AN ASSESSMENT OF TIMBER AND FUEL WOOD

HARVESTING AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERN IN MID-HILL

COMMUNITY FORESTS, NEPAL
(A case study from Bhangara, Dharaamdaanda Saalghari and Ambote CFs of
Kaski district)
(An Internship report at Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province)

SUBMITTED BY:
Ganga Kandel
B.Sc. FINAL YEAR (2074-78)
INSTITUTE OF FORESTRY, POKHARA
TU REGISTRATION NUMBER: 2-2-47-43-2017

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF FORESTRY
POKHARA CAMPUS
POKHARA

PROJECT PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
FORESTRY

September, 2022
 AN ASSESSMENT OF TIMBER AND FUEL WOOD
HARVESTING AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERN IN MID-HILL
COMMUNITY FORESTS, NEPAL
(A case study from Bhangara, Dharaamdaanda Saalghari and Ambote CFs of Kaski
district)

Researcher
Ganga Kandel
TU Registration number: 2-2-47-43-2017
B.Sc. Forestry

Advisor Co -Advisor
Jit Narayan Sah, PhD Arjun Prasad Bastola, PhD
bhattarai.sushma@gmail
Associate Professor Associate Professor
Department of Forest Products and Engineering Department of Basic Science and Humanities
Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus
kmllamsal@gmail.com
Email: jitnarayan2008@gmail.com Email: arjun.bastola@pc.tu.edu.np

Field Supervisor
Shiva Pariyar
Assistant Forest Officer
Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province
Email: shiva.pariyar@gmail.com

Tribhuvan University
Institute of Forestry
Pokhara Campus
Pokhara

Project Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the

Degree of Bachelors of Science in Forestry

September, 2022
© Ganga Kandel

September, 2022
E-mail: kandelganga773@gmail.com
Tribhuvan University
Institute of Forestry,
Pokhara Campus,

Hariyokharkha, Pokhara-15, Kaski.

Web site: www.iofpc.edu.np

Citation:
Kandel, G. (2022). An Assessment of Timber and Fuel wood Harvesting and Distribution Pattern in
Mid-Hill Community Forests, Nepal (A case study from Bhangara, Dharaamdaanda Saalghari and
Ambote CFs of Kaski district). (An Internship report at Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province) A project
paper submitted to Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus, Pokhara, Nepal.
I
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the research report entitled "An Assessment of Timber and Fuel wood
Harvesting and Distribution Pattern in Mid-Hill Community Forests, Nepal (A case study
from Bhangara, Dharaamdaanda Saalghari and Ambote CFs of Kaski district)" is my own
work, except wherever acknowledged. The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted
to any other academic institutions for the award of degree. Errors, if any, are solely my own.

..................................................

Ganga Kandel

B.Sc. Forestry

Institute of Forestry

Pokhara Campus, Pokhara

15th September, 2022

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Never forget who helped you out while everyone else was making excuses

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my advisor Associate Professor Jit Narayan Sah,
PhD, my co-advisor Associate Professor Arjun Prasad Bastola, PhD and my field supervisor Mr.
Shiva Pariyar (AFO, Forest Directorate Gandaki Province) who have the attitude and the substance
of a genius: all of them continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard to my
research, without their guidance and persistent help this dissertation would not have been possible.

I am highly indebted to FRTC for providing internship opportunity in Forest Directorate, Gandaki
Province. I would like to thank Forest Director Mr. Ram Kaji Shrestha and all the staff of Forest
Directorate for their continuous support during my internship period. Also I am extremely thankful to
the Mr. Prabin Paudel (Assistant Soil Conservation Officer, Ministry of Forest, Environment and
Soil Conservation, Gandaki Province), Mr. Govinda Thapa (AFO, Rupa Subdivision Kaski), Mr.
Rajendra Sapkota, Mr. Milan Rajbhat (Foresters Rupa Subdivision), Chairpersons and Secretary’s of
all 3 Community Forests and each and every respondent of the Bhangara , Ambote and
Dharamdaanda Saalghari Community Forests for their kind co-operation and for providing required
information of the CF, in a very selfless manner. I want to thank all researchers and authors whose
work I have cited. I would like to thank all the respondents for their generous hospitality extended
towards me and my field team members during the field works.

I would like to thank my beloved parents, my brothers, and my entire family for being proud of me
and making me proud of them. I express my deepest gratitude to my room partner Sabina Sigdel for
being a support system to me, the internship mates (Btx Bishnu Kandel and Pravesh Chandra
Ghimire), Ms Alyeena K.C, Mr. Krishna Thapa Magar, and to everyone who have supported me
throughout entire process, both by keeping me harmonious and helping me putting pieces together. I
will be grateful forever for your love. Moreover, I am thankful to entire batch of 2074- 2078, and to
all respected teachers of IOF Campus, for their kind cooperation and optimistic attitude towards me
during four years of IOF journey.

Ganga Kandel

15th September, 2022

III
 ABSTRACT

Sustainable forest management requires proper harvesting of forest products. However, due to a lack of
competence and awareness in harvesting, the forest condition is deteriorating and forest products are
wasteful. Research is necessary to resolve this issue. Harvesting is a key aspect in reducing waste and
harm while also ensuring forest sustainability. Harvesting and equitable distribution aspects of different
forest products (FPs) mainly timber and fuelwood are very crucial for the sustainable management of
community forests (CFs). The objectives of the research are to identify harvesting practices, tools, and
techniques used, FPs distribution patterns, and to explore the common problems associated with FPs
harvesting and distribution. The study accessed the harvesting and distribution practices and their
deviation from the OP in three CFs of mid-hill Nepal. Both primary and secondary data were collected
from the household survey, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, operational plans (OP),
and constitutions of CFUGs. 20% of each CF's total household (HH) was chosen at random, with
proportions drawn from each well-being rank. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and
presented in different charts and tables. The study revealed that traditional methods were used during the
harvesting of FP with traditional tools like a sickle, bill hook, axe, and saw, but the application of
modern tools was limited. Some of the deviations were observed in FPs harvesting and distribution from
that of OP in practice. FPs mainly fuelwood was found to be distributed on an equal participatory basis
and timber on the behalf of application submitted following the priority and circular basis according to
the need, and users were found to be satisfied with the distribution system. The slope was the major
constraint for harvesting, as most of the marked trees were not cut because of difficulty in extraction.
Advance tools and training to handle should be provided to users, and regular monitoring should be done
by forest officials to guide them at least during the harvesting period so that users will be more
responsible during the harvesting operation.

Keywords: Deviations, Operational Plan, Product distribution, Traditional equipments, Traditional

methods

IV
 Table of Content

Letter of Acceptance from advisor ............................................................................................. I

Declaration ................................................................................................................................ II
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... III
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... IV
Table of Content ........................................................................................................................ V
List of Figure .......................................................................................................................... VII
List of Table ........................................................................................................................... VII
Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... VIII
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
Background ..................................................................................................................... 1
Objective ......................................................................................................................... 2
General objective ..................................................................................................... 2
Specific objective..................................................................................................... 2
Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 3
Rationale of study ........................................................................................................... 3
Limitation of study.......................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................ 5
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................ 8
Study area........................................................................................................................ 8
Research design .............................................................................................................. 9
Sampling design…………………………………………………………………………9
Data collection methods................................................................................................ 11
Primary data collection .......................................................................................... 11
Secondary data collection ...................................................................................... 12
Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………13
Socio-economic characteristics of user groups……………………………….....................13
Demographic Features………………………………………………………………………13
Livestock Holding……………………………………………………………………..14
Fuel wood consumption pattern of CFs…………………………………………….….14

