Death education – the importance of medical care

Krajewska-Kulak Elżbieta1, Chadzopulu Antygona2, Kułak Wojciech3, Guzowski

Andrzej1, Łukaszuk Cecylia1, Lewko Jolanta1, Van Damme-Ostapowicz Katarzyna1,
Rozwadowska Emilia1, Cybulski Mateusz1, Kowalewska Beata1, Krajewska-Ferishah
Katarzyna1, Szyszko-Perłowska Agnieszka1, Sierakowska Matylda 1,Kondzior Dorota 1

Thanatopraxy and post-mortem cosmetology: past and present

1. Department of Integrated Medical Care, Medical University of Bialystok, Poland

2. General Hospital of Kavala, Greece
3. Department of Pediatric Rehabilitation, Medical University of Bialystok, Poland

Introduction
Will everything remain the same when I'm gone?
Will books forget the touch of my hands? Will dresses forget the scent of my body? And
people? They will talk of me for a while, [...]
Halina Poświatowska [1]

Various communities have different ways of dealing with the bodies of their dead
members: from erecting monumental palaces, burning the remains and throwing the bones
and ashes into the river, or various forms of burial in the ground, embalming, preserving
individual bones (skulls, arms, legs), living with the dead, shrinking corpses or parts thereof,
abandoning the bodies for scavengers to feed, to trading bodies or parts, and even
consumption of corpses.
Thomas [2] emphasizes that Neanderthals scattered broken bones or placed them on
bare soil, in natural hiding places or hollow pits, often on a layer of ash. In ancient China,
people summoned geomancers (in order to determine a favorable location of burial), coffin
and catafalque producers, comedians, pyrotechnicians and craftsmen creating headstones and
paper figurines. In ancient Rome, "funeral planners" washed down bodies and delivered
singers, mourners, musicians and gladiators. Egypt had its taxed embalmers, while in Tibet
"corpse cutters" scattered bodies to be eaten by predators [2].
Chinchorro tribe ritual
Death has yet to forget someone
German proverb [3]
According to Pastuszka [4], the first people who started to deliberately preserve the
human body were hunter-gatherers of the ancient Chinchorro (which means fishing boat)

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tribe, living on the edge of the Atacama desert on the Pacific coast in today's southern Peru
and northern Chile between the Lluta valley and the river Loa.
The oldest Chinchorro settlement was most likely founded 7 thousand BC [5], and its
inhabitants ate mostly fish, dolphins, seals, sea birds, seafood and plants. They also had fire,
which they used for cooking and preserving.
Scientists studying this tribe [4] estimated that each Chinchorro group left about 400
bodies a year that were usually shallowly buried in the desert, and finally the thousands of
graves become part of the landscape and perhaps triggered the ritual of mummification. It
began with cutting the head with stone knives and stripping the skin off the body [6, 7]. The
skin was set aside for later use, perhaps storing it in salt water to keep it soft and supple. Then
the soft tissue - internal organs and muscles - was removed. Sometimes the skull was cracked
open and the brain and eyes removed. In other cases, the brains were pulled out through the
hole at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord exits. The areas were removing
skin was difficult (e.g., feet, hands) were cut off and dried whole [6, 7]. Then, the skeleton
was hardened by burning and drying it, and when the body was ritually cleaned, it was taken
away for re-assembly. Fifteen centimeter thick sticks were used to serve this purpose. Bones
were tied with reed ropes to the stick in order to attach them to the spine, ankles, pelvis and
chest. Sometimes the whole structure was underpinned with bundles of twigs or reeds, and
hard to match places such as knees and shoulder joints were sawed. The skull was filled with
earth, grass, ash, animal hair, or a mixture of these materials. All of it was firmly tied, then the
face was coated with thick white paste. Next, the skin was applied onto the skull and human
black hair glued to it [6, 7]. The adhesive was made of ash and sea lion skin. In the next step,
a thick layer of black paint was applied. The eyes, nose and mouth, which were round as if
open, were modeled within this layer. Subsequently, the skeleton was filled and covered with
a paste of white ashes. Breasts or genitals, depending on the sex, were modeled and the skin
re-applied. Sometimes, some places were restored with sea lion skin. The next step was to
paint and smooth out the body with black paint in order to obtain human-like, but stylized
bodies. All the mummies were idealized, there was no individual characteristics, because the
bodies had to be exemplary of how the Chinchorro should look after death [6, 7].
Researchers [6, 7] studying the mummy noticed that the paint coating had been
renewed several times, suggesting that the mummies were not immediately buried in a grave,
but exposed for public viewing, probably during major celebrations.
The Chinchorro mummified their dead for over two thousand years, until 1800 BC
[4, 5].
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Embalming
Death is an eternal refuge where one feels nothing
Cicero [1]

