Unit I

Introduction to Research Ethics

Definition of Research
Research is a derivative of the French word; “Researche‟ means quest, search, pursuit and search for truth.
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. It is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. It is systematized effort to gain new knowledge. According to Clifford
Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research is, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the
detection of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
Research is the systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory.
The research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts
or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem
or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
Research means mission, search, hunt, and exploration for truth. The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
or problems through the application of scientific procedures.
Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomenon.
Research is a careful, critical and disciplined enquiry, varying in technique and method.
According to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, research is directed towards clarification or/and resolution
of the problem. The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions or problems through the application of scientific
procedures.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study
has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this
object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-
testing research studies).
Meaning of Research Ethics
The term ‘research ethics’ may be used to describe a broad range of principles and practices regarding the
ethical conduct of research. The principles and practices of research ethics have become firmly established
through advances in biomedical research and bioethics scholarship. Research ethics may be referred to as
doing what is morally and legally right in research. They are actually norms for conduct that distinguish
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 between right and wrong, and acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.
Objectives in research ethics are:
1. The first and broadest objective is to protect human participants.
2. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves interests of
individuals, groups and/or society as a whole.
3. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities and projects for their ethical
soundness, looking at issues such as the management of risk, protection of confidentiality and the
process of informed consent.
Importance of Research Ethics
 Protecting participants:
Ethical research prioritizes the safety, rights, and well-being of individuals involved in studies. This
includes obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and minimizing potential risks.
 Maintaining research integrity:
Ethical principles ensure that research is conducted honestly, accurately, and transparently. This includes
avoiding plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification of data.
 Building public trust:
Ethical conduct helps to build public confidence in research, as it demonstrates that research is conducted
responsibly and for the benefit of society.
 Enhancing the validity and reliability of research:
Adhering to ethical guidelines helps to ensure that research findings are reliable and valid, as they are
based on sound methodology and unbiased data collection.
 Promoting social and moral values:
Research ethics uphold societal values and norms by ensuring that research is conducted in a way that
respects human rights and promotes the common good.
 Holding researchers accountable:
Ethical standards provide a framework for holding researchers accountable for their actions and ensuring
that research is conducted responsibly.
 Fostering collaboration:
Ethical principles promote collaboration between researchers and different groups, fostering mutual
respect and fairness.
 Minimizing harm:
Ethical guidelines help to minimize potential harm to individuals and society, ensuring that research does
not cause unnecessary suffering or exploitation.
The role of ethics in research
 Scientific Integrity:
Ethics ensures that research is conducted honestly, objectively, and transparently, preventing plagiarism,
fabrication, and misrepresentation of data.
 Protection of Participants:
Ethical guidelines prioritize the well-being, rights, and dignity of individuals involved in research,
including informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing potential harm.
 Public Trust and Support:
Adhering to ethical standards builds public trust in scientific discoveries and promotes responsible and
transparent conduct in research, ultimately fostering public support for research endeavors.
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 Accountability and Responsibility:
Ethics establishes a framework for holding researchers accountable for their actions, ensuring that they
adhere to ethical guidelines and regulations.
 Promotion of Values:
Ethical principles encourage collaboration, fairness, mutual respect, and the safeguarding of intellectual
property among researchers.
 Advancing Knowledge:
By promoting sound ethical practices, research contributes to the advancement of knowledge in a
responsible and trustworthy manner.
 Ensuring Validity:
Adherence to ethical guidelines enhances the validity of research findings by ensuring that data is
collected and analyzed responsibly and transparently, says Editage www.editage.com.
 Preventing Harm:
Ethical considerations aim to prevent harm to participants, both physical and psychological, and to ensure
that research is conducted in a way that prioritizes their well-being.
Advantages of research ethics
The goals of the research are encouraged by research ethics.
 It builds trust between both the researcher and the respondent.
 To safeguard study participants’ dignity, rights, and well-being, it is critical to follow ethical principles.
 For their behaviour, scientists can be made responsible and answerable.
 Ethics encourages the development of social and moral values.
 Promotes study objectives such as the ability to comprehend, integrity, and error avoidance.
 Ethical benchmarks uphold values essential to collaborative work, such as belief, accountability, mutually
respectful, and objectivity.
Limitation of research ethics
Psychological risks: The questionnaire given to the respondents should create a change in the behaviour of
the participants. b. Social, legal, and economic risks: for example, respondents may face decision and stigma
if personal information gathered during research is accidentally released. c. Certain ethnic or indigenous
groups may experience discrimination or stigma due to research, especially if members of those groups are
identified as having a higher-than-usual risk of catching a specific disease.
Unit II
Ethical Principles of Research
Meaning of Ethical Principle of Research : Ethical principles in research are crucial guidelines that ensure
research is conducted responsibly and with respect for participants and the broader community. These
principles include respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. They also encompass
principles like informed consent, confidentiality, and avoiding deception.
Ethical Principles in Research
 Respect for Persons (Autonomy):
This principle emphasizes respecting individuals' right to make their own decisions about participating in
research, including the right to refuse participation. It also means respecting the autonomy of vulnerable
populations, such as children or individuals with cognitive impairments, by seeking appropriate consent
from their legal representatives or guardians.