V
 Harvesting status…………………………………………..…………………………..15
Existing practice of harvesting…………………………………………………………15
Marking of the tree:…………………………………………………………………….17
Harvesting practice of various FP………………………………………………….......17
Tending operation practiced in CF………………………………………………….....17
Compliance with CFOP in terms of harvesting…………………………………………….18
Tools and techniques for harvesting………………………………………………………..20
Tools and their usage…………………………………………………………………..20
Harvesting of FP…………………………………………………………………….…22
Modern tools used ……………………………………………………………….…...22
Forest product distribution………………………………………………………….……...22
Distribution pattern in CF………………………………………………….…….....22
Basis of FP distribution………………………………………………………..…22
Satisfaction about the distribution system…………………………………..……23
Most demanded FP as per respondents……………………………………….….23
Livestock number and fodder sufficiency…………………………………..……24
Compliance with CFOP in terms of FP distribution:…………………….………24
Problems and Constraints……………………………………………………………..24
Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………26
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION &RECOMMENDATION……………………………...27
Conclusion:…………………………………………………………………………...…...27
Recommendations………………………………………………………………………....27
CHAPTER SIX: INTERNSHIP SUMMARY……………………………………………....28
Background……………………………………………………………...………..…..28
Host institution profile………………………………………………...………..…….28
Accomplished task………………………………………………...…………..……...29
Challenges………………………………………………………...……………..……29
Lesson learnt…………………………………………………..………………...…….29
Conclusion……………………………………………….……………………...…….30
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………...……...31
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………...................33
Appendix 1: Questionnaires…………………………………………………...............33
Appendix 2: Photo Plates…………………………………………………………...…36

VI
 LISTS OF TABLES
Figure 1: Map of the study area…………………………………………………………………..8
Figure 2: Study Framework……………………………………………………………………...10
Figure 3: Sex composition of HH survey……………………………………………………….14
Figure 4: Fuel wood consumption pattern……………………………………………………….15
Figure 5: Harvesting Process ......................................................................................................... 16
Figure 6: Tools preference as per respondents .............................................................................. 21
Figure 7: Most demanded FP of all 3 CFs…...…………………………………………………..23

LISTS OF TABLES

Table 1: Socioeconomic attributes of sampled HHs ....................................................................... 13

Table 2: Deviations in tending operation with regard to OP ......................................................... ..18
Table 3: AAC of timber and fuelwood of 3 CFs ........................................................................... ..19
Table 4: Overall deviations observed in tabulated form:............................................................... ..20
Table 5: Tools used by CFUG's ..................................................................................................... ..21
Table 6: Priorities ranking during harvesting ................................................................................ ..22
Table 7: Overall deviations observed in distribution of FP……………………………………….24

VII
 ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS

AAC Annual Allowable Cut

AFO Assistant Forest Officer

B.S Bikram Sambat

CF Community Forest

Cft Cubic Feet

CFUGs Community Forest User Groups

DAGs Disadvantages Groups

DFO Division Forest Office

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FMPs Forest Management Plans

FPs Forest Products

FRA Forest Resources Assessment

FRTC Forest Research and Training Center

FUG Forest User Groups

HH Household

MPFS Master Plan for Forestry Sector

NTFPs Non-Timber Forest Products

OP Operational Plan

VIII
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Nepal is the leading country to devolve forest management from the government to local communities
for conservation, attracting international attention (Acharya, 2002). The forest is one of the most
important components of the farming system, as it provides fuel, building materials, and animal feed to
rural communities (Uphadaya, 1993). Community-based management of common-pool resources (CPRs)
has been an important land-use strategy in many nations in recent decades, with Nepal being one of the
first to implement this method of resource management (Adhikari et al., 2007). The National Forestry
Plan of 1976 and the Forest Sector Master Plan of 1988 set the groundwork for the creation of CF. The
Forest Act of 1993, the Forest Regulation of 1995, and, most recently, the Forest Act of 2019 backed up
this procedure (Bhusal et al., 2020).

The Forest Act 2019 defines community forests (CFs) as "any part of a national forest that has been
handed over to users for the development, protection, utilization, and management of forest resources"
(GON, 2019). The Forest Act 2019 defines CFUGs as self-perpetuating and autonomous entities with
perpetual succession, indicating they are free to exercise a greater degree of autonomy than in the past.
One of the very important objectives of the Master Plan for Forestry Sector (MPFS) 1988 is to meet
people's needs for fuelwood, fodder, timber, and other forest products. The CF program thus became one
of the major forestry components aimed at managing rural forests for equitable sharing of benefits
among stakeholders and sustainable management of forest resources. Equity issues are very important in
any development process, including community forestry for the multi-ethnic society of Nepal (Kanel,
1993). The Forest Act of 2019 and the revised Community Forest Development Guideline of 2014
devolved forest management rights to the community, including reinvestment rights to CFUGs, and set
forth how CFUGs should reinvest their income in community development, forest development,
women's empowerment, and pro-poor activities (Bhandari et. al., 2019).

The basic goal of CF management is to secure a long-term harvest that meets the needs of the users.
Forest product harvesting (FPs) is the process of felling permitted forest products to transfer them to the
depot (Shrestha, 2017). In Nepal, there are two ways of harvesting wood. It is consumed mainly in the
villages as poles, squared timber, or fuelwood. The other stream is through authorized contractors to the
sawmill and other wood processing mills. All harvesting activities are carried out by the forest user or on
a contract basis under the supervision of other members of the user group. Dead, fading, and fallen trees;

1
thinning as prescribed in the community forest management plan; extraction of timber as per the annual
allowable cut prescribed in the community forest management plan; trees that hinder development work
such as stretching of high tension lines of electricity; construction work such as roads, canals, etc.; for
the deployment of highly prioritized development work at the national level; timber required for the
construction and management of houses and agricultural implements of users; are the criteria adopted for
harvesting as per the MPFS, 1988 (MPFS, 1988). Moreover, the surplus supply of the product will
encourage industrial/local development and also mutual supply between urban and rural society. CFUGs
can get sustainable benefits from their forest only when the harvesting and distribution of forest products
are done scientifically.

Forest product harvesting entails the felling or cutting of authorized forest products, timber, and NTFPs,
as well as their storage. Harvesting should be done with appropriate technology, which is described as
meeting two fundamental criteria: It must be 1) sustainable and 2) accepted and adapted locally.
Whatever implement, tool or machine is added to a system to improve efficiency should be locally
available or may be created locally, according to sustainability. The term "sustainability" also refers to
the potential for environmental damage or disruption (e.g., to biodiversity) (FAO, 1996). Distribution
deals with the method of allocating forest products among CFUG members, including excess products
supplied to outside CFUGs. This is a vital part of benefit sharing among the FUG. The ways of
supplying surplus products to users outside the users are also considered in forest product distribution.

1.2 Objective

General objective

The overall objective of this research is to assess the existing harvesting practices and distribution
patterns of forest products in the community forests.

The specific objectives of this study are as follows:

• To identify harvesting practices and tools and techniques used during the harvest of forest products.
• To identify the pattern of distribution of forest products.
• To assess the deviation in the practice regarding to the OP and constraints during harvesting and
distribution of FPs.
2
Research Questions:

The overall scope of this study was guided by the following research questions regarding the forest
harvesting and product distribution patterns in community forests of mid-hills of Nepal:
 What are the prevalent harvesting practices in the community forest of the mid-hills of Nepal?
 What are the forest product distribution practices prevalent over there?
 What are the tools and techniques applied during harvest and current problems and constraints
associated with harvesting and distribution patterns?
 Does the practice of forest product harvesting and distribution deviate from the operational plan?