Embalming (from Arabic mumiyah - body preserved with wax, from Persian mum -
wax) was perfected during the long history of Egypt, and reached its peak during the New
Kingdom period. Its various stages were described by Greek historians, Herodotus and
Diodorus Siculus.
The Egyptians believed that if the body is embalmed, man continues to live in the
world of the dead [8]. Preparations for embalming varied in duration time, depending on
whether the deceased was poor or rich [8].
In the Predynastic Period, according to Schlogl [8], the body was buried in a narrow
pit dug in the desert near the edge of the fields, arranged in sleeping position with bent knees
and hands folded by the face. The body was sometimes covered with animal skin or a mat.
Around 3500 BC, some of the bodies were wrapped in significant amounts of canvas, others
had the intestines removed, and some were covered with melted resin [8]. However, in most
predynastic burials, the only factor allowing preserving the body was hot sand acting as a
natural drying and moisture removing agent. Without moisture, the development of bacteria
and decomposition of the body are not possible [8].
During excavations in Nubia in 1907-1908, Smith and Wood-Jones [9] found and
described a number of mummies, whose chests and the abdominal cavities were filled with
resin, and in it necrophagous insects in various stages of development were embedded.
In the Early Dynastic Period, burials began to be more elaborate [8]. The body was
often buried in a specially cut out burial chamber, separating it from the preservative action of
sand, resulting in decomposition of the body. The Egyptians soon noticed what was going on
and began searching for methods to achieve the same effect as previously provided by natural
contact with sand [8].
In times prior to the Old Kingdom, in some cases, the individual parts of the body
were tightly wrapped in linen bandages, because the Egyptians believed that the
decomposition process can be stopped if the body is carefully concealed [8]. Over time, the
bandages were strengthen with a layer of plaster, which allowed to maintain the shape of the
dead person, but did not stop the decomposition process [8].
In the 4th Dynasty, removing of the human internal organs was found to be an
essential step towards halting the decomposition process. The earliest examples of this

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practice come from Meidum, where in the early 4th Dynasty burial chambers, storage niches
for internal organs extracted from buried bodies, were discovered [8].
According to Schlogl [8], a container internally divided into four parts made of calcite
was discovered in the grave of Hetepheres, mother of Khufu, builder of the Great Pyramid. It
contained canvas-wrapped viscera preserved with natron's liquid solution (natron, a type of
salt harvested on the shores of salt lakes, known for its degreasing and dehydrating
properties).
According to Thomas [2], cleaning the deceased person's body is aimed at conserving
it. Ethnologists and historians believe that in archaic societies the use of vegetable oils and
fragrances for these purposes was widespread [2]. They were also used extensively by the
ancients, who mixed them by adding wax or honey. A method of drying the body in the sun or
by a fire was common in Tibet, Guinea and Benin, Papua (New Guinea), and northeastern
Australia. In Indonesia and parts of Africa, fumigation/smoking was also used. Sometimes,
deformations of the body caused by disease are removed. For example, the Diola people from
Senegal compressed the stomach of the deceased to remove bloating and swelling, and
sometimes even made abdominal incisions [2]. The Malagasy from Madagascar especially
ensured the removal of pus. In many regions of the world, viscera was removed and initial
embalming was performed (Polynesia and Madagascar). The Ainu people from Sakhalin
island had a custom that a widow was bound, under penalty of death, to keep her husband
from rotting for a year after his death [2].
The mummy stage
You really get to know a person after their death
Pythagoras [1]

The word "mummy", according to Johnson [10], is derived from the Arabic word of
Persian origin mumija meaning "tar" or more exactly "bitumen," specifying the mummified
(embalmed) body protected from decomposition with the appropriate procedures and
materials.
Time spent preparing the body for burial, from the moment of death to the burial was
70 days, of which approximately 40 were the drying process [8]. The body of the deceased
was transferred to the embalmers as soon as possible, so that they may quickly remove the
decomposition prone viscera and brains. The brain was usually removed through the nose by a
hole pierced into the interior of the skull, and the viscera were removed through an incision