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 
Beneficence:
This principle requires researchers to maximize potential benefits for participants and society while
minimizing potential harms. It involves carefully considering the potential risks and benefits of the
research and taking steps to mitigate any risks.
 Non-maleficence:
This principle emphasizes the obligation of researchers to avoid causing harm to participants. It requires
researchers to carefully consider the potential risks of their research and take steps to protect participants
from harm.

Justice:
This principle ensures that the benefits and burdens of research are distributed fairly among different
groups of people. It requires researchers to be mindful of potential biases in their research and to ensure
that participants from vulnerable groups are not disproportionately burdened or excluded from research
opportunities.
 Informed Consent:

Participants should be informed about the purpose, procedures, and potential risks and benefits of the
research before they agree to participate. They should also be informed of their right to withdraw from the
study at any time.
 Confidentiality:
Researchers have a responsibility to protect the privacy of participants' data and to keep their identities
confidential. This may involve using anonymized data or taking other steps to protect participants' privacy.
 Avoiding Deception:
Researchers should generally avoid deceiving participants about the purpose or procedures of the
research. However, in some cases, deception may be necessary to conduct a valid study, but it must be
justified and the participants must be debriefed afterward.
 Integrity and Transparency:
Researchers should conduct their research with integrity and transparency, ensuring that their data is
accurate and that their findings are reported honestly and clearly.
 Responsible Conduct of Research:
This encompasses a range of ethical standards, including honesty, objectivity, competence, and respect for
colleagues and the public
Respect for intellectual property
Respecting intellectual property in research means acknowledging and honoring the rights of creators and
innovators, including patents, copyrights, and other forms of IP. This includes avoiding plagiarism, giving
credit for all contributions, and obtaining permission before using copyrighted materials.

Some of the aspects of respect for intellectual property

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 Avoid plagiarism:
Plagiarism, which involves using someone else's work without proper attribution, is a serious ethical
violation.
 Give proper credit:
When using ideas, data, or methods from other researchers, always cite the original source and
acknowledge their contributions.
 Obtain permission:
Before using copyrighted materials like images, figures, or data, ensure you have the necessary written
permission from the copyright holder.
 Understand IP laws:
Research on intellectual property laws can help researchers understand their obligations and rights,
especially regarding patents and copyrights.
 Protect confidential information:
Keep confidential communications, such as research papers or grant proposals, protected and avoid
disclosing trade secrets or other confidential information without authorization.
Importance of respecting intellectual property:
 Promotes innovation and creativity:
Respecting IP encourages researchers to create new ideas and inventions, knowing their work will be
protected and recognized.
 Supports economic growth:
Intellectual property rights can facilitate the transfer of technology and support economic growth by
protecting inventions and creations.
 Maintains research integrity:
Respecting IP ensures the credibility and trustworthiness of research by avoiding plagiarism and
acknowledging the contributions of others.

The importance of adhering to ethical principle of research

It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and welfare of research
participants. As such, all research involving human beings should be reviewed by an ethics committee to
ensure that the appropriate ethical standards are being upheld

Unit III Scientific Research Conduct

Meaning of Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the act of presenting someone else's work, words, or ideas as one's
own, without proper attribution. It's a form of academic dishonesty and intellectual theft.
Examples of plagiarism:
 Copying parts of a text word for word, without quotation marks
 Paraphrasing a text by changing a few words or altering the sentence structure, without citing the
source

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  Giving incorrect information about a source.

