UNIT THREE

FOUNDATION OF GROUP BEHAVIOR

3.1. What is Group?

Groups are two or more employees who have an ongoing relationship in which they interact and influence one
another’s behavior and performances.

In other words, a group is an; assemblage, cluster, or aggregation of persons considered to be related in some
way or united by common ties or interests, for example family, recreation or occupation.

Group is the largest set of two or more individuals who are jointly characterized by a network of relevant
communications, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated
normative strength. Or

It is a collection of two or more people who have a common goal or interest and interact with each other to
accomplish their objective are aware of one another and perceive themselves to be a part of the group. In
general human group is a collection of individuals;

 Who have significantly dependant relations with each other

 Who perceive themselves as group by reliably distinguishing members from non-members,
 Whose identity is recognized by non members,
 Who have differentiated roles in the group as a function of expectations from themselves, other
groups members, and non group members,
 Who, as group members acting alone or in concert, have significant interdependent relations with
other groups
These broad definitions of groups cover families, neighborhood, gangs, Athletic teams, school sections,
committees, subparts of departments in a large organizations etc.

Basically, group can be defined as an association of two or more persons who have joined together at work in
order to accomplished some common goals and who thereby experience a process of interaction and mutual
influence that results in group behavior. It should be noted that there is similarity between this definition and the
definition off an organization. Nevertheless, a group, unlike an organization, may have a less formal structure
and its activities may or may not include “work”.

Three elements should be observed in the definition of “group”.

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 At least two people must be involved for a group to exist. A single individual cannot
constitute a group. When the size of a group increases to a certain point. Say
twenty or thirty members, the group may cease to be a group in its own right and
formally informally breaks up into subgroups.

The individuals must interact regularly if they are really a group. This interaction
need not always follow the same pattern, but it must occur. The necessity for
interaction is a primary reason for the upper limit on group size. When a group
gets too large, it will be difficult for members to interact with all other members. It
is more comfortable to interact with only a few other members, paving the way for
the formation of new small groups.

Group members must have a common goal or purpose. A collection of six people
using an elevator to go upstairs is not a group. Even though six people are
involved in this case, and even though they share the small goal (moving upstairs),
they do not interact regularly. In the same way, labor union and management
officials may interact regularly, but the probably do not have a common purpose;
so they fail to constitute a group. The goal or purpose of the group is a primary
factor in distinguishing among different types of groups in organization.

3.2. Characteristics of Group

A group is a collection of individuals whose existence as a collection is rewarding to the individuals. A group is
a dynamic whole based on interdependence rather than on similarity. Strong, well-organized groups need not
necessarily be homogeneous. It is a social interaction rather than similarity or dissimilarity that determines the
effectiveness of a group or achievement of group tasks.

The interpersonal relations in the group basically shape what is commonly known as group dynamics. Group
dynamics involves the behavior of small work groups, including the relations and interactions among members
of the same group. From managerial point of view, the aim of good interpersonal relations is to help employees
get on better with each other and with supervisors and other managers so that they are motivated to work
cooperatively and productively. It can be generally stated that the better the interpersonal relations, the greater
an employee’s satisfaction and sense of personal worth.

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Groups, in general have various characteristics. The major and noted ones are described as follows:

1. Autonomy: - independence exercised by the group

2. Cohesiveness: - the extent to which the group functions as a unit

3. Control: - extent to which the group regulates the behavior of its members

4. Hedonic tone: - extent to which members enjoy belonging to the group.

5. Homogeneity: - for instance, in age, sex, outlook.

6. Intimacy: - familiarity of members with each other.

7. Permeability: - ease of entry of new members

8. Polarization: - extent to which members agree on common goals

9. Stratification: - existence of status levels within the group.

3.3. Why do people join groups?

Factors influencing group formation

One of the major purposes behind the formation of a group is the gratification of the members’ needs. In order
to survive a group must yield satisfactions to its members. The reason for group formation in relation to the
following factors

