Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between
representatives of employees (usually a labor union) and
representatives of management (usually an employer or a group
of employers) to reach a mutually acceptable agreement
regarding wages, benefits, and other terms and conditions of
employment.
Characteristics
A. Representative Negotiation
1. _Employee Representation_: Collective bargaining involves
negotiation between representatives of employees (usually a
labor union) and representatives of management.
2. _Management Representation_: Management is represented by
authorized representatives who have the power to negotiate and
make decisions.
B. Mutual Agreement
1. _Voluntary Agreement_: Collective bargaining involves a
voluntary agreement between the parties.
2. _Mutual Acceptance_: The agreement reached through
collective bargaining is mutually acceptable to both parties.
C. Good Faith Negotiation
1. _Sincere Negotiation_: Collective bargaining requires good faith
negotiation, meaning that both parties must negotiate in a
sincere and honest manner.
2. _No Deception_: Both parties must avoid deception and
misrepresentation during the negotiation process.
D. Binding Agreement
1. _Contractual Agreement_: The agreement reached through
collective bargaining is a contractual agreement that is binding on
both parties.
2. _Enforceable Provisions_: The agreement includes enforceable
provisions that outline the rights and responsibilities of both
parties.
E. Collective Agreement
1. _Comprehensive Agreement_: Collective bargaining results in a
comprehensive agreement that covers all aspects of the
employment relationship.
2. _Standardized Terms_: The agreement establishes standardized
terms and conditions of employment for all employees covered by
the agreement.
F. Bargaining Unit
1. _Defined Group_: Collective bargaining involves a defined
group of employees who are represented by a labor union or other
employee representative.
2. _Common Interests_: The bargaining unit is based on common
interests and goals shared by the employees.
G. Negotiation Process
1. _Structured Process_: Collective bargaining involves a
structured negotiation process that includes preparation,
negotiation, and ratification.
2. _Formal Communication_: Communication between the parties
is formal and typically takes place through written
correspondence and face-to-face meetings.
H. Industrial Relations
1. _Employer-Employee Relationship_: Collective bargaining is an
integral part of the employer-employee relationship in industrial
relations.
2. _Regulatory Framework_: Collective bargaining is governed by a
regulatory framework that outlines the rights and responsibilities
of both parties.
Types
A. Distributive Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Distributive bargaining involves negotiating over a
fixed resource, such as wages or benefits.
2. _Characteristics_: Distributive bargaining is often competitive
and adversarial, with each party trying to maximize their gains.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over wages, where the union wants a
10% increase and the employer offers 5%.
B. Integrative Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Integrative bargaining involves finding mutually
beneficial solutions that satisfy both parties' interests.
2. _Characteristics_: Integrative bargaining is often collaborative
and cooperative, with both parties working together to find a
solution.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over working conditions, where the
union and employer work together to implement a flexible
scheduling system.
C. Interest-Based Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Interest-based bargaining involves understanding
the underlying interests and needs of both parties to find creative
solutions.
2. _Characteristics_: Interest-based bargaining is often focused on
finding mutually beneficial solutions that satisfy both parties'
interests.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over benefits, where the union and
employer work together to implement a comprehensive benefits
package.
D. Positional Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Positional bargaining involves taking a firm stance
on a particular issue and refusing to compromise.
2. _Characteristics_: Positional bargaining is often competitive and
adversarial, with each party trying to maximize their gains.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over wages, where the union takes a
firm stance on a 10% increase and refuses to compromise.
E. Principled Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Principled bargaining involves using objective
criteria and principles to guide the negotiation process.
2. _Characteristics_: Principled bargaining is often focused on
finding mutually beneficial solutions that satisfy both parties'
interests.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over working conditions, where the
union and employer use objective criteria such as industry
standards and safety regulations to guide the negotiation process.
F. Concessionary Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Concessionary bargaining involves making
concessions or compromises to reach an agreement.
2. _Characteristics_: Concessionary bargaining is often used in
situations where one party has more power or leverage than the
other.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over wages, where the union makes
concessions on benefits in exchange for a higher wage increase.
G. Collaborative Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Collaborative bargaining involves working together
to find mutually beneficial solutions.