Some Key aspects of Plagiarism

 Using someone else's work without permission:
This includes copying text verbatim, paraphrasing without citation, or using someone else's ideas without
acknowledgment.
 Presenting it as your own:
Plagiarism involves claiming ownership of work that was created by another person.
 Academic Dishonesty:
Plagiarism is considered a violation of academic integrity and can have serious consequences for students.
 Intellectual Theft:
Plagiarism is seen as a form of stealing another person's intellectual property.
Examples of Plagiarism
 Copying and pasting text from a website or book without citing the source.

 Paraphrasing someone else's words without attributing the original author.

 Buying an essay and submitting it as your own work.
 Using ideas from a book or article without acknowledging the original source.

Types of plagiarism
 Direct Plagiarism:
This is the most straightforward form, where text is copied verbatim from a source without quotation
marks or citation.
 Paraphrasing Plagiarism:
This involves rephrasing a source's words or ideas but still presenting them as one's own without proper
attribution.
 Patchwork Plagiarism:
This is also known as mosaic plagiarism and involves combining phrases or sentences from multiple
sources without proper attribution.
 Self-Plagiarism:
This occurs when someone reuses their own previously published work without proper citation, essentially
submitting their own work as original.
 Global Plagiarism:
This is the most serious form, where an entire work is copied and presented as one's own without any
acknowledgment of the original author.
How to avoid plagiarism
 In-text citations:

Provide a citation within your text to indicate the source of the information, whether it's a direct quote,
paraphrased idea, or piece of data.
 Bibliography/Reference list:
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 Include a comprehensive list of all sources at the end of your work, following the correct citation style
(e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
 Accurate citation:
Ensure your citations are accurate and complete, including all necessary details (author, title, publication
date, etc.).
2. Paraphrasing:
 Restate in your own words:

Paraphrasing involves rephrasing someone else's ideas in your own words, without copying the original
phrasing or sentence structure.

Cite your source:
Always cite your source when you paraphrase, even if you've changed the wording.
3. Quoting:
 Use quotation marks:

When directly quoting someone's exact words, enclose them in quotation marks.

Cite your source:
Cite the source of the quote, indicating the author, page number (if applicable), and other relevant details.
4. Using Plagiarism Checkers:
 Check your work:

Use plagiarism detection software to scan your work for any potential plagiarism matches.
 Review and revise:
If the checker identifies potential plagiarism, review your work and make necessary adjustments to ensure
proper citation and attribution.
5. Taking Notes and Organizing Information:
 Keep track of sources:

As you research, keep a record of all sources you consult, including their titles, authors, and page
numbers.
 Distinguish your ideas:
Clearly distinguish your own ideas and writing from those of other sources in your notes and final paper.
6. Understanding the Concepts:
 Plagiarism is unethical:

Recognize that plagiarism is not only unethical but also can have serious consequences, such as failing
grades or expulsion from academic institutions.
 Always give credit:
Always give credit to the original author for their work, whether it's their ideas, words, or phrases.
Why plagiarism important in research
Here's a more detailed explanation:
1. Maintaining Academic Integrity: Plagiarism is a breach of academic integrity, a fundamental principle in
the research community. It undermines the trust and respect that are essential for scholarly communication
and collaboration.
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 2. Protecting Intellectual Property: Plagiarism is essentially stealing, and it infringes upon the intellectual
property rights of the original authors. By not acknowledging the sources, researchers risk legal
repercussions and damage to their reputation.
3. Ensuring Originality and Credit: Research should be original, building upon existing knowledge while
making new contributions. Plagiarism hinders this process by presenting borrowed ideas as new. Proper
citation and acknowledgment ensure that the original authors receive recognition for their work.
4. Consequences for Researchers: Plagiarism can have serious consequences, including:
 Reputational damage:
Being caught plagiarizing can severely damage a researcher's reputation and credibility.
 Disciplinary action:
Institutions may impose disciplinary action, such as failing grades, suspension, or expulsion.
 Career repercussions:
Plagiarism can hinder a researcher's career prospects and make it difficult to gain funding or recognition.
5. Importance of Proper Attribution: When researchers use the words, ideas, or data of others, they must
acknowledge their sources through proper citation. This practice helps to clarify the origin of information
and avoid any misrepresentation.
6. Compliance with Institutional and Journal Policies: Many institutions and journals have strict policies
regarding plagiarism, often requiring researchers to submit plagiarism reports. Compliance with these
policies is crucial for maintaining research integrity and avoiding potential penalties.
In essence, avoiding plagiarism is not just a matter of following rules; it's a fundamental aspect of ethical
research that helps to maintain the integrity of the academic community and ensure that credit is given where
it is due.

