Interaction of Indian kings with Big
Big cats, a term used to describe the largest members of the feline family, hold a special
place in India’s ecological, cultural, and historical narrative. These animals include
tigers, lions, leopards, snow leopards, and cheetahs, each playing a unique role in
maintaining the ecological balance of their habitats while also influencing Indian
mythology, art, and traditions. The introduction of this topic requires an understanding
of their biological characteristics, their natural habitats, and their significance in India.
India is home to a remarkable diversity of big cats. The Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Indian
leopard, and snow leopard are native to India, with the cheetah recently reintroduced
after being declared extinct in the country. Each of these species represents an
important part of India's biodiversity. Tigers, for instance, are primarily found in dense
forests, including mangroves and tropical rainforests, whereas lions inhabit the dry
grasslands and forests of Gujarat’s Gir region. Leopards, being highly adaptable, can be
found in a variety of landscapes, including urban areas near forests.
Big cats have long held historical, cultural, and ecological significance in India. Lions,
tigers, leopards, and cheetahs were integral to ancient Indian culture, mythology, and
royal life. The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica), once widespread across India,
symbolized power and royalty, seen in symbols like the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Tigers,
revered for their strength, were often associated with deities like Shiva, and were
depicted in Indian art and literature as symbols of valor. Leopards were seen as elusive
and cunning, appearing in folklore, while cheetahs were used by royalty for hunting and
were considered a symbol of speed and grace.
Big cats in Ancient India
Big cats, especially lions and tigers, held great importance in ancient India, symbolizing
power, strength, and divine authority. The Lion Capital of Ashoka, featuring four
back-to-back lions, became one of the most iconic symbols of imperial power and is now
India’s national emblem. It reflected the Mauryan Empire's dominance and the ruler’s
strength, with lions symbolizing courage and leadership. Tigers, too, were integral in
royal symbolism. The Chola Empire (9th-13th century CE) used the tiger on its flags to
denote martial strength and royal power. The tiger was often linked to the Chola kings,
who were seen as fierce warriors, further emphasizing the creature’s association with
dominance. Similarly, during the Gupta period (4th-6th century CE), tigers were used in
royal insignia, representing regal power and military prowess.
Sanskritik References to big cats:- In Sanskrit literature, lions are frequently
depicted with various names that emphasize their symbolic role as embodiments of
strength, power, and royalty. The most common term, Simha, appears in numerous
texts such as the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Vishnu Purana, where it represents both
physical might and royal authority. The lion is often used to symbolize kings and
warriors who possess great courage and leadership qualities. Rājasimha or "royal lion"
further associates the animal with kingship, appearing in texts like the Mahabharata and
Harsha Charita. Similarly, the term Mahāsimha or "great lion" is employed in contexts
where the lion symbolizes supreme power, particularly in religious texts such as the
Vishnu Purana that describe the Narasimha incarnation of Vishnu.
In addition to these terms, Mrigendra (meaning "lord of the jungle" or "lion of the
forest") is another name for the lion, which emphasizes its dominance over other
animals. It is used metaphorically to depict the strength and valor of heroes and kings.
This term is found in works such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, where it is applied
to describe the bravery and might of warriors, comparing them to the regal lion.
Numismatic representation:- The depictions of lions and tigers on coins,
particularly those from the Gupta Empire, serve as an important visual confirmation of
the symbolic roles these animals played in ancient Indian culture. Samudragupta's
coins, for example, feature a "tiger-slayer" type that directly connects the king with the
might and valor of a tiger. In this coin type, Samudragupta is shown standing
triumphantly over a tiger he has just slain, with a bow in hand. This representation
emphasizes his strength, bravery, and martial prowess, which were qualities often
attributed to both lions and tigers in Sanskrit texts. The phrase "Vyāghraparakramah"
("valiant like a tiger") further underscores the connection between the ruler and the
powerful, noble qualities associated with the tiger. The tutorial representation of tigers
and the lions also confirm that these terms were mentioned for the lions and tigers.
