FPE101

Fundamentals of Peace Education

Mindanao State University

College of Business Administration and Accountancy
Department of Marketing
Marawi City

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 1: Concept of Conflict

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. define orally what conflict is; and
2. understand and explain the nature of conflict.

To be human is to interact with – to affect and be affected by – other human beings

everyday of our lives. And to interact with others is, to some extent at least, to be in conflict with
them. Although all people are alike in certain respects, no person is exactly like any other in every
aspect (Ranney, 2001). Humans have diverse beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and interests owing to
dissimilarities in experiences and context. Sometimes, these differences create tensions which may
consequently lead to conflicts. Conflict is an inescapable fact of life. If improperly handled, it can
have undesirable results. In the larger setting, many conflict have become violent which have
resulted in the loss of lives, destruction of property, disruption of economic and cultural activities,
disruption in the delivery of socio-economic services, exploitation of civilians especially women
and children, and economic losses, among others. In the interpersonal ground, conflicts have
caused anguish and stress among disputants. Unmanaged conflicts have also caused relationships
to break down (Castro and Galace, 2010).

What is Conflict?
The word “conflict” comes from the Latin word conflictus, which means collision or clash
(Marsh et al. 2015). The table below contains the most recognized definitions of conflict.
Definition Key Terms Author
… it is a struggle between Struggle (Coser, 1956)
opponents over values and Opposition
claims to scarce status, power Scarcity
and resources.
… is a dynamic process in Structure (Galtung, 1969)
which structure, attitudes and Attitude
behaviors are constantly Behavior
changing and influencing one
another.
… takes place whenever Incompatibility (Deutsch, 1973)
incompatible activities occur. Interference

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

 One party is interfering, Effectiveness
disrupting, obstructing, or in
some other way making
another party’s actions less
effective.
… is a process in which two or Goals (Wall, 1985)
more parties attempt to Interdependence
frustrate the attainment of the Perceptions
other’s goals. The factors
underlying conflict are
threefold: interdependence,
differences in goals, and
differences in perceptions.
… is a perceived divergence Interests (Pruitt and Rubin, 1986)
of interest, or a belief that the Aspirations
parties’ current aspirations Beliefs
cannot be achieved
simultaneously.
… are communicative Communication (Conrad, 1991)
interactions amongst people Interdependence
who are interdependent and Tension
who perceive that their
interests are incompatible,
inconsistent or in tension.
… is an interaction between Interaction (Glasl, 1994)
actors (individuals, groups, Incompatibility
organizations, etc.) where at Impairment
least one actor senses
incompatibilities between
their thinking, imagination,
perception, and/or feeling, and
those of the others.
This table is adapted from Gregg Walker’s table providing a selection of definition of conflict.

Conflict is part of human nature. It is a fact of human life, it is inevitable, and often creative
(CPCS Lectures, 2018). Accordingly, we all find that to some extent we are in competition with
our fellow beings. As we live in our daily lives and try to enter the college of our choice, study
what interests us, and then find a good job, we discover that others also want those good things
and that not everyone attain equal success in getting them. That is true of even most lofty aims:
We all want a better, more just world, but we do not agree on the best way to achieve it. We all
strive to achieve our goals in many ways. We work and rest, study and practice, speak and
demonstrate, vote and not vote, tell the truth and lie, obey the rules and break them. However, we
strive in competition with others who pursue different goals or the same goals in different ways.

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Conflict then is an essential and inescapable consequence of the fact that people live together in
societies and not in isolation from one another. (Ranney, 2001).

Reference
MSU Fundamentals of Peace Education Manual

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 2: Concept vs. Violence

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. differentiate conflict and violence;
2. understand that conflict does not always resort to violence; and
3. realize that conflict is not always a bad thing and that good things come out of conflict.

What is the difference between conflict and violence?

On one hand, conflict is an expression of our difference, of diversity or a manifestation
of our needs or rights as having been suppressed. Conflict is neither good nor bad. How we respond
or deal with conflict (attitude and behavior to a conflict situation) will color the consequences as
either good or bad. On the other hand, violence is response to conflict, an extreme response to
conflict. Violence is any physical, emotional, verbal, institutional or structural action, behavior,
attitude, policy or condition that aims to diminish, dominate or destroy ourselves and others
(Nordien).
Another difference is, conflict can be both positive and negative but a violent act is
intended to be negative and destructive. Further, a conflict can lead to violent acts, but on the other
hand, a constructive conflict invites the co-creation of some new and creative solutions (Shah,
2017).
Moreover, violence is “control over”. It is power over another person: do this or else.
Violence demeans others’ individual sovereignty – their right to govern themselves and make their
own choices. Even if you reach some understanding after a violent incident, trust is usually broken,
some disconnection arises. Violence is always destructive. On the other hand, conflict, especially
constructive conflict, offers a positive possibility. Constructive conflict invites the co-creation of
some new solution. It has the potential for “creation with” rather than “power over.” Constructive
conflict requires both self-confidence and respect for the other’s intrinsic worth. Violence to
another is an unconditional rejection to the other person’s very being and autonomy. Constructive
conflict resolution is unconditional respect and acceptance of a person (Christine, 2016).

What are the benefits of a conflict?

According to Sherrie Campbell, a psychologist, the most innovative solutions often arise
out of conflict. Below are the ten (10) benefits of conflict.

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

 1. Opens our eyes to new ideas.
As thoughts are expressed back and forth, we allow someone else to fine-tune the
truth we are communicating, as our perspective becomes further shaped against theirs.
Conflict is incredibly useful as a creative, fine-tuning instrument to our own ideas. Hearing
another person’s perception helps to mold and clarify our own; either making us more
enlightened and committed to our original position, or the conflict will open our eyes to
new perspectives on our ideas. Conflict is an effective vehicle for the generation of new
solutions, gaining trust and developing deeper agreements; all of which are great for
networking, bonding and establishing successful connections.
2. Opportunity to verbalize needs.
Most people do not get what they want because they do not say what they want.
Conflict provides an opportunity to verbalize our needs to get them met. Conflict,
confrontation and/or speaking up make us more resilient and less fearful when asking for
what is needed.
3. Teaches flexibility.
If we are in conflict, we are not only going to have others adjusting to us and our
perspectives, but we will also be adjusting to others and their perspectives. Humility and
openness are two admirable qualities that come from conflict. We have to discipline
ourselves to not always have to be right. If we need to be right, we make another wrong,
and we come to be viewed as disagreeable, controlling, fragile and egotistical, none of
which are qualities of a good leader. They are the makings of a spoiled brat or bigot. The
more open and flexible we can be, the better a reputation we develop for being fair and
intelligent.
4. Teaches us to listen.
The key to any successful conflict resolution is the ability to listen. Most are so
focused on litigation they have zero ability to listen; their only desire is to win. Successful
relationships and/or negotiations cannot be forged with defensive, dominating people.
Listening takes patience and the discipline to control our impulses to speak. It takes being
able to put ourselves and our thoughts aside so we can fully take another perspective in. to
truly listen to someone, listening must be active, not passive. Listening gives us access to
the information we need to make smart and lucrative decisions.
5. Teaches us patterns of behavior.
As we engage in conflict, we learn about how others work, their style of
communication, and their points of view. Knowing patterns helps us to be more effective
in our relationships as they provide some level of predictability. Predictability is effective
when strategizing in negotiations. When we listen, we get to know how people think and
we gain insight into how they operate. This knowledge helps us define and work within
their patterns, allowing us to respect limits and to predict where and when we can push

