks, such as
Emotions are believed to arise from
utilitarianism or deontology, are based on
activations of specialized neuronal populations
objective principles and reasoning, which can
in the brain, particularly in the limbic system, a
be at odds with personal feelings.
complex network of structures deep within the
cerebral cortex.
Moral Blindness
Strong emotions can sometimes create
Emotions as Evolved Affect Programs: a “moral blindness” where individuals are
unable to see the ethical implications of their
Basic emotion theory proposes that actions.
emotions are innate and controlled by inherited
programs, with emotions like fear, anger, and
disgust playing a crucial role in survival and
THE SEVEN STEPS OF MORAL
social behavior.
REASONING MODEL
A model for making moral decisions,
Physiological Reactions: Rae (1996) suggests the following procedure
for making moral decisions - within this, his
Changes in body state cause automatic work is not to get you to the "right" answer but
physiological reactions as well as mental to help you ask the right questions in your
experiences, such as hunger, thirst, pain, or ethical deliberation.
fear.
A Model for Making Moral Decisions
It is oriented towards virtues and
DISADVANTAGES OF FEELINGS principles with consideration of consequences
Subjective and Bias as a supporting role.

Feelings are personal and can vary

greatly between individuals, making them
An ethical dilemma is a conflict between two
or more values - or virtue driven interests. You
Moral Courage: The Difference Between
have to identify the parties in the conflict,
Reason and Will
THERE FOLLOWS RAE'S LIST OF
Moral courage
ELEMENTS FOR MAKING MORAL
DECISIONS: -vital concept that enables individuals to
act in accordance with their moral principles
1. Gather the facts
despite potential risks and consequences.
The simplest way of clarifying an ethical
-According to Chamberlain's lesson
dilemma is to make sure the facts are clear.
(2012), moral courage is defined as the
2. Determine the ethical issues willingness to act for moral reasons even at risk
and adverse consequences.
Ethical interests are stated in terms of
legitimate competing interests or goods. The -required in situations where
competing interests are what create the individuals must make difficult choices, often
dilemma. involving inconvenience, unpopularity, or
punishment. It demands a deep understanding
of the interplay between reason and will, two
essential forces that drive human action.

3. Determine what virtues/principles have a The Dynamics of Human Action

bearing on the case.
-Reason, or intellect, provides
In an ethical dilemma, certain values knowledge, while will drives desire, movement,
and principles are central to the competing and enjoyment. The will is blind and follows
positions. Identify these knowledge, whereas intellect is powerless to
move without the will. The combination of
4. List the alternatives creatively reason and will enables controlled movement,
Determine possible courses of action for which is the means to achieve happiness and
success in life.
your dilemma.
5. Compare the alternatives with the The Interplay of Reason and Will in Human
virtues / principles Activity

This step eliminates alternatives as they - According to the excerpt, reason is

are weighed by the moral principles which have the form of human activity, giving humanity
a bearing on the case. to our acts and enabling us to make
informed choices.
6. Consider the consequences
If principles have not yielded a clear
decision, consider the consequences of your The Interaction of Intellect and Will
alternatives.
-The interaction between intellect and
7. Make a decision will may seem like a vicious circle, but it is
broken by tracing the beginnings of that
Ethical decisions rarely have pain-free interaction to nature. Reason leads the way,
solutions - it might be you have to choose the but its first movement is inspired by a push
solution with the least number of problems / from nature, rather than the activity of the will.
painful consequences.
The Purpose-Driven Nature of Human The nature of human desires,
Activity resolutions, and actions, especially in
relation to achieving meaningful goals. It
-Human activity is driven by purpose distinguishes between wishful thinking and
and goal-oriented. According to the excerpt, genuine will, noting that many so-called
the beginning of human activity is rooted in its "resolutions" fail because they are merely
end or goal. People act because they have a dream or fleeting wishes, not grounded in true
reason, a desired outcome that motivates their intention or action.
actions.
The beginning of human action, the
author explains, is rooted in the intellect
Desire as the Driving Force recognizing a good or desirable goal. The will,
moved by this vision of the good, goes beyond
-Desire for an object or outcome is the wishing—it seeks and acts to attain it. True
driving force behind human activity. The object resolutions, then, involve not just desire but
of desire shapes the entire activity, influencing commitment and effort.
decisions and actions. This highlights the
importance of understanding the underlying A key idea is that human beings
motivations and desires that drive human naturally seek what is good or appears good to
behavior. them. This seeking is not a matter of choice or
freedom but of natural necessity. Humans are
built to pursue what they perceive as good.
With reference to the goal or end -
apprehension, volition, conation, enjoyment The author uses analogies, such as a
car's steering mechanism and a polo pony,
This explains the process of human to explain that control is only possible because
action by focusing on its end goal. It argues of underlying stable elements. Similarly,
that all human action is driven by a desired effective human action depends on some
outcome. The process unfolds in four stages: unchangeable principles or truths—what the
author calls the invariable supporting the
1. Apprehension: We first become aware of a variable.
desirable end or goal. This is the initial
understanding or recognition of what we want.