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made in the left side. The heart was always left in place, treating it as the presumed location
of thinking ability, decision-making and responsibility [8].
According to Schlogl [8], the proper preservation of the body was ensured by three
basic elements: removal of the brain, removal of the viscera, and drying of the skin. However,
they were not well understood until the time of the New Kingdom [8]. In the past, a passage
of Herodotus was erroneously interpreted that the main phase of the mummification process is
a long period of soaking the body in natron solution. Later research and experiments showed
that with the exception of the early attempts, dry natron was used, whose crystals effectively
dried the body, dissolving the fat and leaving the skin supple. Natron was also used to
preserve the organs removed from the body [8]. All materials used in the embalming process
were carefully protected, including the fillers used only temporarily for keeping the proper
body shape during the drying process. Then the bodies were buried in a so-called embalming
compartment not far from the grave, as it was believed that all fluids from the body still
belong to it and should be buried near it [8].
The final stage of the mummification process consisted of filling the inside of the body
with cloth, chaff, and sometimes unusual materials, such as dry plants [8]. Then the edges of
the incision were brought together and covered with the so-called embalmers badge, made of
leather, metal or wax, and often decorated with the image of Ujat - the eye of Horus, which
according to myth was first destroyed by the enemy and then miraculously healed. As a result,
it was regarded in Egypt as a versatile and highly effective protective amulet [8].
The orbital cavities were initially filled with linen tampons in order to give them a
realistic appearance of a living human, but later artificial eyes were placed there [8]. With a
similar purpose of giving the dried body an artificial plumpness, chaff or silt from the Nile
was pushed underneath the skin of hands and feet and cloth bundles under the skin of the
cheeks [8].
Two photos are from the exhibition in Crete, organized in 1998 by the Heraklion.
Fagium portraits have been exhibited since 1996 in the U.S., London and Rome. During four
months they watched more than 400 thousand people. In 1615 they were discovered by Peter
Della Valle, however, are associated with the name of archaeologist Sir Wilhelm Flindersen
Petre, who in 1900, looking for the entrance to the pyramid of Hawara in the Fayoum Oasis in
Egypt hit the Greek necropolis Arsinois, bearing the name of Herodotus during
Crokodilopolis (city crocodiles). Mummies discovered that there were parts of the cephalic
face covered with icons of the dead written on wood, canvas, or papyrus. Fayum name comes
from the name of the cemetery located 85 km from Cairo.
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Mummy, Crete, source: private picture

Development of mummification techniques

(...) everyone has their own death.
It follows us everywhere throughout life, step by step.
Phillip Pullman [1]