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 without being offensive and still get the deal done. Knowing patterns makes us more
prepared and confident when dealing with any type of uncertainty or disagreement.
6. Leads to solutions.
When structures or agreements that are in place are no longer working, something
new has to come into play. Change is hard. It creates discomfort and we naturally want to
hang on to what once worked even when it’s clearly outdated and in need of upgrading. To
be successful all things need to be in the process of being “in development.” Conflict is the
backdoor to reinvention and innovation.
7. Practice communication skills.
Communication is a skill that requires self-control, patience and intelligence. It
requires that we be real and authentic. If we back down from conflict we end up being
disingenuous. We end up not communicating our perspective out of some form of fear.
Conflict is hard for everyone, yet the more we engage in conflict the better a communicator
we become. This is not to say we should go out and create conflict, but the intention is not
to be afraid to participate in conflict when it arises. Deal with it and be open to the element
of surprise.
8. Helps us to set limits.
People need to know where we start and they stop. Conflict is the perfect place to
set limits and make new agreements which fall in line with the respect and integrity of all
involved. Without respect and mutuality, successful connections cannot develop or
flourish. As we communicate needs and boundaries, we allow others to learn a great deal
about us and how we work. We also learn a lot about ourselves, making us that much more
successful. Conflict teaches us when to back off and when to activate for ourselves by
asking someone else to back off.
9. Practice emotional control.
We do not have to be so emotional all the time. If we want to be taken seriously,
we must approach conflict seriously. We must learn to remain calm and to use the least
amount of words to get our point across, all the while remaining firm and flexible when
setting our way. Perseverance and self-control are the keys to successful conflict
resolutions. When we are in control of ourselves people can better relate to us, count on us,
and trust our intentions.
10. Allows us to differentiate ourselves.
We can learn a great deal about who we are through the differences we have with
other people. This is called differentiation. Differentiation is our capacity to tell our truth
and perspective as clearly as we see it, all the while remaining engaged with those who
believe differently from us. Conflict provides us the opportunity to put a true representation
of ourselves out in the world. Speaking the truth about ourselves in the midst of
disagreement is the foundation of emotional health and successful communication. When
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 we speak the truth about who we are and what we believe, everyone in the conversation
will absorb and respond to our information. This allows others to adjust. These adjustments
are the successes realized or gained from conflict. The ultimate goal of conflict is
resolution.

Reference
MSU Fundamentals of Peace Education Manual

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 3: Levels of Conflict

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. identify the different levels of conflict; and
2. describe and differentiate the different levels of conflict.

There are different levels of conflict that we need to understand:

▪ Intrapersonal (within an individual)
▪ Interpersonal (between individuals)
▪ Intragroup (within a group)
▪ Intergroup (between groups)

A. Basic Types of Intrapersonal Approach

a. Approach-approach conflict an individual must choose among alternatives, each of
which is expected to have a positive outcome.
b. Avoidance-avoidance conflict in individual must choose among alternatives, each of
which is expected to have a negative outcome.
c. Approach-avoidance conflict an individual must decide whether to do something that
has both positive and negative outcomes.

B. Sources of Interpersonal Power

a. Reward power an individual’s ability to influence others’ behaviors by rewarding them.
b. Coercive power an individual’s ability to influence others’ behaviors by punishing
them.
c. Legitimate power a manager’s ability to influence subordinates’ behaviors because of
the manager’s formal position in the organization.
d. Expert power an individual’s ability to influence others’ behaviors because of
recognized competencies, talents, or specialized knowledge.

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

 e. Referent power an individual’s ability to influence others’ behaviors as a result of being
respected, admired, or liked.

Reference
MSU Fundamentals of Peace Education Manual

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 4: Causes of Conflict

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. discuss the causes of conflict as personal and structural dimension;
2. enumerate and classify the different causes of conflict, such as stereotype, prejudices,
discrimination, and oppression;
3. identify types of stereotype, prejudices, discrimination and oppression;
4. detect the cause or causes of a given conflict situation, such as different interpretations
of video clips, or exhibits, or gallery of posters or photos; and
5. identify mechanism in dealing with personal and structural dimension of conflict.

Causes of Conflict
Conflict is inevitable in human life. It can be discerned when people have a need that has
not been met. It can be constructive and destructive if it is not properly directed towards attainment
of the interest or goal.
Studying the causes of conflict is as important as finding solutions. It will provide
information on where to begin or where to focus when attempting to deal with conflict. The Danish
Centre for Conflict Transformation suggested the analysis of the dimensions of conflict. Most
conflict is embedded within personal and structural dimensions.
The personal dimension of conflict is considered as the root cause of many conflicts.
This is where people are driven by strong emotions and fears. The personal dimension includes
such notions as identity, loyalties, rejection and self-esteem. “Do people recognize my worth?”,
“Am I being left out?”
There are conflicts over psychological needs: Such needs may be power, friendship,
belonging, styles of preferences, means rather than ends, methods, wants, misrepresentation, goals,
feelings, or unmet personal need. Clashes over such needs are often played out over material
things. These conflicts are mostly unclear, intertwined with values and resources and therefore
difficult to deal with.
Human needs are an integral part of human beings; they are basic requirements for human
development; inherent drives for survival and development and a powerful source to explain the
motivation for individual behavior and social interaction. Basic human needs are universal. All
people of all times, race, and culture share the same fundamental basic or biological needs: food,
water and shelter. The other categories of needs are psychological or relate to personal growth and

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

development. They are sometimes described as the more complex needs for safety, security, self-
esteem and personal fulfillment. These needs center on the capacity to exercise choices in all
aspects of one’s life; they describe the desire to have one’s identity and cultural values accepted
as legitimate and explain the wish to be granted the ability to participate in civil society and be
subject to distribute justice.
Human needs are associated with the fundamental drive in human beings. All individuals
strive to satisfy their immediate needs as their satisfaction leads to healthier and more capable
human beings. When felt needs are not met, this may result in a deep sense of frustration coupled
with a strong drive towards meeting them.
Unmet needs bear the potential to lead the individual into conflict. The inability to satisfy
the immediate human needs of the population can lead to instability and forced change. Many
ongoing national or regional conflicts are caused by the lack of satisfaction of fundamental human
needs such as food, water and shelter.
Personal causes of conflicts are intrinsically linked with cultural values. These include:
ideology, religion, moral, aesthetic and political values. These values are something that you are
willing to fight for. They define what is right and wrong, what one can or cannot do. Conflicts that
escalate are often embedded in either the dimension of value or the personal dimension as these
dimensions are non-negotiable. The goal is to reach a greater understanding of the other party’s
position. When one understands the reasons and background for another person’s values, they are
much easier to accept or tolerate. The way to deal with conflicts of a value oriented nature is
through open dialogue, appreciative inquiry, and non-violent communication.
Challenges to our values are challenges to our very selves. We respond to them with the
most deep-seated defensiveness. In the midst of conflict that involve value differences, it is most
difficult to abandon old patterns and choose to make new responses. Often, a mutual
acknowledgment that each person perceives the immediate situation very differently creates a
climate for change.
Value conflicts arise over ideological differences in what individuals, groups, parties or
organizations believe in as paramount or sacred to their existence. Values cannot be compromised,
but they might change over time due to various influences. Value conflicts arise over how goals
are achieved, or/and about their nature or priorities. Actual or perceived differences in value do
not necessarily lead to conflict. It is only when values are imposed on individuals or groups and
these people are prevented from upholding their previous value systems that conflict arises. Value
conflicts and religious conflicts in particular are often intertwined with other types of conflicts.
Deep felt feelings and beliefs of people are in such cases abused to blur underlying power or
economic interests.
In reality, personal dimensions are always intertwined with other dimensions. When two
colleagues are in conflict over an office space it may seem like an instrumental conflict, but at the
same time it may be rooted in interests and a fight for what one party considers justice, power or
the need to be recognized.

