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ETHICS IN ENGINEERING
 Risk
• Definition: A risk is the potential that something unwanted and/ or
harmful may occur.
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Risk increases because engineers are constantly involved in innovation.

Safety
• definitions: “The state of being "safe" is the
condition of being protected from harm or other
non-desirable outcomes. Safety can also refer to
the control of recognized hazards in order to
achieve an acceptable level of risk.
“A thing is safe (to a certain degree) with respect
to a given person or group at a given time if,
were they fully aware of its risks they would
judge those risks to be acceptable (to a certain
degree).

” What is “degree”?
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Some typical engineering risk categories are:
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•Cost – the cost of the project is higher than forecast, or increases during the project
(scope creep)
•Schedule – customers or end users are not given the final product within the agreed
upon time frame
•Technical – objectives are not met
•Feasibility – the product is does not turn out to meet financial and/or business
objectives.
•Logistics – components do not arrive in time
•Human Resources – project staff are not available, or lose availability
•Production – concerns over packaging, manufacturing
•Engineering – technical requirements for the product are too onerous, or not
physically possible
•Business – the financial metrics of the project change (demand slows, market prices
change, etc.)
•Contract – third party consultants/contractors/suppliers do not perform, or did not
interpret the contract the same
•Funding – the project cannot be funded to completion, or funding is removed part-way
•Management – meddling in the project causes complications
•Political – regulations change, or were not fully considered
•Test – product tests are not set up correctly
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Engineer’s Concern for Safety

• We demand safe products but we have to pay for safety

(important for the public to know this)
• What may be safe enough for you, may not be for others

• Absolute safety is neither attainable nor affordable

 Becoming a Responsible 6
Engineer Regarding Risk

Includes to be aware
 that risk is often difficult to estimate
 that there are different approaches to the
determination of acceptable risk
 of the legal liabilities regarding risk.
 Technology imposes RISK on the public
 Options for dealing with risk
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1. Avoiding the risk - not undertaking the activity that is likely to trigger the
risk. Factors to consider the validity of this option include:
 What will happen if the activity is not undertaken?
 Is the risk level too high to proceed / continue with the activity?
 Is the cost of the required controls higher than the benefit of the activity?
 Will the failure of the activity have critical consequences for other areas
of the business?
2. Reducing the risk - controlling the likelihood of the risk occurring, or
controlling the impact of the consequences if the risk occurs. Factors to
consider for this risk treatment strategy include:
 Can the likelihood of the risk occurring be reduced?
 Can the consequences of the event be reduced?
3. Transferring the risk totally or in part. This strategy may be achievable
through moving the responsibility to another party or sharing the risk through
a contract, insurance, or partnership/joint venture.
4. Retaining the risk and managing it the project manager or organization is
willing live with the risk without further mitigation..
 The codes and engineering practice 8
regarding risk and safety
 All engineering codes say that: “Engineers must hold paramount
the safety, health, and welfare of the public.

 NSPE:
 II1b. Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents
that are in conformity with applicable standards. (are standards
in the case applicable???)

 III2b. Engineers shall not complete, sign, or seal plans and/or

specifications that are not in conformity with applicable
engineering standards. If the client or employer insists on such
unprofessional conduct, they shall notify the proper authorities
and withdraw from further service on the project. (Case Part 1)
The codes and engineering practice 9
regarding risk and safety

 II1a. If engineers' judgment is overruled under

circumstances that endanger life or property, they shall
notify their employer or client and such other authority as
may be appropriate.
(Case Part 2)
 Difficulties Estimating Risk 10

Detecting Failure Modes:

A failure mode is a way in which a structure,
mechanism or process can fail to function.

 Fault-Tree Analysis: a diagram of the possible ways in

which a malfunction or accident can occur.
 Event-Tree Analysis (similar with different approach)
 Fault-Tree Analysis 11

 In a Fault-tree analysis one starts with an undesirable

event, and then reasons backward to determine what might
have led to the event.
Fault-Tree Analysis used to discover
why a car wont start

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Event Tree-Analysis
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 In event-tree analysis one begins with an initial event and reason

forward to the state of system to which the event can lead.

 Identify the outcome risk: Calculate the overall probability of

the event paths and determine the risk. Evaluate the outcome risk:
Evaluate the risk of each path and determine its acceptability.
These have limitations
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Normalizing Deviance 15

 Engineers increase the risk to the public by allowing

increasing numbers of deviances (deviation) from proper
standards of safety and acceptable risk.