According to Schlogl [8], the craft of embalmers really developed in Roman times.
Greek literature and Egyptian texts - such as The Ritual of Embalming [2] - enable recreating
the embalming process from the time of Tutankhamun or Ramesses II. It was a very arduous
operation, lasting from 40 to 70 days, and all the technical procedures, determining its course,
moved towards the ultimate goal, such drying of the body that would completely protect from
decay [2].
After passing through the Cleansing Tent, the body was deposited in the embalmers
workshop and washed and depilated [2]. Afterwards, embalmers proceeded with the first
procedure, removal of the brain, which in general was done through the nasal canals using
bronze hooks or spirals, but sometimes also by trepanation of the base of the skull or eye
enucleation and piercing the upper orbital septum. Then, the abdomen was incised and the
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viscera removed. The left side was incised with a flint blade over a length of about ten
centimeters. The embalmer gradually emptied the abdomen and chest, leaving the heart in its
place [2]. The organs underwent the same treatments as the body: washed, dried with natron,
saturated with resin and wrapped. Later, they were put into four urns whose covers depicted
the heads of sons of Horus, gods who were caretakers of the viscera. Sometimes, however, the
organs were replaced in the abdomen. After gutting, the body was washed with water or palm
wine with roots and spices. This external and internal cleaning required many tampons,
sometimes fixed on sticks to reach all the hollows [2]. After that the proper mummification
took place: filling and salting the body released 75% of its water content. Bags filled with
loose natron and tampons were sometimes put inside the chest and abdomen, which was
designed to absorb the blood and lymph. This also prevented the collapse of the abdominal
wall. Having first fastened the fingernails with linen thread, the whole body was covered with
several layers of dry natron [2]. The body was left in such state for at least 40 days, and the
liquids "secreted" by grooves running down to a bowl. After this time, the deceased reached
the state of a skeleton covered with tanned skin. In order to give it flexibility, the body was
washed and smeared again to remove the natron, and then emptied of all that filled its insides
[2]. In the next stage, the body was made to look like a living being. This was achieved by
filling voids. All sorts of materials such as linen lint saturated with resin, dry lichen, wood
chips, fired clay, chopped straw were used for stuffing the skull, chest, and abdomen. Closing
the incisions was performed by pouring hot wax over the edges of the wound [2]. In the case
of dead royals, the embalmer glued on a gold or bronze plate, sometimes decorated with the
eye of Horus. Final washing and beauty treatments ended the preparation of the body.
Depending on the period, eye prosthesis such as balls of fabric, painted onion bulbs, inlaid
stones were placed, or not. The body became more flexible and therefore it was easier to
bandage - it was rubbed and massaged with oils and ointments. Sometimes attempts to
remodel were undertaken by implanting various elements under the skin. Makeup with ocher
and gold was painted on the face, nails and breasts, and in order to protect the body the skin
and insides were smeared with resin [2].
It was believed that precise and dense bandaging will consolidate the body and
maintain its shape. As many as 15 days were devoted to this activity (out of 70) [8]. It was
believed that during the process of bandaging, the deceased shall receive divine qualities,
therefore particular layers of bandages were symbolically called different deity names.
The first wrapping with bandages kept in place the saffron shroud that the body was
covered with [2]. First, all compresses and rolls of bandages of a length sufficient for
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wrapping a particular part of the body were prepared and placed in a matter facilitating easy
access to them. Then, the work started by individually wrapping each finger and limb, and
finally all together [8]. Fingers and toes were then separately wrapped with narrow rolls, and
in case of Pharaohs, placed in gold caps. Next, the head was wrapped: bandages, tied forming
a cross from the right shoulder, supported many tampons placed on the scalp, temples, ears,
eyes, and mouth. Between the individual layers of bandages, amulets were placed and ritual
oils were poured. Then the hands, the palms where stuffed in such a way that the fingers were
flexible and movable [2]. The process ended with the stomach and legs, wrapping them with
special bandages and anointing with fresh oils. Subsequent layers of bandages were
impregnated with resin. Finally, the mummy obtained a final decoration: the death mask [2].
Schlogl [8] reported that the total area of all the bandages used on single mummy
might have even been 324 square meters. In some periods, even before laying the external
shrouds onto the mummy, the head was covered with a mask that symbolically expressed the
completion of the transformation process of the deceased into a deity [8].
In the Ptolemaic Period, the face of such a death mask, made most often out of
cartonnage (several layers of plastered canvas glued together), was covered with gold-foil,
and its wig was painted blue, which referenced some of the texts that describe the appearance
of deities [8]. Masks covering the faces of royal mummies were made of pure gold. The outer
shroud was usually attached with longitudinal and a few transverse bandages; but in the
Roman Period, mummies were often covered on the outside with complex systems of
bandages forming decorative geometric patterns. The mummy of the Late Period is
characterized by a grid of faience beads covering the outer shroud in a diamond pattern [8].
During the period of the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic times, separately embalmed
viscera were usually placed in four containers, called urns, with carved lids in the shape of
heads [8]. These lids up to the eighteenth dynasty had only the shape of human heads, then
they were differentiated by styling them after the heads of the Sons of Horus (Amseti, was
presented with a human head, caring for the liver; monkey-headed Hapy - lungs; jackal-
headed Duamutef - stomach; and hawk-headed Qebehsenuef - intestines). The containers
were identified with the four female personifications of caring: Isis, Nephthys, Neith and
Serket [8].
In the Late Period and the Ptolemaic Period, the viscera were often left inside or
embalmed separately placed in the form of a bundle between the legs of the mummy [8].
The discovery of a mummy from the year 300 A.D. indicates the existence of
customary embalming in Greece under Roman rule [11]. Confirmation of this was the work of

