Canadian Journal of

School Psychology
Volume 24 Number 2
June 2009 167-182

The Resiliency Scales

© 2009 Sage Publications
10.1177/0829573509335475
http://cjsp.sagepub.com
for Children and Adolescents hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com
as Related to Parent Education
Level and Race/Ethnicity
in Children
Sandra Prince-Embury
The Resiliency Institute of Allenhurst

Abstract: This study explores associations between scores on the Resiliency Scales for
Children and Adolescents (RSCA), parent education level, and race/ethnicity in a nor-
mative sample of 450 children. Small but significant associations were found between
parent education level and the RSCA Sense of Relatedness Scale score. Race/ethnicity
did not contribute unique variance when parent education level was controlled.

Résumé: Cette recherche explore les relations entre les scores sur les Resiliency Scales
for Children and Adolescents (RSCA; Prince-Embury, 2007; Échelles de résilience
pour enfants et adolescents), le niveau de scolarité des parents et la race/l’ethnie chez
un échantillon normatif de 450 enfants. Des associations petites, mais significatives,
ont été observées entre la scolarité des parents et le score sur la sous-échelle « Sentiment
d’appartenance » des RSCA. Par contre, la variance unique de la race/ethnie n’était pas
significative lorsque nous contrôlions pour la scolarité des parents.

Keywords: personal resiliency; parent education level; ethnicity; sense of related-

ness; sense of mastery; emotional reactivity

T his study employs the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents (RSCA;
Prince-Embury, 2007) to explore the association between parent education
level, race/ethnicity, and personal resiliency in a normative sample of 450 children
aged 9 to 14, stratified demographically to match the U.S. 2003 census. The RSCA
defines personal resiliency in terms of core developmental constructs of Sense of
Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, and Emotional Reactivity (Prince-Embury, 2007).
One purpose of this study was to explore which aspect(s) of personal resiliency
might be associated with demographic variables, such as parent education level and
race/ethnicity. A second purpose of the study was to contribute to the validity evi-
dence of the RSCA by examining use of the instrument across groups of children
who differ on these variables.

167

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168   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

Personal Resiliency as a Pathway Between

Demographic Variables and Outcomes

Previous research suggests that personal resiliency provides intervening path-

ways between demographic variables, such as low parent education level, ethnicity,
and outcomes for children. Felner (2005) proposed a mediated effects approach to
defining and understanding the experience of poverty in childhood and adolescence.
Felner suggested that it is not the demographic status itself that is associated with
personal resiliency of the child but rather increased likelihood of other more proxi-
mal risk factors that influence personal resiliency. For instance, the (distal) effects of
poverty associated with parent level of education may affect the more proximal
context of the family context within which the child lives in such ways as level of
parental distress and psychological functioning. These proximal influences may in
turn affect the personal resiliency of the child.
Luthar, Cicchetti, and Becker (2000) have distinguished between resiliency as a
dynamic developmental process or phenomenon that involves the interaction of per-
sonal attributes with environmental circumstances and ego-resiliency as a personal-
ity characteristic of the individual. The dimensions of personal resiliency tapped in
the RSCA overlap conceptually with the notion of ego-resiliency presented by Block
and Block (1980). The RSCA defines personal resiliency as multidimensional based
on three theoretical constructs selected from a review of developmental theory:
Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, and Emotional Reactivity. For more discus-
sion of the concepts, factor structure, and related references, see Prince-Embury
(2007, 2006) and Prince-Embury and Courville (2008). For more discussion of con-
structs of resilience, see the work of Garmezy, Luthar, Masten, Cicchetti, Werner,
and others cited in the reference section (Garmezy, Masten, & Tellegen, 1984; Luthar,
Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Luthar, 1991; Luthar & Zigler, 1991; Masten, 2001, 2004;
Masten, Burt, & Coatsworth, 2006; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Masten & Curtis,
2000; Masten & Obradović, 2007; Masten & Powell, 2003; Rutter, 1987; Werner &
Smith, 1982, 1992, 2001).