1.3 Rationale of study

Many Nepalese households depend on CFs to obtain fuel wood, fodder, timber, and other forest
products. Furthermore, in rural areas of Nepal, fuel wood is the main forest product collected for cooking
and heating. If managed properly, CFs can be a major tool for Nepal to eradicate poverty and improve
the living standards of rural people (G. C. et al., 2016). Although timber shares a large portion of the
benefits compared to other forest products, its contribution to rural livelihoods is limited as the timber is
largely used by the non-poor as the poor have a lower requirement for timber compared to the non-poor
(Upadhyay, 1993). However, we are still following the traditional forest management system, which
results in losing a large amount of productive timber and obtaining less revenue. Our forest management
system is vastly skewed towards conservation instead of active management (Bhusal et al., 2020). The
decision to collect in the CF is largely guided by decrees or schematic instructions from forest
bureaucrats, which is why the task of the FMP remains very controversial (Baral and Vacik, 2018).
However, putting conservation as the topmost priority of CF at the price of user groups' rights and well-
being is usually counter-productive (Sapkota et al., 2020). This has sparked some public sentiments
about CF's failure to provide tangible economic returns to local communities (Gilmour, 2016). Also, the
forestry sector is occasionally blamed for contributing less to the government treasury (Poudel, 2018),
ignoring its contribution to fulfilling demands for subsistence living and complementing other sectors
like agriculture and animal husbandry. Harvesting and equitable distribution aspects of different FPs are
very crucial for the sustainable management of community forestry. Forest User Groups, as well as
supporting organizations, are facing more challenges to ensure sustainable harvesting of these products.
Thus the technical capacity of both facilitating organizations and FUG in designing and implementing
assessment and monitoring of all FP as an integral part of forest management needs to be strengthened
and improved (Ojha et al., 2001). Only when FPs harvesting is done scientifically users can gain long-
3
term advantages from their forest (Heinrich, 1996). Harvesting should ideally be carried out following
the FMP; however, the FMP does not support harvesting decisions. Harvesting rules are guided by forest
administrators' discretions, which are based on political compulsion rather than economic factors. The
current level of harvest is much below the quantity that could be sustainably taken from forests (as
specified in the FMP) (Baral and Vacik, 2018). Forest conditions are deteriorating as a result of
conservative harvesting practices. There are ineffective policy instruments in place to regulate tree
harvesting. A comprehensive forest management approach is essential to promote sustainable
development. Forest conditions and CFUG requirements should be considered when developing FMPs.
They should be concise and applicable rather than becoming routine (Baral and Vacik, 2018).

Moreover, the forest management plans of many CF are prepared simply by assembling administrative
requirements and forest technicians' knowledge with little reference to actual site quality and users' needs
or demands (Basnyat et al., 2018). Increased benefits from CFs are needed to improve their contribution
to the livelihood and development of marginalized groups such as Dalits, women, and the poor (Baral et
al., 2018). The reason behind studying harvesting practices, tools and techniques used, the distribution
pattern of forest products, problems, and constraints in mid-hills is that most CF in mid-hills reveals the
rural background and the dependency of users on the forest for fuel wood, fodder, timber, leaf litter, etc.
for making their living. Most of the people around the forest are poor, dalit, disadvantaged communities,
and marginalized communities in most mid-hills CF. This study was particularly focused on a
representative community forest in the mid-hills to assess the provision and actual practice of forest
harvesting and forest product distribution.

1.4 Limitation
 This study does not represent harvesting and distribution pattern of FPs of whole
Nepal because of ecological and socio-economic differences.
 Due to time and budget constraint, data was collected from only three community forest.

4
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Forest biomass, particularly fodder, leaf litter, and grass, is an important forest product for bulky
agricultural households (Adhikari et al., 2004). Rural people are generally reliant on the forest,
particularly on community forests, to fulfill their basic needs like fuel wood and forage for livestock (G.
C. et al., 2016). Forests provide different goods and services to humankind in the form of forest
biodiversity (Mori et al., 2017). The CF program was specifically brought in to meet the subsistence
needs of local people and, at the same time, protect the forests by transferring user rights of forest
resources to the local users. Community forestry raises household income by harvesting and marketing
large trees and non-wood forest products in markets where they are available (Moktan et al., 2016).

In particular, CF in the hills of Nepal has been a triumph story, aiding the hill forests to recover rapidly
from deforestation (K. C. et al., 2014). Community forests have also contributed to various aspects of
society, like biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation (Oldekop et al., 2019). Community
forestry has been a major way to accomplish the subsistence desires of forest users in Nepal (Bhusal et
al., 2020). Most community forests distribute forest products within the CFUGs at a minimal rate or even
free of cost, whereas surplus products are usually traded outside the CFUGs at a higher price (Iversen et
al., 2006; Bampton and Cammaert, 2007). Nepal’s rural people particularly depend on CF for fuelwood,
fodder, timber for construction, medicinal products, and tree litter for compost and fertilizer (Dahal and
Cao, 2015). The analysis of various types of property regimes and degrees of forest product dependence
reveals that community forests provide a significant number of forest products to local forest users,
followed by national forests and private-land trees. Community forestry modifies the local forest
property regime by transferring management and use authority from the central government to local
forest users. The collection levels of forest products were significantly higher in community forests
(Adhikari et al., 2004).

CFUG prepares a forest management plan according to their needs, and forests are managed according to
the plan for resource utilization as well as protection and conservation. The basic assumption of the
CFUG is that users become united and become capable of managing community forests for their mutual
benefit. However, the requirements and interests of the households participating in community forests
are different depending upon their economic status. Poor people want to use it more for subsistence

5
purposes such as fodder, food, and firewood, while rich people are more interested in its commercial
value, such as timber (Bhattarai, 2016). It is seen that preventing the harvesting of superior quality green
trees and promoting only 4D (dead, dying, diseased, and decayed) trees might have enhanced the forest
cover but has unenthusiastically affected the benefits of CFUGs (Baral et al., 2018).

Villagers and users use traditional local tools such as the axe, sickle, and khurpa. However, in a few
cases, two men's cross saws are being used (Shrestha, 2000). The basic forest products needed by the
local people include firewood, fodder, timber, cattle bedding materials, and NTFPs. These are harvested
from forests by applying silviculture practices, which are often called "BAN GODNE" (Pokharel, 2000).
The recommended management procedures did not match the local practices, which were determined
while studying the role of the FMP in guiding harvesting practices. Harvesting decisions are usually
dictated by verbal directives from district forest bureaucrats such as DFO and rangers, followed by
administrative decrees (Devkota, 2010). In CF, three types of harvesting procedures are typically used:
collective paid labor, contractor system. In a collective system, all users volunteer to help with
harvesting activities. In the case of a paid labor system, an individual is hired to carry out forest
management activities, and the number of individuals to be hired depends on the workload to be carried
out in the forest. If users work as laborers, they are compensated. In the contractor system, an
enforceable agreement is made between an individual and users to carry out harvesting activities in the
forest. In this case, the lowest bidder wins the management contract, and the contractor can be an
outsider or a user (Pokharel, 2000).

CFUGs carry out different forest management activities, including silvicultural operations, to improve
their forest's condition, increase its productivity, and fulfill the forest product needs of their community.
Government and non-governmental organizations working in the forestry sector provide support for the
different silvicultural programs. To date, thousands of CFUGs have received practical forest
management training. Most of the trained CFUGs have applied their skills to the management of their
community forests (Luintel et al., 2009). The question of the effectiveness of the provision and
distribution of forest products to users presents some problems and uncertainties. To the extent that
systems are silviculturally conservative, users do not get much use from forests (Fisher, 1991). Conflicts
arise as to how the product should be distributed (Shrestha K. B., 1995). Fisher (1991) discovered that
equity in distribution is also important for distribution's "effectiveness". Siktel, 1995) also mentioned the
conflicts between a user group member and a committee member due to an improper decision on timber
sales outside the FUG. Forest-related laws provide a great deal of autonomy for CFUGs to manage forest
products, access to forest products, and benefit-sharing. Community forestry in Nepal has moved beyond

6
subsistence fuelwood and fodder for domestic needs to incorporate forests as the major source of
household income. Ranking households as per relative wealth and subsistence needs and then providing
livelihood security for the most vulnerable households helps in meeting poverty alleviation goals through
equitable distribution methods for forest products (Ojha et al., 2009).