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scientists who studied the mummy of a middle-aged woman buried in a lead coffin. Her body
was laid in a marble sarcophagus, which was discovered in 1962 during archaeological
excavations in Thessaloniki in northern Greece, and which, according to experts, is from the
Hellenistic and Byzantine era. The latest research found that the body, whose remains are now
in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, was embalmed with a variety of oils, spices
and resins. This enables the preservation of not only the skeleton but also fragments of soft
tissues, such as hair, blood and hand muscle, as well as the silk shroud embroidered with gold
thread that covered the body [11]. In order to determine the substances used for embalming
the body, a multidisciplinary team of researchers conducted a study using histological and
physico-chemical techniques, including macroscopic and anthropological analysis, as well as
gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and analysis using electron
microscope [11].
Jivaro Indian ritual
The Jivaro Indians, who inhabited the border between Peru and Ecuador, had a special
way of treating the heads of their enemies [2]. A warrior would cut off the victim's head and
neck with a machete. He'd then thread a headband through the mouth and neck, and travel
further. At the next stop [2] close to rapid water, he would make a cut on the back of the head
to pull off the skin and rinse it well. Then, he would cook the skin for half an hour and hang it
on a stake to dry. Already reduced by half, the skin was then turned inside out, scraped, turned
inside out again and sewn together. He would insert hot stones into the so formed bag he, and
later add burning sand [2]. This process was repeated several times. Next, the head was
massaged and modeled, and a thread was pulled through the upper part. The tsansa (shrunk
head) was formed as a result; it was hung around the neck. The whole process took about 6
days, consisted of several phases, in which the opponent's head shrank to the size of a fist, and
was meant to keep the life force of the deceased and controlled acquisition of his power [2].
Thanatopraxy - modern embalming
The auroras of death shine a nostalgic charm on everything.
Milan Kundera [1]

Thanatopraxy treatment [12] is mainly an injection of substances into the blood

vessels of the deceased that inhibit putrefactive bacteria reproduction. This effectively inhibits
the decomposition of the body after death. Specially prepared mineral salt compounds are
used, however, the specific names of the substances used in the process are the secret of
thanatopraxy departments [12].
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Thanatopraxy has an interesting history, and its contemporary shape is owed to Jean-
Nicolas Gannal, a former officer of the Grand Army who criticized the embalming practices
used in the nineteenth century. He described in detail each process of thanatopraxy,
effectively refuting the most popular forms [2]. Around 1840, a number of exhumations
demonstrated the effectiveness of the revolutionary technique he developed. Previous
techniques were mainly inspired by ancient methods that consisted of applying lubricants,
powdering, soaking and wrapping of disemboweled (or not) bodies of the dead. Jean-Nicolas
Gannal described a variety of practices used in the case of kings of France or members of
their families in his History of embalming (Histoire des embaumements, 1841); vinegar,
turpentine, vodka, salt and all kinds of perfumes were used in large quantities [2]. The
researcher had the idea of replacing these burdensome procedures with arterial injection,
which would be "purgative, filling, antiseptic and preservative", just as the British scholars,
the Hunter brothers, had done a century earlier preparing anatomical specimens. The
composition of the injected fluid was modified repeatedly. Calcium phosphate, potassium
nitrate, sodium chloride, alum, and arsenious acid were used. In 1848, Louis Philippe [2]
banned the use of arsenic; only aluminum acetate (up to l0 degrees) and aluminum chloride
(up to 20 degrees) were left in equal parts. After Jean-Nicolas Gannal sold his patent to
several countries, the technology was improved and some other ingredients were introduced.
In this field, Mr. Holmes particularly proved himself during the American Civil War [cited for
the 2]; he injected preservative fluid through the femoral and carotid arteries, which was later
combined with venous drainage. He also improved the liquid formulation using in the end a
mixture of phenol, creosote sulfate, alum, lead acetate, zinc sulfate or chloride.
Thanatopraxy is standard procedure after death in many countries, but embalming
treatments are relatively expensive [12]. Any action performed on the deceased body must be
recorded in specific protocols, including the substances used for thanatopraxy purposes [12].
Thanatopraxy treatment can be performed by a person with special authorizations,
because a poorly executed procedure can lead to rapid mummification of the body [12].
In 1880 in the United States, Clark founded the first specialist thanatopraxy school
based on the experiences of Holmes [2]. In 1963, the French Institute of Thanatopraxy
(Institut Français de Thanatopraxie – IFT) was created; it is involved in teaching,
disseminating and controlling techniques that in professional circles are referred to as IFT
Methods. Various operations are carried out, if possible, in laboratories intended for this
purpose, located inside the athanee' , but they can also be done at home [2]. The two-phase
procedure is designed to inhibit decay and autolysis. The first phase involves the vessels,
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including arterial injection and venous drainage. The second phase is dedicated to the cavities:
cleansing and injection of the chest and abdomen. Complementary aesthetic treatments are
used to correct the visible consequences of thanatomorphosis [2].
Tehuelches
Primitive inhabitants of Argentinian Patagonia-Tehuelches, performed a procedure
post mortem of fracturing the spine to restore the body to fetal position [13]. It was performed
by a corpulent woman who would sat on the back of the deceased while other women would
hold the body in a sitting position. When rigor mortis set, the body was exhibited at the door
of the house completely dressed, including the sombrero used in life. The dead were not
buried in cemeteries, but in hard to reach places such as on the slopes of mountains or the
surrounding caves [13].
Yamana Indians
The bodies of the dead were wrapped in old skins of sea elephants or seals and
'smoked' for 24 hours, then covered with ice and buried in a cave on a small island [13]. If
death occurred far from the place of residence, the body of the deceased was burned [13].
The Incas
In the beliefs of the Incas death was treated as a simple transition to another life [13].
It did not induce fear, because the mummified or dried body of the deceased was kept with the
family, and loved ones provided food and drink for the next life. To their understanding, there
was no heaven, hell or purgatory. They also did not believe in resurrection. The Incas
believed in camaquen, the essence of Andean Cosmovsion. Camaquen is a vital force in living
people as well as mummies of ancestors, animals, and even inanimate objects such as
mountains, lakes, and rocks. Peru balsam, among others, was used for embalming; but most of
the mummies discovered on mountain peaks were the result of natural mummification [13].
Guanches
The inhabitants of the Canary Islands were called Guan Chinet, "the local people," or
Guanches. According to Atlantologists, the Guanche culture comes from Atlantis and
developed alongside the cultures of Egypt, Babylon, Mexico, and Peru [14].
On the Canary Islands, the dead were embalmed in a manner identical to the Egyptians
but in "squatting" position. At the feet of one of the Canarian mummies there were sandals
identical to sandals of the Mayan statue at Chichen Itza [14].
Women from Mani
According to research recently conducted by anthropologist Nadia Seremetaki, in
Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula in Mani, after three or five years, never even years,
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women themselves exhumed corpses of their loved ones and separated the bones from the
body [15]. They would perform "posthumous cleansing" of the bones, using water, vinegar,
wine and olive oil. This ceremony was compared to the work of tending olive trees. The ritual
was thought to facilitate the transition of the deceased from the world of the living to another
world, which was difficult and unknown. After being dried in the sun, bones were placed in
an appropriate way so that the head was always placed on top. This rite was performed in all
of agricultural Greece. Human and animal bones were used for predictions - mantia or
according to Hertz spalomandia. To this day, in all the Greek cemeteries, similar activities are
performed related to the exhumation of corpses [15].
Introduction to thanato-cosmetics
Humans want to be more beautiful than they are
Meng-tsy [16]

