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Prospects of botanical pesticides

for the future in integrated pest
management programme (IPM) with
special reference to neem uses in
Egypt
a
Nadia Z. Dimetry
a
Department of Pests and Plant Protection, National Research
Centre, Dokki, 1231 Cairo, Egypt
Published online: 16 May 2012.

To cite this article: Nadia Z. Dimetry (2012) Prospects of botanical pesticides for the
future in integrated pest management programme (IPM) with special reference to neem
uses in Egypt, Archives Of Phytopathology And Plant Protection, 45:10, 1138-1161, DOI:
10.1080/03235408.2012.657932

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 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection
Vol. 45, No. 10, June 2012, 1138–1161

Prospects of botanical pesticides for the future in integrated pest

management programme (IPM) with special reference to neem uses in
Egypt
Nadia Z. Dimetry*

Department of Pests and Plant Protection, National Research Centre, Dokki, 1231 Cairo, Egypt
Downloaded by [Umeå University Library] at 18:33 22 September 2013

(Received 1 December 2011; final version received 8 January 2012)

Botanically derived insecticides have gained favour in recent years. They are more
safe or natural. Also, they are comparatively safe to natural enemies and higher
organisms. Neem, pyrethrum, rotenone, nicotine, sabadilla, ryania and a number
of different available botanicals were used to protect agricultural crops from the
ravages of insects, mites and nematodes in different parts of the world. In Egypt,
experiments were carried out on the efficacy of neem seed kernel extract fractions
and formulations against different pests. Promising results were obtained
showing feeding deterrency, repellency, toxicity, sterilant and growth disruptive
activities. However, few of these can be exploited as crop protectants. Those that
are proven to have sufficient efficacy against pests in the field and can be produced
in adequate quantities are suitable candidates for commercial development.
Keywords: botanical; pesticides; alternative; neem; IPM; future

Introduction
One of the greatest challenges before mankind today is to ensure adequate food
security for the ever-increasing world population, currently around seven billion
people.
The food situation is gloomy particularly in the over populated developing
countries where not only the productivity is low but also insect pests and diseases
destroy one-third of the food produced annually (Parmer and Walia 2001).
Over the centuries, man has struggled to protect his crops against invasion by
insects, microbial pathogens and other pests. Many of the earliest pesticides were
extracts of plants, which were used on a local basis to protect crops both in the field
and after harvest. As the years progressed, several plants were exploited more widely
as source of commercial insecticides, but from the 1940s onwards, synthetic
chemicals largely replaced botanicals as the key commercial products. Research into
plant derived natural products for agriculture went into decline for a number of
years, but this trend is now being reversed as it becomes evident that plant natural
products still have enormous potential to inspire and influence modern agrochemical
research.

*Email: nadia_dimetry@yahoo.com

ISSN 0323-5408 print/ISSN 1477-2906 online

Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2012.657932
http://www.tandfonline.com
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1139

A distinct propensity towards a ‘trek back to nature’ has become evident in the
last three decades especially in the fields of pesticides and pharmaceuticals. The
need for safer, more natural pesticides is now accepted without any serious
contention. Attention on natural products, specifically plant extracts and oils of
especially neem is notable. (Schmutterer 1990; Dimetry et al. 1993, Dimetry et al.
1994b; Dimetry and El-Hawary 1995; Dimetry et al. 1996a, 1997b; Koul 1997;
Smirle 2001).
The control of harmful insects is a must for humankind. Though various new
strategies for plant protection and insect control are emerging, insecticides continue
to play a dominant role. Their uninterrupted and massive use, however, has led to
several unforeseen side effects such as development of resistance in pests and
elimination of naturally occurring bio-control agents.
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However, there is enormous scope for the discovery of safer (mammalian

toxicity) more potent and environmentally non-polluting insecticides. Among
potential reduced risk pesticides are botanical pesticides i.e. products based on
plant extracts or purified substances of plant origin.
The use of botanical pesticides in IPM offers several advantages over synthetic
pesticides. As plants have developed these chemicals in response to the combined
selection pressure of phytopathogens, insects and other herbivoures, many of these
pesticides are effective against diseases, nematodes and other organisms in addition
to phytophagous insects (Singh 2000).
The naturally occurring phytochemicals exert a wide range of behavioural and
physiological effects on insects and therefore, it is difficult for insects to develop
resistance easily against these pesticides. The production of such products can be
dually advantageous for developing countries where botanical insecticides are most
likely to be adopted on a large scale.
The limited number of studies conducted so far indicates that neem and some
other botanicals are comparatively safe to natural enemies and higher organisms.
The available evidence indicates that botanical pesticides are biodegradable in
contrast to persistent synthetic insecticides.
Many of these products can be developed from indigenous plant sources which
can save foreign exchange of the countries. Moreover, village cooperatives can take
up the formulation of locally available plants which will ease the cost burden of
farmers in the region.
There is a large demand in international market for residue free cotton garments,
fruits, vegetables and beverages. The large scale utilisation of botanicals will
certainly help us in meeting international standards of quality and safety in these
products.
A lot of work needs to be done before large scale utilisation of phytochemicals in
IPM could become a reality. Almost every plant shows some antifeedant repellent
activity, repellency to pests, insect growth regulation, toxicity to other arthropods
and invertebrate pests of agricultural importance and also antifungal, antiviral and
antibacterial properties against pathogen (Prakash and Rao 1986; Prakash et al.
1987, 1989, 1990; Schmutterer 1990, 1995; Dimetry and Schmidt 1991; Amer et al.
1994, Koul, 1997; Remboldt 1989; El-Gengaihi et al. 1997; Mendki et al. 1999;
Dimetry and Abd-El Salam 2005).
Some of these indigenous resources have been in use for over a century to
minimise losses due to pests and diseases in agricultural production (Parmar and
Dev Kumar 1993).
 1140 N.Z. Dimetry

The aim of this review article is to find the future prospective view for pest
control especially for agricultural pests away from traditional methods of control by
using botanical pesticides in the IPM Program.