Likewise, pro-poor mechanisms for the distribution of FP have also had positive effects on the
household's ability to meet livelihood needs. FP may be distributed at subsidized rates to poor
households and no cost to women-headed and extremely poor families (Bhattarai et al., 2009). For
instance, Mahila CFUG of Kalimati Rampur of Salyan district has moved from an equal distribution of
subsidized rates to more vulnerable members of the CFUG. Timber is sold at either 65 or 50 percent of
the actual price to users from designated poorer households and freely distributed at no cost to homeless
users. Such subsidies provide a more reliable and lucrative source of income for the poorest households
than was previously available, as members may buy forest products such as fuelwood at a low rate and
then sell them at the market for a substantially higher price (Ojha et al., 2009).

7
 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
This chapter provides information about study area, the data collection and analysis methods
that were used for the research.

3.1 Study area

Kaski district was selected as a study area that lies in the mid-hills of Gandaki Province, Nepal. It
occupies about 2017 km2 area. It lies between 28◦06’ and 28◦36’N latitude and 83◦40’ to 84◦12’ E
longitude. The altitude of Kaski ranges from 450 masl in the south to 8091 masl in the north. The climate
varies from the sub-tropical climate in lower elevations to the alpine and tundra in the north. The climate
varies from the sub-tropical climate in lower elevations to the alpine and tundra in the north. Different
kinds of vegetation i.e. sub-tropical broad-leafed forest, temperate forest, sub-alpine forest, and alpine
forest are found because of climate variation across different parts of the district (DFO, 2022). There is
509 CF comprising 21765.61ha forest areas. It is managed by 47,639 HHs (DOFSC, 2021). Three CF of
Kaski district i.e. Bhangara CF, Dharaamdaanda Saalghari CF, and Ambote CF of Rupa subdivision
were chosen to assess forest product harvesting and distribution patterns. These three CFs represent the
typical community forest of Mid-hills Nepal. Just like many other CF of mid- hills, Nepal; both are
medium-sized CF managed mostly by closely knit relatives mainly composed of the species like Schima
wallichii (Chilaune), Castanopsis indica (Katus), Shorea robusta (Sal), Diospyros melanoxylon (Tiju),
Madhuca indica (Mauwa), Bombax ceiba (Simal), Alnus nepalensis (Uttis), Syzygium cumini (Jamun),
Michelia champaca (Chaanp), etc. Analysis of these CF could give insights into the assessment of forest
product harvesting and distribution patterns in CFs of mid-hills, Nepal.

Fig 1: Location of study area

8
The criteria for selecting study area were listed below:
• The community forest should be minimum 10years of age, 100member HH as users and
minimum 50ha of area.

• The community forest is similar in socioeconomic and biophysical features compared to another
community forest of mid-hills.

• The community forest is at an accessible distance for the researcher.

Research Design:
The research design is of both qualitative as well as quantitative nature. Qualitative research aims at
discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in-depth interviews. It involves collecting
information to provide insight into the problem and identify courses of action. While the quantitative
aspect of research involves the systematic investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena such as
the quantity of forest product harvesting and distribution.

Sampling Design:
Out of total HH, 20% was randomly selected for the household survey in each CF so that they represent
all ethnic groups, caste, wealth class, etc.
The HH was selected randomly incorporating proportionately from each well-being rank according to the
consultation with CFUG.

Study framework
The framework as shown in Figure was adapted to carry out this study. The study started with secondary
information reviewed followed by various steps until final report presentation.

9
  Literature review
 Problem identification
 Setting of research
objectives

Data
Consultation with Consultation with key
collection
advisors informants

Primary Data
Secondary Data
Collection
Collection Review
a. Preliminary field
of relevant articles,
visit
journal and reports
b. FGD and KII
c. Household survey

Data Analysis
a. Qualitative data
analysis Report writing
and submission
b. Quantitative data
analysis
c. Tools used: MS
Excel, Arc GIS

Figure 2: Study framework

10
3.2 Data Collection Methods:
The nature of this research was both qualitative and descriptive. Both the primary and secondary
methods of data collection were used. These methods were described below.

3.2.1 Primary Data Collection:

Primary Data was collected based on the specific objective that needs to be fulfilled. It was gathered
through a reconnaissance survey, key informant interviews, a questionnaire (Household) survey, formal
and informal discussions, focus group discussions.

3.2.1.1 Reconnaissance Survey:

A preliminary survey was done to identify the existing situation of the study area, location; ethnic
composition of CFUGs, and major species of CFs. Rapport building with CFUGs members, committee
members, and Division Forest Office Staff was made.

3.2.1.2 Household Survey:

It was conducted to identify how much of the product of which forest products users get from the
community forest. The questionnaire was designed on behalf operational plan of the CF to find out
available forest products, season and method of harvesting being practiced, quantity harvested annually,
distribution pattern, and major problems associated with the distribution and harvesting of forest
products. The questionnaire survey was done by making structured and semi-structured questions.

3.2.1.3 Key Informant Survey:

The interview method was adopted for the collection of first-hand data from the key informants. This
was done to find out the distribution pattern of the FPs from the community. Both structured and semi-
structured interviews including both individual and group interviews were conducted. Altogether 6 KII is
performed for each CF. DFO, AFO, Ranger and Foresters of Sub division Office, Chairperson and
secretary of respective CFs, villager leaders, village elders, and teachers were taken as the key
informants.

11
3.2.1.4 Focus Group Discussion (FGD):

The discussion was held with men and women groups to triangulate the information obtained from the
HHs survey. This was conducted to take more information from the group. A common problem
regarding forest product harvesting and distribution pattern was asked from them to know their real and
felt needs. Dalit and disadvantaged communities was chosen for discussion.

3.2.2 Secondary Data Collection:

The secondary data was collected from a minute book of CFUGs, operational plan, constitution, and
other recorded data. From these sources, harvesting methods and distribution patterns of different forest
products and season of collecting forest products, participation from CFUG was collected and obtained.
IoF library and Internet Surfing were used for data collection.

3.3 Data analysis

The qualitative data was analyzed in descriptive texts while quantitative data were analyzed by using
statistical tools and results are presented as pie chart, bar diagram, mean and tables by using MS-
excel. Priority ranking using the Friedman test was done. Friedman test is the non-parametric test
which is used to test for differences between groups when the dependent variable being measured is
ordinal. It compares the mean ranks between the related groups and indicates how the groups
differed, in which mean rank means the average of the rank. Here, Users were asked about the
priorities they would give during harvesting of FPs and asked to rank them accordingly, 1 being the
first priority and 4 being least.

12
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results

4.1.1 Socioeconomic characteristics of user groups

The socioeconomic attributes of the surveyed household is presented in the Table. 20 %

sampling intensity was taken in all three forests. Hence total 42, 64 and 38 households were
surveyed in Bhangara, Dharamdaanda Saalghari and Ambote CF respectively.
Table 1: Socioeconomic attributes of sampled HHs

Bhangara CF Dharamdaanda Ambote CF

Saalghari CF

1. Sampled HH (n＝42, 20%) (n＝64, 20%) (n＝38, 20%)

(sampling
intensity)

Brahmin/Chhetri: Brahmin/Chhetri: Brahmin/Chhetri:

2. Sampled HH 30(71.42%) 40(62.5%) 20(52.6%)
percentage by Janajaati: 8(19%) Janajaati: 16(25%) Janajaati: 4(10.52%)
ethnicity Dalit: 4(9.52%) Dalit: 8(12.5%) Dalit: 14(36.84%)

No Formal education: No Formal education: No Formal education:

3. Education 4(9.5%) 8(12.5%) 4(11%)
level of Primary: 8 (19%) Primary: 24(37.5%) Primary: 16 (42%)
respondents Secondary: 24(57.5%) Secondary: 24 (37.5%) Secondary: 12 (31.5%)
Post-secondary: 6(14.5 %) Post-secondary: Post-secondary: 6(16%)
8(12.5%)
Agriculture: 22(52 %) Agriculture:44(68.75) Agriculture: 28(74%)
4. Primary Business: 12(28.5%) Business: 12(18.75%) Service: 10(26%)
occupation of Service: 8(20%) Service: 8(12.5%)
respondents

Source: Field Survey 2022

4.1.2 Demographic features

In Bhangara CF, total population constituted 579 male and 517 female. Likewise in Dharamdaanda
Saalghari CF and Ambote CF, there were 910 male and 888 female and 477 male and 457 female
respectively. Percentage of sex composition of survey is shown in Figure 3.