Parent Education Level

Parent education level is an aspect of the child’s environment that may be asso-
ciated with risk or protection to the extent that it is concomitant with other environ-
mental factors. Parent level of education has been found to correlate positively with
many aspects of child outcomes and attributes such as high IQ and higher achievement
(Felner, 2005; Felner et al., 1995). Von Rueden, Gosch, Rajmil, Bisegger, and Ravens-
Sieberer (2006) found in children that higher parent education had significant
positive impact on physical well-being, psychological well-being, moods, and emo-
tions. Most developmental researchers have pointed to parent–child interactions as

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 Prince-Embury / RSCA, Parent Education Level, and Ethnicity 169

the primary mediator of parental education’s effects on children (e.g., Laosa, 1983).
Parents’ formal education may influence children’s well-being by shaping parent–
child interactions. When compared to less-educated parents, parents who have acquired
more formal schooling tend to provide a more cognitively stimulating home learning
environment and have a more verbal and supportive teaching style. These differ-
ences are considered very consequential in explaining why children of less-educated
parents perform less well on measures of cognitive development than children of
more highly educated parents (Harris, Terrel, & Allen, 1999). It is possible that chil-
dren of parents with less education learn less about how to express themselves ver-
bally (Hart & Risley, 1995). Less ability to verbalize may in turn affect vocabulary,
reading, and the ability to label and express feelings. Difficulty in these arenas may
in turn negatively affect a variety of areas of functioning.
Felner et al. (1995) found that youth from families where neither parent gradu-
ated from high school exhibited significantly poorer socioemotional and academic
adjustment than did those whose parents had higher educational levels, independent
of family income. These authors suggested that parent education level had a perva-
sive pattern of association with proximal risk experiences of youth. Students from
homes where neither parent graduated from high school experienced across the
board developmentally negative experiences, including higher levels of rejection
from parents, less social support and emphasis on intellectual cultural issues in their
families, more negative feelings about school, and heightened levels of exposure to
both major and relatively minor stressors. These authors recommend examining
pathways by which disadvantage such as lower parent level of education is mediated
in leading to poorer child and adolescent adjustment (Felner, 2005). Duncan and
Magnuson (2001) underline the complexity by asserting that the strong correlations
between parental education levels, parenting, and child development reflect an
uncertain combination of genetic factors, concrete skills acquired by parents in
school, and personality traits that lead parents both to acquire more schooling and to
raise children who are healthier and more successful.

Race/Ethnicity

This exploratory study examines the association between race/ethnicity and per-
sonal resiliency, in a normative sample, in which race/ethnicity is broadly defined
into three groupings: White (non-Hispanic), Black, and Hispanic. The first two groups
are considered racial categories, and the last is considered an ethnic categorization.
It is recognized that each of these broadly defined groups include a variety of cul-
tures, the specifics of which are not examined in this study because of small sample
sizes.
Previously, researchers have called for a better understanding of the developmen-
tal processes and patterns of resilience that may be unique to particular ethnic groups

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170   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

(Luthar, 1999). MacPhee, Kreutzer, and Fritz (1994) cautioned against treating ethnicity
as the critical variable in positive or negative outcome. Sameroff, Seifer, and Bartko
(1997) found that correlations between risk scores and outcomes for Blacks and Whites
were not different. Magnus, Cowen, Wyman, Fagen, and Work (1999) in a comparison
of African American and White urban children found that racial differences could not
account for differences between stress-resistant and stress-affected children. These
authors found more similarities than differences among these urban children of both
races. These findings support the assumption that it is the risk conditions and not the
racial/ethnic differences alone that account for differences in outcome.
The purpose of the present study was to explore the relationship between parent
education level and race/ethnicity on three global aspects of personal resiliency as
assessed by the RSCA. Based on previous research, the first hypothesis tested was
that relationships of these variables would be small if significant at all. The second
hypothesis, also based on previous research, was that significant relationships, if
present at all, would involve parent education level.