2. Volition: This is the will to pursue the goal.

On the part of the Intellect
It's more than just wishing; it involves a
commitment to taking the necessary steps to
Counsel:
achieve it.
This is the initial stage of deliberation,
3. Conation: Represent the process of striving
where the intellect explores different options
towards the goal, the active pursuit between
and possibilities to achieve a desired goal.
the initial desire (volition) and the ultimate
achievement (enjoyment).
Judgment:
4. Enjoyment: This is the satisfaction derived
Once the intellect has considered the
from attaining the goal. It's the final stage of
available options through counsel, it proceeds
the process, where the will rests after achieving
to judgment, which involves making a decisive
its objective.
choice about which means to pursue. This is
the act of discerning what is best, most
suitable, or most likely to lead to success.

Command:
 The final act of the intellect is command,
where it issues a directive or order to the will
and lower powers to carry out the chosen KEY ASPECTS OF HUMAN DECISION-
course of action. This is the application of the MAKING:
judgment, ensuring that the desired action is
taken. 1. Free will - Humans have the ability to make
choices.

2. Control over actions - We can deliberate or

On the Part of the Will act impulsively.

Consent - Consent refers to agreeing to or 3. Stages of action - Counsel, judgment,

approving a particular action or decision. consent, and command represent a thoughtful
Informed consent is crucial in various contexts. process.

Election - Election refers to making a choice or 4. Capacity for choice- Even choosing to do
decision. Moral election requires careful nothing is a form of decision-making.
consideration of ethical principles, values, and
potential outcomes.

Execution - Execution refers to carrying out a

decision or action. Effective execution requires
moral character, integrity, and commitment to THE ACT OF COMMAND
ethical principles.
The Act of Command: A Synthesis of Will and
Intellect.

The relationship between reason and will in UNDERSTAND THE ACT OF COMMAND:
human decision-making, highlighting two
key characteristics: • Command is not merely an act of the intellect;
it combines will and intellect.
1. All are Uniquely Human - Reason and will
are distinctively human faculties. •It's the bridge between the will's choice and
the intellect's execution.
2. All are Controlled - Each step in the
decision-making process is interconnected and •It involves effective, orderly movement. Think
builds upon the previous one. of a general directing troops.

THREE KEY ACTIONS IN DECISION- WILL AND INTELLECT: THE FOUNDATION

MAKING: OF COMMAND.