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 On the other hand, the structural dimension of conflict surrounds or encompasses the
other causes of conflict. This is external framework that live and work under. This includes
legislation, ownership and organizational structure. The structural dimension is not alterable
directly by conflict resolution between conflicting parties, but the work done dealing with a
specific conflict may illuminate areas of the structural dimension that need attention in order to
prevent future conflicts. The courses of action available when dealing with conflicts weighted in
the structural dimension are, for example, to influence decision makers through grass root
movements or the use of other such democratic rights.
Structural conflict is caused by unequal or unfair distribution of power and resources.
Time constraints, destructive patterns of interaction, and unfavorable geographical or
environmental factors contribute to structural conflict.
Example: Illegitimate government, lack of political participation, lack of equal economic
and social opportunities, poor governance, inequality in access to natural resources, etc.

Illustration of the Causes and Emergence of Conflicts: Sequence of events

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Different causes of conflict

1. Stereotype
Stereotype refers to the negative opinion about a person or group based on
incomplete knowledge. It is a false or misleading generalizations about groups held in a
manner that renders them largely, though not entirely, immune to counter evidence (Blum,
2004).
Types of Stereotypes (Emily Ramirez, 2017)
a. Religious Stereotypes. Stereotypes are formed about the values and
customs in minority religions. As most of society does not practice or
share these values, all who profess that religion are criticized.
b. Political stereotypes
c. Racial stereotypes
d. Class stereotypes
e. Country stereotypes
f. Gender stereotypes
g. Sex stereotypes
h. Physical stereotypes

The bad in all stereotypes:

➢ Not Seeing Members of Stereotyped Groups as Individuals.
➢ Blind to Internal Variety of Stereotyped Group.
➢ Moral Distancing.

Differential Badness of Stereotypes Dependent on their Content

➢ Explicit content of stereotypes
➢ Historical Associations and Cultural
➢ Meaning of Stereotype Content

The best known way to change people’s stereotypes is to continually provide new
information in different ways that contradict the stereotype and promote intergroup contact
(Pettigrew, 1997). It has been demonstrated that when people have stereotypes of an
outgroup, one way to eliminate these beliefs is to expose them to various members of the
outgroup in positive social contexts for an extended period of time. This may provide the
person with new information about the outgroup that does not typify the stereotype, and
may even contradict the stereotype completely.

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 2. Prejudice
Prejudice is the negative feeling or attitude towards a person r a group even if it lacks
basis (Allport, 1958). It is an opinion, usually negative, that is not founded on experience or
reason. Prejudice was simply equated with racism. However, over time it was realized that
there were other forms of prejudice. Thus the concept of prejudice has expanded.

Types of Prejudice
▪ Racism – the belief that one’s own cultural or racial heritage is innately superior
to that of others, hence, the lack of respect or appreciation for those who belong
to a “different race”

▪ Sexism – a system of attitudes, actions and institutional structures that

subordinates women on the basis of their sex (Mcginnis & Oehlberg, 1991).

▪ Heterosexism – negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.

▪ Classism – distancing from and perceiving the poor as “the other” (Lott, 1995).

▪ Linguicism – negative attitudes members of dominant language groups hold

against non-dominant language groups (Chen-Hayes, Chen & Athar, n.d.).

▪ Ageism – negative attitudes held against the young or the elderly.

▪ “Looksism” – prejudice against those who do not measure up to set standards

of beauty. The usual victims are the overweight, the undersized, and the dark-
skinned (Nario-Galace, 2003).

▪ Religious intolerance – prejudice against those who are followers of religions

other than one’s own.

3. Discrimination
Discrimination refers to negative actions toward members of a specific social group
that may be manifested in avoidance, aversion or even violence (Franzoi, 1986). Thus,
stereotypes, being negative beliefs about a group, can form the basis for prejudicial
feelings, which, in turn, may lead to negative action or to discrimination.
Discrimination is the act of making distinction between human beings or social
groups, either by action or omission with derogatory, exclusive or negative meaning and
that leads to inequality of opportunities. It is an act of abuse and injustice that violates the
right to equality (Prescott, 2017).
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 Prescott posted 18 common types of Discrimination: The most common are racism,
xenophobia, homophobia or the different forms of machismo. Other discrimination are
discrimination by nationality or ethnic origin, based on sexual orientation, discrimination
by gender, age, culture, social class, wage, religious, linguistic, ideology, discrimination
against women at work, maternity discrimination, and also discrimination at school, in
school organization, in economic distribution, and discrimination due to disability or
illness.

Laws on Discrimination
✓ Discrimination Act of 1991
✓ Convention on the Elimination of all forms of violence against women
(CEDAW)

4. Oppression
Oppression is described as exercise of tyranny by a ruling group. It is when people
reduce the potential for other people to be fully human by treating badly, denying people
language, education, and other opportunities that might make them become fully human in
both mind and body. It can be the result of a few people’s choices or policies that cause
embedded unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols. These societal rules can become a
restrictive structure of forces and barriers that immobilize and reduce a group or category
of people.

5 Types of Oppression (Irish Young)

a. Exploitation. It is the act of using people’s labors to produce profit while not
compensating then fairly. People who work in sweat shops are exploited.
Although they are paid for their efforts and toils, they are not paid a fair wage
considering how much money they make for the company. Miners in Africa are
also exploited when they have to rent their mining tools every day. If these
miners find nothing of value on any given day, then they owe for the supply
rental and are not paid for their efforts.

b. Marginalization. It is the act of relegating or confining a group of people to a

lower social standing or outer limit or edge of society. Overall, it is a process
of exclusion. Marginalization is in some ways worse than exploitation because
society has decided that it cannot or will not use these people even for labor.
Most commonly, people are marginalized based upon race. One prominent
example is the Aboriginal communities of Australia that were excluded from
society and pushed farther away from their homelands as cities grew. The

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 marginalization of Aborigines happened when society met the needs of white
people and not the needs of the marginalized themselves. Thus, marginalization
is closely linked to the idea of whiteness.

c. Powerlessness. The idea of powerlessness links to Marx’s theory of socialism:

some people “have” power while others “have-not”. The powerless are
dominated by the ruling class and are situated to take orders and rarely have the
right to give them. Some of the fundamental injustices associated with
powerlessness are inhibition to develop one’s capacities, lack of decision
making power, and exposure to disrespectful treatment because of the lowered
status.

In the U.S., the powerless do not participate in basic democratic processes

because they feel that they can’t or that their participation won’t mean anything.
In most cases, it means not voting or participating in any decision making
process.

d. Cultural Imperialism. It involves taking the culture of the ruling class and
establishing it as the norm. the groups that have power in society control how
the people in that society interpret and communicate. Therefore, the beliefs of
that society are the most widely disseminated and express the experience,
values, goals and achievements of these groups. American culture is built upon
the Judeo-Christian belief systems coupled with an Anglo culture derived from
Britain. As a result, America’s fundamental beliefs and values are the same as
Christian beliefs and values and Anglicized/White beliefs and values. While
America does not have an official language, it is no surprise that English is the
dominant language and other languages are looked down upon.

e. Violence. It is most obvious and visible form of oppression. Members of some

groups live with the knowledge that they must fear random, unprovoked attacks
on their persons or property. These attacks do not necessarily need a motive but
are intended to damage, humiliate, or destroy the person. In American society,
women, Blacks, Asians, Arabs, gay men, and lesbian live under such threats of
violence. And in at least some regions, Jews, Puerto Ricans, Chicanos, and other
Spanish-speaking Americans must fear violence as well. All forms of sexual
violence and hate crimes are prevalent examples of violent oppression. Most, if
not all, violent oppression is the direct result of xenophobia (an intense and
irrational fear of people, ideas, or customs that seem strange or foreign).

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Other Causes of Conflict
1. Misunderstanding, misperception and miscommunication. Conflict may arise when
there is a mistake in one’s comprehension of an intention or when there is incorrect
interpretation of another’s statement or actions. Conflict may also arise when there is a
failure to transmit ideas or intentions successfully.

2. Gaps between expectations and results. Conflict may arise when what is hoped for is
not delivered or what is being anticipated did not materialize.