Architectural representation of big cats in Ancient India:- In India,
representations of tigers and lions in architecture can be found in various ancient
monuments and temples, showcasing the cultural and symbolic importance of these
animals. At Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, sculptures dating back to the 7th century
depict animals, including lions and tigers, integrated into the grand rock-cut temples
and monuments.The lion is a recurring motif in Mahabalipuram's temples, such as in
the Pancha Rathas, where the columns are mounted on lion bases.
In the architecture of Chola temples like the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, lions
are often sculpted in the form of "Yali" (a mythical creature combining a lion and other
animals). These sculptures are prominent on temple pillars, showcasing the lion's royal
and divine characteristics. The Yali is believed to protect the temple and its divine
presence. In addition, the lion is associated with Nandi (the bull vehicle of Lord Shiva),
often shown as reclining on lion-carved pedestals.
The Sanchi Stupa, one of India's oldest stone structures, features several lion motifs,
especially on its gateways (Toranas). These lion representations are integral to Buddhist
symbolism. The famous "Lion Capital" sculpture from Sanchi is symbolic of the power of
the Buddha and his teachings .The Konark Sun Temple is famous for its intricate
sculptures and architecture, including monumental stone lions.
No full sculpture of a tiger was found In ancient Indian temples but a fascinating
iconographic combination of a tiger face with a horse body can be found, symbolizing a
fusion of strength, agility, and royal power.
Relation of Cholas with the Tigers:- The tiger was a symbol of royal power,
strength, and courage, traits that were essential for a warrior king. The Chola emperors,
particularly during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and Rajaraja II, employed the tiger as a
dynastic emblem on their flags, often in the form of a tiger's face or full figure. The tiger
in the Chola flag symbolized their identity as fierce rulers with the ability to conquer
vast territories and protect their empire. The animal's association with ferocity and
dominance made it an ideal symbol for the Chola warriors, who were known for their
military successes and territorial expansion.
The Chola dynasty, one of the most powerful and prosperous empires in South India,
often drew symbolic connections between their identity and that of tigers, using the
animal as a metaphor for their strength, agility, and territorial dominance. Just as tigers
are known to move in a clockwise direction when marking their territory, the Chola
dynasty also demonstrated a similar approach in their expansion and consolidation of
power. The Cholas extended their empire through conquests, often moving strategically
in a clockwise direction around the Indian subcontinent and across the seas. This
symbolic association reinforced their view of themselves as dominant figures, marking
and asserting their influence over vast territories.
Lions & Tigers in Sultanate India
Changing Techniques and Methods of Hunting:- During the Sultanate period in
India (1206–1526), hunting techniques underwent significant changes compared to
ancient India, influenced by new military technologies, shifts in royal and cultural
practices, and the arrival of Turkic and Central Asian influences. In ancient India,
hunting was primarily done with simple weapons such as bows and arrows, spears, and
slingshots. These tools were used for both sport and securing food, with kings often
depicted hunting with bows, and this activity being intertwined with religious and
ceremonial practices.
However, during the Sultanate period, advanced weaponry, including swords, maces,
and occasionally firearms, became part of royal hunting, reflecting the growing
militarization of society. The Turkic rulers, who had Central Asian roots, brought
mounted hunting techniques, which allowed for faster and more mobile pursuits of
game. Hunting on horseback became more common, as it provided greater speed and
agility when chasing animals such as wild boar and tigers, marking a shift from the more
static hunting practices of earlier times, which often involved elephants or chariots.
Additionally, hunting dogs and falcons became more integral to royal hunting practices
during the Sultanate period. While ancient India saw the use of hunting dogs and
falcons, it was during the Sultanate period that these methods were refined. Falconry, in
particular, was elevated to a sophisticated practice, with trained birds of prey used to
catch smaller game, such as partridges and quail. The Turkic rulers were especially fond
of falconry, reflecting their Central Asian traditions.
Furthermore, hunting during the Sultanate period was more about displaying royal
power and military prowess. It became a prestigious activity symbolizing a king’s ability
to conquer both nature and his enemies. This contrasted with ancient India, where
hunting had more spiritual and ritualistic significance. Kings like Sultan Iltutmish were
known for their hunting skills, and hunting expeditions were seen as demonstrations of
bravery and strength.
