Compare and contrast intensive and extensive beef production systems.
How does climate
influence the choice of system in South Africa?
Intensive Beef Production
Characteristics:
Feedlots: Cattle are housed in feedlots where they are fed a diet of grains, silage, and other
feedstuffs. High Stocking Density: Higher animal density per unit area. Feed Production:
Significant land area is dedicated to growing feed crops like silage and hay. Management:
Requires careful management of fodder flow, health, economics, and animal buying/selling.
Health Risks: Increased risk of diseases such as lung diseases and metabolic problems (e.g.,
acidosis) due to high stocking density and concentrated feed.
Climate Influence: More common in areas with higher rainfall where land is better suited
for growing feed crops. In these regions, intensive systems maximize productivity through
controlled feeding and housing.
Extensive Beef Production Systems:
Characteristics: Grazing: Cattle graze on natural pastures or veld. Lower Stocking Density:
Fewer cattle per unit area compared to intensive systems. Limited Feed Production: Relies
on the natural carrying capacity of the land, with minimal external feed inputs. Breeds:
Utilizes breeds adapted to local environmental conditions.
Climate Influence: Preferred in drier areas with low carrying capacity and limited feed
production. In such regions, extensive systems reduce the need for external feed purchases
and focus on utilizing available grazing resources.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using indigenous breeds like the Nguni and
Brahman in extensive beef production systems in South Africa.
Advantages:
Adaptation: These breeds are well-adapted to local environmental conditions, such as high
temperatures and humidity. They are resilient to local parasites and diseases. Hardiness:
Indigenous breeds are generally hardy and require lower maintenance, making them
suitable for extensive systems where resources are limited. Fertility and Growth: Breeds like
the Nguni are known for good reproductive performance and can thrive on poorer quality
feed.
Disadvantages: Production Efficiency: While adapted to harsh conditions, indigenous
breeds may not produce as efficiently in terms of growth rate and meat quality compared to
some exotic breeds. Market Demand: In some markets, there might be higher demand for
the meat of exotic breeds due to perceived quality differences.
Why is the choice of cattle breed critical in intensive versus extensive beef production
systems, and how does it affect production efficiency and profitability?
Intensive Systems:
Breed Selection: In intensive systems, breeds that grow quickly and produce high-quality
meat are preferred, such as certain Bos Taurus breeds. These breeds thrive on high-energy
diets and can achieve fast weight gains in feedlots. Production Efficiency: High production
efficiency and faster growth rates contribute to higher profitability. However, these breeds
may not be as well adapted to environmental stressors, necessitating controlled housing
and feeding.
Extensive Systems:
Breed Selection: In extensive systems, breeds that are adapted to local environmental
conditions (e.g., heat, drought) are more suitable. Breeds like the Nguni or Brahman are
chosen for their hardiness and ability to perform well on lower-quality feed. Production
Efficiency: While these breeds may not have the rapid growth rates of intensive breeds,
their adaptability reduces the need for expensive feed and management inputs, improving
overall profitability in resource-limited settings.
Explain the role of Animal Scientists and Veterinarians in intensive beef production
systems.
Role of Animal Scientists: Feed Formulation: Animal Scientists develop balanced and
nutritious feed rations to meet the dietary needs of cattle in feedlots. They ensure that
feeds are properly formulated to optimize growth and health. Fodder Management:
Expertise in managing fodder production and flow, including sourcing and storing feed
materials. Health Management: Provide strategies for maintaining animal health, including
disease prevention and management protocols.
Role of Veterinarians: Disease Prevention: Monitor and manage health issues related to
high stocking densities, such as respiratory diseases and metabolic disorders (e.g., acidosis).
Health Protocols: Develop and implement vaccination and disease prevention programs.
Adaptation to Diets: Assist in adapting cattle to new diets to prevent digestive and
metabolic issues.
What factors should be considered when selecting breeds for cross-breeding programs in
South Africa's beef production systems?
Climate Adaptation: Select breeds that can thrive in the specific climatic conditions of the
production area, such as high temperatures or drought resistance. Growth Performance:
Choose breeds that offer desirable growth rates and feed conversion efficiencies. Disease
Resistance: Consider breeds with resistance to local diseases and parasites. Reproductive
Efficiency: Opt for breeds that demonstrate good fertility and calving rates. Market
Demand: Ensure that the cross-breeding program aligns with market preferences for meat
quality and carcass characteristics.
What are the potential health problems associated with high stocking densities in feedlot
systems, and how can they be managed?