3. Incompatibility of ideas, opinions, and beliefs. Conflict may arise when one’s ideas,
beliefs and opinions are contrary or opposed to another.

4. Incompatibility of values and practice. Many times differences in values and practices
emanating from cultural differences produce tensions.

5. Competition over material resources. Conflict may arise when parties want to own or
control the same material resource.

6. Desire for revenge. The desire to get back may cause conflict.

7. Need for attention and appreciation. Attention withdrawn or not given, especially if
desired, may cause conflict.

8. Unacceptable Attitudes and Behaviors.

▪ Arrogance and coercion

▪ Intolerance
▪ Self-centeredness and pride
▪ Meddling
▪ Lying and cheating
▪ Nagging
▪ Defamation/ “Character assassination”

Dealing with Personal and Structural Dimensions of Conflict

Nonviolent Direct Action
Nonviolent action refers to efforts to persuade with action via methods of protest,
noncooperation and intervention without using physical violence.

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 Nonviolent direct action seeks to create a situation that would liberate victims from
silence and helplessness. This was evident, for example, in Chile where people, for years,
suffered in silence. Nonviolent direct action allowed them all – men, women and children
– to participate in efforts to overthrow a dictatorial regime.
Nonviolent direct action also seeks to gain attention, and consequently, support
from the larger community. People from around the world, for example, were bothered to
see Hindus whipped to the ground by the army serving the British government without the
former hitting back. Protests from the world community hastened the granting of
independence by the British government to India.
Gene Sharp (2005) has identified 198 methods of nonviolent action. Below are
some examples of said methods, many of which were used time and again in various
nonviolent struggles around the world.
▪ Nonviolent Protest and Persuasion. It seeks to produce awareness of the
dissent. e.g. petitions, banners, posters, lobbying, prayer rallies, vigils, etc.
▪ Nonviolent noncooperation. It presents the opponent difficulties in
maintaining the normal operation of the system. e.g. consumer’s boycott,
general strike, civil disobedience.
▪ Nonviolent intervention. It challenges the opponents more directly.

The end goal of a nonviolent struggle is change. Gene Sharp (2005) identifies four
mechanisms of change:
1. Conversion – the opponent comes around to a new point of view which
embraces the end of the nonviolent actionists.
2. Accommodation – the opponent is not converted but has concluded that it is
best to agree on some or all of the demands.
3. Nonviolent coercion – the opponent wants to continue with the struggle but is
unable to do so because the sources of his power have been removed.
4. Disintegration – the opponent’s power has been simply dissolved.

Tolerance
Tolerance is the respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of
cultures and various forms of human expression (UNESCO, 1995). It is the foundation of
democracy and human rights. Education for tolerance aims to counter influences that lead
to fear, aversion towards, and exclusion of, others. Tolerance recognizes that others have
the right to be who they are.
Why teach tolerance? UNESCO asserts that education is the most effective means
of preventing intolerance. There is a need for schools to educate citizens who are

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 appreciative of other cultures, respectful of human dignity and differences, and able to
prevent or resolve conflicts amicably.

Here are some ways to teach and learn tolerance:

• Examine your own biases. In the classroom, do you give more favorable attention
to students who are physically or socio-economically advantaged?

• Use inclusive and/or non-discriminating languages shapes consciousness (e.g., use

“human” instead of “man”, “Blacks” instead of “Negroes”, “elderly” instead of
“old”, and “heavy” instead of “fat”, among others).

• Give appropriate attention and treat each student fairly regardless of sex or socio-
economic status, among others. Examine yourself if you are inclined to give more
compliments to those who are more physically attractive, and so on.

• Highlight the thought that diversity is enriching. Differences should be celebrated,

not scorned, as we learn a lot of new things from one another. Any analogy would
be the fruit salad which is so delicious even if it is made up of different fruits that
come in various flavors and colors.

• Show a variety of racial and physical features in our teaching aids as well as in our
classroom decorations.

• Know where our students are. Allow them to reflect on their views about
differences. Below are some insights offered by Stern-LaRosa and Betmann (2000)
and by the Teaching Tolerance Project (1991). Ask your students to write their
thoughts after each statement.

o It is not fair to form an opinion based solely on what we see. The color of
one’s skin has nothing to do with what is in one’s heart.

o It is okay to make friends based upon legitimate standards but not on

characteristics over which a person has no control. “Can someone change
the color of his/her skin? “Does the texture of hair, for example, have
anything to do with being a good friend?”

o It is important to see people as individuals rather than as members of an

offending group.

o Healthy self-concepts can neither be developed nor sustained through the

devaluation of others.

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 5: ABC of Conflict

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. discuss the ABC of conflict;
2. identify the cause or causes of such conflict using ABC; and
3. analyze conflict using ABC.

ABC of Conflict
Conflict analysis is the process of examining and understanding the reality of a conflict
from various perspectives. It describes the systematic study of the profile, causes, actors, and
dynamics of conflict with the aim of gaining a thorough understanding of what is going on.
Without good conflict analysis, we cannot answer the questions that are the cornerstone of a
conflict-sensitive approach.
The ABC of conflict is a triangular assessment tool to identify three major components
of conflict such as the Attitude, Behavior and the Context or situation affecting the conflict.
In a conflict, the violent behavior we see has its roots in people’s attitudes and the
political-economic context. The ABC triangle is a simple framework for exploring the impact and
causes of conflict. You should complete one triangle for each of the major groups involved in the
conflict. The questions that can be asked using the triangle are:
1. How will our work be affected by the behaviors we have identified? Will it affect any
of the contextual factors that drive the conflict?

2. How will our staff and our work be perceived by each group, given the attitudes we
have identified? How can our work restore relationships by addressing negative
attitudes?

3. How can our work improve the contextual factors that are driving the conflict?

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

Below is the sample of ABC Conflict Analysis:

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 6: Conflict Tree Analysis

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. discuss the importance of analysing the causes of conflict;
2. discuss on how to analyse using conflict tree; and
3. make a conflict tree based on the perceived challenges affecting Mindanao.

Conflict Tree Analysis

The conflict tree is a graphic tool using the image of a tree to identify and sort key issues
in a conflict. The conflict tree offers a method for a team, organization or group to identify the
issues that each team sees as important in a specific situation: causes (roots), core problem (trunk),
effects (branches).
The conflict tree is a visualizing and sorting tool. The tree visualizes the interaction
between structural, manifest and dynamic factors. The roots symbolize structural “static” factors.
The trunk represents the manifest issues, linking structural factors with the dynamic factors. The
leaves moving in the wind represent the dynamic factors.
▪ Dynamic Factors: Dynamic factors include the form of communication,
escalation level, relationship aspects, etc. Working with dynamic factors
involves a short time horizon; reactions to interventions are quick and at times
unpredictable. Examples are diplomatic interventions, or multi-track conflict
transformation dealing directly with the form of interaction between the conflict
parties. Quick money is often more important than big money when addressing
dynamics factors.
▪ Manifest issues: Issues are what the conflict parties want to talk about, the
“topic” of the conflict.
▪ Structural Factors: Root causes are the basic “reason” of the conflict. They are
difficult to influence on a short time basis, if they are avoided, however, the
conflict may pop up again later. This is the typical area for developmental
cooperation, longer-term involvement and the prevention of structural violence
(Human Needs Theory).

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

 The purpose/goal of conflict tree is to stimulate discussions about causes and effects of
conflicts; help groups to achieve consensus on the core problem; assist groups in taking decisions
about priorities for addressing issues; and relate causes and effects of a conflict to each other.
Conflict tree is used with a group having difficulties in agreeing about the core problem
in their situation and with a group who needs to decide about which issues of the conflict to address
(priority).