i. Groups provide warmth and support for individuals. Man needs others to feel fulfilled. When individuals
are solitaries lacking that warmth and support they suffer. Aloneness leads to a degree of insecurity. In
fact the harshest punishment that can be given a prisoner in the US penal system is to be put in solitary
conferment for a given period of time. During his study Elton Mayo observed that employees who are
isolated from each other because of plant layout find their jobs less satisfying than those group members
who are able to socialize on the job.
ii. Groups help employees satisfy their security needs or their needs for power. They serve the important
function of helping individuals cope with their environment. Most employees join groups (i.e. unions) to
protect themselves against what they perceive to be arbitrary or capricious acts by superiors. Under
conditions of an oppressive boss, or a very difficult and demanding job, people join together to share
sentiments and develop implicit or explicit tactics for dealing with the environment.
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 iii. The work group is a primary source of recognition and esteem for many individuals. It gives an individual
recognition status and further opportunity to relate to others. Joining a high status group can help an
individual acquire esteem in the eyes of persons outside the group whether or not he is distinguished
member of group. Group membership provides opportunities for recognition and praise that are not
available outside the group.
iv. Economic reasons also cause group formation. In many instance groups form because individuals believe
that they can drive greater economic benefits in their jobs if they form in to group.
v. Another important fact or group formation involves the proximity of people to each other. The proximity
makes it possible for people to learn about the characteristics of others and offers an excellent
opportunity to exchange thoughts, ideas, and attitudes regarding on and off the job activities. This leads
to mutual interaction (relieves boredom) and helps in stabilizing and establishing perceptions of the
work place. Groups also serve as sources of information help out when members are sick or absent.
vi. Another reason as to why a person joins a group is his feeling that the group can help him/her accomplish
goals. Organizational tasks demand cooperative effort of a number of people. The formal or informal
group can be extremely useful in solving specific work problems or in preventing the individuals from
committing mistakes on the job.

3.4. Types of Group

The major categories of groups in organizations classified as formal versus informal, primary versus secondary,
smaller versus larger, reference versus membership groups.

I. Formal and Informal Groups. Formal groups are purposely established under the organization system and
can be further subdivided into functional and task groups. Informal groups are those which are created
through social interactions. The types of groups are discussed as follows:
a) Functional groups

A functional group is a group created by the organization to accomplish a number of organizational purposes
with an indefinite time horizon. The personnel department, the finance department, the marketing department,
standing committees and all other operating units and sections of an organization are all examples of functional
groups. Each is created by the organization to serve a number of purposes specified by the organization. It
should be noted that the functional group would remain in existence even after it attains its current objectives.

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 b) Task groups

A task group is a group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purpose with in a
stated or implied time horizon. Ad hoc committees, task forces, teams, and classes in a college are all task
groups. The organization specific group membership and assigns a relatively narrow set of goals, such as
developing a new product, evaluating a proposed grievance procedure, or studying the field of economics. The
time horizon for accomplishing these purposes is either specified (the economics class ceases to exist at the end
of the term) or implied (the project team will disband when the new the new product is developed.

c) Informal groups

An informal group is created by its members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to the goals of the
organization. It also has an unspecified time horizon. Your lunch group in the workplace, for instance, is an
informal group. The members of this group choose to participate rather than being formally told to do so.

An informal group is spontaneous, with no continued existence. The activities of the informal group may or
may not match the goals of the organization. Informal groups can be a powerful organizational force that
mangers cannot ignore. They can have negative as well as positive bearings on the organization and
management.

Informal Groups
These are groups that evolve to meet social or affiliation needs by bringing people based on shared interests or
friendship. If several people periodically work together and take walks together during their lunch hour they
may constitute informal group interested in conversation. Other interest groups might evolve from shared
enjoyment, sport events, and political news particularly among people who have the same viewpoint or
enjoying a friendly argument. In other case, people can set up a group for achieving some mutual objectives
such as setting up a car pool or convincing a manager to change working conditions. They can be characterized
as

- They are formed by the individuals of the group rather than by management
- They are natural groupings of people in a work situation in response to the need for social contact
- They are neither structured nor organizationally determined
Informal groups are formed by the individuals of the group rather than by management. They are natural
groupings of people in a work situation in response to the need for social contact. They don’t arise as a result of
deliberate design but rather evolve spontaneously. They are neither structured nor organizationally determined.

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Two specific informal groups can be identified. Individuals who may or may not be the members of the same
command or task groups may affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an
interest group. Employees who join together to support a peer who has been fired, to seek increased fringe
benefits represent the formation of a unified front to further their common interest. Friendship groups develop
because the individual members have one or more characteristic in common such as age, political beliefs, or
ethnic background. Such groups often extend their interaction and communication to off-job activities.

People may join groups for a variety of reasons. They join functional groups simply by virtue of joining
organizations. People accept employment to earn money or to practice their chosen profession. Once inside the
organization, they are assigned to jobs and roles and thus become members of functional groups. People in
existing functional groups are told, are asked, or volunteer to serve on ad hoc committees, task forces, and
teams. People join informal or interest groups for a variety of reasons, most of them quite complex.

The most common reasons for joining groups, however, include such factors as interpersonal attraction,
attraction to group activities, group goals, need satisfaction, and instrumental benefits.