Potential Health Problems: Lung Diseases: Increased risk of respiratory infections due to
high stocking densities and poor air quality in confined spaces. Acidosis: Metabolic disorder
caused by excessive consumption of high-grain diets, leading to a decrease in rumen ph.
Foot Problems: Increased risk of lameness and foot disorders due to the confined living
environment. Management Strategies: Ventilation: Ensure proper ventilation in feedlots to
reduce respiratory disease risk. Diet Management: Gradually adapt cattle to high-grain diets
to prevent acidosis and monitor rumen health regularly. Foot Care: Implement regular hoof
trimming and provide proper bedding to prevent foot problems.
Explain the importance of body condition score in relation to fertility and calving
percentages in beef cattle.
Body condition score (BCS) is a crucial factor affecting fertility and calving percentages in
beef cattle. The relationship between BCS and reproductive performance is as follows: Body
Condition Score Scale: BCS ranges from 1 to 5, where 1 indicates poor condition and 5
indicates excellent condition. Fertility and Calving Percentages: BCS 1.5: Very poor
condition, resulting in a significantly low calving percentage of around 10%. Cows in this
condition are less likely to conceive and carry a calf to term. BCS 2.0: Poor condition, with a
calving percentage of 50%. Cows in this state may struggle with conception and have a lower
chance of successful calving. BCS 2.5: Fair condition, yielding a calving percentage of 75%.
Cows with a BCS of 2.5 are more likely to conceive and maintain pregnancy but may still
face challenges. BCS 3.0: Optimal condition, resulting in a high calving percentage of 90%.
Cows in this condition are better able to conceive, carry the pregnancy, and produce a healthy
calf.
A cow with a BCS of at least 2.5 before the breeding season is more likely to achieve a body
condition of 3.0 by calving, which improves her chances of successful conception and
calving. Proper management to maintain or improve body condition is crucial for maximizing
reproductive performance and overall herd productivity.
Describe the optimal mating and calving management practices for beef cattle to
maximize herd productivity.
Optimal Mating Management: Heifer Mating: Heifers should be mated when they reach
65% of their mature weight, typically around 18-24 months. Early maturing breeds can be
mated earlier if they reach this weight threshold sooner. Young bulls should be used for
heifers to minimize the risk of injury. If heifers fail to conceive during their first breeding
season, they should be culled.
Mating Season: Heifers: The breeding season lasts about 42 days, allowing a second
opportunity within the same season if conception does not occur during the first oestrus
cycle. Cows: The herd breeding season spans 65 to 90 days, with the aim that about 60% of
calves are born within the first month of the calving season. A shorter mating period of 60
days can be used to achieve a more concentrated calving period.
Optimal Calving Management: Calving Season Planning: The calving season should
align with the veld’s active growth phase. For example, in sourveld regions, mating occurs
from November to January, with calving from August to October. In sweetveld regions,
mating is from December to February, with calving from September to November.
Nutritional Management: Ensure that cows are in good body condition (BCS ≥ 2.5) before
the breeding season to improve chances of conception and successful calving. Feed flow
should match the availability of resources to ensure optimal nutrition for both cows and
calves. Pregnancy Testing: Conduct pregnancy tests (internal palpation) 60-90 days after the
end of the breeding season to confirm pregnancies and manage culling decisions effectively.
Discuss the role of bulls in the breeding program, including considerations for herd size,
bull-to-cow ratio, and bull fertility.
Role of Bulls:
Herd Size and Bull-to-Cow Ratio: Single Bull Herds: Typically use one bull for every 50
cows (2% of herd). This ratio ensures that the bull can effectively cover all cows.
Multiple Bull Herds: Use 4% of the herd for bulls. Multiple bulls can cover more cows, but
individual bull performance may vary. Optimal Herd Size: For breeding and calving, the
maximum herd size is 200-300 cows, with an optimal size of 100-150 cows. For single bull
herds, the size ranges from 30-50 cows depending on the bull’s age and experience.
Bull Fertility: Age and Experience: Young bulls (12 months) can serve 10-12 cows, while
more mature bulls (18 months) can serve up to 20 cows. Scrotal Size: The scrotum size is
indicative of fertility. A two-year-old bull should have a minimum scrotal circumference of
32 cm. Scrotal size is correlated with ejaculate volume and overall reproductive performance.
How do breeding programs and nutritional management contribute to achieving
optimal calving percentages in beef herds?