The need for safe pest control

One important alternative is ‘Botanical pesticides’. Heavy reliance on conventional
synthetic pesticides in agriculture over years has lead to several unforeseen
environmental problems such as:

(1) Rapid development of resistance in pests.

(2) Increased insect out breaks.
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(3) Suppression of parasitoids and predators.

(4) Environmental and food chain contamination.
(5) About 25 million cases of acute occupational pesticides poisoning in
developing countries each year (Jeyaratnam 1990).
(6) The percentage of fatal injuries by pesticides reached 10%. However, those of
occupational injuries reached 14% (ILO 1996).
(7) No longer used pesticides are stored in developing countries.
(8) Adverse effects on non target organisms such as domestic animals, wild life
and aquatic systems.

Botanical pesticides
Plants represent a valuable source of new compounds for agricultural applications. It
is estimated that there are at least 250,000 different species of plant in the world

Table 1. Plant families with insecticidal properties.

No. Family No. Family No. Family

1-Acanthaceae 21-Ebenaceae 41-Menispermaceae
2-Agavaceae 22-Ericaceae 42-Myristicaceae
3-Annonaceae 23-Euphorbiaceae 43-Myrtaceae
4-Apocynaceae 24-Flacourtiaceae 44-Papaveraceae
5-Araceae 25-Guttiferae 45-Piperaceae
6-Aristolochiaceae 26-Helleboraceae 46-Poaceae
7-Asclepiadaceae 27-Hippocastanaceae 47-Polygonaceae
8-Balanitaceae 28-Hypericaceae 48-Polypodiaceae
9-Berberidaceae 29-Illiciaceae 49-Ranuneulaceae
10-Boraginaceae 30-Juglandaceae 50-Rosaceae
11-Brassicaceae 31-Labiatae 51-Rubiaceae
12-Burseraceae 32-Lamiacese 52-Rutaceae
13-Capparaceae 33-Lauraceae 53-Sapindaceae
14-Capparidaceae 34-Leguminosae(Fabaceae) 54-Sapotaceae
15-Celastraceae 35-Liliaceae 55-Simaroubaceae
16-Chenopodiaceae 36-Loganiaceae 56-Solanaceae
17-Compositae(Asteraceae) 37-Lycopodiaceae 57-Stemonaceae
18-Convolvalaceae 38-Magnoliaceae 58-Taxaceae
19-Cucurbitaceae 39-Malvaceae 59-Theaceae
20-Dioscoreaceae 40-Meliaceae 60-Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)
61-Verbenaceae

After Dev and Koul (1997).

 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1141

today (Farnsworth 1990). The figure could be as high as 500,000. Over 2000 plant
species belonging to 60 families are known to possess insecticidal properties. Table 1
contains a list of such families. It is also estimated that only about 10% of the plant
species have been examined chemically, so there is enormous scope for further work.
Plants are known to produce a very diverse range of secondary metabolites such as
terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, aromatic compounds are produced by
both micro-organisms and higher plants, but to a large extent, higher plants exhibit
their own specialised areas of chemistry and therefore, complements rather than
overlap, parallel programmes of research based on micro-organisms.
Botanically derived insecticides have gained favour in recent years, because they
originate from plant materials, they are more safe or ‘natural’. These pesticides are
often used for growing crops organically. However, it is important to be aware that
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they are pesticides, and that they fall under the same state and federal regulations as
synthetic pesticides. All pesticides must be labelled for the specific pest (s) on the
particular crop for their use to be legal. If the use is not stated on the label, then the
pesticide is not legal to employ.
Much before the advent of synthetic organic insecticides, neem, pyrethrum.
Rotenone, nicotine, sabadilla, ryania and a number of different available botanicals
were used to protect agricultural crops from the ravages of insects, mites and
nematodes in different parts of the world. (Table 2)
The following are some commercially available botanicals to be used in IPM of
crop field insects as well as in storage ecosystems (Prakash and Rao 1997).

Pyrethrum
Pyrethrum is the most widely used botanical insecticide in the United States.
Pyrethrum derived from the dried flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium
Treviranus) (Family, Asteraceae), has been used as an insecticide since ancient times.

Table 2. Botanical pesticides traditionally used for pest control in agricultural crops.

Pesticide Main source Country/region

Neem Azadirachta indica A. Juss. India
Dharek Melia azedarach L. China, India
Pyrethrum Chysanthemum cinerariaefolium Middle and Near East, Later
Treviranus Europe
Rotenone Derris elliptica (Roxb.) Benth. China, East Africa, South
Lonchocarpus nicou America, Eastern and
(Aubl.)DC Tephrosia vogelii Southern Africa, China
Hook F.
Amorpha fruticosa
Nicotine Nicotiana tabacum Europe
N. rustica L.
N. glauca L. Argentina, Uruguay
Ryanodine Ryania speciosa Vahl. South America
Pellitorine Anacyclus pyrethrum D.C. Algeria
Quassin Quassia amara L. Central America, Brazil
Sabadilla Sabadilla officinarum Venezuela
Veratrum sabadilla Retz. Central and South America

Source: Jacobson and Crosby (1971), Mwamfuli (1995).