The Sultanate period also witnessed a greater focus on hunting exotic and larger game.
While ancient Indian hunting practices concentrated on locally available animals like
deer, boar, and elephants, the Sultanate period saw rulers hunt tigers, lions, and
leopards, symbolizing their dominion and power. These animals, particularly tigers,
became symbols of royal valor, and the act of hunting them demonstrated the ruler’s
strength and control over their territory. The arrival of Turkic and Persian influences
also brought structural changes to hunting practices. Persian art and literature, which
celebrated royal hunting as a noble pursuit, influenced the Sultanate rulers. This period
saw the creation of formal hunting grounds, or "shikar" areas, which were reserved for
the elite, signaling a shift to a more organized approach to hunting.
Hunt records of Balban and Firoz Shah Tughluq-
The Shikar Diaries of Bulban & Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388) are
among the most detailed and significant records of royal hunting activities in medieval
India. These diaries provide invaluable insights into the king's personal passion for
hunting and his efforts to control both the human and natural world.
The Shikar Diaries of Sultan Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban (reigned 1266–1287) offer a
detailed account of his royal hunting activities, similar to those of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Balban's diaries document his passion for hunting, particularly the pursuit of big game,
such as tigers and leopards, and serve as a reflection of his political power and control
over nature. His hunting expeditions were seen as a way to demonstrate strength and
discipline, emphasizing the king's martial prowess and ability to dominate both human
and natural realms.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq's Shikar Diaries are particularly important for their extensive
documentation of the number and types of animals hunted, especially big cats like
tigers, and the methods used in these hunts. Historians have analyzed these diaries to
understand not only the royal hunting practices but also their cultural, political, and
ecological implications.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq's Shikar Diaries provide a detailed account of the royal hunts
conducted during his reign. These diaries recorded the number of tigers, leopards, and
other wild animals hunted, as well as the specifics of the hunting methods, hunting
parties, and the locations of these expeditions. According to the records, Firoz Shah
personally took part in numerous hunting expeditions, and his diaries boast of the king
hunting over 1,200 tigers throughout his reign, along with a significant number of
leopards and other animals. This staggering number reflects the scale of royal hunting
during his time, particularly focusing on the killing of tigers, which were considered
dangerous and prestigious trophies.
In addition to documenting the number of big cats killed, the Shikar Diaries describe
the methods used for hunting. Firoz Shah employed large hunting parties, which often
included trained dogs, elephants, and specialized traps to capture and kill tigers. The
diaries also mention the use of horses and archery in these hunts, reflecting the military
precision that often accompanied royal hunting expeditions. The Shikar Diaries also
include references to the royal use of big cats as trophies. The skins of tigers and
leopards were often displayed in royal courts, and the animals were sometimes used in
ceremonial processions. This further underscores the symbolic importance of these
animals as symbols of the king's authority and dominance over nature.
The omission of the term "Kesari" in paintings of lions from the Sultanate period might
be due to the fact that lions were not as central to the royal hunts as tigers were during
this era. The Sultans, particularly during the Delhi Sultanate, were more likely to engage
in hunts for tigers, which were seen as more fearsome and prestigious targets. In Islamic
and Persian artistic traditions, which influenced the Sultanate period, lions were often
symbolic but were not depicted as frequently in the same hunting context as tigers.
Lions were more often represented as regal and symbolic animals, used to emphasize
royal authority, courage, and dominion over nature.
Big cats and Big Dogs(Interaction of Mughals with Lions & Tigers)
Shēr ()ﺷﯿﺮ: was the most common old Persian term referring to both lion and Tiger. The
term was used in the Mughal period as well. But if confirmed with the sources, the
mughals were hunting lions, not the tigers because of two reasons. The first reason is
that the Tigers were not easy to trap and second reason was that the Mughals
successfully consolidated their power over the dry deciduous forest of India, where lions
were available abundantly and were easy to trap.