Conflict Tree Analysis (Step by step instructions):

1. Draw a picture of a tree, including its roots, trunk and branches – on a large sheet of paper
or a flipchart.
2. Each person gets several index cards on which they write a word or two, or draw a symbol
or picture, indicating important factors of the conflict as they see it
3. Invite people to attach their cards to the tree: on the roots, if they see it as a root cause; on
the trunk, if they think it is a manifest issue; a “topic” of the conflict on the branches, if
they see it as a dynamic factor influencing the conflict.
4. Someone facilitates the discussion on where the factors are placed on the tree. There is no
absolute “right” or “wrong”. Placement of factors is partly subjective, may be different in
different conflicts, and may change over time. Nevertheless, try as a group to create a
common snap shot of the conflict as the group sees it.
5. People can visualize their own conflict transformation efforts (e.g. as a bird or worm) and
place this on the tree in relation to the factors they are currently working on.
6. Discuss the links between roots causes and dynamics factors and how to address these.

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Diagram of an Example of Conflict Tree:

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 7: Navigating the Sea of Mindanao Conflict to Find Peace

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. discuss the context of conflict and peace efforts in Mindanao;
2. discuss the importance of studying the context of conflict in forging peace; and
3. reflect on the protracted conflict and peace efforts towards lasting peace in Mindanao.

The Mindanao Peace and Conflict Timeline

The region of Mindanao is associated with the centuries old struggle of rebellion, poverty
and marginalization. Mindanao is also dubbed as the “land of promise” in the country and
continually unfolding its vast resources and its people for lasting peace and development. More
so, Mindanao is problematized from different paradigm. It is viewed as political and security
problem that has been defined as an insurgency and/or a secessionist movement led by certain
Muslim groups. It is compounded with political greed, relative deprivation, and exclusionary
political economy. And, it is considered as religious conflict between the Muslims who want to
establish a separate Islamic state and the Christians who want the Muslims to assimilate and be
part of the Philippine state (Lara, Jr. & Champain, 2009:12). These are challenges that have to
evolve into meaningful peaceful endeavor by reckoning historical events and nurturing learning
mechanism in crafting future decision towards transformative peace efforts.

A. Why the land of Promise?

▪ Land area of approximately 10.2 million hectares
▪ Population of roughly 20 Million
▪ Home of the tri-people:
a. 13 Islamized ethnic groups known as Moro people.
b. 18 Ethnic indigenous groups, the Lumad.
c. At least 9 ethnic groups from Luzon and Visayas, the migrants group.
▪ The Philippine economy depends on Mindanao for:
a. 25% of rice
b. 65% of cattle and tuna
c. More than 50% of corn, fish and chicken
d. 100% of pineapple, rubber and banana exports
e. 90% of plywood and lumber
f. 63% (1 billion metric tons) of RP’s nickel reserves

FPE101 I Fundamentals of Peace Education

 g. 48.3% (50.3 million metric tons) of gold reserves
h. 38.5% (2.6 million hectares) of forest
i. 38% (3.73 hectares) of farmlands
j. Yet, of the 20% poorest provinces in the Philippines (MBN index) including
the 13 Provinces in Mindanao including all the BARMM Provinces.

B. Historical Conflict and Peace Timeline in Mindanao

Time Period Event
I. Pre-Colonial Period
1280AD Advent of Islam in the Philippines
1450 Sultanate in Sulu established
1619 Sultanate in Maguindanao from the principalities of
Maguindanao and Buayan
II. The Colonization Period
1521-1898 Spanish Era
- Advent of Christianity in the Philippines
- Divide and conquer: Use of Christianized natives versus
the Moro
- Beginning of mutual prejudices, political and economic
control.
1636 Simuay Treaty between Maguindanao Sultan Kudarat and Spain
1645 Sulu-Spanish Treaty
1876 Destruction of the Sulu fleet by the Spaniards
1898 Treaty of Paris
1889-1945 American Regime
- War vs. the Moro
- The Public School System
- The Public Land Act
- Settlement Projects
- Agriculture Colonies
1902 Philippine Bill of July 1, 1902 where the American government
recognized the distinctions between the Moro, the ‘pagan’ and
the Christian Filipinos and adapted their methods of governance
accordingly
1903 Moro province recognized
1907 Agusan province recognized
1913 Act No. 2254 passed creating the Philippines Commission
creating agricultural colonies.
III. The Filipino Colonial Rule
1946-1971 The Philippine Republic
- More resettlement programs
- Land grabbing
- Moro and Lumad pushed further away

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 - Politics control of the settlers
- Subdivision of political territories
1972 The Marcos Dictatorship
- Massacres: Wao, Jabidah, etc.
- More settlements: More MNCs, more land grabbing
- Established the MNLF
- Martial Law
1972-1975 - Moro-Filipino war
1976 - The Tripoli Agreement: GPH and MNLF
1977 - Splinters of MNLF: Birth of the MILF
1986 onwards - Continued exploitation of Mindanao by the
Capitalist/elite
- Continuing marginalization of poor farmers, fisherfolks,
etc.
- Stereotyping/prejudices still exist
- Militarization of Mindanao still continues
- Presence of other armed groups
- Moro people’s demands for right self-determination
- Lumad claims for ancestral domain
- MILF-GRP talks volatile
- Culture of poverty still prevails
- Other social problems: illiteracy, unstable peace and
order.
1989 Organic Act for ARMM
1992 National Unification Commission
1996 Jakarta Agreement: the GPH and MNLF peace accord
1997 Creation of SPCPD
2000 President Estrada declared All-out-war. He was ousted in 2001.
2008 MOA-AD Agreement with MILF: Not signed because of TRO
released.
Selected war in Lanao provinces.

C. Highlights of the Peacebuilding in Mindanao

Tripoli Agreement with the MNLF on December 23, 1976: Marcos Administration
- Autonomy in 13 provinces and 9 cities
- Autonomous area were to be given the power to set-up Shari’ah courts, schools,
administrative systems, Special Regional Security Force, Legislative Assembly, and
Executive Council.

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Divided Autonomy, Proclamation 1628 on March 25, 1977 and Presidential Decree No. 1618
- Declared autonomy in 13 provinces
- Established a provisional government tasked to prepare for referendum
- Referendum in April 1977 resulted to 10 provinces approved autonomy and divided into
Regions IX and XII

1987 Constitution under Aquino Administration

- Aquino administration reopened negotiations with the MNLF but no peace agreement
- Enactment of RA 6734 or Organic Act for ARMM on August 1, 1989. Followed a
Plebiscite that resulted to only 4 Provinces under ARMM: Lanao del Sur, Maguidanao,
Sulu and Tawi-Tawi.

1996 Final Peace Agreement with the MNLF on September 2: Ramos Administration
- FVR reopened the peace negotiations with the MNLF in 1992
- Earlier on the Final Peace Agreement was to establish the Southern Philippines Council
for Peace and Development
- ARMM expansion: 14 provinces and 9 cities
- Foreign aid and International Development Assistance poured in Southern Philippines
e.g. United Nations, World Bank, USAID, JICA etc.

Exploratory talks with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF)

- Signed agreement on General Cessation of Hostilities
- Bilateral negotiations (domestic phase)

President Estrada Administration elected in 1998

Highlights: He declared All-out-war with the MILF in 2000.
: First ousted President in 2001.
: Gloria Macapagal took over as New President

2001-2010: Gloria Macapagal Administration crafted the Memorandum of Agreement on

Ancestral Domain (MOA-AD) but failed resulted to selected war in Mindanao.

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2010-2016: Benigno Aquino Administration
2014: Signed the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (CAB) but it needs
enactment from the Congress.

2016 to date: Rodrigo Duterte Administration

The 6-Point Peace and Development
1. Meaningful implementation of the CAB Peace Agreement with the MILF
towards healing in the Bangsamoro.
2. Completion of the implementation of remaining commitments under the GPH-
MNLF Peace Agreement.
3. Accelerated signing and the implementation of the final peace agreement with
the CPP/NPA/NDF.
4. Immediate conclusion of the peace processes with the CPLA and the RPMP-
RPA-ABB.
5. Implementation of peace promoting catch-up socio-economic development in
conflict affected area.
6. Building of a culture of peace and conflict sensitivity.