 1142 N.Z. Dimetry

The original home of the plant is Middle and Near East. Its commercial use
originated in Persia from where it was introduced to Europe, America and Japan in
nineteenth century (Casida 1973). After the First World War, its cultivation was
taken up in Africa and presently Kenya followed by Tanzania, Rwanda and Zaire
are the major producers of pyrethrum. World wide annual production of pyrethrum
industry now averages 30,000 tonnes.
Pyrethrum is a highly effective insecticide against common house hold insects. It
is safe to mammals and is easily broken down to non-toxic metabolites. The
insecticidal principals in pyrethrum is pyrethrins I and II, cinerins I and II and
Jasmolin I and II (Figure 1) and pyrethrum I is the most effective. Pyrethrins act
quickly via insect central nervous system, causing a knockdown effect. Many flying
insects recover after the initial knockdown. For this reason, pyrethrums are mixed
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with a synergist such as piperonyl butoxide (PBO) to increase insect mortality. This
synergist inhibits the enzymes responsible for toxicant degradation.
Although pyrethrins do not affect certain natural enemies of pests, they are non-
persistent and their effects are short lived. The high costs and relative non-persistence
of pyrethrins have limited their use in agriculture. They are used mainly on fruit
crops, vegetables and against certain forest defoliators (Saxena 1998). Efforts were
therefore, made to develop photostable analogues. The first photostable pyrethroid,
permethrin was developed in 1973 and there have been extensive modifications in the
new synthetic pyrethroids. Thus, in contrast to earlier compounds, the new synthetic
pyrethroids with low toxicity to fish and also significant acaricidal activity are
available today. Compound like telfluthrin is effective against a wide range of soil
insects but it does not persist in the soil (Elliot 1996).

Sabadilla
Sabadilla is derived from the seeds of the sabadilla lily (Schoenocaulon officinale
Grey). Sabadilla insecticides have been used for hundreds of years. The chemistry
and uses of sabadilla have been reviewed by Jacobson and Crosby (1971). The major
insecticidal components of sabadilla are the alkaloids cevadine and veratridine
(Figure 1) which occur in the seeds (2–4%).The extracted alkaloids are highly
poisonous (e.g LD 50 for veratridine 1.35 mg/kg mouse intraperitonial. Ground
seeds on the other hand appear to be quite safe LD50, 5000 mg/kg rat, oral) and are
used after mixing with sodium carbonate solution as a contact and a stomach poison
to insects on food crops. Sabadilla is considered among the least toxic of botanical
insecticides. No residues are left after application of sabadilla because it breaks down
rapidly in sunlight. Sabadilla acts as a contact and stomach poison and has been
effective against caterpillars, leaf hoppers, thrips, stink bugs and squash bugs. This
product is labelled for use on many vegetables.

Rotenone
Rotenone is derived from several leguminous plants, including derris, cube, timbo.
These plants range from Far East to the Amazon Valley of South America. Many
plants in the family Leguminosae have been shown to contain rotenone like Derris,
Lonchocarpus, Milletia, Mundulea, Tephrosia (Jacobson and Crosby 1971). In
general, the rotenone principles are contained in the roots, which are dried and
powdered to be used as a dust. Liquid rotenone is available commercially. Rotenone
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1143
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Figure 1. Chemical structure of the major photochemical insecticides discussed in the

review.
 1144 N.Z. Dimetry

is invariably accompanied by closely related compounds to a varying degree in

different species, but these compounds have only a minor presence and have poorer
insecticidal activity. Examples of such rotenoids are elliptone, deguelin and others.
The chemistry and mode of action of the rotenoid have been reviewed by Fukami
and Nakajima (1971). Some 68 plant species produce rotenoids, but the
commercially important plants are: Derris elliptica Benth. and D. malaccensis Prain
from south-east Asia and Lonchocarpus utilis Smith and L. urucu Killip et Smith
from South America. Crushed roots of these plants are the richest sources of
rotenone (5–12%) (Karrer 1976). Crushed roots of Derris have been used as fish
poison since early times throughout southern Asia, south Pacific Islands, east Africa
and South America and the first reported use of Derris as an insecticide was recorded
in 1848 in Benth. Rotenone and formulated ones are extremely effective against a
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variety of insects and are non-toxic to honey bees, but may kill some beneficial
insects. It is registered for use against a number of chewing insects on many
vegetables and some fruits. However, like pyrethrum esters, rotenone is also unstable
to light and air and undergoes transformation to inactive compounds. Its
mammalian toxicity is somewhat higher as compared to that of pyrethrum (LD50
132 mg/kg rat). In the 1950s, some 3000 tonnes of these Leguminosae roots were
being imported annually into the USA, essentially for application to vegetables and
fruits, and control of domestic animal pests and cattle figures are not available.

Tobacco
Another important insecticidal plant is tobacco (Rao and Chakraborty 1982)
(Nicotiana tabacum Linn. Family: Solanaceae), which is essentially grown for
smoking purposes. The plant contains a series of alkaloids of which the most
abundant and important is nicotine. (Figure 1), which occurs in the plant leaves to the
extent of 1–10%. Nicotine was first isolated in 1828, but tobacco aqueous extracts for
plant protection have been used in Europe since 1600s. Nicotine and nicotine sulphate
have been marketed since 1910. Nicotine is effective against a wide range of insects,
and kills them through feeding, contact and fumigation. In the early 1900s, as much as
2200 tones of the alkaloid were being produced as crop protection agent.
However, its use declined from 1945 to 1955 with the introduction of synthetic
insecticide parathion, which was especially launched as a substitute for nicotine. The
use of nicotine has again improved and currently on a world-wide basis, some 600
tonnes of nicotine sulphate and 70 tonnes of free base are being marketed and have
been used successfully for control of soft bodied insects such as aphids. Also, it has
been used for codling moth control in the form of nicotine bentonite (McEwen and
Stephenson 1979). Major drawbacks of nicotine are its disagreeable odour and high
mammalian toxicity (LD50 50–60 mg/kg rat, oral).
The structurally related alkaloids nornicotine and anabasine are minor alkaloids
of tobacco and have insecticidal activity. Anabasine is the major (1–2%) alkaloid of
Anabasis aphylla Linn. (Family: Chenopodiaceae) and is being used as an insecticide
in Russia and other countries.