The fact is also confirmed by the use of the term Babbar sher more frequently for the
lions in Urdu. The term "Babbar Sher" ( )ﺑﺎﺑﺮ ﺷﯿﺮis believed to have originated from the
African term "Barabar" (or sometimes spelled "Barbary"). The term "Barabar"
specifically refers to the Barbary lion, a now-extinct subspecies of lion that was native to
North Africa, particularly the Barbary Coast, which includes parts of modern-day
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The fact that this term was used for lions is also
confirmed by the miniatures and the records of Shahjahan and Jahangir details of which
are provided below.
Why Lions were hunted more than the Tigers:- Tigers were more difficult to trap
compared to lions due to their behavior and habitat. Tigers tend to be solitary animals,
unlike lions, which live in prides and are easier to track. Tigers, being elusive and shy by
nature, were often harder to capture in traps or nets, which were commonly used during
royal hunts. Tigers were also more likely to retreat into dense, remote forests, making
them harder to find and hunt compared to lions, which were often found in more open
terrains. In contrast, lions were easier to locate and trap due to their group behavior
(living in prides) and their preference for more open, dry deciduous forests and
grasslands. This made lions more accessible targets for the Mughal emperors who
sought spectacular hunts and trophies to reinforce their authority.
During the Mughal period, the geographic distribution of lions was more concentrated
in specific regions, particularly the dry deciduous forests of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and
parts of Madhya Pradesh. The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) was primarily found in
the Gir Forest in Gujarat, where they were confined to a relatively small area. The
Mughal Empire spanned large parts of India, and the dry deciduous forests where lions
were found were more accessible to the Mughal rulers compared to the dense and
expansive forests of the Indian subcontinent where tigers roamed. This made lions
easier to hunt, especially in regions where Mughal control was strong.
Additionally, lions were seen as more prestigious and symbolic animals, which
reinforced the notion of Mughal emperors as the divine rulers capable of overcoming
powerful and dangerous creatures. As a result, the scarcity of lions in certain regions
made them even more valuable as royal trophies, further motivating their hunting by
Mughal rulers.
Lion as the "King of the Forest": Akbar's decision to declare the lion as the "King of
the Forest" was largely symbolic, rooted in the political and cultural values of the time.
The lion, known for its strength, majesty, and dominance, was associated with royal
authority and was often used as a symbol of kingship in Mughal iconography. By
declaring the lion as the "King of the Forest", Akbar was linking his own authority to the
qualities of the lion: dominance, bravery, and protection.
In his Shikar diaries, Akbar is known to have described the lion as a noble and regal
creature, embodying the qualities of a just ruler. This made the lion the perfect symbol
for the emperor, who saw himself as a protector of the realm and a figure of divine
kingship. The act of hunting lions in a ceremonial context reinforced this symbolism—by
conquering the lion, Akbar was positioning himself as the ultimate ruler, capable of
overcoming even the most powerful and untamed forces in nature.
Details in Miniatures and Records(Jahangir Shahjahan and Aurangzeb):-
miniatures and hunt records of Mughal period mention specific details about the
hunting techniques and hunted animals. One famous miniature illustrates Aurangzeb’s
lion hunt in the region of Bali, Madhya Pradesh. This miniature, painted in the 17th
century, shows the emperor in the midst of a grand hunt, with his royal entourage. In
this artwork, the lion is depicted as a majestic yet fierce creature, and the emperor’s
prowess in the hunt is showcased. This event is significant because it underscores the
symbolic role of the lion as a powerful adversary, reflecting the emperor’s ability to
conquer nature and maintain control over his empire.
The second miniature represents a lion hunt by Shah Jahan in the Malwa region, which
was known for its large populations of wild animals, including lions. Shah Jahan,
famous for his architectural legacy, was also keen on royal hunts as part of the Mughal
tradition. The miniature depicting this hunt shows Shah Jahan surrounded by his
courtiers and officials during a cooperative lion hunt (often called “Saajha”), where the
emperor and his entourage would work together to track and capture lions.