Interpersonal attraction

Perhaps the most obvious and logical reason that people choose to form informal or interest groups is that they
are attracted to each other. When people see a lot of each other, pure proximity increases the likelihood that
interpersonal attraction will develop. Attraction can also be facilitated by similarity of attitudes, personality, or
economic standing. The perceived abilities and usefulness of others affects interpersonal attraction. All of these
factors lead in varying degree to the interaction that can result in the formation of informal or interest groups.

Group activities

Individuals may also be motivated to join an informal or interest group because the activities of the group
appeal to them. Jogging, playing basketball, etc are all activities that some people enjoy. Many of them are
more enjoyable to participate in as a member of a group, and most actually require more than one person.

A person may join a local basketball team not because of any noticeable attraction to other group members but
simply because being a member of the group allows that person to participate in a pleasant activity. Of course,
if the level of interpersonal attraction of the group is very low, a person may choose to forgo the activity rather
than join the group.

Group Goals

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 The goals of a group may motivate people to join the group. Workers join unions because they support union
goals. Union members may or may not be personally attracted to the other union members, but they join the
group because they support its goals its goals. Consider also a group that is formed to collect money for various
charities. Again, members may or may not be personally attracted to the other fundraisers, and they probably do
not enjoy the routines of knocking on the doors asking for money, but they join the group because they
subscribe to its goals.

Need Satisfaction

Still another reason for joining a group is to satisfy the need for affiliation. People same origin (same birthplace)
may establish an association partially as a way to meet their childhood friends and relatives and partially just to
support each other at times of happiness (weddings, for instance) and sadness and grief (mourning, for
instance). This would provide them with an opportunity to create a small community of their own, particularly
in a big urban center where they them may feel alien as they come from faraway places.

Instrumental Benefits

Another reason for people to join groups is that membership is sometimes seen as instrumental in providing
other benefits to the individual. Young professionals (university graduates) may join a professional association,
which is already established by the senior practitioners in the field partly because listing such membership on a
resume is thought to enhance the chances of getting a good job. Memberships in other associations and clubs
would also enhance contacts that may further create other opportunities for the members.

II. Small versus Large Group

Small Group: face to face interaction is quite easy and uncomplicated. Members can easily communicate
with other group members. In most of the time small groups are effective.

Large group: members have a better chance of finding people they like to work with. There is a great
potential for greater variety of talents and greater opportunities for differences between and among
individuals. Larger groups tend to develop splinter groups whose goals may be divergent with those of the
larger organization.

III. Reference Groups

A group used as a basis for comparison in making decisions or forming opinions is known as reference
group. Suppose, a newly hired employee might make decisions about what to wear to work based on
comparisons with the employee’s supervisor and supervisor’s peers. These groups are benchmarks against
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 which employees compare his or her values, beliefs, or behaviors with those groups. Reference groups can
be inside and outside the organization, for example, family, coworkers, friends, and members of religious
groups.
The person need not admire a group for it to serve as a reference group. Some reference group Serves as a
negative reference where in the employee tries to be unlike member of these groups.

IV. Membership Groups

People who use a group as reference group are not necessarily group members. When a person does belong to a
group, the group is called membership group or affiliation group for that person. In membership group, each
member would be expected to contribute to the group’s well being and would enjoy the benefits arising from
the group member’s friendship.
Characteristics of well functioning groups:

o The atmosphere tends to be relaxed, comfortable, and informal.

o The group’s task is well understood and accepted by the members.
o The members listen to one another; most members participate in good deal to task-relevant
discussion.
o People express both their feelings and ideas.
o Conflicts and disagreements present and centered around ideas or methods, not personalities or
people.
o The group is aware and conscious of its own operation and function.
o Decisions are usually based on consensus, not majority vote.
o When actions are decided, clear assignments are made and accepted by members of the group.

3.4.1. Teams as Groups

Teams are group of two or more people who interact and influence each other, are mutually accountable for
achieving common objectives, and perceive themselves as a social entity within an organization. All teams exist
to fulfill some purpose, such as assembling a product, providing a service, or making an important decision.
Team members are held together by their interdependence ad need for collaboration to achieve common goals.
All teams require some form of communication so members can coordinate and share common objectives.
Team members also influence each other, although some members are more influential than others regarding
the team’s goals ad activities.
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All teams are groups because they consist of people with a unifying relationship. But not all groups are teams;
some groups are just people assembled together. For example, employees, who meet for the tea break or lunch,
are rarely called teams because they have no purpose beyond their social interaction. However, many people
including professionals use the terms “group” and “team” interchangeable.