13
 Sex-composition of HH survey
70
60
Gender Composition

50
40
30
20
10
0
Dharamdaanda
Bhangara CF Ambote CF
Saalghari CF
Male percentage 66.66 62.5 31
Female percentage 33.33 37.5 69

Figure 3: Sex composition of HH survey of all 3 CFs

Most of the users of Bhangara CF and Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF were Brahmins-Chhetris followed by
Janajaati and Dalits; in Ambote CF, most users were Brahmins- Chhetris followed by Dalit and Janajati.
In Bhangara CF, Brahmin-Chhetri makes up about 55% population, Janajati makes up 31% and Dalit
makes 14%. In Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF, Brahmin-Chhetri makes up about 52% population, Janajati
makes 40 % and Dalit makes up 8%. Likewise in Ambote CF Brahmin-Chhetri makes up about 76%,
Dalit makes up17% and Janajati makes up 7%.

4.1.3 Livestock holding

Two goats or one buffalo or one and half cow was taken as one livestock unit (Pokharel et al., 2018). The
average livestock unit in Bhangara CF was 1.53, in Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF was 1.74 and in
Ambote CF was 2.7. Livestock holdings were seen more in middle class families than rich and poor.
Consequently, their demands for forest products were also higher.

4.1.4 Fuel wood consumption pattern

Fuel wood was found to be the major source of energy in all 3 CF. In all 3 CF, it was found that most of
the HH use fuel wood for cooking both their food and for cooking the animal's feed called Kudo. Most
households claimed that their demand for fuel wood particularly for cooking food is decreasing because
of the development of other alternative sources of energy. Most of the households of Ambote and
Bhangra CF had improved cooking stoves, LPG gases which decreased the usage of firewood for
cooking as well. However, 33.33% of households claimed their fuel wood demands to be increasing
because of the increase in the number of livestock. Figure 4 shows the usage of fuel wood for different
14
activities in Bhangara CF , Ambote CF and Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF.

Bhangara CF
Cooking
animals
feed only
34%

For both
61%

Cooking
food only
5%

Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF
Cooking animal
feed only
24%

For both
69% Cooking food only
7%

Fig 4: Fuelwood consumption pattern of all 3 CFs

4.1.5 Harvesting status

Existing practice of harvesting

The practice of harvesting is almost the same in all 3 CFs. It was found that, after the Executive
committee decides the day of harvest, the marking committee was formed for the marking of trees,
consisting of members from EC and some from general members as per availability of time and
interest. The notice of harvesting trees was then posted in various places to inform the users. The
chairperson then, informed the forest officials about harvesting, mainly through phone and self visit to
the sub-division office. The forest official upon the necessity of their technical support would visit the
15
CF and provide the required assistance. The trees generally marked were 4D trees, old, crooked, rotted,
and inferior trees considering tree competition factors and crown density into account. Almost in all 3
CF, there was the same provision of distribution of fuel wood which is on the behalf of their
participation i.e. the one who participates during harvesting collect the fuel wood and take the quantity
as collected by own self. After that, mostly used traditional equipment like an axe, sickle, and bill
hooks, and some used modern tools i.e. cross-cut saw and even power chain saw hiring, they would
fell trees. In the process, it was found that, mostly, users themselves were felling the trees, without
hiring the skilled manpower, as hiring skilled personnel would cost more. But some users along with
women-headed HH found hiring personnel for harvesting purposes.

EC meeting Marking Committee Notice to Users

formed

Inform Forest
Officials
FPs

Marking of trees
Harvesting of trees Users gathering

Figure 5: Harvesting Process

In all 3 CFs, the users were found knowledgeable about the directional felling when using Axe, as
the first cut was made in the felling direction and the back cut was made in the opposite direction
leaving some distance above from the first cut, but while using the saw, most of them were not
exactly known about the first cut to be made on the opposite of felling direction as they were
felling a tree, in the haphazard direction without considering felling direction into account. The
users would perform conversions like trimming, cutting off branches of felling trees, sawing, and
bucking in the forest, and then maximum of them would carry them back home on the same day.
Some users were using, vehicles for extracting trees, as carrying longer distances was difficult.
Selected CFs had not performed tending operations in a block-wise manner exactly as mentioned in
CFs OP. Fodder trees were extracted every year, by performing tending operations like thinning,
pruning, cleaning, and weeding.

16
4.1.5.1 Marking of the tree:
According to the survey, the tree marked for harvesting was found to be dead, dried standing tree,
dying, fallen trees, diseased, or deformed trees and also considering tree competition factor into
account. But for the harvesting committee, it was very hard to mark trees in difficult terrain as
some areas are in sloppy and steeping terrain.

4.1.5.2 Harvesting practice of various FP:

i. Small dry fuel wood: As per OP in Bhangara CF, the small dry fuel wood can be collected
5 days a month from Mangsir to Jestha without using weapons and in both of the CFs, it
can be collected the whole year on the days opened by the committee. But, as per HH and
key informant survey, the same was not practiced in the CF and users were only allowed to
collect the small dry fuel wood once a year, after a month of the main felling but in case,
the urgency of the fuel wood, they can collect without using a weapon from any part of the
forest.
ii. Green fuel wood: In all 3 CFs, the green fuel wood could only be obtained during tending
operation from the prescribed block, from the Mangsir up to Falgun. Those trees that are
old enough, diseased, dead, dying, deformed, and leaning was selected for harvesting. The
number of green fuel wood to be harvested according to the OP.
iii. Timber: In all 3 CFs, the time for harvesting of timber is the same i.e. from Mangsir to
Baishakh. For harvesting timber, one has to give the application along with details of the
quantity required and purpose which is submitted to the Executive committee, and on that
basis, looking at the need and priorities it is distributed. And for this, the application should
be submitted within Mangsir 15 by paying the price as declared by the E.C. The timber
should be collected from Mangsir 15 up to Baishak 15.
iv. Other FPs (such as danda, bhaataa): For this, the user needs to submit the application
mentioning the purpose, within Mangsir 15. And the danda, bhata can be harvested from
the prescribed block in which tending operation has been done, in the months between
Mangsir 15- Magh 15 and almost the provision is the same in all CFs.

4.1.5.3 Tending operation practiced in CF

Thinning: In all 3 CFs, thinning is done once a year, simultaneously, at the time of ban godnay for
the better growth of a limited number of trees, such that, the regeneration can get the space and
thus become free from competition with those adjacent old and 4D trees. Thinning is done after the
group selected by executive committee members, marked the trees for thinning.
17
Pruning: In Bhangara and Ambote CF, pruning is done once every 4-5 years as per requirement
likewise in Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF, pruning is done once in every 2-3 years. In the year,
when pruning is done, thinning is not done. It is done with the participation of all users, mainly
using traditional equipment sickle.

Weeding and Cleaning: In all 3 CFs, weeding and cleaning are done as the requirement but as per
the OP, it is mentioned weeding should be done every year when the forest is found to be covered
with bushes and shrubs disturbing the desired species of the area. Users used to cut, uproot and
remove the invasive species, undesired shrubs growth, climbers, and thorny species occurring and
disturbing the tree species using locally available harvesting tools.