Meaning of citation and importance

A citation is a way of acknowledging the sources used in a piece of writing, like an academic paper or
report. It's essentially a reference that provides information about the source material, enabling readers to
locate the original material if needed. Citations are crucial for avoiding plagiarism and giving credit to the
original author or creator.
Importance of Citation: Proper citation is crucial for maintaining academic integrity, demonstrating the
credibility of your work, and allowing others to build upon your research.

Footnote and endnote

Footnotes and endnotes are both ways of adding notes or citations to a document, but they differ in
placement. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page where the reference is made, while endnotes are
gathered together at the end of the document, usually before a bibliography.
Uses of Footnotes:
 Placement: At the bottom of the page containing the referenced text.
 Purpose: Used to provide additional information, citations, or commentary that would otherwise interrupt
the flow of the main text.
 Numbering: Typically numbered sequentially, with the numbers corresponding to numbered references in
the main text.
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  Advantages: Convenient for readers to quickly find the referenced information on the same page.
 Disadvantages: Can make the page look cluttered if there are many footnote

Endnote
 Placement:
Gathered at the end of the document, often before a bibliography.
 Purpose:
Similar to footnotes, used for additional information, citations, or commentary.
 Numbering:
Also numbered sequentially, but the numbers correspond to notes at the end of the document.
 Advantages:
Reduces clutter on each page and allows readers to see all the notes in one place.
Misrepresentation of Data
Misrepresentation of data in research involves presenting information in a deceptive or misleading manner,
potentially influencing conclusions and decisions based on the research. This can occur intentionally or
unintentionally through various means, including selective reporting, manipulation of data, or misleading
visualizations.
Causes of misrepresentation of data
Misrepresentation can manifest in several ways:
 Selective Reporting:
Presenting only some data points that support a particular viewpoint while ignoring contradictory
information.
 Data Manipulation:
Altering or falsifying data to produce desired results, such as cherry-picking or using inappropriate
statistical techniques.
 Misleading Visualizations:
Creating graphs or figures that distort the true nature of the data, making it appear more significant or less
significant than it actually is.
 Misinterpretation of Findings:
Drawing unwarranted conclusions from the data or failing to acknowledge limitations or biases in the
research.
 Omission of Relevant Information:
Failing to report all necessary details or findings, potentially leading to a biased or incomplete
understanding of the research.

Consequences of misrepresentation of data in research

 False Conclusions:
Misrepresentation can lead to inaccurate or misleading conclusions, undermining the validity and
reliability of the research.
 Flawed Decision Making:
If research findings are misrepresented, they can be used to support incorrect decisions in various fields,
such as public policy, healthcare, or business.
 Erosion of Trust:
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 Misrepresentation can erode public trust in scientific research and the credibility of researchers.
 Ethical Concerns:
Misrepresentation violates ethical research standards and principles, such as honesty, objectivity, and
transparency.
Unit IV: Publication Ethics
Publication Ethics: Publication ethics are rules of conduct to be followed while publishing results of
scientific research or other scholarly work. Generally, it is a standard that protects intellectual property and
forbids the re-publication of another's work without proper credit.
The importance of publication ethics in scientific research are as follows:
 The publication ethics promotes the aims of the research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of
error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the
truth and minimize error.
 It promotes the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect,
and fairness.
 Ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.
 It also helps to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they
can trust the quality and integrity of the research.
 Many of the publication ethics promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical
lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public.
Publication misconduct
Publication misconduct in research encompasses unethical behaviors like fabrication, falsification,
plagiarism, and inappropriate authorship that undermine the integrity of scientific publications.
Examples of publication misconduct: It includes presenting others' work as one's own, creating false data,
manipulating results, and improperly attributing authorship.
Types of Publication Misconduct:
 Fabrication: Inventing data or results that do not exist.
 Falsification: Altering or manipulating data to fit a desired outcome.
 Plagiarism: Presenting someone else's work as one's own without proper citation.
 Inappropriate Authorship: Improperly assigning authorship based on contributions.
 Duplicate/Multiple Submissions: Submitting the same manuscript or slightly modified versions to multiple
journals simultaneously or within a short timeframe.
 Overlapping Publication: Publishing a paper that substantially overlaps with a previously published work.
 Salami Publication: Splitting up a single research project into multiple smaller publications to increase the
number of papers.
Problems or consequences of publication misconduct
 Retraction of published papers:
Journals may retract publications that are found to be the result of misconduct.
 Damage to reputation and career:
Researchers involved in misconduct may face professional repercussions and damage to their reputation.
 Erosion of public trust in science:
Misconduct undermines the credibility of scientific research and can lead to public distrust.
 Legal and financial penalties:
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 In some cases, researchers may face legal and financial penalties for their actions.