The word cosmetics derives from the Greek kosmeo, which means "to decorate,
embellish" [17]. The first mention of the use of cosmetics dates back to African tribes that
developed a kind of culture of decorating the body, serving a similar function as clothing in
Western culture. It enables distinguishing people based on their social status, rank,
accomplishments, as well as gender and age [17].
Beautification of the deceased still exceeds certain boundaries established in our
culture, and many even believe these procedures violate the respect that should be paid to the
body of the deceased.
The process of beautifying the body of the deceased came to Poland from the U.S.,
where putting remains on display is the usual form of the funeral ceremony.
Beautifying treatments have been used for many years; even a decade ago, it was unthinkable
that the dead get a manicure or pedicure.
According to Zwolak [18], every culture has its own symbols and methods of self-
expression. Hence, body embellishing or modification practices are signs of self-expression
and belonging to a specific culture, emphasizing the specific concept of beauty and sense of
aesthetics occurring in every culture [18] .
In Jericho, for example, according to Belting [7], skulls from the Neolithic period were
found, which had a human face, manifested with specifically molded eyes, which meant that
they were "given the face that they lost with the death of their respective owners. Also the
colors, with red in abundance referring perhaps to the color of blood, change the artificial
skin into an image of life"."
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In Rome, according to Chroscicki [19], farewell to the deceased took place at home,
surrounded by family. In the course of strict ritual, the body was rubbed with oils and the head
was covered with a wreath or crown. After these procedures, the person performing the
embalming (pollinctoi) made a death mask cast in plaster or clay. From the negative, a painted
with vibrant colors wax mask (imago ceia), which was applied onto the face of the deceased,
was obtained [19].
Fayum mummy portraits
This is the accepted name of 700 portraits of the deceased on wood or canvas covered
with plaster, from the first centuries AD [20, 21, 22, 23]. The name comes from the basin
where such artifacts were first discovered. Similar artifacts were found in many places in
Middle and Upper Egypt [20, 21, 22, 23].
The custom of embalming continued until the end of the fifth century, but in 392,
Emperor Theodosius banned this practice [20, 21, 22, 23]. When Egypt was under Roman
rule, the Egyptian burial method used by the Greeks changed. Instead of plaster masks placed
on faces wrapped in linen bandages, as it had been done earlier, portraits painted on wooden
boards began to be used [20, 21, 22, 23].