1. Consent - so the consent is reasonable • Command requires both the will (choice,
because of the preceding counsel. decision) and the intellect (planning,
execution).
2. Choice - the choice is not blind because of
the preceding judgment. •These elements are inseparable in human
activity; they must work together.
3. Command - and the command effective
because of the preceding push of the election • Responsible action necessitates this
or choice. combination of control and movement.
Virtue Ethics: Aristotle tripartite soul: rational, vegetative and
appetitive.
Aristotle / Aristoteles (384-322 B.C)
1. Rational -is capable of thinking, acting,
• Greek Philosopher and Scientist socializing and choosing based on
principle and taking responsibility.
• Student of Plato
2. Vegetative – Responsible for nutrition
• Teacher of Alexander the Great and growth has no significant relation
with the rational.
• Birth:384 BC, Stagira, Greece
3. Appetitive (emotion) – Governs desire
• Studied at Platonic Academy is partly irrational but partly rational as it
• His father is Nicomachus, the physician of could be trained to follow reason.
Amyntas III, king of Macedonia and grandfather B. Eudaimonia
of Alexander the Great
-It is the ultimate telos or highest good.
• He is the author of a philosophical and
scientific system like the Formal Logic and -as the attainment of the daimon or
Ethics that became the framework and vehicle perfect self presupposes self-sufficiency, self-
for Medieval Islamic Philosophy, Christian acceptance and self-mastery.
Scholasticism, and Western arts and sciences -not actually a passive state but an
including ethics, history, botany, chemistry, active living of a best life.
physics, poetics, rhetoric, metaphysics,
philosophy of mind, philosophy of nature, -Is an activity of the soul that purposively
political theory, and zoology. attempts to choose the mean between two
extremes in the realm of morality. As the
saying goes, “You can’t put a good man down.”
A. Telos Happiness Principle
Nichomachean Ethics (Nicomachus) “Happiness is the meaning and the
-In this book, Aristotle discussed how a purpose of life, the whole aim and end of
person should become just and true through a human existence.”
good up-bringing or nurturing of virtues in C. Happiness as Virtue
oneself and in others. This, for him, will bring
one to his or her purpose, goal or end. • Happiness may consider as virtue or
disposition that could be developed. Happiness
-Telos – end, purpose, goal, and is not only an end but also a means for so
logos-study many ends including the ultimate end. It could
-Accordingly, “having a telos within” is also be an activity that becomes a habit, a
what realizes or is what realizes or actualizes virtue.
everyone’s potential. • Happiness refers to the life of the person as a
Telos Principle whole. It is an excellent disposition that leads
to itself, well-being. It is handling excellently
Everything has an “entelechy” or “having one’s happiness especially in the most difficult
a telos inside.” situations to achieve ultimate happiness.
Rationality or intelligence is what • Happiness can be known, understood and
distinguishes a person from plants and practiced. It is practical that could be found in
animals. For Aristotle, the person has a
human interactions with fellow human, animals, valid and necessary inferences to
plants, and the world. reason about changing truths.
4. necessary inferences to reason about
• Happiness is the long-term and total well-
being virtue. It is lifetime independent process changing truths.
of mastering happiness so it becomes Practical wisdom
sustainable and final.
• Excellently applies the right conduct, right
D. Virtue as Habit person, right amount, right time, right intention,
• The Greek word for virtue is “arête” which right means, and right situation to achieve self-
means excellence. mastery.

• From the Latin word “vir” which means man •It is the capacity to do appropriately the goods
or male, thus, virtue is manliness or human of the intellect. Practical wisdom applies moral
excellence. virtues appropriate to every circumstance.

• Virtue is a state of character which makes a Aristotle identified four basic moral virtues:
person good and capable of fulfilling his/her prudence, temperance, courage and justice.
(telos) as a human person. • Moral virtues are behaviors that obey reason.
• Virtues are not emotions but rationalities of
persons that can be fully developed if they are
done in the right way all the time at any given PRINCIPAL VIRTUES AND VICES
situation. EXCESS (vice) MEAN DEFICIENC
• Virtues such as courage, integrity and (virtue) Y (vice)
responsibility are acquired good habits through Rashness Courage Cowardice
habituation or constant practice and self- Self-indulgence Moderation Insensibility
Prodigality Liberality Meanness
mastery. They are traits that contribute to the
Vulgarity Magnificenc Paltriness
functioning well of reason and regulate the
Vanity e Smallness
desires of the person’s appetitive nature. Ambitiousness Proper of Soul
• “Practice makes perfect.” By practicing Irascibility Pride Lack of
virtues, one may persistently and repeatedly do Boastfulness Proper Ambition
Buffoonery Ambition Lack of
right actions so that they slowly develop the
Obsequiousnes Good Spirit
appropriate attitude and the right disposition or
s Temper Self-
character (the sum of all virtues). Bashfulness Truthfulness depreciation
The rational soul for Aristotle must develop first Envy Wittiness Boorishness
it intellectual virtues and practical wisdom Friendliness
(phronesis). Modesty Surliness
Proper
Intellectual virtue involves: Indignation