In addition to the general types of groups identified earlier, it is useful to note special-purpose groups
occasionally formed by organizations. Committees and work groups are two common types.

a) Committees

Committees are very common in most organizations, and they offer an effective means of managing group
decision-making. A committee can defined as a group assembled to make a decision, submit a recommendation,
conduct an investigation, or solve a problem. Ad hoc committees, standing committees, task forces, and boards
are the most frequently used forms of committee

i. Ad hoc Committees

An ad hoc committee is a committee created for a relatively narrow and short-run purpose, although that
purpose may be extremely important to the organization. For example, an ad hoc committee might be appointed
by the chief executive officer to evaluate a proposal to merge with another company. An ad hoc committee
might also be created to deal with routine problems such as reviewing employee benefits package or listing new
equipment needs by the organization. When its purpose has been fulfilled, the ad hoc committee will be
normally dissolved.

ii. Standing Committees

A standing committee, as the name implies, is a relatively permanent committee. The membership of a standing
committee is relatively long-term and stable. Some standing committee, such as budget review committees, deal
with the same set of issues on a continuous basis. Others deal with a variety or problems. One special kind of a
standing committee is the executive (management) committee, which is composed of top mangers and primarily
concerned with strategy and policy.

b) Task Forces

In many ways, a taskforce is similar to an ad hoc committee. Is usually has a relatively narrow purpose and a
limited time horizon, but it also has some unique characteristics. First, a task force is generally associated with
the integration or coordination of activities between units. Task forces often function to integrate units that are
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highly interdependent. Second, the membership of a task force may change regularly as new skills and abilities
are needed. Fro example, in its early stages, a new-product-development task force many need production and
engineering people to develop technical specifications or cost estimates. Marketing people will become more
important later, as promotion and advertisement campaigns are planned.

c) Boards

Boards are type of committee found in many organizations. Most private corporations have a board of directors
elected by the stockholders to oversee and guide top management. Members of public organizations are mainly
appointed by the government.

Advantages and disadvantages of committee

The advantages of committee decision over individual decisions include the availability of more information;
increased acceptance of the committee’s decisions, solution, or recommendations; better communication; an
(perhaps) improved accuracy of the decision.

Major disadvantages are that the deliberations of a committee can be quite lengthy and, therefore, costly; too
much compromising may occur; one person may dominate the process;, and there is some possibility of the
members to give way to groupthink.

d) Work Groups

A great deal of work in organizations is done by various kinds of work groups, such as operative work groups,
autonomous work groups, and teams.

i. Operative Work Groups

The operative work group is used when a group can do a particular job more efficiently than a set of individuals
can. For example, the maintenance of an airplane is best carried out by an operative work group. Each group
member has individual responsibilities, and coordination is achieved by means of a common supervisor, let us
say, the chief technician.

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Autonomous Work Group

The autonomous work group generally works more independently than the operative work group. The members
may rotate jobs among themselves and are rewarded for group rather than individual performance. The group
leader is seen more as a facilitator than as supervisor.

e) Teams

Teams bring together functional expertise from several areas to work a single project. Basically creating a team
involves selecting representatives from appropriate departments (such as finance, marketing, and production)
and assigning them to a particular project such as introducing a new product.

3.5. Stages of Group Development

Group members must resolve several issues and pass through several stages of development before emerging as
an effective work unit. They must get to know each other, understand their respective roles, discover
appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, and learn how to coordinate their work or social activities. This is an
ongoing process because teams change as new members join and old members leave. Groups evolve and
develop through the discrete stages of forming storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

The five-stage model of group development (by Bruce Truman) shows that groups progress from one stage to
the next in an orderly fashion, but they might also fall back to an earlier stage of development as new members
join or other conditions disrupt the team’s maturity.

Stage 1: Forming

Forming is the first stage of group development. It is a period of testing and orientation in which members learn
about each other and evaluate the benefits and costs of continued membership. People tend to be polite during
this stage and will totally abide by the rules provides by the existing authority of formal or informal leadership.
Members experience a form of socialization as they try to find out what is expected of them and how they will
fit into the team.

Stage 2: Storming

During the storming stage of group development, individual members become more proactive by taking on
specific roles and responsibilities. This stage is marked by interpersonal conflict as members compete for
leadership and other roles in the team. Members try to establish norms of appropriate behavior and performance

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standards. This is a fragile stage in the group’s development, particularly when the leader is autocratic and lacks
the necessary conflict-management skills.