This hunt, depicted in intricate detail, shows the coordination of various hunting
techniques, including the use of trained hounds, archers, and elephants. It also
highlights the ceremonial and political significance of the hunt, demonstrating Shah
Jahan’s dominance over nature and his role as the protector of the realm. The lion, as a
symbol of both physical strength and royal authority, underscores Shah Jahan’s
connection to the regal imagery of power and control.
In the Jahangir Nama, the autobiography of Emperor Jahangir, there is a reference to
the hunting of four lions which were declared by Akbar as the "King of the Forest". This
account can be found in the Jahangir Nama (Book II), where Jahangir writes about a
royal hunt that took place in 1603. In this particular passage, Jahangir describes how he
was involved in the hunting of four lions that had been spotted in the wilds of the Malwa
region.This act is not only a demonstration of his martial prowess but also an effort to
continue the symbolic connection to the lion as a royal symbol that was first established
by Akbar.
The episode serves as a reflection of Jahangir’s continuity of his father’s royal traditions
and his own ability to maintain order and control over the natural world. Various
references to tigers in Jahangir Nama by Jahangir, tell us that Jahangir was mesmerised
by the beauty of Tigers, and he asked people not to hunt Tigers due to its ferocious
nature. The fact is also confirmed by the records of Aurangzeb.
Shikar Diaries in Medieval History
The Sikar Diaries are historical records primarily related to the hunting expeditions
conducted by Mughal and Sultanate rulers, notably those like Firoz Shah Tughlaq and
the Mughals during their reigns. These diaries were maintained by rulers or their court
officials, documenting the hunts, the number of animals killed (especially big cats), the
locations, and sometimes the methods used for hunting. In India, the origin of such
diaries can be traced back to the Sultanate and early Mughal periods. These diaries,
often maintained by the royal court, served multiple purposes, including political
propaganda, personal records, and documentation of royal authority over nature.
Historians such as G. S. Sardesai and Irving Habib have drawn from these records to
understand the ecological and political implications of royal hunting during these
periods.
The Mughal rulers, including Akbar and his successors, did not focus on hunting lions in
Eastern India, contrary to what might be expected given the presence of lions in that
region. Instead, they primarily hunted elephants and other animals. In the eastern
regions such as Bengal, the landscape and the type of prey were different from other
parts of India. Elephants, which were highly prized both for their size and as symbols of
power, were a primary focus for Mughal hunting parties. This focus on elephants was in
part due to their significance in both military and ceremonial functions within the
Mughal court. The Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar, often used elephants in battle,
making hunting them a show of strength and royal command.
Jahangir, known for his love of art and nature, took a more scientific and detailed
approach in his hunting records, particularly in his Sikar Diaries. Jahangir’s diaries are
unique in that they include observations about the anatomy and behavior of the animals
he hunted. He would often dissect the bodies of the animals to gain a better
understanding of their internal structure. In one notable entry, Jahangir describes the
internal organs of the tiger and reflects on how their physical attributes contributed to
their ferocity. This approach was ahead of its time, as it combined art, science, and
natural history. Additionally, Jahangir also included detailed sketches of the animals he
encountered, and he was known for his efforts to preserve their beauty through artistic
depictions.
The Shikar Diaries provide unique details about the animals hunted, especially big cats
like tigers and leopards. These diaries often describe the physical traits of the animals in
great detail. For example, they recorded the color of a tiger's fur, the size of its teeth, and
the number of claws on its paws, offering a scientific approach to understanding these
creatures. The Mughal emperors, especially Jahangir, showed particular interest in
dissecting the animals they hunted, making note of the internal structure of the animals,
such as their musculature and bone structures. Jahangir also recorded the habitat of
these creatures, noting the areas where specific animals were found and the challenges
of the terrain during hunting expeditions.
These diaries also offer extraordinary details about the methods used in hunting. For
example, large hunting parties with trained elephants, horses, and dogs were often
employed to track down and capture wild animals. The Sikar Diaries Provide specific
data on how these animals were trapped, whether using nets, cages, or poisoned arrows.