Ryania
The insecticidal properties are contained in the stems and roots of Ryania speciosa,
a South American shrub. It has been in use as Ryania insecticide for over six
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1145

decades (Jacobson and Crosby 1971; Dev and Koul 1997). It controls important
lepidopteran larval pests at 3 to 16 g alkaloid equivalents per acre, making it one
of the most potent natural product insecticides. Although, it acts as a stomach
poison, Ryania often depresses the insect feeding initially, so that it undergoes a
long period of inactivity before death. Its residual period is longer than the other
botanicals. The active principle is the diterpene ryanodine, which is presenting the
roots to the extent of 0.16–0.25%. It is less photolabile than pyrethrum or
rotenone. Its mammalian toxicity is also quite low (LD50 750 mg/kg rat oral), and
ryanodine still finds use in home plantings. It is interesting to note that ryania can
be synergised by piperonyl butoxide (Reed and Filmer 1950) indicating that
metabolism of ryanodine is mediated at least in part by cytochrome P 450 mono
oxygenases.
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Curcuma
Curcuma longa is related to the family Zingiberiaceae. This plant is used in the
preparation of different foods. It is not toxic. It is not susceptible to pest infestation.
Also, it has some insecticidal effect against different pests. Dimetry et al (2000) found
that petroleum ether extracts of Curcuma longa L., Nicandra physaloides L. and
alcohol extract of Dodonaea viscosa L. possessed strong acaricidal activity against
adult females of Tetranychus urticae Koch C. longa L. was reported by Chattarijee
(1980) to be potent against stored grain insects. Petroleum ether extract of C. longa
and the different compounds isolated from the unsaponified fractions were more
toxic to adults T. urticae females than N. physaloides extracts or its isolates (Dimetry
et al. 2003).

Nicandra physaloides
It is related to family Solanaceae. It is called Shoo Plant. It has potent insecticidal
effect against whiteflies. It is native for China. Its seeds were obtained from USA
(New York). It is cultivated successfully in Egypt. It has been reported to contain an
antifeedant steroid (Gill et al. 1986) and shows insecticidal activity against aphids
(Dimetry and El-Hawary 1995).

Citrullus colocynthis
It is related to Cucurbitaceae family. Its fruits were collected from Wady Hagol
Cairo Swiss desert road. The crude extracts of this plant has deterrent effect against
different pests. Different formulations of Citrullus colocynthis seeds were manufac-
tured either from chloroform or alcohol extract in a form of dusting powder or
emulsifiable concentrate. Chloroform extract contains free cucurbitacins, aglycon,
but the alcohol extract contains cucurbitacins and flavonoids in the form of
glycosides. Citrullus powder was formulated with use of 10% extract, 10% fine silica
(silicon dioxide) and 80% talc powder. While the emulsifiable concentrate was
prepared with 10% extract, 10% emulsifiable and 80% solvent (mostly Xylenes).
The different formulations have insecticidal as well as anti-ovipositional responses
against Callosobruchus maculatus (Dimetry et al. 2007). The fruits have been used for
the protection of clothes from insect pests. One company has produced special
hanger with citrullus seeds to repel insects.
 1146 N.Z. Dimetry

Neem
Neem, Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Family Meliaceae is a botanical pesticides derived
from the seeds of neem tree a native of India. It is also found in many Asian and
African countries. It is now also grown in Egypt and Sudan. Due to its insect
repellent, anti-feedant and medicinal properties, it has been identified as the most
promising of all plants by the National Research Council, Washington, USA (NRC
1992).Three successive conferences were held in 1980, 1983 and 1986, the first two
were held in Germany and the third one was held in Kenya to discuss the different
activities of the neem seed kernel extracts against several pests. Several workshops
started from the year 1992 were held in Germany on Practice Oriented Results on
Use and Production of Neem ingredients. New and interesting results of neem
research have been obtained. Also, the side effects against natural enemies,
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investigations into ecotypes of neem tree and large field experiments were tackled
by different scientists. The systemic and in depth investigation of plant materials for
pest control purposes therefore merits consideration. Jacobson et al. (1984) indicated
that the neem tree A. indica which has come to be considered as possibly the World’s
most fantastically effective natural insect anti-feedant known to day. This reputation
is based on solid foundation of evidence in the scientific literature.
Neem is the common name given to different species of large evergreen glabrous
shade trees up to 50 ft. in height grown throughout India. These trees are also found
in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Srilanka, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia and tropical regions
of America, Australia and Africa. In India, the common neem tree is also popularly
known as margosa‘ A. indica A. Juss.’. Other common species are gora neem or
Persian lilac (Melia azedarach L.) a native of west Asia and Malabar neem (Melia
composite Willd.).
According to the Directorate of the Non Edible oils and soap industry, Khadi
and Village Industries Commission, there are 13,899,067 neem trees in India with a
potential of yielding 418,633 tons of seeds per year (Ketkar 1976), but only 25% of
the seed is actually collected. The number of trees increased to over 14 million trees
(Saxena 1983). The neem flowers from January to May and fruits from May to
August. One tree produces 30–50 kg of fruit per year and 30 kg of seed yields 6 kg of
oil and 24 kg of cake. Neem cake, the residue remaining after oil expulsion, can be
mixed with urea and applied to the soil of rice crop. Every part of the plant is
utilised: the root bark, the stem bark, the blossoms, the young fruits, the seeds, the
oil, the leaves and the gum.
All parts of neem tree possess anti-insect activities but seed kernel is the most
active. Neem bark, leaf, fruit and oil as well as extracts with various solvents
especially ethanol have been found to exhibit activity against different pests. About
413 insect species are reportedly susceptible at different concentrations of neem
preparations (Table 3). The repellent and antifeedant effects of neem have been
reported against a wide range of different pests (Ketkar 1976; El-Sayed 1982/1983a;
Saxena 1989; Koul et al. 1990; Salem 1991; Dimetry and Schmidt 1992; Mohamed
1993). Even the starved insects avoid feeding on plants sprayed with neem oil and
spent most of the time searching for suitable sites. Concentrations ranging from
0.001 to 0.4% of various neem seed kernel extracts have generally been found to
deter feeding of most of the insects evaluated so far (Arora and Dhaliwal 1994;
Dimetry and Abd-El Salam 2005, Dimetry et al. 2007).
Neem works as an insect growth regulator. The treated insects usually cannot
moult to their next life stage and hence die. It also deters egg laying. The larvae of
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1147

Table 3. List of insect pests susceptible to neem products.