Stage 3: Norming

During the norming stage, the group develops its first real sense of cohesion as roles are established and a
consensus forms around group objectives. Members have developed relatively similar mental models, so they
have common expectations and assumptions about how the team’s goals should be accomplished. This common
knowledge structure allows them to interact more efficiently, so they can move into the next stage, performing.

Stage 4: Performing

The group becomes more task-oriented in the performing stage because it shifts from establishing and
maintaining relations to accomplishing its objectives. Group members have learned to coordinate their actions
and to resolve conflicts more efficiently. Further coordination improvements must occasionally be addressed,
but the greater emphasis is on task accomplishment. In high-performance teams, members are highly
cooperative, have a high level of trust in each other, are committed to group objectives, and identify with the
team.

Stage 5: Adjourning

Most work teams and informal groups eventually end. Task forces disband when their project is completed.
Informal work groups reach this stage when several members leave the organization or are reassigned
elsewhere. Some teams adjourn as a result of layoffs or plant shutdowns.

3.6. Obstacles to Group Productivity

A group of employees is sometimes less productive than the same member of individuals working alone.
Managers should be aware of the obstacles to group productivity so that they can look for ways to overcome
them.

I) Breakdown in Role development

Sometimes the process of role development breaks down. Role structuring refers to the set of roles and
relationships among roles that has been accepted by group members. Breakdown with such role structure may
result in role conflict, role ambiguity, or role overload.

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a) Role ambiguity- it occurs when a sent role is unclear or incomplete or when there is uncertainty about the
content of an expected role. To minimize such breakdown, identifying roles and role expectations and
encouraging group members to seek feedback can be considered as a means.
b) Role conflict- when the sent role is incompatible. In addition, when there are contradictory or mutually
exclusive expectations concerning a person’s role(s).
It may take the form of:

a) Person-role conflict- means the requirements of a person’s role violate his or her personal values,
needs, and attitudes. This can occur when the group values and expectations for behavior reflect a
culture different from that of the individual.
b) Intra-role conflict- arises when different people’s expectations for a role are
incompatible. In other words, if an employee satisfies one person’s view of his/her role, the employee
will fall short of another person’s expectations.
c) Inter-role conflict- occurs when the multiple role performed by a person involve incompatible
expectations. A common type of inter-role involves the combating demands of being a spouse, parent,
and employee.
To avoid or at least to minimize such role conflicts the organization has to do something. The
organization can limit it bay carefully structuring the organization in a way it takes this issue in to
account. In addition, it can seek to hire and retain employees whose values and attitudes are consistent
with the organization’s needs.

d) Role overload- a role structure is also weak when expected roles exceed group members’ abilities, a
condition called a role overload occurred. Role overload involves expectations that are excessive
relative to a person’s abilities. It can arise from a number of roles a person takes on. By matching
assignments to group members’ abilities and by considering whether employees are expected to take
on too many roles such over load can be talked.
II. Groupthink
Over emphasis on consensus and agreement, leading to unwillingness to evaluate group members’ ideas
critically is known as groupthink. It is a barrier for effective decision making in groups. It might occur because
of the desire of members to suppress differences in their viewpoints and to maintain conformity. In this case the
group leader can inspire the members and can create procedures and values that encourage diversity of
viewpoints.

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 III. Social Loafing
When employees work as individuals, evaluating the contribution of each employee is relatively easy. But when
a group carries out a task, it is harder to attribute the group’s output to individual contributions. Social loafing is
doing less than the fair share of the work on the assumption that group’s results will not indicate the
individual’s failure to contribute. Obviously such sort of behavior in the group pose obstacles to achieve a
competitive advantage as well it decrease the morale of those who try to take up the slack.

As a remedy, we can control social loafing by fostering norms and instituting controls that discourage it. In
other case, providing rewards for productive behavior and limiting it through selection process that is by joining
the group employees who are happy and satisfied can be considered.

IV. Production blocking

It refers to limiting another person’s output by getting in his or her way. It occurs when; too many workers are
trying to work in a given amount of space, organizations has poorly planned the use of its facilities, and when
the organization assigns more than the optimal number of employees to carry out a task.

Production blocking gives an explanation for why individuals acting alone can generate more ideas than a group
engaged in brainstorming. Two people might have an idea at the same time but only one person can speak at a
time, this means the other must wait. Not only this slow down the process, but people who are waiting to share
ideas may forget them while they are listening to the other.

Moreover, group productivity cal also affected by issues like organizational structure, authority structure,
formal rules and regulations, organizational resources, physical work setting and group shift.

3.5. Increasing Group Productivity

Among the factors that can influence group productivity are the motivation of group members, group
cohesiveness, and the group’s communication structure.