4.1.5.4 Compliance with CFOP in terms of harvesting

In Bhangara, Dharamdaanda Saalghari, and Ambote CF the forest was divided into 2, 2, and 3 blocks
respectively for its management and harvesting are to be carried out in the specified blocks as stated in
OP, but there are some deviations as compared to the provision mentioned in OP in Dharamdaanda and
Ambote CF but same practice as per the OP in Bhangara CF, and observed deviations of forest
management practices concerning the OP are as follows:

Table 2: Deviations in the tending operation with regard to OP

Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF Ambote CF

Year Block to Block in which Block to do Block in which
do tending tending tending
tending operation was operation as per operation was
operation done OP done
as per OP
2074 2 1 2 1
2075 1 1 3 2
2076 2 2 1 3
2077 1 1 2 2
2078 2 2 3 1

The silvi-cultural operation was found to be done not exactly as per OP in Dharamdaanda
Saalghari CF and Ambote CF. The forests are not getting proper attention from the concerned
authority as having less valuable timber and even S. robusta (Sal) in less quantity not sufficient
and NTFP species and users and committee members not being aware of the need for harvesting in
a block-wise manner, the committee members and ban heralu decide the block which needs

18
silvicultural treatments based on their judgment while inspecting forest and on that basis, the
blocks were selected for doing the harvesting. Similarly, harvesting needs to be carried out based
on the annual increment of the growing stock-volume. The OPs has a provision for harvesting FPs,
especially timber and fuel wood. Such that,

Table3: AAC of timber and fuelwood of 3 CFs

Ambote CF Dharamdaanda Bhangara CF

Saalghari CF

Block AAC of AAC of AAC of AAC of AAC of AAC

timber fuel timber fuel timber of fuel
(Cft) wood wood (Cft) wood

(bhari) (bhari) (bhari)

1 675 630 857.01 615 1970.24 1275

2 608 736 811.88 795 1538.3 1073

3 1060 984 ----- ------ ------ ------

Total 2343 2350 1668.89 1410 3508.54 2348

Timber is harvested in less amount as per OP especially S. wallici/ C. indica (Chilaune/Katus)

species as this one is abundant but less preferred by the users and Sal trees are found in less
quantity not sufficient for all and the users found easy to purchase the quality and readymade
timber of S. robusta / D. sissoo (Sal/Sissoo) from market to use them as timber for their, new
construction. The OP mentioned how much fuelwood must be extracted from a specific block, but
the fuelwood is not extracted using such calculations because there are insufficient skilled people
to analyze such values. The overall deviation observed in all 3 CFs is generalized below:

19
 Table 4: Overall deviations observed in tabulated form
S.N. Practice stated in OP Actual practice
1. Harvesting should be done block wise. Not exactly as mentioned in OP in Ambote
and Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF.
2. During harvesting, scientific marking Marking by users and EC in most cases
should be done using Taccha with the without forest officials and without Taccha.
help forest technician.
3. Harvesting monitoring committee needs Numbering committee was formed from
to be formed from among E.C. to take among E.C. and users to mark trees for
details like time of harvest, tree number, cutting. Only Species was noted during
species, size etc, and to monitor the marking but not the size, and monitoring
harvest. was not done.
4. After preparing Depot register it have to Depot register were not prepared and no any
be submitted to sub-division forest office, submission.
and only then, sales and distribution have
to be done.
5. "Chappan" register, "Kataan" register and Only the marked trees are noted in a copy,
"Depot" register" have to be made. with the name of the trees species.
6. Marking should be done on two sides, one Marking was done only on one side, at
just above 6 inch from ground and other, comfortable height.
above 4.5 feet from ground.
7. During tending operation, bush clearance, Only cutting and making bhari of fuel wood
fodder tress and amlisho plantation, fire for oneself is the main interest.
line construction, erosion control
activities needs be done.
8. Harvesting of timber and fuel wood AAC is not taken into account, as no any
should be done considering AAC from the calculations are made while harvesting FP.
particular block as mentioned in the OP.

4.1.5.5 Tools and techniques for harvesting

Tools and their usage

In all 3 CFs, Users use their, own traditional tools like axe, sickle, bill hook, and cross-cut saw for
harvesting the forest product, being easy in using and not requiring special skills using as they have

20
 good experience of using traditional tools from the past, but the CFUGs use power chain saw rarely as
a modern tool. Modern tools are those tools that fell trees faster and require skills in using them, while
traditional tools are those which have been used in the past for harvesting purposes.
Table 5: Tools used by CFUG's

S.N Tools used For what purpose

1 Sickle Firewood cutting, bush cutting, pruning, cleaning, vines cutting,
thinning
2 Axe Felling tree, splitting, bucking, trimming and limbing
3 Bill hook For looping, bush cutting
4 Cross cut saw Logging, sound timber production, planking and bucking
5 Power chain saw Felling large diameter tree mainly for timber

The respondents were showing interest to use modern tools as they make the work easier, less tiring,
rapid, and more enjoyable, yet most of them are using traditional tools as modern tools like power chain
saw are found in limited number and also requires technical skills too which depicted by Figure 6.

Tools preference as per respondents

50
45
40
% of respondents

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Axe and Khurpa/ Power
Axe alone Saw alone
saw Sickle Chain Saw
Bhangara CF 18 12 44 14 12
Ambote CF 22 13 44 15 6
Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF 23 10 39 18 10

Figure 6: Tools preference as per respondents

Thus, it was discovered from the HH survey that many of the respondents preferred to use an axe and
saw because they were fast and easy to use, whereas few respondents preferred to use an axe alone and a
power chain saw alone, because only using an axe while felling is not possible because they need to fell
large sized trees as well, and to use power chain saw, they require special training, and this one is also
expensive for individuals to purchase. As a result, the majority of users preferred axe and saw.
21
4.1.5.6 Harvesting of FP
Users were asked about the priorities they would give during harvesting of FP and asked to rank them
accordingly, 1 being the first priority and 4 being least. Their responses were as follows:
Table 6: Priorities ranking during harvesting
Bhangara CF Ambote CF Dharamdaanda
Saalghari CF
Priorities Mean Priority Mean Priority Mean Priority
Rank Rank Rank
Safety 1.3 1st 1.6 2nd 1.2 1st
Regeneration 1.8 2
nd 1.4 1st 1.9 2
nd

Terrain 2.9 3
rd 2.7 3rd 3.0 3
rd

condition
Harvested 4.0 4
th 3.9 4th 4.1 4
th

wood quality
This table shows the different priorities of the HHs as analyzed by Friedman test.

4.1.5.7 Modern tools used

Overall, the analysis revealed that rich users used modern tools more frequently than traditional tools.
They have the purchasing and hiring capacity, whereas poor and medium-ranking users used
traditional tools because they were experienced in using them, were inexpensive, and were within
their purchasing and hiring capacity.

4.1.6 Forest product distribution

4.1.6.1 Distribution pattern in CF:
The same distribution pattern exists in the past and presents too in all 3 CFs since formation according to
HH survey. The distribution of timber is done on the behalf of the application submitted and the needy
one based on the investigation would be given priority or the circular way of distribution is in practice. In
the case of fuel wood, the households who have participated in harvesting are allowed to collect on their
own and take as much as collected.

4.1.6.2 Basis of FP distribution

In all 3 CFs, fuelwood is found to be distributed on participation basis as the individuals participated
during tending operations can collect the fuelwood and take as much as collected and in case of timber,
the distribution is done on the basis of application submitted and either priority or circular basis is
22
followed considering the situation and the users were satisfied with the this distribution pattern of
fuelwood and timber as most of the respondents prefer to equal distribution system rather than equitable
as per the HHs survey.