1. Intelligence (nous), which apprehends

fundamental truths (such as definitions, • A truly virtuous action is performed by
self-evident principles). someone who is not simply compelled to do so.
2. Science (episteme), which is skill with • A virtuous person is someone who has been
inferential reasoning (such as proofs, so used to acting virtuously that it becomes
syllogisms, demonstrations). tremendously difficult for anything or anyone to
3. Theoretical wisdom (sophia), which convince him/her to act otherwise. To a certain
combines well fundamental truths with
degree vices are no longer an option for a truly The elements in this definition provide us the
virtuous person. authentic understanding of law.

• Only a virtuous person can perform truly 1. Ordinance of Reason – Must have a
virtuous actions because he/she is initially rational basis for both its nature and
predisposed towards virtue. implementation.

2. Authority – Established by a group with the

The Natural Law: St. Thomas Aquinas power to propose, promulgate, and approve
laws.
St. Thomas Aquinas
3. Common Good – Aims for the general
•St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), an Italian
welfare of society, not just a few individuals.
philosopher and theologian of the medieval
period, is known as the Angelic Doctor. Aquinas has four types of law such as: eternal
law, natural law, human law, and divine law.
•Like Aristotle, Aquinas also believes that
man's actions are directed towards an end. 1. Eternal Law – is the rational plan of God. All
creatures have to be governed by this law
•When man acts, guided by reason, he based on God’s mind and design towards their
definitely has purpose. ends.

•For instance, you understand that you have to 2. Human Law – Positive laws (civil and
go to school to satisfy your intellectual criminal) informed by natural law; helps clarify
curiosity, to learn new things, to finish your and implement natural law.
course, etc.
3. Natural Law – Accessible law connected to
•For every little achievement that you have, a eternal law; allows humans to distinguish good
sense of self-satisfaction is achieved. from evil.

•This is what Aquinas calls as the final end of 4. Divine Law – Complements other laws;
focuses on revelation and realization of man’s
every man's actions, that is, happiness.
eternal end.
•For instance, you understand that you have to
go to school to satisfy your intellectual
curiosity, to learn new things, to finish your Natural law is the type of law which is
course, etc. connected to the eternal law and which is
accessible to human nature.
•For every little achievement that you have, a
sense of self-satisfaction is achieved.
St. Thomas Aquinas coined the term
synderesis to refer to the faculty of man which
•This is what Aquinas calls as the final end of gives him the natural inclinations to some
every man's actions, that is, happiness. specific goods.

The Natural Law and its Tenets

Happiness as Constitutive of Moral and
Aquinas definition of law states that it is an Cardinal Virtues
ordinance of reason for the common good,
promulgated by person in authority who has -In man’s pursuit of happiness, he
care for the community. sometimes fails to choose the correct actions
that must be done
 - Mill’s version leaned towards rule of
There are four cardinal virtues that we must utilitarianism, emphasizing the importance of
possess and develop such as: general rules that, when followed, tend to
1. Prudence maximize overall happiness.
Temperance
Fortitude - Bentham believes that the value of pleasure
Justice and pain are the motivating factors of human
These are the same with Aristotle’s moral behavior, and as such, all beings act towards
virtues which emphasize their nature as golden attaining pleasure and avoiding pain.
mean. In Aquinas’ morality, these are called
cardinal virtues which must be practiced as the Hedonism holds that pleasure or happiness is
bases for moral living. the most important goal in life.