1. Members Motivation
Effectively enhancing the motivation of group members can improve group productivity. Studies have found
that there are certain things that make productivity of the group greater such as Group Goals; in this case, the
performance of members is greater when there are specific and challenging goals. In such case the group
perform better jobs of planning how they would meet the goal; pairing to this the members must believe they
can achieve its goals. Reward structure-refers to the way the organization structures its reward system, on the
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other side, can increase productivity. There are two forms of reward structure: Cooperative group reward- this
reward is tied to the group’s overall performance with each individual receiving the same reward. The problem
with such system is id doesn’t recognize exceptional performance by individuals, but it can bring about
collaboration and integration. Competitive group reward – it is a system of rewarding individual group members
for successfully performing as individuals within the group. Actually this system might undermine cooperation.
In some instances membership can also enhance motivation.

2. Cohesiveness
It refers to the commitment of members to a group and strength of their desire to remain in the group. Or it is an
important indicator of how much influence the group as a whole has over the individual members. It is the
degree to which members are attracted to one another and share the groups goals. Cohesiveness cause more
harmonious behavior in group members. A cohesive group is able to act as one body to achieve its goals. To
bring cohesiveness in to a group a high productivity norm should be encouraged. It entails making group
participation rewarding. The manager may limit the size of the group and involve group members in setting the
group goals to this effect as well. Members of highly cohesive groups are

- Energetic in group activities

- Less likely to be absent from group meeting
- Happy when the group successes and sad when it fails
On the other hand members of less cohesive groups are

- Less concerned about the groups activities

- Members are not dedicated to the group
- Its purposes, their loyalty and support are mediocre or variable
Moreover, those groups that are high in cohesion are likely to be groups

- That have relatively few members

- Members have similar interests and backgrounds
- Have a high degree of status within the organization
- Members have ready access to one another so that interpersonal communication is easy to maintain
- Groups are physically remote or isolated from groups in the organization
- The leader rewards cooperative behavior
- Are pressured or threatened by some common outside force
- Have a history of past success

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 Factors that determine the degree to which a group is cohesive

a. Size – other things being equal, small group have a greater probability of being cohesive than larger once.
b. Location – more near , high cohesive, more disperse –low cohesiveness
c. Outside pressure – external threats create higher bonds b/n members. In the face of common enemy
members forget their common differences and become cohesive.
d. Status of the group- high status group are successful in achiving its goals tends to have grater
cohesiveness.
e. Success – there is nothing like success to increase group spritis and cohesiveness
f. Other reasons- like compatible goals – goals of the group and the members are essentially alike and
expressed in a clear language. Attractive leaders- the group has a dynamic energetic leader, collective
power – people join groups to obtain personal power are also compel members to seek membership in
well-knit groups.
It is not always true that highly cohesive groups are productive because cohesiveness is useful to be productive
and moderately it requires the real efforts of the members of all the group.

3. Communication structure
A group communication structure includes the direction in which communication flow within the group and the
media used for sending messages. Access to communication can enhance productivity and managers must
create an environment that encourages and recognizes communication from employees regardless of individual
differences. Communication media group members can communicate through face-to-face, over phone and via
e-mail and so on; particularly, importance for a group Medias such as meeting, teleconferencing, and
videoconferencing. Communication networks- communication in organization (as well in groups in
organization) flows in pattern, called communication networks. The network may take the form of wheel, chain,
and circle or all-channel network.

4. Group size: the upper limit of the group size is usually specified by some rule of thumb. Prescriptions in
this connection vary from situation to situation. Generally the size of a group depends to a large extent on
the groups situation and purpose. However, some studies have come up with definite numbers for example 7
is the ideal maximum for a decision making group and is the maximum for a fact finding group. When we
increase the number of group size, the group effectiveness can be grown up but individual effectiveness
might come down/goes down. Means group productivity increases while individual productivity goes down.

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 Number of relationships (R)= n(2n-1+ (n-1))
n=5/7 is effective as per the formula, R=100 relationships
Basically, effectiveness might be depends up on the size of the group and the size of the group also
depends up on the type of job they perform.
5. Group status
It is a social rank means the rank which is given by the society. Status is important kinds of cement that
binds an organization together. Loss of status is more than loss of its emoluments; it is more than loss of
prestige. It is a serious injury to the personality. Therefore, it is highly important to achieve status
congruency in the organization. To meet this objective, it is necessary to distribute the rewards
according to the perceived value of the skills demanded by the task. It may be two type.
Formal status:- it follows the formal hierarchical structure of the organization. It is based on the
superiors –subordinate relationships and it is closely related to the chain of command.
Informal Status: it is also called the informal system. Here the value and norms of the group determines
the status of a particular member. This is a status may be informally acquired by such as education, age,
sex, skill or experience. Anything can have status value if others in the group evaluate it as such.
6. Group Norms
Norm is a rule of conduct that has been established by group members to maintain consistency in
behavior. Or they are code of conduct or code of behavior. It tells an individual how to behave in a
group. Any norm will have the following features
- Norms summarize and simplify group influence process
- Norms apply only to behavior not to private thoughts and feelings
- Norms are generally developed only for behaviors which are viewed as important by most group
members