2. _Characteristics_: Collaborative bargaining is often focused on
building trust and improving relationships between the parties.
3. _Example_: Negotiating over working conditions, where the
union and employer work together to implement a comprehensive
wellness program.
Process of collective bargaining
Step-1. Preparation (Pre-Negotiation Phase)
1. _Identify Goals and Objectives_: Both parties identify their goals
and objectives for the negotiation.
2. _Gather Data and Information_: Both parties gather data and
information to support their positions.
3. _Develop a Negotiation Strategy_: Both parties develop a
negotiation strategy, including identifying their walk-away points
and potential concessions.
Step-2. Negotiation (Face-to-Face Negotiation Phase)
1. _Initial Meeting_: The parties meet to discuss the agenda and
establish ground rules for the negotiation.
2. _Presentation of Proposals_: Each party presents their proposals
and supporting data.
3. _Discussion and Debate_: The parties engage in discussion and
debate to clarify and understand each other's positions.
4. _Counter-Proposals and Concessions_: The parties make
counter-proposals and concessions to try to reach an agreement.
Step-3. Bargaining (Give-and-Take Phase)
1. _Identify Areas of Agreement and Disagreement_: The parties
identify areas of agreement and disagreement.
2. _Make Concessions and Trade-Offs_: The parties make
concessions and trade-offs to try to reach an agreement.
3. _Use Objective Criteria_: The parties use objective criteria, such
as industry standards and market data, to support their positions.
Step-4. Agreement (Tentative Agreement Phase)
1. _Reach a Tentative Agreement_: The parties reach a tentative
agreement on the terms and conditions of employment.
2. _Review and Revise the Agreement_: The parties review and
revise the agreement to ensure that it is complete and accurate.
Step-5. Ratification (Ratification Phase)
1. _Union Membership Approval_: The union membership
approves the tentative agreement through a ratification vote.
2. _Employer Approval_: The employer approves the tentative
agreement through a formal acceptance process.
Step-6. Implementation (Implementation Phase)
1. _Implement the Agreement_: The parties implement the
agreement, including any changes to wages, benefits, or working
conditions.
2. _Monitor and Enforce the Agreement_: The parties monitor and
enforce the agreement to ensure compliance and resolve any
disputes that may arise.
Importance of collective bargaining
A. Improved Wages and Benefits
1. _Better Compensation_: Collective bargaining can lead to
improved wages and benefits for employees.
2. _Increased Job Satisfaction_: Higher wages and better benefits
can lead to increased job satisfaction and reduced turnover.
B. Enhanced Job Security
1. _Protection from Unfair Labor Practices_: Collective bargaining
can provide protection from unfair labor practices, such as
wrongful termination or discrimination.
2. _Seniority-Based Promotions and Layoffs_: Collective bargaining
can establish seniority-based promotions and layoffs, providing
greater job security for employees.
C. Better Working Conditions
1. _Improved Workplace Safety_: Collective bargaining can lead to
improved workplace safety and reduced risk of injury or illness.
2. _Reasonable Workloads and Schedules_: Collective bargaining
can establish reasonable workloads and schedules, reducing the
risk of burnout and improving work-life balance.
D. Increased Employee Voice and Participation
1. _Greater Autonomy and Decision-Making Power_: Collective
bargaining can provide employees with greater autonomy and
decision-making power.
2. _Improved Communication and Collaboration_: Collective
bargaining can improve communication and collaboration
between employees and management.
E. Reduced Conflict and Improved Labor Relations
1. _Reduced Strikes and Lockouts_: Collective bargaining can
reduce the likelihood of strikes and lockouts.
2. _Improved Trust and Cooperation_: Collective bargaining can
improve trust and cooperation between employees and
management.
F. Economic Benefits
1. _Increased Economic Efficiency_: Collective bargaining can lead
to increased economic efficiency by reducing turnover and
improving productivity.
2. _Improved Competitiveness_: Collective bargaining can
improve competitiveness by establishing fair wages and benefits
that attract and retain top talent.