Prudence is understood as one’s ability to •Two kinds of Hedonism

discern what is good, right and proper in a
particular moral situation. 1. Psychological Hedonism - states that
human actions are motivated by pleasure and
Temperance – is understood as one ability to pain, which means that man acts in such a way
practice moderation of all times. that pleasure is achieved and pain is avoided.

Fortitude – is understood as one’s ability to 2. Ethical Hedonism - holds that the only good
overcome fear and danger. As stated above and that good actions are considered good
the virtue is also considered as the golden only if they lead toward the attainment of
mean between being coward and being foolish. pleasure, while they are evil if they inflict pain.

Justice – is understood as one ability to give

other person what is due to him. It is likewise
synonymously used as fairness. What is Utilitarianism?

UTILITARIANISM: JOHN STUART MILL •Utilitarianism is part of another framework of

morality which is known as the teleological or
John Stuart Mill defended Bentham's consequentialist theory of morality. The focus
Utilitarianism. He promoted Bentham's cause of which is not on the doer of the action who
of pleasure as the only defensible truth makes the moral choices, not even on the act
pertaining to morality. itself that carries the decisions, but on the
consequences of the action.
Higher Pleasures - these are intellectual and
moral pleasures, derived from activities like • The greatest happiness principle is the
learning, art appreciation and moral actions. principle of utility which states, "Action is best
when it produces the greatest happiness for
Lower Pleasures – these are primarily sensual the greatest number," (Price, 2000).
pleasures, like eating or drinking.
• As an ethical philosophy, Utilitarianism holds
- His analytical mind was seen when he asked, that the happiness of the majority of people is
"Is it better to be a human being miserable than the greatest good.
a pig satisfied?"
Mill, cognizant that this question lay at the root •John Stuart Mill further discussed that pain
of the matter, answered it positively saying, "I and pleasures are objectively immeasurable,
would rather be a pig satisfied than Socrates (a thus, we just rely on our experiences to
human being) dissatisfied“ determine the level of pain and suffering that
we can and cannot endure.
•Mill likewise emphasized that concept of 4. AGGREGATION - the last aspect of
altruism or selflessness, which indicates that Utilitarianism that states that the rightness and
utilitarian morality must recognize that human wrongness of an actions depends on the ability
beings have the power to sacrifice their own to bring happiness to everybody.
pleasures and happiness for the good of
others. JUSTICE & FAIRNESS: PROMOTING THE
COMMON GOOD
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE THEORY:
“Justice as Fairness: Political not
• It was John Stuart Mill who coined the term Metaphysical” is an essay by John Rawls,
"Utilitarianism " published in 1995.

•Mill started by holding that human beings are Fairness is the quality of making judgement
social by nature, and thus, his primary desire is that are free from discrimination.
to be united with others which is considered as
good. Justice is that fairness is about having proper
perspective and justice is about having the
• Vaughn (2008) states: "The action is right if right thing done.
brings out the greatest amount of happiness for
the greatest number of people." John Rawls (1999) argues that justice is the
most important virtue of social institutions, just
According to Mill, education is a means for as truth is for systems of thought.
people to learn skill needed to be productive
citizens, and eventually to become effective
workers who can promote dignified and healthy
living. Social justice is concerned with the equitable
distribution of rights, duties, and advantages
BUSSINESS' FASCINATION WITH within society’s major institutions.
UTILITARIANISM
According to Rawls, justice exists when
•Utilitarianism, due to its moral formulation, has these institutions provide legal protection and
become very relevant and actually one of the ensure that every family can live decently with
most influential moral theories in history. their freedoms protected.