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 UNIT FOUR
4. MOTIVATION CONCEPTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

4.1. Nature and Meaning of Motivation

4.1.1. What is Motivation?

The word motivation is derived from ‘motive', which means an active form of a desire, craving or need that
must be satisfied. Motivation is the key to organizational effectiveness. The manager in general has to get the
work done through others. These 'others' are human resources who need to be motivated to attain organizational
objectives. According to George R. Terry, "Motivation is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or
her to action." In the words of Robert Dubin, it is "the complex of forces to starting and keeping a person at
work in an organization". Viteles defines motivation as "an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or
disequilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a state of
equilibrium, by satisfying the need."

4.1.2. Features of Motivation

The following are the features of motivation:

 It is an internal feeling and forces a person to action.

 It is a continuous activity.
 It varies from person to person and from time to time.
 It may be positive or negative.
4.1.3. Importance of Motivation

Motivation is an important part of managing process. A team of highly qualified and motivated employees is
necessary for achieving objectives of an organization because of the following reasons:

 Motivated employees make optimum use of available resources for achieving objectives.
 Motivation is directly related to the level of efficiency of employees.
 Motivated employees make full use of their energy and other abilities to raise the existing level of
efficiency.

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  Motivated employees make goal-directed efforts. They are more committed and cooperative for
achieving organizational objectives.
 Motivated employees are more loyal and sincere to an organization. These factors help reduce
absenteeism and labor turnover.
 Motivation is considered as a backbone of good industrial relations.
 Effectively motivated employees get more job satisfaction and possess high morale.

4.1.4 Theories of Motivation

The motivation process begins with identification of individual needs. For example, when an employee feels
underpaid then he tries to fulfill his needs by asking for a raise or by working harder to earn a raise or by
seeking a new job. He then chooses to pursue one or more of these options for instance, working harder while
simultaneously looking for a job. If his hard work resulted in a pay rise, he probably feels satisfied and will
continue to work hard. But if no raise has been provided he is likely to try another option. Since people have
many different needs, the satisfaction of one need or set of needs is likely to give rise to the identification of
other needs. Thus, the cycle of motivation is constantly repeated.

Understanding human motivation is crucial for managing people. Extensive research has been performed to find
out what makes people work and how to motivate them. This includes managers, social scientists, behaviorists
and psychologists. A number of theories have been developed, even though there is no universally acceptable
motivation theory. Understanding these theories facilitates the managers to get a better insight into the human
behavior. There are different theories of motivation. The most important ones are discussed below

1. The Carrot and the Stick Approach

The carrot and the stick metaphor relates to the use of rewards and penalties in order to induce desired behavior.
It came from the old story that to make a donkey move one must put a carrot in front of him or jab him with a
stick from behind.

The carrot and stick approach is based upon the old belief that the best way to get work a person is to put a
reward (carrot) in front of him or to hold out the threat of punishment (stick) from behind. The ‘carrot’ is the
reward for working and the ‘stick’ is the punishment for not working. Under this approach, employees who
perform the task well are given rewards in the form of bonus, pay raise, promotion etc. while employees avoid
work, punishment are given like demotion, termination from work, transfer to an unpleasant job etc.

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Employers have to adopt this approach believe that a person seeks employment because he expects to earn
money. At the same time, he knows that if he does not perform his job satisfactorily, he will lose his job. Carrot
and stick approach are, therefore, ‘a reward and punishment system’ for motivating employees.

The following are some of the measures to make carrot and stick to be more effective.

 Reward is a more effective motivator when it is directly linked with performance. Accurate appraisal of
performance, consistent reward structure and prompt payment of reward are helpful in improving the
effect of reward.
 Punishment is more effective when the undesirable behavior actually occurs.
 Punishment should be used to modify the behavior and to force the person to adopt desirable behavior.
 Punishment should not become a reward for undesirable behavior.
 The mixture of reward and punishment should be judiciously applied to reinforce desirable behavior
patterns.