Portrait of Antinopolis, L'Européenne, about 117-138 AD, Louvre, source: [23]

These portraits illustrated the busts of the dead and were attached to the mummy
bandages in place of the face [20, 21, 22, 23]. They were painted on boards or canvas covered
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with plaster sized from 30×15 to 50×35 cm. Different painting techniques were used in the
creation of these portraits. The largest group are painted using tempera with a pale and matte
surface. The second group are encaustic portraits (distribution of paint with hot wax - the
painting was covered with a thick layer of shiny paint wax to cover up traces of metal tools).
And the third used mixed techniques: the face was painted using wax paints and the
background using tempera [20, 21, 22, 23].
The oldest preserved portraits date from the first and second centuries [20, 21, 22, 23].
Most of the people are painted in a relaxed position, with the face slightly tilted to one side.
They are characterized by realism in representing the smallest imperfections, but the whole
thing is softened by play of light and shadow. In some portraits, the model's personality was
even captured [20, 21, 22, 23].

Portrait of a boy, encaustic on wood, National Museum in Warsaw, source: [23]

The purpose of the found portraits is not quite known [20, 21, 22, 23]. It is possible
they were commissioned to decorate the house and serve as proof of the owner's culture and
wealth, and after his death were buried along with him [20, 21, 22, 23].
Another group are portraits painted especially for burial. In such cases, the figures
often hold symbols of worship, and the portrait bears the name of the deceased. Another
group are medallions, a form of portraits reserved for people who were worshiped in home
shrines [20, 21, 22, 23].

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The portraits represent a variety of people usually in everyday dress and hairstyles.
Most are Greeks, Romans, or Jews, but there are almost no Egyptians [20, 21, 22, 23].
The beginnings of research on mummy portraits date back to 1887 when the Viennese
businessman, Theodore Graf, began to buy masks from Egyptian villagers living near the
Fayum basin. He got the world of science interested in his collection and in 1888 organized an
exhibition, which was a great success in the ancient art research community [20, 21, 22, 23].
According to Doksiadou [22], many people believe that the Fayum portraits resemble
portraits by Rembrandt, Modigliani, and Picasso. Andre Malro wrote: "their eyes, the faces on
the portraits resemble glowing candles of eternal life".
Professions associated with thanatopraxy
• Embalmer [24] - a person responsible for professional and comprehensive
preparation of corpses for burial, cremation, and transportation. An embalmer's
tasks include: disinfection of the body, posthumous cleansing, dressing, makeup
and grooming, temporary preservation of the body, performing body preserving
and embalming treatments, body reconstruction after accidents, tactful and
professional approach to the families of the deceased.
• Autopsy technician [24] - a person dealing with bodies in the hospital's
prosectorium or Forensic Departments performs autopsies within the duties of
assistant pathologist or forensic specialist. An autopsy thenician's tasks include:
performing autopsy to the extent determined by the physician, body reconstruction
(after accidents), ensuring proper reception and distribution of the human body
from the mortuary, preparing the body for burial by washing and covering,
considerate, decent and professional service of the families of the dead,
thanatopraxy treatments, obtaining professional equipment and specialist
protective clothing, cooperation with the police to identify bodies, working with
health care institutions and human tissue banks.
• Thanatopractitioner [24] - a person involved in the comprehensive preparation of
a body for burial, transportation, and cremation. A thanatopractitioner's tasks
include: disinfection of the body, posthumous cleansing, dressing, makeup and
grooming, temporary preservation, body reconstruction after accidents.
• Post-mortem cosmetologist [24] - a person responsible for posthumous cleansing,
disinfection of the body, preservation, makeup and grooming.

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Embalmers
According to Przychodzień and Niwiński [25], Herodotus was the only ancient writer
to write about embalming and embalmers. In his History, written in the fifth century BC, he
states that: "There are seven classes of Egyptians, of these some are called priests, some
warriors, others ox shepherds, swineherds, shopkeepers, interpreters and sailors," but does
not mention embalmers.
Among the tens of thousands of anonymous mummies representing the lower classes
of Egyptian society, there is no mummy embalmer, nor texts describing the embalming
community [25].
According to Przychodzień and Niwiński [25], there were two sarcophagi found in
Egypt whose owners bore the title: Embalmers' manager - one of them is located in Nantes,
and the second in a museum in Alexandria.
The tools used in this work are the embalming substance, bronze hooks used to
remove the brain through the nose, "Ethiopian" knife with a flint edge to perform the ritual cut
on the left side [25].
The method of writing the word Wt is evidence of how embalmers were seen; the
word means embalmer in ancient Egyptian [25].