G. Social Benefits
1. _Reduced Income Inequality_: Collective bargaining can help
reduce income inequality by establishing fair wages and benefits.
2. _Improved Social Justice_: Collective bargaining can promote
social justice by protecting workers' rights and promoting fair
labor practices.
Functions of collective bargaining
A. Wage Determination
1. _Negotiating Wages_: Collective bargaining involves
negotiating wages and salary structures.
2. _Establishing Wage Scales_: Collective bargaining establishes
wage scales and rates for different job categories.
B. Benefits and Allowances
1. _Negotiating Benefits_: Collective bargaining involves
negotiating benefits, such as health insurance, pensions, and paid
time off.
2. _Establishing Allowances_: Collective bargaining establishes
allowances, such as housing allowances, transportation
allowances, and meal allowances.
C. Working Conditions
1. _Improving Working Conditions_: Collective bargaining involves
improving working conditions, such as workplace safety, hours of
work, and job security.
2. _Establishing Workplace Policies_: Collective bargaining
establishes workplace policies, such as policies on discrimination,
harassment, and bullying.
D. Job Security
1. _Protecting Job Security_: Collective bargaining involves
protecting job security, such as preventing unfair labor practices
and ensuring that employees are treated fairly.
2. _Establishing Seniority Systems_: Collective bargaining
establishes seniority systems, which determine the order in which
employees are promoted, transferred, or laid off.
E. Grievance Resolution
1. _Resolving Grievances_: Collective bargaining involves
resolving grievances, such as complaints about wages, benefits,
or working conditions.
2. _Establishing Grievance Procedures_: Collective bargaining
establishes grievance procedures, which outline the steps that
employees must follow to resolve grievances.
F. Labor-Management Relations
1. _Improving Labor-Management Relations_: Collective
bargaining involves improving labor-management relations, such
as building trust, respect, and open communication.
2. _Establishing Labor-Management Committees_: Collective
bargaining establishes labor-management committees, which
provide a forum for employees and management to discuss issues
and resolve problems.
G. Industrial Peace
1. _Maintaining Industrial Peace_: Collective bargaining involves
maintaining industrial peace, such as preventing strikes, lockouts,
and other forms of industrial action.
2. _Establishing Dispute Resolution Procedures_: Collective
bargaining establishes dispute resolution procedures, which
provide a framework for resolving disputes and avoiding industrial
action.
Forms of collective bargaining
A. Single-Employer Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Single-employer bargaining involves negotiations
between a single employer and a union representing its
employees.
2. _Characteristics_: Single-employer bargaining is the most
common form of collective bargaining.
3. _Example_: A union representing employees at a single
manufacturing plant negotiates with the plant's management.
B. Multi-Employer Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Multi-employer bargaining involves negotiations
between multiple employers and a union representing their
employees.
2. _Characteristics_: Multi-employer bargaining is often used in
industries with multiple small employers.
3. _Example_: A union representing employees at multiple
construction companies negotiates with the companies'
management.
C. Industry-Wide Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Industry-wide bargaining involves negotiations
between a union representing employees across an entire
industry and employers or employer associations.
2. _Characteristics_: Industry-wide bargaining is often used in
industries with standardized wages and working conditions.
3. _Example_: A union representing employees across the entire
manufacturing industry negotiates with employer associations.
D. Pattern Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Pattern bargaining involves negotiations between
a union and an employer, with the goal of establishing a pattern
or standard for wages and working conditions across an industry.
2. _Characteristics_: Pattern bargaining is often used in industries
with multiple employers and unions.
3. _Example_: A union representing employees at a major
manufacturing company negotiates a contract that sets a pattern
for wages and working conditions across the industry.
E. Coalition Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Coalition bargaining involves negotiations
between multiple unions representing different groups of
employees and an employer or employer association.
2. _Characteristics_: Coalition bargaining is often used in
industries with multiple unions and complex labor relations.
3. _Example_: Multiple unions representing different groups of
employees at a hospital negotiate together with hospital
management.
F. Concerted Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Concerted bargaining involves negotiations
between multiple unions and employers, with the goal of
establishing a comprehensive agreement covering multiple
issues.