Breeding Programs: Selection of Breeding Animals: Performance records and production
data are used to select high-quality breeding animals. Traits such as fertility, growth rates,
and calving ease are prioritized. Crossbreeding Systems: Using indigenous breeds like
Nguni and Afrikaner in crossbreeding programs can enhance reproductive performance and
adaptability. Properly planned crossbreeding systems improve fertility, birth and weaning
weights, and overall productivity.
Nutritional Management:
Veld Management: Ensuring that the calving season aligns with the veld’s active growth
phase maximizes the availability of nutritious forage for lactating cows and growing calves.
Feed Supplements: Addressing any nutrient deficiencies with supplements can improve herd
health and fertility, thereby increasing calving percentages. Condition Management:
Maintaining cows in an optimal body condition before and during the breeding season
enhances reproductive performance. Cows with adequate body reserves are more likely to
conceive and carry pregnancies to term.
Discuss the factors influencing weaning weight in beef cattle and how they can be
optimized.
Answer:
Factors Influencing Weaning Weight:
1. Veld Management:
2. Veld Types and Weight Gain: Sourveld: 115 kg gain (November to April). Mixed
Veld: 130 kg gain (November to May). Sweetveld: 180 kg gain (November to
June).Pasture: 160 kg gain (0.8 kg/day over 200 days).
Optimal Management: Good veld management ensures sufficient and nutritious forage,
leading to better weight gains. Nutritional Supplementation: Feed Supplements:
Addressing nutritional deficiencies on the veld can increase weaning weights. Calves can be
weaned at 190 kg if feed supplements are used.
Breeding Programs:
Genetic Improvement: Implementing a good breeding program enhances the genetic
potential of calves, improving weight gain. With optimal breeding, average weaning weights
can increase by 15-20 kg, reaching 210 kg.
Optimization Strategies:
Veld Management: Ensure that the calving season coincides with the veld’s active growth
phase for optimal forage availability.
Nutritional Management: Use feed supplements to address any deficiencies and support
better growth rates.
Breeding Programs: Select high-performance breeding animals to improve the genetic
potential for growth and weight gain.
Explain the significance of marketable mass and dressing percentages in beef cattle
production.
Marketable Mass:
Early Maturing Breeds: Such as Hereford, Angus, and Afrikaner, should achieve a
marketable mass of around 380 kg. These breeds reach market weight sooner but have lower
total weight compared to medium or late maturing breeds.
Medium Maturing Breeds: Such as Brahman and Sussex, are targeted at a marketable mass
of 410 kg. They take a bit longer to mature but offer a balance between early and late
maturing characteristics.
Late Maturing Breeds: Such as Simmentaller and Drakensberger, should reach a marketable
mass of 520 kg. These breeds take longer to mature but generally produce larger carcasses.
Dressing Percentages:
46% for beef cattle directly from the veld which is not finished. This lower
percentage reflects the impact of less optimal condition and fat cover.
60% for weaner calves slaughtered at about 380 kg, indicating a higher dressing
percentage due to younger age and less fat.
56% for 18-month-old animals slaughtered at about 420 kg, with more fat and a
better condition than younger animals.
53% for 30-month-old animals slaughtered at about 450 kg and for cattle finished on
the veld. These percentages account for added fat and condition.
56% for beef cattle finished in the feedlot, representing the highest dressing
percentage due to optimal feeding and fattening conditions.
Significance:
Marketable Mass: Determines the size and weight of the carcass, influencing market
value and suitability for different meat cuts and markets.
Dressing Percentages: Indicates the proportion of usable meat from the carcass,
influencing profitability and efficiency of meat production.
Describe the intake requirements for beef cattle in different production systems.
Intake Requirements:
General Intake: Daily Dry Matter (DM) Intake: 10 kg per animal per day.
Annual DM Intake: 3.5 tons per animal per year.
Feedlot Intake:
Feedlot: 1 tonne of DM per animal. Feedlot cattle are typically provided with high-energy
rations to maximize weight gain and fat deposition.
Water Intake: General Intake: 10% of body weight per day, excluding milk production.
This amount varies depending on the animal’s size, age, and environmental conditions.
Production System Considerations:
Veld and Pasture: Intake may vary based on forage availability and quality. Forage-based
systems require management to ensure that cattle receive adequate nutrition from pasture or
veld. Feedlot: Cattle in feedlots have higher DM intake due to high-energy feed rations
designed to maximize growth rates.
Optimization Strategies: Forage Management: Ensure quality forage and supplements to
meet intake requirements in veld and pasture-based systems. Feedlot Management: Provide
balanced rations and monitor intake to optimize growth and conversion efficiency in feedlot
systems.
How do breeding and nutritional management affect the dressing percentage and
marketable mass of beef cattle?