This information highlights the meticulous planning and strategy involved in royal
hunts. Historians like K.K. Aziz and Irina G. Shcherbakov have explored the detailed
techniques mentioned in the Shikar Diaries, especially regarding the tiger hunts under
Akbar and Jahangir.
The Shikar Diaries of the Mughal emperors provide a detailed record of hunting
practices during their reigns, offering valuable insights into the methods and logistics of
royal hunting expeditions. Hunting was a significant activity not just for sport, but as a
symbol of imperial power. Mughal rulers, like Akbar and Jahangir, utilized elephants as
the primary means of transport and protection during hunts, providing safety and a
commanding view of the terrain. They were often accompanied by wild buffaloes to
ward off dangerous animals like tigers and lions.
The military played a key role in these hunts, with soldiers, archers, and trained animals
ensuring a safe and efficient hunt. The Mughal rulers also employed specialized traps,
nets, and poisoned arrows to capture or kill animals, and dogs were used to track and
chase prey, particularly smaller game. The Shikar Diaries also highlight the organized
and grand nature of these hunts, demonstrating the Mughal emperor’s control over both
nature and their kingdom. Historians such as Irina Shcherbakovand A.R. Khanna
emphasizes the military precision and strategic planning involved in these expeditions,
reflecting the Mughal emphasis on strength and dominance.
Valmiki Thapar in his work “Exotic Aliens” tells that, During the reign of Emperor Akbar
and later rulers like Jahangir, the Mughal court showed great interest in exotic animals,
which were brought from regions as far as Africa and Central Asia. This included lions,
tigers, elephants, and other species. Jahangir, in particular, was known for his
fascination with animals, and his "Jahangir Nama" mentions the arrival of various
species from other countries, highlighting the imperial collection of rare animals for
both aesthetic and political purposes.
Britishers as part of big Hunt
The British colonial hunters relied extensively on local forest dwellers, including
indigenous tribes and experienced trackers, to locate tigers and leopards. These locals
were familiar with the movements, habitats, and behaviors of big cats and were
instrumental in guiding British officials to these animals. In return, the locals were often
paid or rewarded for their assistance. This practice not only exploited indigenous
expertise but also embedded the colonial hunting expeditions within the socio-economic
structure of rural India.
Unlike the Mughals, who maintained detailed Shikar Diaries with a focus on systematic
hunting on regular gaps which allowed the animal population to recover, the British
approach was opportunistic. Big cats, particularly tigers, were hunted as trophies or
symbols of personal and imperial dominance. The emphasis was on killing the animals
for their skins, skulls, and other body parts, which were displayed in estates, museums,
or shipped back to Britain as status symbols. This lack of planning and foresight meant
there was no regulation or consideration for the long-term impact on wildlife
populations.
Hunting big cats during British rule became a spectacle of colonial power and personal
valor. British officers organized grand hunting expeditions with lavish displays of
military and technological superiority, including firearms and armored elephants.
Rewards were offered to locals for capturing or killing tigers, and the practice was
institutionalized through financial incentives. Trophy hunting also became part of
colonial propaganda, showcasing the "civilizing mission" of taming India's wilderness
and eliminating perceived threats.
The British commodified tiger hunting, turning it into a commercial and recreational
enterprise. This overexploitation had devastating consequences for wildlife. Regions like
Junagadh in Gujarat gained notoriety for the scale of tiger hunting organized under
colonial officers. Over time, the unregulated killing of tigers led to a dramatic decline in
their population, pushing the species closer to endangerment. The indiscriminate nature
of British hunting expeditions disrupted ecosystems, as they targeted not only tigers but
also other predators and prey animals, destabilizing food chains.
The British approach to hunting big cats had lasting ecological and cultural
consequences. It decimated tiger populations in several regions of India and contributed
to the loss of biodiversity. The methods also marginalized indigenous practices and
knowledge systems, reducing the role of local communities to that of subordinates in
colonial hunting expeditions. This non-systematic and exploitative style of hunting
contrasted sharply with the more ceremonial and regulated practices of the Mughals,
highlighting the shift in attitudes toward wildlife during the colonial period.