Recent (2018): Enactment of RA 11054 known as Bangsamoro Organic Law, formerly

known as Bangsamoro Basic Law.

The Challenges
▪ Is lasting peace possible?
▪ How can we truly live peacefully, coexist harmoniously with respect and tolerance?
▪ How can we overcome social and development barriers (injustices, poverty, health and
other problems?
▪ How to counter stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination and oppression?

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 8: Dimensions of Violence

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. define violence;
2. identify the different dimensions/types of violence; and
3. examine the impact of violence.

What is violence?
Violence understood as a process (not a static entity or a fixed structure) means that there
is a society. This also means that violence involves different practices, at different but coexisting
and interdependent levels.
Beyond physical violence, there is no consensus on what violence involves or when, if at
all, it is justified. Therefore the following statements do not present definitions, but offer some
thoughts about violence:
1. Violent behavior is defined as intentional physically aggressive behavior against
another person.

2. Violence is the expression of physical or verbal force against one or more people,
compelling action against one’s will on pain of being hurt. The word violence covers a
broad spectrum. It can vary from a physical clash/fight between two people to war and
genocide where millions may die as a result.

3. Violence is, without exception, a destructive power. Violence is a kind of power that
belittles, harms, destroys oneself or others. It is the failure to accept (appreciate) one’s
own and other’s dignity. It is greed for other people’s natural endowment
(characteristics, knowledge, wealth, values etc.), it is the desire to exploit and
overpower the other.

4. Violence is “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against
oneself, another person or against a group or community that either results in or has a
high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or
deprivation.”

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 5. Violence is an injury inflicted by deliberate means, which includes assault, as well as
legal intervention, and self-harm.

6. The understanding of violence is linked to a perceived aggressor-victim relationship:

people may not recognize defensive use of force as violent, even in cases where the
amount of force used is significantly greater than in the original aggression.

7. Worldwide, violence is used as a tool of manipulation.

8. Since violence is a matter of perception as well as a measurable phenomenon,

psychologists have found variability in whether people perceive certain physical acts
as ‘violent’.

9. Violence is sinful or unskillful, and non-violence is skillful or virtuous and should be

cultivated.

10. In more recent (… usage, the term violence has been moving more and more towards
being understood as physical violence. This statement is only valid, however, provided
that we interpret “violence” as an action that is linked to direct or physical force, as a
concept that is used to describe the actions of people that can be clearly identified. In
contrast to this, Karl Marx drew attention to the fact that violence itself can be founded
in social conditions and that they pervade in a manifest or latent way all political and
social relationships within certain states and social systems. Violence that cannot be
traced back to actions of concrete individuals and that has much more to do with the
totality of institutional violence within a society can be identified as structural violence.
From this point of view, the term violence is transformed from a concrete form of action
into a (society) structural principle.

11. Violence consists of action words, attitudes, structures or systems that cause physical,
psychological, social or environmental damage and/or prevent people from reaching
their full human potential.

12. Violence is anything avoidable that hinders human self-realization.

13. Racism tries to justify violence and therefore constructs de-valuing features and
characteristics to apparently legitimize the harming and injuring of human beings.

14. Violence is a harmful, damaging, destructive act. It always hides the question of its
justification. Every attempt to legitimize violence devalues other people and denies the
equal value and dignity of the human being.

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 15. Violence is often pursued as an antidote to shame or humiliation. The use of violence
often is a source of pride and a defense of honor, especially among males who often
believe violence defines manhood.

16. “Violence” as a definition of a social circumstance encompassing a range of action

possibilities should today be understood as a key concept for any discussion on war
and peace – because we define “war” as the use of organized military aggression
between different social groups and “peace” as the absence of war in a minimum
definition. Violence in this context, however, represents only one part of the wide
understanding of the term violence.

Dimensions of violence – a typology of violence by Johan Galtung

The term violence has often been used interchangeably with conflict, in the scientific and
especially the international community and media. There are three forms of violence identified by
conflict theorists:
1. Direct violence, the most common, is the use of physical force or violent means to inflict
perceptible harm or pain on an individual or group (shooting, murder, etc.).
2. Structural violence, which is not readily visible, as the violence resides in the weaknesses
in a system of governance; deficiencies in structures and institutions to provide for basic
human needs (health, employment, security, justice); where because of unequal and
unbalanced structures, some groups are ill-treated; oppressed, refused rights or
discriminated against. Direct violence used to reform a system has often been said to be
the immediate result of structural violence.
3. Cultural violence deals very much with psychology, the way we think with respect to our
values compared to our perception of other individuals or values; the negative perceptions
(attitudes) towards other cultures or groups. This thinking and perception is often used as
an excuse for structural and direct violence.

It should be realized that all three forms of violence are inextricably linked as one form
either causes or results from another.
According to Galtung the three different forms of violence (direct or personal, cultural,
indirect or structural) relate to each other, are dependent on each other and appear together. In this
‘triangle of violence’, violence can occur in each corner and can easily be transferred to the other
form. All types of violence breed each other in many ways and violence produces itself across all
dimensions.
Ethnic cleansing as an example, describes all three dimensions of violence.
1. Direct violence – direct attack, massacre.
2. Structural violence – death by avoidable reasons (unjust structure) such as malnutrition.
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 3. Cultural violence – considering the killing of a specific group of people as a good thing,
or being indifferent towards those having been made homeless due to their ethnicity.

Direct/Personal Violence
In this case of personal violence, the victim and offender can be clearly identified and
classified.
In general, this is the first dimension of violence – the visible aggressive behavior of people
we think of when talking about violence.
1. Direct violence means an individual person is physically attacked, harmed beaten,
crippled, tortured or killed by another person.

2. An actor can be identified; the consequences of the violent act can be linked to an actor.

3. Direct violence is a form of violence that physically injures people and physically
damages property. Direct violence is used to describe social circumstances in which
there is a clear relationship between subject and object. Violence is perpetrated by an
offender (subject), violence is suffered by a victim (object).

Examples:
a. Domestic violence, for instance battering by one person to maintain the structure of
domination within the family (often it is the man against woman and children).
Domestic violence is seen by many scientists as an instrument of social control over
women: to prevent women’s access to education, work or social relations. In this way,
direct violence is used as a tool to build, perpetuate and reproduce structural violence.

b. Rape is obviously a physical attack that harms the victim psychologically as well. Peace
researchers and scientists state that rape is more than harm to an individual; it is a
deeply embedded instrument, used to develop or maintain power inequalities and
ideologies of male supremacy.

c. War and civil riots are visible manifestations of direct violence. In this extreme form
of violence the actors (military junta, soldier, rebel) can be identified as well as the
victims (the people under torture, those being raped, those killed or forced to labor).

Indirect/Structural Violence
In addition to direct violence, Galtung emphasizes another form of violence, namely
structural violence. This form of violence is not carried out by individuals although it is created by
humans as it is caused by unjust structures and not equated with an act of God.