4.1.6.3 Satisfaction about the distribution system

From the HH survey, and focus group discussion, it was found that, most users were satisfied with
the system of distribution in the Bhangara CF. Likewise in Ambote CF, 75% of users were satisfied
with the system of distribution, and the remaining 25%, especially in some women-headed and poor
households prefer to have an equitable system of distribution. In the same way, more than 90% of
users of Dharamdaanda CF were found satisfied with the system of distribution, and about 7%
preferred an equitable system of distribution.
4.1.6.4 Most demanded FP
Fuel wood was the most demanded FPs as per a survey in all 3 CFs, since most of the HHs use fuel
wood for cooking both their food and animal feed called Kudo, followed by fodder. Most of the HHs
was rearing livestock so, fodder demand was also high. The demand for timber is seen high in
Bhangara CF followed by Ambote and Dharamdaanda Saalghari CFs but the demand for timber was
low as compared to fuelwood as users preferred to purchase the ready-made S. robusta (Sal), D.
sissoo (Sissoo) timber rather than using the S. wallichi- C. indica (Chilaune – Katus) tree from CF
though few of the Sal trees are also found in the CFs but not sufficient. This is seen in Figure 7.

Bhangara CF Ambote CF
50 50
% of respondents
% of respondents

40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
Fue Fuel
Tim Fod Gra Tim Fod Gras
lwo woo
ber der ss ber der s
od d
Bhangara CF 18 40 35 7 Ambote CF 11 39 42 8

Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF
% of respondents

60
40
20
0
Timber Fuelwood Fodder Grass
Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF 10 42 40 8

Figure 7: Most demanded FPs of all 3 CFs

23
4.1.6.5 Livestock number and fodder sufficiency
In Ambote CF and Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF, from the respondent, it was found that fodder is
insufficient for most of the users, and among them, users with more livestock have more fodder
insufficiency than users with less livestock due to more demand for fodder for more livestock but the
case is different in Bhangara CF as most of the household showed fodder sufficiency. The same
scenario is seen in the case of fuel wood too.

4.1.6.6 Compliance with CFOP in terms of FPs distribution:

In all 3 CFs, deviation is almost same in distribution pattern.
Table 7: Overall deviations observed in distribution of FP

S.N Practice as stated in OP Actual practice

1. CF should first issue a notice inviting users to Users' actual needs are not
submit applications based on their actual needs, requested. Those who pay the EC-
and then investigate the needs and priorities of determined amount will receive an
all applications received before making FP equal amount of FPs regardless of
distributions. their needs and demands.
2 FPs should be distributed on equitable basis. FPs distributed on equal basis.
In Bhangara CF, the fuel wood can be collected 5 days a month from Mangsir to Jestha according to
the OP but the users are only allowed to collect small dry fuel wood after a month of the main harvest
once a year.

Problems and Constraints

While summarizing household survey data, FGD data and KII data of all 3 CFs following problems and
constraints was observed during harvesting and distribution of FP:

1. Limited and inaccessible modern tools, as some users either have to wait, or have to cut with
the traditional equipments, they posses due to lack of sufficient modern tools.
2. Regenerations, notably younger vegetations were highly affected during tree felling as most of
the felling was done without looping priori.
3. The steep slope makes harvesting difficult and expensive because they must either hire
harvesting personnel and pay fees or cut it themselves, risking their lives.
4. Invasive species in the area, is also affecting the regeneration, competing with the seedling and

24
 saplings.
5. The stump of the tree were lacking the marks, so it was difficult to assess whether the trees
that were cut was a marked one or not.
6. Most of the Stump height was not kept at minimum when felling those 4D trees.
7. Inadequate pre-planning as they were hurry to start job.
8. Some marked old, deformed, dead, dying, trees with broad base being difficult to fell were not
cut, and they were residing there, only, occupying the area and degrading the place.
9. There was low technical coordination among forest official during the harvesting periods.
10. Because the majority of the users were older and less educated, they lacked skilled labor
during the harvest unless they hired skilled labor. In addition, there is a shortage of skilled
labor to record data on harvested and distributed quantities of various FP.
11. Since, there were no any forest officials during marking of trees, thus there was no guarantee
that only dead, decaying, dried, deformed, crooked, rotted, and desirable trees were marked.
12. There are livestock in many household but very limited fodder species in the CF.

4.2 Discussion

The study findings are also similar to published literature. Harvesting has to be done block-wise as
stated in OP, but was not found exactly doing as mentioned in OP in Dharamdaanda Saalghari CF
and Ambote CF, but found same as OP in Bhangara CF which tells that, management is guided more
by the CFUGs, and least by the OP, and this is also supported by Baral and Vacik, 2018 and Pahari
and Bhattarai, 2020. No taccha were used and the marking was also done in absence of a forest
technician which is even justified by Pahari and Bhattarai, 2020.

Gentle (2000) discovered that the CF in Pyuthan, a mid-hill, is less favorable to poor and DAGs than
wealthier people, and is widening the gap between poor and wealthier users; however, my findings
revealed that all users are satisfied with the distribution system, that it is not widening the gap
between rich and poor, and that the majority of users prefer equal participatory distribution pattern.
This may be due to less demand of timber by the users. According to Yadav (2003), harvesting is
done based on actual demands for forest products, but in the selected CFs, the executive committee
determines the harvesting quantity of the trees. Though distribution is done on equal participatory and
application basis, users are satisfied with this system of distribution. Harvesting of timber and fuel
wood should have to be done considering the AAC of the particular block but, it was not found doing
so, as per Baral and Vacik, 2018 and Pahari and Bhattarai, 2020 and this also coincides with the

25
result of my research too. Similarly, harvesting practices destroyed undergrowth as a result of poor
handling of harvested logs while transporting them from forests to the log yard. The same result was
found in my study area too, where most of the regeneration was lost during tree felling. Various
activities such as bush clearance, fodder tree and Amrisho plantation, and erosion control were
required during tending operations, but such activities were not carried out because most users were
only concerned with cutting the trees, making bhari for them, and utilizing the FP, rather than
carrying out such activities.

Because there are fewer modern tools available and, most importantly, using them doesn't require
learning new skills, users were found to use traditional tools more frequently than modern ones. Axe
and saw were the most preferred tools and, saw alone and power chain saw were least preferred due
to the requirement of technical skills and even being costly too. Thus still the traditional tools are the
most used in CF, and this finding resonates with the conclusion made by Yadav, 2003.

Among all the forest products from the result, the demand for fuel wood was found to be highest
among the users. Since all the CFs have only a few Sal trees and are dominated by Chilaune- Katus
type of forest, most of the users do not prefer using these species over Sal, and Sissoo species and
prefer to buy from the market, so this may be the cause for less demand of timber. Most of the users
depend on fuel wood either for cooking food, for cooking animal feeds, or both, so this may be the
reason for being fuel wood the most demanded FP. Thus, the forests of the hilly region were not used
for financial gain, which is supported by Gautem's 1991 finding.

It has been found that HHs with more livestock units consume more fuelwood which is also
supported by Mahapatra and Mitchell (1999), Cooke (2000), and Baland et al. (2012). This is due to
the need for fuel wood to prepare the cattle feed known as Kundo or Khole, which is a boiled mixture
of straw, oilseed cake, flour, and grain husk (Bajracharya, 1983).

26
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion:
Most users were found using traditional equipments due to financial constraints and the technical skills
required to use modern tools, but they are willing to use modern tools by taking training on how to use
modern tools. Users had prior experience with traditional tools, so they were aware of directional felling
when using traditional tools, but most users were unsure about directional felling when using a saw
alone. Harvesting of forest products was rarely done block by block as per OP in 2 of the CFs but was
done as per Executive Committee decision. The forest products mainly fuelwood were distributed on an
equal participatory basis and timber were distributed on the behalf of the application submitted and the
needy one based on the investigation would be given priority or the circular way of distribution is in
practice and most of the users were satisfied with the distribution system, but, some women-headed and
poor families were wishing for an equitable distribution system in case of fuelwood mainly. The slope
was the major constraint for harvesting, as most of the marked trees were not cut because of difficulty in
extraction. Since these all CFs are the forest with low-value timber species as there is less interest of
people in the tree of inferior quality, thus, it is the user's dedication and interest that they are conserving
the forest in the way they can without any profit motive.