2. _Characteristics_: Concerted bargaining is often used in
industries with complex labor relations and multiple stakeholders.
3. _Example_: Multiple unions and employers in the airline
industry negotiate a comprehensive agreement covering wages,
benefits, and working conditions.
G. Coordinated Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Coordinated bargaining involves negotiations
between multiple unions and employers, with the goal of
establishing a coordinated approach to labor relations.
2. _Characteristics_: Coordinated bargaining is often used in
industries with multiple employers and unions.
3. _Example_: Multiple unions and employers in the
manufacturing industry negotiate a coordinated approach to labor
relations, including standardized wages and working conditions.
Principles of collective bargaining:
A. Voluntarism
1. _Definition_: Voluntarism refers to the willingness of both
parties to engage in collective bargaining.
2. _Characteristics_: Voluntarism is based on the principle of free
association and the right to bargain collectively.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer agree to engage in
collective bargaining to establish wages and working conditions.
B. Good Faith Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Good faith bargaining refers to the obligation of
both parties to negotiate in good faith.
2. _Characteristics_: Good faith bargaining requires both parties to
be honest, transparent, and willing to compromise.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in good faith
bargaining, exchanging proposals and counter-proposals in a spirit
of cooperation.
C. Mutual Respect
1. _Definition_: Mutual respect refers to the obligation of both
parties to treat each other with respect and dignity.
2. _Characteristics_: Mutual respect requires both parties to avoid
confrontational or aggressive behavior.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in collective
bargaining, treating each other with respect and dignity despite
disagreements.
D. Open Communication
1. _Definition_: Open communication refers to the obligation of
both parties to communicate openly and honestly.
2. _Characteristics_: Open communication requires both parties to
share information and listen to each other's concerns.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in collective
bargaining, sharing information and listening to each other's
concerns.
E. No Strikes or Lockouts
1. _Definition_: No strikes or lockouts refers to the obligation of
both parties to avoid strikes or lockouts during the collective
bargaining process.
2. _Characteristics_: No strikes or lockouts requires both parties to
engage in good faith bargaining and avoid confrontational
behavior.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer agree to a no-strike, no-
lockout clause during collective bargaining.
F. Arbitration
1. _Definition_: Arbitration refers to the use of a neutral third-
party to resolve disputes during collective bargaining.
2. _Characteristics_: Arbitration requires both parties to agree to
submit their disputes to a neutral third-party.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer agree to arbitration to
resolve a dispute over wages.
G. Fair Representation
1. _Definition_: Fair representation refers to the obligation of the
union to represent all employees fairly and without discrimination.
2. _Characteristics_: Fair representation requires the union to
avoid favoritism or discrimination against any employee.
3. _Example_: A union represents all employees fairly and without
discrimination during collective bargaining.
H. Transparency
1. _Definition_: Transparency refers to the obligation of both
parties to be transparent and honest during collective bargaining.
2. _Characteristics_: Transparency requires both parties to share
information and avoid hidden agendas.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in transparent
collective bargaining, sharing information and avoiding hidden
agendas.
I. Accountability
1. _Definition_: Accountability refers to the obligation of both
parties to be accountable for their actions during collective
bargaining.
2. _Characteristics_: Accountability requires both parties to take
responsibility for their actions and be answerable to each other.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in collective
bargaining, taking responsibility for their actions and being
answerable to each other.
J. Flexibility
1. _Definition_: Flexibility refers to the obligation of both parties to
be flexible and adaptable during collective bargaining.
2. _Characteristics_: Flexibility requires both parties to be willing
to compromise and adjust their positions.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in collective
bargaining, being flexible and adaptable to reach a mutually
beneficial agreement.
Conditions for effective collective bargaining
A. Strong and Effective Union Leadership
1. _Definition_: Strong and effective union leadership refers to the
ability of union leaders to represent the interests of their
members.
2. _Characteristics_: Strong and effective union leadership
requires leaders who are knowledgeable, skilled, and committed
to the interests of their members.
3. _Example_: A union leader who is knowledgeable about labor
laws and skilled in negotiation is able to effectively represent the
interests of their members.