Insect order Number of susceptible species

Orthoptera 24
Dictyoptera 6
Dermaptera 1
Phasmida 1
Isoptera 6
Thysanoptera 13
Phthoraptera 4
Hemiptera 82
Hymenoptera 8
Coleoptera 79
Lepidoptera 136
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Diptera 49
Siphonaptera 4
Total 413

Source: Schmutterer and Singh (1995).

various lepidopterous and coleopterous pests show impaired development (Saxena

1993) under the influence of neem preparations. Such developmental abnormalities
have been attributed to reduce feeding and or disturbances in neuro-endocrine or
other physiological systems of insects (Koul 1996).
Neem products also affect insect longevity, fecundity and fertility of eggs.
Resulting females of S. littoralis larvae treated with petroleum ether extract of neem
fruits were completely sterile. The percentage of hatching of the resulting eggs
reached 25.8% (Mohamed 1993). Neem products have been found to act as
ovipositional deterrents as in Bactrocera cucurbita (Coquillett), Heliothis. armigera,
Spodoptera litura, (Fabricius), Callosobruchus maculatus. (Parmar and Singh 1993;
Chari and Ramaprasad 1993; Dimetry et al. 2007). Direct contact toxicity of neem
products has been demonstrated against termites and aphids (Dimetry and Schmidt
1992; Singh 1993; Lowery and Isman, 1994).
The neem tree supplies different compounds: the most important are azadirachtin
(Figure 1). and salanin that have insecticidal activity on over 400 insect species. Two
limonoids have been commercialised, ‘Azadirachtin’ in many parts of the world and
‘toosendanin’ in China was identified by Butterworth and Morgan (1968) as potent
antifeedant against Schistocerca gregaria. Saxena (1983) found that adding 1%
carbon powder to neem oil considerably prolongs its behavioural activity. He also
added that when Azadirachtin or neem cake is applied to the soil, the active
principals are taken by the roots and transported systemically through the entire
plants, thus escaping degradation by ultra violet light and protecting the plants for
45 days or longer.
Neem has been used for more than 4000 years in India and Africa for medicinal
as well as pest control purposes. It has low mammalian toxicity with an LD 50 of
5000 mg/kg.
Neem based pesticides are sold under trade names as Margosan-O, Azatin Rose
Defence, Shield-All, Tricat, Neem Azal T/S, Neem Azal F, Neem Azal T, Bioneem,
Entomax and Entomax-plus and others. They have been shown to control gypsy
moths, leaf miners, white flies, thrips, aphids, loopers, caterpillars and mealy bugs.
 1148 N.Z. Dimetry

The products are labelled for use on ornamentals, foliage plants, trees, shrubs and
food crops.

Bioactivity of neem components in Egypt

In Egypt, experiments were carried out on the efficacy of extracts of different plant
species against some agricultural pests, the most important of which are the cotton
leaf worm, Spodoptera littoralis. (Ahmed 1983; Dimetry and Abdalla 1988/1989;
Mohamed 1993; Dimetry et al. 1998; El-Meniawi et al. 1999; Hashem et al. 1999; El
Gengaihi et al. 2002), the cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora, (Dimetry and Abdalla
1988/1989; Dimetry and El Hawary 1995; Dimetry et al. 2008) and the two spotted
spider mite Tetranychus urticae (Barakat et al. 1984/1985; Amer et al. 1989 ; Dimetry
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et al. 1990; Dimetry et al. 2000; El-Gengaihi et al. 2000).

In the last three decades, much attention on neem seed kernel extract fractions
and formulations were carried out by the Egyptian scientists (Table 4). The work of
El-Sayed (1982–1983a, b), Kelany et al. (1991), Salem (1991), Dimetry and Schmidt
(1992), Dimetry et al. (1994b), Dimetry and El-Hawary (1995), Dimetry et al. (1995,
1996b, 1997a, 2001, 2002), Abdel-Maksoud et al. (1998); Dimetry and Abd-El Salam
(2005), Dimetry et al. (2008) and Dimetry et al. (2010) are worthy of mention

Advantages of using botanical pesticides in IPM

The use of botanical pesticides in IPM offers several advantages over synthetic
pesticides. As plants have developed these chemicals in response to the combined
selection pressure of phyto-pathogens, insects and other herbivoures, many of these
pesticides are effective against diseases, nematodes and other organisms in addition
to phytophagous insects (Singh 2000).

. Botanical biopesticides are usually inherently less toxic than conventional

pesticides.
. Biopesticides generally affect the target pest and closely related organisms, in
contrast to broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may affect non-target
organisms such as birds, beneficial insects and mammals.
. Botanical biopesticides are largely avoiding the pollution problems caused by
conventional pesticides. They are effective in very small quantities and often
decompose quickly.
. The limited number of studies conducted so far indicates that neem and some
other botanicals are comparatively safe to natural enemies and higher
organisms and the environment where they are readily degraded.
. Reduction of health hazards in comparison to the application of conventional
pesticides.
. Increased food quality due to reduction of residues accumulation in food
products.
. Less hazardous to farmers and consumers than the conventional pesticides
of being more environmentally friendly to be accepted by the majority of
farmers.
. Their efficacy against number of different pests comparable to that of
chemicals give consistent results under practical conditions, under laboratory,
greenhouse, semi field, field conditions and in different environments.
 Downloaded by [Umeå University Library] at 18:33 22 September 2013

Table 4. Bioactivity of neem products against the agricultural pests in Egypt.