Preventing Publication Misconduct:

 Strong ethical training:
Providing researchers with thorough training on ethical research practices.
 Rigorous peer review:
Ensuring that peer review processes are thorough and rigorous to identify potential misconduct.
 Transparent reporting:
Encouraging researchers to be transparent in their reporting of data and methods.
 Clear editorial policies:
Publishing clear editorial policies on what constitutes misconduct and how it will be addressed.
 Using plagiarism detection software:
Utilizing software to identify plagiarism and other forms of misconduct.
Predatory publication:
Predatory publishing is a deceptive academic publishing practice where publishers prioritize profit over the
quality and legitimacy of scholarly content, often charging authors fees without providing the expected
editorial and peer review services. These publishers exploit the academic need to publish, often targeting
authors who need to meet promotion, tenure, or grant funding requirements.

Characteristics of predatory publication

Key Characteristics:
 Profit-driven:
The primary goal is to generate revenue, not to advance scholarly knowledge.
 Deceptive practices:
They often make false claims about services offered, such as peer review, and may engage in aggressive
solicitation tactics.
 Lack of quality control:
They may publish articles without proper peer review or editing, leading to low-quality or even
plagiarized content.
 Exploitation of authors:
They take advantage of the academic "publish or perish" pressure, charging high publication fees without
delivering the expected services.
 Lack of transparency:
They may be vague about their editorial policies, peer review processes, and impact factor.
 Rapid publication:
They often promise swift publication times, which can be a red flag, as legitimate journals take time for
rigorous review.
Consequences of predatory publication
 Damage to the scientific record:
Low-quality or even fraudulent research can mislead readers and undermine the reputation of legitimate
journals and researchers.
 Waste of resources:

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 Authors who are targeted by predatory journals may waste their time and money submitting articles that
are unlikely to be published in a legitimate journal.
 Erosion of trust in scholarly publishing:
Predatory practices can damage the public's trust in academic research and institutions.
Reference style
Reference style in research is a set of guidelines that dictates how sources are cited and listed in academic
and professional writing. It ensures consistency and clarity by providing specific formats for both in-text
citations and the bibliography or reference list. Common reference styles include APA, MLA, Chicago, and
Harvard.
Examples of Reference Styles:
 APA (American Psychological Association):
A popular style used in social sciences, it uses an author-date system for in-text citations (e.g., Smith,
2020) and a specific format for the reference list.
 MLA (Modern Language Association):
Commonly used in the humanities, it uses a parenthetical citation system (e.g., (Smith 12)) and a specific
format for the reference list.
 Chicago:
Another widely used style, Chicago has two main systems: the "notes and bibliography" system (used in
humanities) and the "author-date" system (used in some sciences).
 Harvard:
An author-date style, similar to APA, but with variations in the format of the reference list.
Why use a reference style?
 Avoid plagiarism: Referencing ensures that you properly acknowledge the work of others and avoid
presenting their ideas as your own.
 Give credit: It acknowledges the contributions of other researchers and scholars.
 Provide evidence: Referencing supports your claims and arguments with credible sources.
 Facilitate research: It allows readers to easily find and verify the sources you've used.

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