5.2 Recommendations:
1. The forest officials should regularly visit the site, at least during marking of the tree, so that, only
those trees that needs removal are marked, considering the terrain factor, competition, and crown
density.
2. It would be better, if the DFO, or any other, institution could support the CFs, for purchasing more
number of modern tools like Cross cut saw and provide Power chain saw at the time of harvesting at
least for doing harvesting, so that, every user could harvest the forest products with easiness and less
wastage.
3. Because many users were unaware of the felling direction when harvesting with a cross cut saw,
directional felling training is required. As a result, harvesting could be improved, with less physical
risk and less damage to regeneration.
4. Appropriate planning should be made before performing harvesting operation like securing the
escape route, taking sharp and comfortable equipment, landing sites, regenerations nearby etc. Stump
height should be kept at height less than 30 cm when felling trees.

5. There should be sufficient technical coordination between DFO, and committee members. Almost
every user has livestock, so planting fodder tree species could help users to some extent too.
27
 CHAPTER SIX: INTERNSHIP SUMMARY

6.1 Internship description

6.1.1 Background

Though CF is itself an independent institution, it needs technical support from the government and
other stakeholders. Technical personnel facilating CF must have knowledge about the technical as well
social aspects of forestry. Internship provides opportunities for students to obtain first-hand
experiences in the everyday functions of an organization (Cheong et al., 2014). It helps students gain
the new wide perspective of subject and broaden their horizon. Internship is in fact a two-way
partnership between host organization and students. Students get a workplace to showcase the skills
that they have learned in the real world and opportunity to learn some soft skills (e.g. good
communication skills, critical thinking, time management abilities, problem-solving skills, team work,
self- confidence, ability to accept and learn from criticism, etc.) which have proven to be effective over
many years. The host organization, on the other hand, gets some of its work done. Only theoretical
knowledge hemisphere is not sufficient for the students to function. So, practical knowledge of how to
work officially, how to deal with the situation is also required and this internship provided me that
opportunity.

Acknowledging the learning beyond the walls of classroom, emphases have been placed on internship
in an undergraduate course of Forestry by Tribhuvan University. This internship was done for the partial
fulfilment requirements of B.Sc. Forestry degree. FRTC mobilized the students to different
organizations working on natural resource management across Nepal. As a part of this, I was assigned
as an intern in Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province by FRTC. I was assigned to perform my duties
under the theme ―Community Based Forest Management‖. Internship period was of four month long
starting from 5th Falgun, 2078 to 5th Ashad, 2079.

6.1.2 Host institution profile:

FRTC is a government entity which falls under the Ministry of Forests and Environment. It is
responsible for different forestry research and survey activities at the national level. I was assigned to
Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province by FRTC for internship. Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province
operates under Ministry of Forest Environment and Soil Conservation, Gandaki Province. Forest

28
 Directorate, Gandaki Province supervises Division Forest Office, Soil Conservation Office, Forest
Research and Training Centre, Gandaki Province, Lake Conservation Office and so on. I was an intern
under the supervision of AFO, Mr.Shiva Pariyar, Forest Directorate, Gandaki Province.

6.2 Internship learning

6.2.1 Learnt task

Task on office

 Carried out day to day functions of office like filing, letter typing.

 Report Writing and Nepali typing.

 Digitization of the community forests of Kaski District.

 Involved in Second Quarterly Progress Review and Seminar on Planning of Fiscal year 079/080
organized by Forest Directorate Pokhara.

6.3 Challenges

6.3.1 New working environment

Working in the official environment was a complete new experience for me. There were challenges of
learning and coping in the environment
6.3.2 Time management
With internship and research for partial fulfillment of bachelor's degree going parallel, time
management sometimes became an issue.

6.4 Lesson learnt

Internship helped me to groom both personally and professionally. This four month period was bumpy
ride with lots of up and down .It taught me what it takes to be good forester as well as a good human.
Some of the key lessons that I learnt during my internship period are as follow;-

6.4.1 Soft skills

Internship helped me to enhance my soft skills like time management, team work, decision making and

29
 communication skills. It helped me to be more social and meet new people.

6.4.2 Organization exploration

Internship at Forest Directorate helped me to understand how government entity works. I got to know
out work divisions of Forest Directorate. I also learned about work ethics and how to be efficient in
different situations.

6.5 Conclusion

These four months long internship was a beautiful journey. There were many ups and down but at the
end it harnessed my technical as well as soft skills. It helped me to practically evaluate what I learnt during
four years at Institute of Forestry. I as a forester came out with the different set of skills to overcome
real life problems and take a proper decision for natural resource management. To summarize, this
four month internship period was one of the most fruitful phase of my academic career where I learnt
what it takes to be a proficientforester.

30
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APPENDICES
ANNEX-1
1. Questionnaire

33
Household survey
Harvesting Forest Products
1. Name of the respondent:
2. Age a. 18-35 b. 36-55 c. 55 above
3. Gender : Male Female
4. Address:
5. Education status a. Illiterate b. Primary c. Secondary d. SLC e. Campus level
6. Livestock with their number:
a. Buffalo c. Cow
b. Goat d. Oxen
7. Fuel wood consumption for
a. Cooking food only
b. Cooking animal feed only
c. For both
8. Most demanded FP: c. Fodder
a. Timber d. Grass
b. Fuel wood
9. Do you know, what are tending / harvesting operation carried out in your CF?
a. Yes b. No
If yes, please provide details.
10. Which tools do you find comfortable
a. Axe alone e. Power chain Saw
b. Saw alone f. Any other?
c. Axe and Saw
d. Khurpa /sickle

11. Modern tools used frequently? Yes or No

12. What comes under priority during cutting?

Measures Priority
Own Safety
Regeneration
Terrain condition

34
Forest Products Distribution

1. How is the FP distributed? Past and now?

2. Are you satisfied with the existing method of distributing FP? a. Yes b. No
3. If no, what is the reason of dissatisfaction?
4. Which one do you find better between the previous distribution system and present distribution system and
why?
5. Is it equity based or equality based?
6. And which do you prefer, among equality based and equity based distribution? Why?
7. Is there any provision of providing forest product to people other than user group? Who are they?
8. Who makes decision for selling FP outside the User group?
9. What is the rule of FP Distribution for users who do not participate in tending operation?

Forest products As per OP Actual Practice Why? (if deviation)

Dried fuel wood
(sukakojhijaad aura)
Green fuel wood
(kachhodauura)
Timber
Dada, balo, bhata
Agricultural implements

PROBLEMS

1. Modern Tools availability and sufficiency for harvesting

2. Regeneration affected?
3. Does this condition exist →trees get wasted in forest but users suffering?
4. Poor and DAGs Satisfaction?
5. The existing erosion prone area affected by harvesting? (Adaptive measures?
6. Is there Conflict?? Or is the distribution fair?
7. Theft of various forest products
8. Support from any other institutions: DFO, NGOs any? Any other problems?

Focus Group Discussion

( Poor and Dalits, Distant users and Near users)

1. Are there any special provisions for distributing forest products for the poor and
disadvantaged people? a.Yes b. No

If yes, please provide details:

Forest products Provisions What do you think about these

provisions?
Timber
Fuelwood
…….

35
2. Are you satisfied with the existing distribution pattern of FP?

3. If not, what should be the system?

4. What are the issues and challenges faced by you (group) for getting desired FP?

(Distant users)
5. Are you satisfied with the distribution pattern of the CF?
6. What it should be to make you satisfied?
7. What are the problems you faced?? In using the FP, as compared to near users?

ANNEX- 2
Photo plates

Household Survey

36
Key Informant Interview

Focus Group Discussion

Internship Photos

37