2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Types of Needs ways of fulfilling needs

A. Physiological needs - Paying adequate wage and salaries so

that employee can buy basic necessities

B. Safety needs - Providing quality work life – making

work environment smart, keeping pension

plans, purchasing protection clothes (gloves)

C. Social needs - Allowing employees to strengthen informal

groups and to communicate each other at

work place.

D. Esteem Needs - Increasing responsibilities to workers and

appreciating them on their performances

Esteem needs actually comprise of two different sets of needs:

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  The need for a positive self-image and self-respect.

 The need for recognition and respect from others

E. Self actualization - Training employees with challenging duties

& making environment smooth for employee

development.

3. Mc Gregory’s theory of “x” and “y”

Daggles Mc Gregory proposes two distinct views of human beings: Basically negative labeled theory x and the
other basically positive and labeled as theory y.

Theory x: - The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility and must be coerced to
perform (Must be motivated by force, money or praise).

Theory y: - the assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility and can exercise self
direction. They are inherently motivated to work and do a good job.

In brief theory Y assumes that work is natural and human beings by their nature without any force tend to
accept the work. But theory X assumes human beings do not like work and to make them work a leader must
use some force. This is why the motivational tools for both the assumptions differ.

4. Hertzberg’s Motivation-Maintenance Theory

American psychologist Frederic Hertzberg has propounded a theory of motivation which is also called as the
two-factor theory. He divided the factors of the work environment in to two:

1. Motivating or Satisfier Factors: are factors that uplift the attitudes or performance of workers. These
include factors like achievement, personality, recognition, advancement, creative and challenging work, growth
on job etc
2. Hygienic or Maintenance Factors: are factors that prevent losses of moral and serious dissatisfaction
allowing the motivator to operate. These include factors like company policies, quality of supervision, salary,
job security, working conditions, employee benefits, job status etc
If managers need to motivate their workers through motivating factors, Hertzberg recommended that the
hygienic factors to be kept at appropriate level. It is obvious that hygienic factors are not motivators.

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4.2 Managerial Approaches for Improving Motivation

A number of approaches can help managers motivate workers, to perform more effectively. The following steps
promote intrinsic motivation:

 Workers Participation in Management (WPM)

 Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Organization Behavior Modification
 Job-Redesign
 Alternative Work Schedules.
Two approaches, however, have been especially effective: linking pay to jot performance and quality of work-
life programs.

Pay and Job Performance

Pay often can be used to motivate employee performance. But a pay plan also must be able to do the following
tasks:

 Create the belief that good performance leads to high levels of pay;
 Minimize the negative consequences of good performance; and
 Create conditions in which rewards other than pay are evaluated as related to good performance.

Quality of Work Life Programs

Quality of Work Life (QWL) is defined as an attempt through a formal program to integrate employee needs
and well being with the intention of improved productivity, greater worker involvement and higher levels of job
satisfaction.

Programs for QWL improvements range from those requiring minor changes in an organization to those
requiring extensive modifications in structure, personnel and the utilization of resources. There are three types
of QWL programs, which are as follows:

Quality Circles

Quality Circles (QC) are small groups of workers who meet regularly with their supervisor as their 'circle
leader' to solve work-related problems. QCs give an employee an opportunity for involvement, social-need
satisfaction, participation in work improvement and challenge and opportunity for growth. They are, in essence,
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vehicles for providing employees with opportunities to satisfy lower and upper-level needs as stated by Maslow,
through the motivators described in 'Herzberg's theory.

Alternative Work Schedule

Organizations also frequently use the modified 'work-week' as a way to increase employee motivation. A
modified 'work-week' can be any work schedule that does not conform to a traditional 8 hours a day or 5 days a
week format. The modified 'work-week' helps individual satisfy higher-level needs by providing more personal
control over one's work schedule. It also provides an opportunity to fulfill several needs simultaneously.

Job-Redesign

Job-Redesign or changing the nature of people's job is also being used more as a motivational technique. The
idea pursued here is that mangers can use any of the alternatives job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment
as part of motivational program. Expectancy theory helps explain the role of work design in motivation.

4.3 Implication of motivation for performance and satisfaction

Interest in the topic of motivation in work organizations has escalated dramatically in recent years. Several
factors appear to account for the prominence of this topic as a focal point of interest.

- Managers and organizational researchers cannot avoid a concern with the behavioral requirements of an
organization. Every organization needs people in addition to other operating resources in order to
function/ operate.
- Motivation is a concept is pervasive and a highly complex activity that affect and is affected by a host
of factors in the organizational milieu.
- Organizational effectiveness becomes to some degree a question of management’s ability to motivate its
employees, to direct at least a reasonable effort toward the goals of the organization.

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