 This is called normalization of deviance.

 normalization of deviance is defined as: “The gradual
process through which unacceptable practice or standards
become acceptable. As the deviant behavior is repeated
without catastrophic results, it becomes the social norm for
the organization.

Accepting anomalies instead of attempting to correct a

design or operating conditions that led to the anomalies
make accidents inevitable!
 Three approaches to acceptable 16

risk
 Risk Expert: wants to balance risk and benefit in a way
that optimizes overall public well-being.

 Layperson: wants to protect himself or herself from risk.

 The government regulator: wants as much assurance as

possible that the public is not being exposed to unexpected
harm.
Example: nuclear waste disposal 17
(A more general) Principle of 18
Acceptable Risk
 People should be protected from the harmful effects
of technology, especially when the harms are not
consented (agreed) to or when they are unjustly
distributed, accept that this protection must sometimes
be balanced against
(1) the need to preserve great and irreplaceable benefits, and
(2) the limitations on our ability to obtain informed consent.
Experts Approach to Acceptable Risk 19

 Identifying risk
 Utilitarianism and acceptable risk
 Risk as maximizing benefit
 Identifying risk 20

To assess the risk, an engineer must first identify it. To identify a

risk, an engineer must know what a risk is. Concept of risk
involves the notion of adverse effect or harm.

 Concept of risk involves adverse effect or harm. Harm is a

limitation of a persons freedom or well being. (physical well
being, psychological well being, economical well being)

 Risk can be defined as: “a compound measure of the

probability and magnitude of adverse effect (side effect)”
(William W. Lowrance)

 We can add : “probability of death or injury”

Utilitarianism and Acceptable Risk 21
 The risk expert’s approach to risk is usually utilitarian. Apply
cost-benefit analysis by modifying it to risk-benefit analysis
because the “cost” is measured in terms of the risk of deaths,
injuries, or other harms.

 Cost/benefit technique is often called risk/benefit analysis.

Cost is measured in terms of risk of deaths, injuries, or other
harms associated with a given course of action.
(Case Ex: Is the risk to the workers from the fumes
acceptable? ).
 Risk as maximizing benefit
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 An acceptable risk is one of where, given the options
available, the risk of harm is at least equaled by the
probability of producing benefit.

 According to the Common Rule, a study presents minimal risk

if "the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort
anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves
than those ordinarily encountered in daily life
 The Laypersons Approach to Acceptable Risk
 Expert and Layperson 23
Public is sometimes mistaken in estimating the probability of death
and injury from various activities of technology. Experts and lay
person understand risk differently.

 Informed consent (approval) and justice: lay person approach

follows more closely the ethics of respect of persons than
utilitarianism.

Laypersons criterion of acceptable risk:

An acceptable risk is one in which risk is freely assumed by

free and informed consent, or properly rewarded, and which
is justly distributed.
 Free and informed consent and 24
compensation
Three necessities to give free and informed
agreement to the risks imposed by technology:

 A person must not be forced

 A person must have the relative information
 A person must be rational and competent enough
to evaluate the information.
The Government Regulator’s Approach to
Risk
 An acceptable risk is one in which protecting the public from
harm has been weighted more heavily than benefiting the
public.
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What Is a Cost Benefit Analysis?
A cost benefit analysis is used to evaluate the total anticipated cost
of a project compared to the total expected benefits in order to
determine whether the proposed implementation is worthwhile for
a company or project team

Risk–benefit analysis
is analysis that seeks to quantify the risk and benefits and hence
their ratio. ... For example, driving an automobile is a risk most
people take daily, also since it is mitigated by the controlling factor
of their perception of their individual ability to manage the risk-
creating situation.
Risk-Benefit Analysis 27
• Risk-Benefit Analysis
– Is a product worth the risks connected with its use?
– What are the benefits? To whom?
– Do they outweigh the risks? To whom? Environmental impact?
“Under what conditions, if any, is someone in society entitled
to impose a risk on someone else on behalf of a supposed
benefit to yet others?”
• How do you place value in $$ on a human life?? Recall
cost-benefit analysis. Human rights/dignity/respect?
• Engineers often supply facts on risk. Caution!

• Example: Operator error and negligence are most often not

the principle causes of accidents - often unsafe conditions
that are incorrectly assessed