B. Active Membership Participation
1. _Definition_: Active membership participation refers to the
involvement of union members in the collective bargaining
process.
2. _Characteristics_: Active membership participation requires
union members to be informed, engaged, and committed to the
collective bargaining process.
3. _Example_: Union members attend meetings, provide input on
proposals, and participate in ratification votes to demonstrate
their active participation in the collective bargaining process.
C. Good Faith Bargaining
1. _Definition_: Good faith bargaining refers to the obligation of
both parties to negotiate in good faith.
2. _Characteristics_: Good faith bargaining requires both parties to
be honest, transparent, and willing to compromise.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in good faith
bargaining, exchanging proposals and counter-proposals in a spirit
of cooperation.
D. Open Communication
1. _Definition_: Open communication refers to the free flow of
information between the union and the employer.
2. _Characteristics_: Open communication requires both parties to
share information and listen to each other's concerns.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in open
communication, sharing information and listening to each other's
concerns during the collective bargaining process.
E. Respect for the Bargaining Process
1. _Definition_: Respect for the bargaining process refers to the
obligation of both parties to respect the collective bargaining
process.
2. _Characteristics_: Respect for the bargaining process requires
both parties to adhere to the agreed-upon procedures and
protocols.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer respect the bargaining
process, adhering to the agreed-upon procedures and protocols
during the collective bargaining process.
F. Realistic Expectations
1. _Definition_: Realistic expectations refer to the understanding
of both parties of what can be achieved through collective
bargaining.
2. _Characteristics_: Realistic expectations require both parties to
have a clear understanding of their goals and limitations.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer have realistic
expectations about what can be achieved through collective
bargaining, avoiding unrealistic demands and focusing on
achievable goals.
G. Skilled Negotiators
1. _Definition_: Skilled negotiators refer to the ability of both
parties to negotiate effectively.
2. _Characteristics_: Skilled negotiators require both parties to
have knowledge of labor laws, negotiation skills, and an
understanding of the interests and needs of the other party.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer have skilled negotiators
who are knowledgeable about labor laws and skilled in
negotiation, enabling them to negotiate effectively.
H. Adequate Resources
1. _Definition_: Adequate resources refer to the availability of
resources, such as time, money, and personnel, to support the
collective bargaining process.
2. _Characteristics_: Adequate resources require both parties to
have sufficient resources to support the collective bargaining
process.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer have adequate resources,
including time, money, and personnel, to support the collective
bargaining process.
I. Support from Stakeholders
1. _Definition_: Support from stakeholders refers to the support
and backing of stakeholders, such as union members, employees,
and community leaders.
2. _Characteristics_: Support from stakeholders requires both
parties to have the support and backing of their stakeholders.
3. _Example_: A union has the support and backing of its
members, while an employer has the support and backing of its
employees and community leaders.
J. Favorable Economic Conditions
1. _Definition_: Favorable economic conditions refer to the
economic environment in which collective bargaining takes place.
2. _Characteristics_: Favorable economic conditions require a
stable and growing economy, with low unemployment and
inflation.
3. _Example_: A union and an employer engage in collective
bargaining during a period of economic growth and stability, with
low unemployment and inflation.
Workers' Participation in Management
Definition
Workers' participation in management refers to the
involvement of workers in the decision-making process of an
organization.
It involves the sharing of power and responsibility between
workers and management, with the goal of improving
organizational performance and worker well-being.
Objectives
1. *Improved productivity*: Workers' participation can lead to
increased motivation and productivity.
2. *Better decision-making*: Workers' input can provide valuable
insights and perspectives, leading to more informed decision-
making.
3. *Increased job satisfaction*: Workers' participation can lead to
increased job satisfaction and reduced turnover.
4. *Improved communication*: Workers' participation can
facilitate open and transparent communication between workers
and management.
Forms of Workers' Participation
1. *Works Committees*: Joint committees consisting of workers
and management representatives to discuss and resolve
workplace issues.
2. *Shop Stewards*: Elected worker representatives who act as
liaisons between workers and management.
3. *Quality Circles*: Small groups of workers who meet regularly
to discuss and improve work processes and quality.