Test Products Test animals Activity observed Reference

Neem seed suspension Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) Antifeedant þ Insecticidal El-Sayed (1982–1983a)
Neem seed suspension S. littoralis Decreasing fecundity El-Sayed (1982–1983b)
Neem seed suspension þ insecticides S. littoralis Varying levels of antagonism El-Sayed
(1982–1983b)
Aqueous neem seed kernel extract Musca domestica L. 3rd instar Delayment of pupal formation, reduced Kelany et al. (1991)
(ANSKE) larva pupal weight, malformed pupae
Neem seed kernel pure oil Erias insula (Boisd.) and Oviposition deterrency Salem (1991)
Pectinophora gossypiella
Saunders
Neem seed kernel pure oil S. littoralis Acute reduction in number of insects þ Salem (1991)
antifeedant
Paederus alfierii Koch No detrimental effect Salem (1991)
(predator)
Chrysopa carnea Schm. Sharp drop in population Salem (1991)
(predator)
Coccinella undecimpunctata L. Initial reduction in the number of predator Salem (1991)
(predator)
Orius species Slight decrease in early count Salem (1991)
Phthorimaea operculella Zell. Insecticidalþ deformity in adults þ Salem (1991)
decreased fecundity
Ceratitis capitata Wied. Decrease % of infestation þ deterrent effect Salem (1991)
Petroleum ether extract of neem S. littoralis Insecticidal þ developmental retardation þ Mohamed (1993)
fruits (F.) complete sterility
Petroleum ether extract of neem S. littoralis Insecticidal þ malformation þ partial Mohamed (1993)
leaves (L.) sterility
Chloroform extract of neem (F.) S. littoralis Insecticidal Mohamed (1993)
Chloroform extract of neem (L.) S. littoralis Insecticidal Mohamed (1993)
Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection

Ethanol extract of neem (F.) S. littoralis Developmental retardation þ insecticidal þ Mohamed (1993)
sterility

(continued)
1149
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1150

Table 4. (Continued).
Test Products Test animals Activity observed Reference
Ethanol extract of neem (L.) S. littoralis Slight effect (33% mortalities) Mohamed (1993)
Water extract of neem (F.) S. littoralis Developmental retardation þ complete Mohamed (1993)
sterility
Margosan –O Aphis fabae Scop. Deterrent þ reducing Fecundity Dimetry and Schmidt (1992)
Neem Azal –S Aphis fabae Deterrent þ growth disruptionþ Dimetry and Schmidt (1992)
N.Z. Dimetry

insecticidal þ reducing fecundity

Neem Azal –S Tropinota squalida Scop. Insecticidal þ developmental retardationþ Dimetry et al. (1994 b)
oviposition deterrent
(Margosan –O or Neem Azal –S Predatory mites (Amblyseius Both compounds decreased egg laying as Dimetry et al. (1994a)
barkeri (Hughes) and well as food consumption rate. They can
Typhlodromus richteri Karg. be considered safe for A. barkeri. Neem
Azal –S was harmful to T. richteri at
0.2%
Neem Azal – F Aphis craccivora Koch Oviposition deterrent þ developmental Dimetry and El-Hawary (1995)
retardation þ antifeedant effect þ
aphicidal effect
Neem Azal-S and Margosan _O Liriomyza trifolii (Burg.) Feeding deterrent þ Oviposition deterrent Dimetry et al. (1995)
þmalformed pupae
Neem Azal-S, Margosan –O, Neem Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) Insecticidal þ developmental retardation Dimetry et al. (1996a)
Azal F
Neem Azal –S, Neem Azal F. Tomato bug ‘‘Cyrtopeltis Phagodeterrent, pesticidal properties, Dimetry et al. (1997a)
Margosan –O tenuis’’ (Reut.) developmental retardation
Neem Azal –F, aquous neem seed Aphis craccivora Koch Neem Azal –F reduced the number of Omara et al. (1997)
kernel powder (ANSKP) Aphis craccivora infesting faba bean
Neem Azal T/S þAdditives Aphis craccivora Koch Insecticidal, deterrent and malformed or Dimetry and El-Hawary (1997)
reduced young
Lipoidal matter of neem fruits and S. littoralis (Boisd.) Insecticidal, developmental retardation, Dimetry et al. (1998)
leaves sterility

(continued)
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Table 4. (Continued).
Test Products Test animals Activity observed Reference
Neem Azal-W in presence or absence Rat Decrement of liver enzymes the GOT and Abdel-Maksoud et al. (1998)
of Paracetamol GPT, increase level of total thiols and
catalase support the hepato protective
effect of the plant extract on paracetamol
induced toxicity
Neem Azal (powder 10%) Sitophilus oryzae, (L.) Insecticidal effect and reduced the El-Lakwah and El-Kashlan
Rhizopertha dominica, (F.) population of the different pests in a (1999)
Callosbruchus maculatus variable manner
(F.). Tribolium castaneum
(Herbst) Trogoderma
granarium Everts
Neem seed extract Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) Studied the physiological effects of neem El-Meniawi et al. (1999)
extract on the reproductive activities of
S. littoralis
Neem seed extract S. littoralis Studied the physiological and biochemical Hashem et al. (1999)
influence of neem seed extract on the
male accessory gland and
spermatophores of S. littoralis
Different neem based pesticides Lasioderma serrricorne (F.) Insecticidal, developmental retardation Dimetry et al. (2001)
NeemAzal T/S, Neem Azal F, Neem Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) Adult emergence was completely inhibited, Dimetry et al. (2002)
Azal T, ethyl oleate and sweet flag after application for all treatments,
oil Neem Azal T/ S prevented oviposition
for 3 months, Neem Azal F was not an
effective protectant, No harmful effect on
germination
Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection

(continued)
1151
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1152

Table 4. (Continued).