•The influence of this principle is likewise Rawls’ two principles of justice are stated
observed in business and industry. as follows:

4 Aspects of Utilitarianism 1. Each person has an equal claim to fully

adequate scheme for all; and,
1. CONSEQUENTIALISM - the aspect that
determines the wrongness and rightness of an 2. Social and economic inequalities are to
action based on the outcomes or result of the satisfy two conditions:
action.
3. they are to be attached to positions and
2. WELFARISM - is the aspect of Utilitarianism offices open to al under conditions of fair
which determines the rightness and wrongness equality of opportunity, and
of actions of business operations on society's
concept of welfare or well-being. 4. They are to be the greatest benefit of the
least advantaged members of society or also
3. INDIVIDUAISM - is focused on the individual known as the Difference Principle.
whose behavior of expected to gear towards
actions that will bring him happiness.
Veil of Ignorance is made clear through two DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
general rules such as: equality in the
assignment of basic rights and duties, and that, • He was born on 1724 AD
social and economic inequalities are just only if
they produce compensating benefits for • He is one of the most influential philosophers
everyone particularly the least advantaged. in the history of western philosophy.

A. Nature of the Theory • His nationality was Prussian.

The passage establishes that justice is • One of his major work: The groundwork of the
considered more significant than fairness. It Metaphysics of morals.
explains that because justice and fairness are
applicable to numerous aspects of society • He has contributed to he metaphysics,
(legal systems, individual actions, etc.), they epistemology, ethics and aesthetics.
are treated separately in this module.
• He died in 1804
B. Distributive Justice
IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)
Distributive justice (also called
economic justice) is described as fairness in • Immanuel Kant is a German philosopher of
the distribution of goods and attention. the modern era, is known primarily because of
his Critique of Practical Reason, which
becomes the foundation of his moral
philosophy.

1. Egalitarianism
• He categorically rejects the role of feelings in
It is defined as ideology, principle or our act of discernment between good and evil.
doctrine referring to equal rights, benefits, and Kantian Ethics states that man’s pursuit for
opportunities or equal treatment for all citizens good is an act that has end in itself.
of society.
• Kant promotes that the only good will is
2. Capitalism intrinsically good, and that this good is freely
chosen. Doing good is not a human inclination
It is defined as an economic system in based on feeling which drives us to choose our
which trade, industry, and the means of actions.
production are controlled by private owners
with the goal of making profits in a market • Acting morally based on duty must be
company. understood whether an act that is done “from
the motive of duty” or an act done “in
3. Socialism accordance to duty”. Which is moral act?.

It is defined as a system or theory of KANT’S DEONTOLOGY:

social organization that advocates the vesting
of the ownership and control of the means of • Deontology: Morality is concerned with doing
production and distribution, of capital, land, etc. action that fulfill one’s moral duty, disinterested
(in Marxist theory) the stage following in personal gain of any kind. (Immanuel Kant,
capitalism in the transition of a society to 1724-1804 AD)
communism, characterized by the imperfect
implementation of collectivist principles. • Deon means Duty.
• According to Kant, moral or ethical duties are citing Glenn, defines right as, objectively taken,
understood by reason which everyone has anything which is owed or due.
founded upon one “Categorical Imperative”
• Taken subjectively, that is, as residing in a
• Categorical Imperative is also known as person, right is a moral power, bound to be
Universal Obligation. respected by others, of doing, possessing, or
acquiring something. Agapay further states that
• Morals are universal duties. right is founded upon law, either natural law or
human positive laws are derived ultimately
WHAT IS GOOD WILL? from the eternal law, then rights are also
founded on eternal law.
• Good will is not just the source of intrinsic
good, it is actually intrinsically good. As such, A. LEGAL RIGHTS
all concepts of good as well as the concept of
happiness must be related to good will. Legal rights are inclusive in the sets of human
Affirming this is denying other ethicists’ point of rights enacted as human positive laws, either
view that happiness is the summum bonum or by the state or by the church (religious sect.)
the highest good, nor happiness is based on those enacted by the church define our
the practical uses of an object, etc. for Kant, ecclesiastical or religious rights. Examples of
happiness is meaningless if not combined with legal rights are: the right to form associations,
good will. the right to legal due process, etc., while
examples of ecclesiastical right are: the right to
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE worship, the right to understand one’s faith, etc.