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 According to Galtung, ‘structural violence is the avoidable restriction of basic human needs
or, more general, of life, that sets the real degree of satisfaction of needs below what is potentially
possible.’ This definition of structural violence implies that structures that prevent the individual
from fully developing their talents and potential are a form of violence. This includes e.g.:
a. All forms of discrimination
b. Unequal distribution of income, educational opportunities and life expectancy
c. Unequal prosperity between the various ‘world’
d. Limited life chances due to environmental pollution
e. Hindrance of emancipatory endeavors

Structural violence is embedded in the system; it is impersonal, as generally no personal

actor or perpetrator can be identified, although it creates victims: individuals are harmed, crippled
or killed. The actors are not individuals but specific organizational or social structures. The
violence is carried out by strategic actions or manipulation that are based on structures as values,
norms or institutions. Structural violence is built into many systems that operate without
considering the needs of others, or, purposely inflict suffering. Mostly a whole network of
structures and responsibilities are involved and often pervasive factors are built into politics or the
fabrics of societies.
The underlying problems of structural violence are unequal power relations among actors
(power to decide over the distribution of resources) and systematic disadvantages against those
who do not hold as much – if any – power at all. In other words, structural violence is the
fundament on which economic and social inequalities are built, followed by unequal life chances
(i.e.: unequal income distribution, education opportunities etc.)
When one husband beats his wife there is a clear case of personal violence, but when one
million husbands keep one million wives in ignorance there is structural violence.
Violence in this light does not assume that a person or group feels violence directed against
them individually. Sometimes structural violence is not even realized, as the limited norms of life
are internalized. As far as Galtung is concerned, structural violence is synonymous with social
injustice.

Examples:
a. Injustices of the worldwide system for the trade in goods, which creates more and more
starving people every year.

b. Global conditions, policies by international institutions (G7, GATT, IMF) buttress the
unequal distribution of resources: creating conditions that result in severe poverty of
many that is certainly avoidable, while at the same time others continue to dominate in
terms of wealth.

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 c. Racial inequality. For example, many Afro-Americans in the US: an unjust structure of
inequality historically rooted in slavery perpetuates constraints in people and unequal
opportunities in education, access to medical care and justice and stable employment.

d. Industrial pollution. For example: The consumption-driven and high-energy-using

industrialized nations cause the global atmosphere to warm. In turn, this causes the ice
at the poles to melt and the sea-levels to rise. Consequently small islands are flooding
which threatens the lives of those people living on them.

e. Laws that marginalize sections or specific groups of the population.

f. Imbalanced health systems.

g. Poor road networks hinder people from accessing basic facilities (health, education,
markets).

Galtung’s understanding of structural violence is a core reference point for international

academic discussion of peace and conflict. His understanding has met with broad approval as it
opens up the concept of violence and allows the violent consequences of anonymous structures to
be examined (famine in many countries, for instance). This makes it possible to describe
international injustices as structural violence, and then denounce it. But Galtung’s definition of
structural violence has also been much discussed and sharply criticized because it has inflated the
use of the term violence.

Cultural Violence
“… Conflict does not necessarily lead to violence; that depends more on culture”. During
the 1990s, Galtung supplemented his violence typology with another category and introduced the
concept of cultural violence: “Cultural violence should be understood as those aspects of culture
that can be used to justify or legitimate the use of direct or structural violence. The Stars and
Stripes, Hammer and Sickle, flags, hymns, military parades, portraits of the leader, inflammatory
speeches and posters are all included in this category”.
Cultural violence can be found in all areas of social life (religion, law, ideology, science)
and can be intentional or unintentional. It is used to describe ideologies, convictions, traditions and
systems of legitimation, with whose help direct or structural violence is made possible, justified
and, indeed legitimated. It is important to stress that there are no ‘violent cultures’. What Galtung
means are those aspects of culture that may be used to influence humans to accept, tolerate and
even execute violence; those aspects of culture used to build a breeding ground for other forms of
violence. In other words, cultural violence does not kill or cripple, but it is used to justify the acts
carried out by people to harm, maim and kill.

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 According to Galtung, it is fair to talk about cultural violence when people are influenced
in such a way that limits the realization of their actual physical and spiritual condition compared
to what would otherwise be possible. In other words, cultural violence shows how shared values
and norms constrain individual possibilities, chances or capabilities.

Examples:
a. Human rights abuses such as culturally accepted discrimination against women:
deprived of the right to vote or the right to inherit, subjected to domestic abuse,
excluded from employment opportunities, given lower wages than men.

b. Glorification of violence in various ways. One is, for example, a use of the media where
violence is glorified in films, comics and the daily news.

c. Female Genital Mutilation, an obvious harmful act against females; many groups and
individuals persist in carrying it out based on cultural value and importance.

Examples of cultural violence in Cameroon:

a. Certain tribes insist on traditional post-mortems on the corpses of people suspected of
witchcraft.

b. Families are forced to keep parts of the mortal remains of their deceased relatives in
their houses for the sake of protection.

c. A woman is not allowed to stand in front of the Fon.

d. It is forbidden for women to eat gizzard.

e. It is forbidden or rare for a woman to be an heir apparent or successor.

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 A Typology of Violence
(Adapted from the conceptual map formulated by Toh Swee-Hin and Virginia Cawagas)
Form of violence Personal Interpersonal National Global
Level Community
Direct/Physical Suicide Domestic National Conventional
Drug abuse violence inequalities war
Violent crimes Poverty Nuclear war
Hunger Human rights
abuses
Structural/Economic, Powerlessness Local National Global
Political inequalities inequalities inequalities
Poverty Poverty Poverty
Hunger Hunger Hunger
Socio-cultural/ Alienation Prejudice/ Prejudice/ Prejudice/
Psychological Low self-esteem enemy images enemy images enemy images
Anxiety Cultural Cultural Cultural
domination domination domination
Racism Racism Racism
Sexism Sexism Sexism
Religious Religious Religious
intolerance intolerance intolerance
Ecological Overconsumption Overconsump- Overconsump- Overconsump-
tion tion tion
Pollution Pollution Pollution
Chemical and Chemical and
Biological Biological
warfare warfare
Nuclear power Nuclear power
radiation radiation
Source: Navaro-Castro, L. & Galace, J. (2010). Peace education: a pathway to peace. Quezon City, Philippines: Mirriam College.

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 MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE

Lesson 9: Violent Extremism

Enabling Objectives (Specific Learning Outcomes)

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:
1. define the concept of violent extremism;
2. discuss the drivers of radicalization to violent extremism;
3. identify signs and symptoms of indoctrination towards extreme violence or
radicalization; and
4. reflect on the beliefs/convictions that express violence.

Violent extremism and other related concepts

The terminology surrounding violent extremism is complex and still largely debated. This
is due to a variety of reasons, chief among them the fact that many terms used in this field do not
have universally accepted definitions. As underlined in the UN Secretary-General’s (UNSG) Plan
of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism, definitions of “terrorism” and “violent extremism” are
not straightforward. Defining these terms is the prerogative of Member States, even if such
definitions must be consistent with country obligations under international law, and in particular
human rights law. In this context, the United Nations General Assembly decided to take a
“practical approach” to the matter, which consists in not seeking to provide a definition of these
terms. Instead, it adopted – by consensus – the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy,
which provides a common strategic and operational approach to counter-terrorism. Similarly, the
UNSG’s Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism intends to pursue a “practical approach” to
preventing violent extremism, without seeking to address questions of definition.
Another reason why discussions on terminology are complex in international contexts is
because of the challenges linked to translation. Undeniably, when translated, these terms can take
on new, or nuanced, meanings that increase the potential for cross-cultural misunderstandings.
Despite the above terminological challenges, the following reviews ket terms that is
commonly used in the field.

Extremism – Literally, “extremism” means the “belief in and support for ideas that are very far
from what most people consider correct or reasonable”. “Extremism” thus refers to attitudes or
behaviors that are deemed outside the norm. this basic dictionary understanding highlights the
inherently subjective nature of the term, which can take on different meanings depending on who
defines the norm and decides what is acceptable or not accordingly.