Test Products Test animals Activity observed Reference

Entomax and Entomax- plus (Field Pomegranate aphids ‘‘Aphis Both neem formulations decreased the Dimetry and Abd El-Salam
N.Z. Dimetry

experiments at Wadi El- Natroon) durantae’’ Theobald number of aphids drastically in (2005)
comparison with the control.
Pomegranate yield increased significantly
Neem Azal T/S, Vapcomic, Varroa mite, Varroa destructor Neem Azal T/S recorded the highest Dimetry et al. (2005)
emulsifiable concentrate of (Anderson and Trueman) reduction percentage of mite infestation
chloroform extract of citrullus infesting honey bee colonies (94 and 93.8%) on sealed broad and
(powder) and Alcohol extract of adult workers. Highest average
citrullus (powder) percentage of dead mite was recorded
after 24 hr. fallen on the sheet. No
adverse effect on the worker bee
Neem Azal T/S þ T/S Fort Tetranychus urticae Koch Deterrent, high acaricidal activity þ serious Dimetry et al. (2008)
chronic effect on the biotic potential,
decreased fecundity
Neem Azal T/S þ T/S Fort, Management of different pests Neem Azal T/S þ additive (T/S Fort) Dimetry et al. (2010)
Petroleum ether extract of (Aphis craccivora, Liriomyza ranked the first in comparison to the
Curcuma longa (Field experiments trifolii. Attacking broad other treatments for the control of aphids
in new reclaimed area at El – bean crop in new reclaimed and leaf miner in the field either by
Noubaria, Behera Governorate area and under storage killing, deterrent or antifeedant effect.
conditions from weevil Also, the same formulation protected
attack broad bean seeds from weevil attack
‘‘Callosobruchus chinensis’’ in the store
for one year
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1153

. They showed influences on wide range of pests, insects, mites, nematodes,

snails, crustaceans, parasitic species of human being, domestic animals and
house hold pests as well as plant diseases.
. The naturally occurring phytochemicals exert a wide range of behavioural and
physiological effects on insects and therefore, it is difficult for insects to develop
resistance easily against these pesticides (Saxena 1983).
. Many of these products can be developed from indigenous plant sources which
can save foreign exchange of the countries.
. Village cooperatives can take up the formulation of locally available plants,
which will ease the cost burden of farmers in the region.
. The large scale utilisation of botanicals will certainly help us in meeting
international standards of quality and safety in these products.
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. No adverse effects on plant growth, seed viability and cooking quality of the
grains used.
. Botanical pesticides are less expensive and easily available because of their
natural occurrence especially in oriental countries.

Problems facing botanical pesticides

The plant extract formulations are different from traditional insecticides in their
mode of action. They do not have knock down effect of conventional pesticides.
Their effects are lower in time and need several days before reaching a balanced
situation where the damage of the pest reached an acceptable level. Thus,
assessments should be done with respect to the decrease in damage of the target
crop rather than the mortality of the insects.
Some botanicals are less potent than synthetic insecticides and therefore, require
higher application rates to achieve similar levels of efficacy.
Non-persistence is also a two-edged-sword, while environmental contamination
is minimised, repeated application of a non-persistent pesticide may be required to
achieve crop protection.
It suppresses rather than eliminates a pest population.

Production of botanical pesticides

Multinational agrochemical company (e.g. Novartis, Zeneca) view phytochemicals
as useful leads molecules for the synthesis of new classes of insecticides with novel
mode of action but are not interested in developing botanical insecticides because of
the required dependency on the natural resources often in a foreign country.
However, if production of particular phytochemicals can be completely
controlled e.g. through plant cell cultures or callus cultures and the process
protected through patents, major companies may show more interest in the direct
development of natural product-based pesticides than in the past (Rice et al. 1998)
e.g. Trifolio Company, Lahnu, Germany and Parr in India.

Requirements for the use of botanical pesticides

A lot of work needs to be done before large scale utilisation of botanicals in IPM
become a reality. Almost every plant shows some antifeedant/repellent and
 1154 N.Z. Dimetry

insecticidal activity. So the identification of promising species, therefore, is a difficult

task.

(1) Standardised procedure needs to be developed for identification and

purification of active ingredients for different types of toxic, morphogenetic,
behavioural and physiological effects.
(2) Intensive breeding and selection work will have to be under taken for
economic production of various high quality raw materials required for
insecticide production.
(3) Simple formulation technology will have to be developed so that ready to use
pesticides can be produced at the local level.
(4) Quality control in botanical pesticides is a major problem. There is a wide
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variation in the quality and quantity of extractives obtained from a plant due
to variation in ecotypes, environmental factors. Such variations affect the
performance and shelf life of formulated products.
(5) Dosage responses need to be carefully worked out so that farmers do not
suffer any losses. Schmutterer (1990) recorded phytotoxic effects of neem in a
number of crops including onion, potato, tomatoes and cabbage.
(6) The safety and selectivity of botanical pesticides should not be taken for
granted.
(7) It is very important to develop and prescribe suitable standards for registra-
tion of botanical pesticides.

Development and use of botanical pesticides

In 1994, the Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention Division was established in the
office of pesticide programmes to facilitate the registration of biopesticides. This
division promotes the use of safer pesticides including biopesticides as components
of IPM programmes. The division also coordinates the Pesticides Environmental
Stewardship Program.
Since biopesticides tend to pose fewer risks than conventional pesticides, EPA
generally requires much less data to register a biopesticide than to register a
conventional pesticide. In fact, new biopesticides are often registered in less than a
year, compared with an average of more than three years for conventional pesticides.
While biopesticides require less data and are registered in less time than conven-
tional pesticides, EPA always conducts vigorous reviews to ensure that pesticides will
not have adverse effects on human health or the environment. For EPA to be sure
that a pesticide is safe, the Agency requires that registrants submit a variety of data
about the composition, toxicity, degradation and other characteristics of pesticides.