• To understand kant’s categorical imperative, B. MORAL RIGHTS

it is good to look into its difference from
hypothetical imperative. Manebog et al. write Moral rights oblique us to seek ways to
about hypothetical and categorical imperatives improve the outcomes of our actions. Even
as, “if you want to attain a certain end, act in without written laws, there is, within us, a
such-and-such a way,” and “No matter what capacity to discern the good to be done and
end you desire to attain, act in such-and-such a the evil to be avoided.
way.”

• Categorical imperative is achieved on its own A. GLOBALIZATION AND PLURALISM: NEW

merits. Kantian Ethics emphasizes the CHALLENGES TO ETHICS
existence of rules which determine man’s
moral status, thus, a person who follows these
ordained rules are considered moral. Our society is changing rapidly
because of the new technologies
• Universalizability” is a famous formulation of
experienced by the people made
Kant’s categorical imperative. It means that a
person is ought always to behave as if his by the fast-changing generations.
course of conduct were to become a universal GLOBALIZATION
code of behaviour or considered as universal
law. Another formulation of Kant’s categorical It is the increasingly, closer integration of
imperative is the “end-in-itself”. countries and people of the world brought
about by the enormous reduction of
DIFFERENT KINDS OF RIGHT (RIGHT transportation and communication costs and
THEORISTS) the breakdown of barriers to the flow of goods,
services, capital and knowledge.
• Man is born with rights. This is an attribute
that the only persons posses. Agapay (1991)
Globally, every business is on a wild race to Sedrak (2012) believe that millennials need
acquire more and more, mostly by short cut constant feedback and when feedback is not
means. In the process of acquisition they are provided, they will interpret their work as
doing the things which are not acceptable by unsatisfactory. The continuous need for
society. This brings out the need of Ethics in feedback can cause surprise and frustration in
business. Ethics is an everyday occurrence in an organization (Cahill & Sedrak, 2012).
as one’s personal life as well as in corporate
c. THE RELIGIOUS RESPONSE: The Role of
world. Business ethics examines ethical
Religion in Ethics
principles and moral or ethical problems that
arise in a business environment. Due to the Religion is one of the more frequently
globalization of markets and production mentioned determinants of the moral values
processes, an increasing number of marketers that underpin ethical standards. The major
and business organizations have to deal with world religions have moral teachings and in
ethical issues in cross-cultural settings. various ways indicate disapproval of unethical
actions. Most of them teach that an omniscient
God observes human actions and holds people
2. Pluralism is not diversity alone, but the accountable for their actions. Therefore, it is
energetic engagement with diversity. logical to assume that adherents to a religion
Diversity can and has meant the would be less tolerant of unethical behavior
creation of religious ghettoes with little (Clark & Dawnson, 1996).
traffic between or among them. 2.
According to Soraj Hongladarom of
Pluralism is not just tolerance, but the
Chulalongkorn University (2017) religion does
active seeking of understanding across
have a role to play in developing a sense of
lines of difference.
ethics, but it is rather limited. This is because
religions tend not to emphasize the role of
critical and independent thinking which is
3. Pluralism is not relativism, but the
important in developing a sense of ethical
encounter of commitments.
responsibility. What religions tend to do is to
give a list of’do’s’ and’don’ts’ that the faithfuls
need to follow But it does not provide much
4. Pluralism is based on dialogue. The explanation as to why these rules should be
language of pluralism is that of dialogue followed.
and encounter, give and take, criticism
and self-criticism. A different perception from different people’s
judgment only emphasizes that religions can
TECHNOLOGY help somewhat as a guide, but in the end we
The use of technology has also provided a must think for ourselves in which we should
negative value in the millennial generation develop the ability to justify things and weigh
because they now expect to have instant what’s right aligned on our beliefs.
everything (Behrens, 2009; Cahill & Sedrak,
2012). With internet speed providing instant
access to any answer, this generation now
expects to have instant answers and instant
feedback.
FEEDBACK
Feedback is something practitioners found to
be a negative value in Millennials. Cahill and