Hieroglyph of the word Wt, source: [26]

The first two characters of the hieroglyph (quail chick and loaf of bread), according to
Przychodzień and Niwinski [25], have the phonetic value "wt", the following two are
determinants, characters that the ancient Egyptians located at the end of a word to explain its
meaning, and have no phonetic value. The first ideogram is a graphical representation of an
ulcer, in other words diseased matter, probably unpleasantly scented [27]. Another version is
the "leaking ulcer" was used to write words such as feces and urine. The second ideogram is a
sitting man, the character used when writing the words concerning a man, his activities and
kinship. The character has different graphic forms, and in this case the kneeling man puts his
right hand to his face at the height of the nose, as if he wanted to protect himself from
inhaling an unpleasant odor [27].

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Przychodzień and Niwiński [25] believe that the workshops of embalmers were
located away from human habitats, probably somewhere in the desert.
One of the priests involved in the embalming ritual used a mask in the form of a
jackal-head of Anubis, personifying the god of mummification [25]. Masks, fulfilling ritual
and magical functions, had two holes in the neck, presumably to allow the priest to breathe
freely. They were also supposed to protect the priest from the unpleasant smells in the
workshop [25].
Confirmation of this was research by Brier and Wade [28], who in 1997 performed a
body mummification using ancient techniques and described that there was a terrible odor in
the room where the corpse remained for 35 days covered with natron and where high
temperature was artificially maintained.
According to Przychodzień and Niwiński [25], embalmers were not sentimental,
which is confirmed by the fact that many mummies have post mortem injuries such as broken
arms, legs, or holes in the head, which cannot be explained by rigor mortis or the embalming
process. Herodotus [25] is the only ancient author who provides information about acts of
necrophilia taking place in the embalmer's workshop: "when wives of prominent men died,
they were not immediately transferred to be embalmed, just as those women who were very
beautiful and were more respected, but only after three or four days, they were taken to the
embalmer. This was done so that the embalmer would not copulate with these women. It it
said that one was caught copulating with the corpse of a recently dead woman, and he was
betrayed by his co-worker."
Smith and Wood-Jones [9, 25] indicate that a few examples were found of heads that
were separated from their bodies during embalming, which were then fixed by means of palm
branches, for example. They describe cases of mummies filled with bones and human hair,
and even composed of the remains of three different people. Moody [25, 29] describes the
mummy of the boy Pedi-Amon, who died at the age of 7.5 years, had removed arms, a broken
upper leg, and the foot bones were strongly bent up and squeezed tight as the embalmers
probably had to put the mummy of the boy in a too small, anthropoid sarcophagus bought by
the family. Granville [25, 29, 30] investigated and described mummies whose skin had been
scraped off, which was then "impregnated" probably by the means of a warm bath in a
beeswax solution.
Urbanik [31], however, brings forth a true example of an artist who made a prosthetic
nose and ears for a mummy tested in Krakow. He made them of resin and added them post
mortem, so "the deceased was complete in the Land of the West" [31].
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Post-mortem cosmetologist and post-mortem plastic surgeon

A post-mortem cosmetologist is a person who is responsible for doing makeup for the
deceased. Post-mortem makeup is done so the deceased looks the best possible through the
use of specialized products and post-mortem cosmetics, composed primarily of formaldehyde.
The cosmetics hide unfavorable skin discoloration resulting from the occurrence of hypostatic
blotch, bruising, abrasions, and decaying processes.
Post-mortem makeup is done on women and men, using the illusion of light method,
improving the end result.
The responsibilities of the post-mortem cosmetologist include not only doing makeup
or covering skin lesions and discoloration, but also treatments such as painting the nails,
applying acrylic tips, and coloring and styling hair.
A specific variant of this profession is post-mortem plastic surgery, which is used in a
situation where the deceased requires additional facial and/or body reconstruction (e.g.
resulting from accidental damages).
The range of beautifying activities that are done should always be consulted with the
family of the deceased. This also depends on the religion of the deceased, because, for
example, Judaism does not allow embalming or painting the deceased's face using cosmetics.
[32].

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