Stabilisation of botanical pesticides

Botanical pesticides can be stabilised in two ways:
First by using stabilisers including anti-oxidants, and UV-screens as in case of
natural pyrethrins (Miskus and Andrews 1972; Pieper and Rappaport 1982) and
secondly by the replacement of photo labile sites in the molecule with photo stable
moieties.
In case of pyrethroid, second approach has been successful wherein incorpora-
tion of halogen groups along with other structural modifications has yielded a large
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1155

number of photostable compounds (Miyamoto et al. 1981). For optimum stabilisa-

tion of natural pyrethrins, a combination of antioxidant, solvent and UV-absorbent
has provided greater stability than if each agent is used singly. The solvent used in a
formulation plays a key role in its stabilisation. The saturated paraffin-minerals do
not produce peroxides as do ketones or ethers.
Bioactivity evaluation of various organic solvents against Tribolium casteneum
indicated that solvents such as acetone, alcohol, methanol, petrol etc. did not have
significant effect after three days, whereas kerosene, mineral turpentine and ethyl
acetate were marginally better in retaining residual toxicity up to five days (Ahmed
et al. 1973). Amongst the various solvents, trichloroethylene performs the best as it is
non- inflammatory and had mild fumigant action as well.
The most promising UV-screening agents are the derivatives of benzophenone
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and esters of substituted benzoic acids. The best stabilisation has been achieved with
those compounds possessing hydroxyl groups attached directly to an aromatic
nucleus and having 14 or more carbon atoms e.g. 4-methyl-2, 6-di-tert-butylphenol
and 2,5-dioctadecyl-para-cresol.
Among the various synthetic anti-oxidants, pyrogallic acid and hydroquinone
were superior in stabilising pyrethrins.
While exploring the possible stabilisation action in azadirachtin and azadirachtin
rich neem oil with botanical stabilisers isolated from Curcuma longa, the stability of
azadiractin was enhanced following incorporation of curcumins, turmeric oil
and neem oil in various proportions (Choudhury 1996, Walia and Choudhury
1998). Various curcuminoids isolated from rhizomes of Curcuma longa have been
reported to possess anti-oxidant activity with neem materials (Parmer and Walia
2001).

Commercialisation of botanical pesticides

For a phytochemical to become a potentially marketable product, its efficacy is not
the only requirement. The practical requirements include

(1) Quality of raw material: more than 6000 plant species from at least 235 plant
families have been screened for pest control properties so far (Parmer and
Walia 2001). The content of the active ingredient in the plants is maximum at
a particular stage of their growth. For example, in neem fruits azadirachtin-
A is formed when the fruits start ripening. It is therefore, essential to obtain
the plant material at the proper time for obtaining favourable results. The
time of fruiting varies in different agro climatic regions. For instance, in case
of neem in India the seeds mature in May to August in north India and
March to May in south India (Parmer and Walia 2001). Thus a multitude of
factors have to be kept in view for ensuring a regular and timely supply of
raw materials.
(2) Product standardisation: The standardisation of natural products has really
been the biggest constraint and has subsequently hindered their potential
marketability compared with conventional pesticides. Botanicals cannot be
produced with consistent purity due to a wide variation in the active and
associated ingredients content of the plant part in different agro-climatic
zones. The contamination of botanicals with various physical, chemical or
microbial contaminants is important issue. For example, neem seeds have
 1156 N.Z. Dimetry

been often contaminated with aflatoxins due to their poor handling,

processing and storage conditions.
The phytotoxicity observed with the application of botanicals is also a
matter of concern. Neem oil based formulations are often phytotoxic to
tomato and ornamental plants at oil level above 1% (W /W) resulting in
poor yield (Schmutterer 1990).
(3) Quality control: A lack of proper standard and analytical procedures, poor
shelf life of the accepted standards are the serious defects in quality control of
botanicals.
(4) Strict registration requirement: General guide lines for the registration of
botanical pesticides are not available. The existing regulations are often
governed by the guide lines available for synthetic pesticides.
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(5) Pest resistance: The repeated and excessive use of botanical pesticides may
lead to pest resistance (Parmer and Walia 2001). As anticipated, few
agricultural pests resistant to organochlorines, organophosphates and
carbamates have reportedly developed resistance to natural pyrethrins.
Thus, to prevent resistance development, botanical pesticides like neem either
alone or in combination /alternation with recommended insecticides need to
be used within the frame work of integrated pest management. Thus, the
sustainable use of botanical pesticides and their compatibility with biocontrol
agents will be decisive for effective pest control.

Prospects and suggestions for the future

(1) Search of flora for biopesticidal properties against common agricultural

pests.
(2) Isolation, identification and evaluation of the active components of the
plant products.
(3) If active ingredients are economic and biologically very effective, synthesis
of the components for commercial use should be carried out.
(4) Selection of germplasm tolerant to soil and water related stresses.
(5) Conservation of germplasm.
(6) Utilisation of botanicals in pest management. Direct spray applications of
various extracts of biologically effective plant products like leaves, stems,
roots and whole plants especially for the control of soft bodied insect pests,
which feeds on leaves and tender plant parts as flowers and developing
grains etc. aphids, whiteflies, jassids, mites and even caterpillars can be
managed by these applications.
(7) On-farm production of botanical pesticides.
(8) Development of photo stable and thermal products.
(9) Establishment of rural industrial infrastructure.
(10) Basic studies in chemistry, bioassay and resistance management.
(11) Policy issue.
(12) Research and extension linkages.

Conclusions
Reports on negative effects of synthetic pesticides and environmental risks
resulting from their indiscriminate application have renewed interest towards
 Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 1157

botanical pesticides as an ecochemical approach in pest management. In

the context of agricultural pest management, botanical pesticides are well suited
for use in organic food production and may play a great role in the production
and protection of food in developing countries (Isman 2006). The current trends
of modern society towards ‘green consumerism’ desiring fewer synthetic
ingredients in food may favour plant-based products which are ‘generally
recognised as safe’ (GRAS) in ecofriendly management of plant pests as botanical
pesticides (Smid and Gorris 1999). Natural plant chemicals will play a significant
role in the future for pest control in both industrialised and developing countries.
Biodiversity-rich countries should quickly bioprospect their traditionally used
flora to document pesticidal plants in order to check future cases of biopiracy
and establish their sovereign right on the botanical pesticides developed from
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such plants.

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