4. *Suggestion Schemes*: Programs that encourage workers to
submit suggestions for improving work processes and
productivity.
5. *Co-Determination*: A system in which workers have equal
representation on the company's board of directors.
Benefits
1. *Improved productivity*: Workers' participation can lead to
increased motivation and productivity.
2. *Better decision-making*: Workers' input can provide valuable
insights and perspectives, leading to more informed decision-
making.
3. *Increased job satisfaction*: Workers' participation can lead to
increased job satisfaction and reduced turnover.
4. *Improved communication*: Workers' participation can
facilitate open and transparent communication between workers
and management.
5. *Reduced conflict*: Workers' participation can help to reduce
conflict and improve industrial relations.
Challenges
1. *Resistance from management*: Management may resist
workers' participation, fearing a loss of control or power.
2. *Lack of trust*: Workers may not trust management to
implement their suggestions or ideas.
3. *Limited resources*: Small organizations or those with limited
resources may struggle to implement workers' participation
programs.
4. *Cultural barriers*: Workers' participation may not be culturally
acceptable in some organizations or countries.
Best Practices
1. *Establish clear goals and objectives*: Clearly define the goals
and objectives of workers' participation programs.
2. *Provide training and support*: Provide training and support for
workers and management to ensure effective participation.
3. *Foster open communication*: Encourage open and transparent
communication between workers and management.
4. *Monitor and evaluate progress*: Regularly monitor and
evaluate the effectiveness of workers' participation programs.
5. *Address challenges and barriers*: Address challenges and
barriers to workers' participation, such as resistance from
management or lack of trust.
Roles of workers' participation in management
A. Decision-Making
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in decision-making involves
the involvement of workers in the decision-making process.
2. _Characteristics_: Decision-making participation requires
workers to have a say in the decisions that affect their work and
working conditions.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in deciding on changes to
work processes or procedures.
B. Problem-Solving
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in problem-solving involves
the involvement of workers in identifying and solving problems.
2. _Characteristics_: Problem-solving participation requires
workers to have the autonomy to identify and solve problems.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in identifying and solving
quality control problems.
C. Communication
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in communication involves
the involvement of workers in the communication process.
2. _Characteristics_: Communication participation requires
workers to have access to information and to be able to provide
feedback.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in regular meetings with
management to discuss workplace issues.
D. Planning
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in planning involves the
involvement of workers in the planning process.
2. _Characteristics_: Planning participation requires workers to
have a say in the planning process and to be able to provide
input.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in planning for changes to
work processes or procedures.
E. Control
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in control involves the
involvement of workers in the control process.
2. _Characteristics_: Control participation requires workers to have
a say in the control process and to be able to provide input.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in monitoring and controlling
work processes.
F. Evaluation
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in evaluation involves the
involvement of workers in the evaluation process.
2. _Characteristics_: Evaluation participation requires workers to
have a say in the evaluation process and to be able to provide
input.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in evaluating the
effectiveness of work processes or procedures.
G. Innovation
1. _Definition_: Workers' participation in innovation involves the
involvement of workers in the innovation process.
2. _Characteristics_: Innovation participation requires workers to
have the autonomy to generate and implement new ideas.
3. _Example_: Workers are involved in generating and
implementing new ideas for improving work processes or
products.
H. Representation
1. Definition: Workers' participation in representation involves the
involvement of workers in representing their interests.
2. Characteristics: Representation participation requires workers
to have a say in representing their interests and to be able to
provide input.
3. Example: Workers are involved in electing representatives to
negotiate with management.
I. Consultation
1. Definition: Workers' participation in consultation involves the
involvement of workers in the consultation process.
2. Characteristics: Consultation participation requires workers to
have access to information and to be able to provide feedback.
3. Example: Workers are involved in regular meetings with
management to discuss workplace issues.
J. Empowerment
1. Definition: Workers' participation in empowerment involves the
involvement of workers in the empowerment process.
2. Characteristics. Empowerment participation requires workers to
have the autonomy to make decisions and take action.
3. Example: Workers are involved in making decisions about their
work and working conditions.