Breeding Management: Genetic Selection: Choosing breeds or individuals with desirable
traits (e.g., faster growth rates, better feed conversion) impacts both marketable mass and
dressing percentage. Early maturing breeds can be slaughtered at lower weights with good
dressing percentages, while late maturing breeds require more time to achieve higher
marketable masses.
Nutritional Management: Feed Quality and Quantity: Adequate nutrition supports
optimal growth and fat deposition, leading to higher marketable mass and better dressing
percentages. Properly finished cattle (e.g., in feedlots) tend to have higher dressing
percentages due to optimal fat cover and muscle development. Supplementation:
Addressing deficiencies with supplements can improve growth rates and overall body
condition, thereby enhancing both marketable mass and dressing percentage.
Explain the importance and methods of dehorning in beef cattle.
Importance of Dehorning:
Prevents Injury: Dehorning helps prevent injuries to other cattle and handlers by reducing
the risk of horn-related accidents. Eases Handling: Dehorned cattle are easier to manage,
requiring less space and reducing the risk of damage to equipment and facilities. Market
Value: Calves that have not been dehorned may receive a lower price at auctions and sales.
Methods of Dehorning:
Early Dehorning (1-3 Weeks): Hot Iron Method: Used when horn buttons can be felt. The
horn buds are burned to prevent horn development. Chemical Method: Applied before two
weeks of age. The horn buds are treated with chemicals after clipping the surrounding hair.
Care is needed to avoid chemical contact with the skin. Dehorning Calves Under 60 Days:
Hot or Cold Iron Methods: Suitable for calves younger than 60 days.
Dehorning Older Animals (Over 60 Days):
Barnes-Type Equipment: Effective for removing horns in older calves and cattle.
Electric Dehorning Equipment: Provides a fast and bloodless method.
Clippers and Saws: Used for older cattle, but bleeding and infections are risks. Careful
management is required to control bleeding and prevent fly infestations.
Discuss the different methods of castration in beef cattle and their appropriate usage
based on age.
Castration Methods:
Elastrator: Usage: Suitable for calves up to one week old. An elastic band is placed around
the scrotum to cut off blood supply, leading to castration.
Burdizzo: Usage: Used from one month of age. It clamps the spermatic cords to cause
damage and prevent blood flow, leading to castration without an open wound.
Knife Method: Usage: Suitable up to four months of age. Involves cutting the scrotum and
spermatic cords. This method poses a higher risk for bleeding, infection, and fly infestation.
General Recommendations: Early Castration (Before 3 Months): Preferred to minimize
stress and complications. Timing: Castration should be done as early as possible to reduce
risks and ease recovery.
Outline the different methods of weaning calves and the associated stress levels for each
method.
Weaning Methods:
Separate Camp: Description: Calves are removed and placed in a separate area away from
the cows. Stress Level: High, as calves are separated from their mothers and placed in a new
environment.
Cows Moved Away:
Description: Cows are moved to a different camp out of sight and earshot of the calves.
Stress Level: Lower than separation, as calves can stay in a familiar environment while
being separated from their mothers.
Calves in Same Camp: Description: Calves are placed in a pen within the same camp as the
cows. Stress Level: Moderate, as there is continued interaction between cows and calves,
leading to fatigue and potential stress.
Nose Plates: Description: Calves are fitted with nose plates that prevent them from drinking
from their mothers. Stress Level: Low, as it mimics the natural weaning process where the
cow would push the calf away.
Optimal Weaning Strategy: Minimize Stress: The nose plate method is considered the
least stressful for calves, as it aligns with natural weaning behaviors.
Explain the different methods of identification used in beef cattle and their purposes.
Identification Methods: Branding: Hot Branding Iron: Uses heat to brand the cattle's
neck or shoulder, creating a permanent mark. Cold Branding Iron: Uses a freezing method
to mark the cattle, causing less heat damage. Freeze Drying: Another method of branding
that uses a freezing technique to mark the cattle. Ear Notching: Cut Ears with Numbering
System: Involves cutting specific notches in the ear to create a unique identification code.
Ear Tags: Use of Ear Tag: Plastic or metal tags with unique identification numbers or codes
are attached to the ear. Tattooing: Tattoo in Ear: A permanent mark created using ink and a
tattooing device, usually in the ear, for easy identification.
Purpose: Management and Record Keeping: Identification methods help in tracking cattle
for management purposes, breeding records, and ownership. Market and Health Records:
Proper identification facilitates efficient marketing, health management, and traceability in
case of disease outbreaks.