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Violent extremism – There is no internationally agreed-upon definition of violent extremism. The
most common understanding of the term – is that it refers to the beliefs and actions of people who
support or use violence to achieve ideological, religious or political goals. This includes terrorism
and other forms of politically motivated and sectarian violence. Typically, “violent extremism”
also identifies an enemy, or enemies, who are the object of hatred and violence.
Violent extremism refers to the beliefs and actions of people who support or use
ideologically-motivated violence to achieve radical ideological, religious or political views.
Violent Extremism is … “when you do not allow for a different point of view; when you
hold your own views as being quite exclusive, when you don’t allow for the possibility of difference
and when you want to impose this view on others using violence if necessary.”
Radical thought that does not condone the exercise of violence to further political goals
may be seen as normal and acceptable, and be promoted by groups working within the boundaries
of the law. There is no single profile or pathway for radicalization, or even speed at which it
happens. Nor does the level of education seem to be a reliable predictor of vulnerability to
radicalization. It is however established that there are socio-economic, psychological and
institutional factors that lead to violent extremism. Specialists group these factors into two main
categories:
“Push Factors” drive individuals to violent extremism, such as: marginalization,
inequality, discrimination, persecution or the perception thereof; limited access
to quality and relevant education; the denial of rights and civil liberties; and other
environmental, historical and socioeconomic grievances.
“Pull Factors” nurture the appeal of violent extremism, for example: the existence of well-
organized violent extremism groups with compelling discourses and effective
programmes that are providing services, revenue and/or employment in
exchange for membership. Groups can also lure new members by providing
outlets for grievances and promise of adventure and freedom. Furthermore, these
groups appear to offer spiritual comfort, “a place to belong” and a supportive
social network.
Finally, there are contextual factors that provide a favorable terrain to the mergence of
violent extremism groups, such as: fragile states, the lack of rule of law, corruption and criminality.

Examples of Violent Extremism

Neo-Nazis, Ku Klux Klan, eco-terrorism, Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL),
Boko Haram.

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Terrorism – “Terrorism” refers to a particular strategy adopted to achieve a political goal, which
is singularly the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear. In a landmark UN General Assembly
Resolution (A/RES/64/297), countries strongly and unequivocally condemned terrorism in all its
forms and manifestations, “committed by whomever, wherever and for whatever purposes, as it
constitutes one of the most serious threats to international peace and security”. The terms “violent
extremism” and “terrorism” are often mistakenly used interchangeably. While terrorism is a form
of violent extremism, and terrorism is also often motivated ideologically, the conceptual
underpinning of terrorism that distinguishes it from violent extremism is the creation of fear or
terror as a means to an end.
The UN Security Council, in its resolution 1566 (2004), uses three cumulative criteria to
characterize terrorism: (i) intent; (ii) purpose; and (iii) specific conduct, consisting of the
following:
1. Criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent of causing deaths
or serious bodily injury, or the taking of hostages;
2. Regardless of whether motivated by considerations of a political, philosophical,
ideological, radical, ethnic, religious or other similar nature, with the purpose of
provoking a state of terror in the general public or in a group of individuals or particular
individuals, intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international
organization to carry out or to abstain from carrying out any act; and
3. Which constitute offences within the scope of, and as defined in, the international
conventions and protocols relating to terrorism.

Radicalization – As what the term “extremism”, the term “radicalization” is highly debated when
used in the context of violent extremism. The concern is that the use of the term may serve to
justify limitations to the freedom of speech. Indeed, “radical” can be defined in varying ways
depending on circumstance. In certain contexts, it can simply mean “wanting to cause political
change”. in the context of efforts to prevent violent extremism, “radicalization” is commonly used
to describe the processes by which a person adopts extreme views or practices to the point of
legitimizing the use of violence. The key notion here is the process of embracing violence. If one
whishes to point to the process by which one becomes a violent extremist, the expression
“radicalization leading to violence” will be more appropriate than “violent extremism”, which
focuses on the ideologically motivated resort to violence.

Drivers of radicalization to violent extremism

Many models have been developed by different players to classify the different factors
influencing the radicalization of youth into violent extremism. Some of the commonly sighted
factors include the following:

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 1. Ideological Drivers
There are multiple forms of violent extremist ideology. Some are secular while
others claim religious legitimacy. The Salafi-Jihadi ideologies of Al-Qaeda, Dae’sh and
Al-Shabaab utilize a selective reading of some Islamic religious texts and histories to
justify terrorist violence in the name of protecting and advancing Islam. They also use
claims of global and local victimization of Muslims to create militant recruits willing to
carry out suicide and mass casualty attacks against civilians and infrastructure. These
groups often express an ambition to establish an Eastern African region of a global
caliphate that would replace secular legal and governance systems it depicts as illegitimate
under Islam. This ambition, as is evident from the actions of groups such as ISIS, is both a
threat to world peace and a potent motivator of thousands of young people across the world
that have been convinced to join the project. Experts in Islamic religion worldwide have
strongly rejected the terrorist organizations’ claim to religious legitimacy. In reality, their
ideologies have no support in religion. They are driven by a will to win power over
populations and nation states. They are radically anti-democratic and are, in their
authoritarianism, willing to use mass violence. Their refusal to embrace diverse beliefs is
comparable to Stalinism or Nazism.
2. Socio-economic Drivers
Adverse socio-economic conditions create high levels of frustration and a sense of
powerlessness-ideal conditions for persuading groups and individuals to embrace violent
extremism and to oppose the political, social and legal status quo.
3. Political Drivers
Real or perceived exclusion from political representation, discrimination,
misgovernance and narratives of historical injustice are powerful drivers of radicalization.
Violent extremists often invoke such injustices to inspire opposition to national political
structures.
4. Personal Drivers
These include the search for status, meaning, power, a sense of belonging and
identity, or an all-encompassing theory to explain personal crises. Individuals personally
susceptible to radicalization include those experiencing low self-esteem, a sense of
victimization or alienation from normal social networks, boredom and frustration, and a
sense of powerlessness.
5. Global/Geopolitical Drivers
In Kenya for example, global and geopolitical drivers are the local effects of
international struggles between violent extremists and their opponents worldwide. Anger
over Western country policies and interventions in the Middle-East and other acts
associated with a perceived ‘Western’ agenda, including Kenya and AMISOM’s
intervention against Al-Shabaab in Somalia, drive reactions towards Kenya by

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 sympathizers with violent extremists. In addition, proponents of extremist ideologies
abroad finance and facilitate the exportation of ideological extremism in the guise of
religion.
6. Technological Drivers
Technological drivers include the wide availability of social media – blogs and
chat-rooms-for disseminating extremist propaganda. The increasing affordability of
smartphones and data means that there is now borderless connectivity that allows extremist
ideologies to be produced. This allows for self-radicalization, and clandestine recruitment
and training online. Technologies of encryption of digital communications further facilitate
dissemination and evasion by radicalizers.

Signs and symptoms of indoctrination towards extreme violence or radicalization

In order for the teachers, families and communities to help prevent acts of violent
extremism it is important for them to know some of the signs and symptoms of people who may
have been are undergoing indoctrination towards extreme violence. This happens in many forms,
some of which may include:
1. Significant behavior change in the individual that may include their ideology, social
relations and criminal activity. If someone is being recruited into violent extremism,
changes can often occur in all three of these areas. Sometimes there are other things that
can cause such changes and so this sign is not conclusive.

2. Keeping away from normal activities, family and friends.

3. May be at constant disagreement with friends and family members over ideological views.

4. May start advocating for use of violence or other unlawful activities to promote particular
ideologies or beliefs.

5. Use of language that discriminates against others, while identifying an enemy who is
blamed for all failures and is dehumanized.

6. Use of internet to view and download and spread materials that promote violent extremism
and share this with others who hold the same views.

7. More violent individuals make threats and promote use of violence to advance a certain
cause. They might become nervous about the activities of governments, security and
intelligence agencies or law enforcement using online social networking platforms such as
Facebook or Twitter to promote violence or other criminal behavior to advance a cause.

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 8. Downloading and sharing violent extremist literature, images and/or video clips that
advocate the use of violence or other illegal behavior to promote a cause.

Reference
MSU Fundamentals of Peace Education Manual

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