Method

Sample
The sample of children represented all four U.S. census regions, and it was split
by gender and stratified to match the U.S. census by race and parent education
within sex and year of age: children were aged 9 to 14 (N = 450; see Prince-Embury,
2007 for details). An analysis of data gathered by the U.S. Bureau of the Census
(2003) provided the basis for stratification by race/ethnicity and parent education
level within year of age. Ethnicity of the normative child sample was as follows:
White 59%, Hispanic 18%, African American 17%, and other 6%. Parent education
level was averaged across parents living with the child and categorized as follows:
14% = less than 12 years, 27% = 12 years, 33% = 13 to 15 years, 26% = 16 years or
greater. Participants were contacted and tested by examiners who were education or
mental health specialists. Parents signed consent forms for youth under 18 years of
age. The RSCA was administered to children individually and took an average of 5
to 10 min to complete, depending on the age and reading level of the child. Participants
were paid US$10.

Parent Education Categories

Parent education was categorized into four categories and averaged across par-
ents living with the child. Categories were less than 12th grade, 12th grade, some
college, and college graduate or more. Within parent education level group, gender
was split so that there was an equal number of males and females. Also, within par-
ent education level group, age was distributed equally by year of age from 9 years

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 Prince-Embury / RSCA, Parent Education Level, and Ethnicity 171

Table 1
Distribution of Sample by Parent Education Level and Race/Ethnicity
Parent Education Level

Race/Ethnicity 1 2 3 4 Total

White
Count 13 77 101 102 293
% within race/ethnicity 4.4 26.3 34.5 34.8 100.0
% within parent education level 21.0 63.6 68.2 85.7 65.1
Black
Count 16 21 29 9 75
% within race/ethnicity 21.3 28.0 38.7 12.0 100.0
% within parent education level 25.8 17.4 19.6 7.6 16.7
Hispanic
Count 33 23 18 8 82
% within race/ethnicity 40.2 28.0 22.0 9.8 100.0
% within parent education level 53.2 19.0 12.2 6.7 18.2
Total
Count 62 121 148 119 450
% within race/ethnicity 13.8 26.9 32.9 26.4 100.0
% within parent education level 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Note: 1 = <12 years; 2 = high school diploma; 3 = some college; 4 = college+.

to 14 years ranging from 16% to 18% per cell. The sample confounds race/ethnicity
with parent education level representing the confounding of these variables in the
U.S. census. Higher parent education level groups are predominately White (see
Table 1).

Ethnicity Groups
Because the normative sample was initially collected stratifying ethnicity accord-
ing to the U.S. census, ethnicity groups in this exploratory study are not equal in
size. N sizes are as follows: White = 293, Black = 75, and Hispanic = 82.
Distribution by year of age 9 to 14 within each group is roughly equal ranging
from 16% to 17% per cell. Each ethnicity group was split by gender approximately
50% each. Ethnicity groups were not equivalent with respect to parent education
level (see Table 1).
Distribution of parent education levels within ethnic groups in this study was
compared with distribution of education level within ethnic groups according to
the U.S. 2005 Census. The percentages for three ethnic groups obtaining a high
school diploma or greater in 2005 according to the U.S. census were as follows:
Whites, 90%; Blacks, 81%; and Hispanics, 59%. The percentages for three eth-
nic groups obtaining a high school diploma or greater in our sample were as

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172   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

follows: Whites, 96%; Blacks, 79% and Hispanics, 60%. The percentages for
three ethnic groups obtaining a bachelors degree or more in 2005 according to the
U.S. census are as follows: Whites, 31%; Blacks, 18%; and Hispanics, 12%. The
percentages for three ethnic groups obtaining a bachelors degree or more in our
sample were as follows: Whites, 35%; Blacks, 12%; and Hispanics 10%. These
findings suggest that within race/ethnic group educational attainment in our
sample is comparable to the 2005 U.S. census (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.; within
5% discrepancy). Therefore, comparison of ethnic groups in this study com-
pares groups that are similar to the 2005 U.S. census with respect to educational
attainment.

Instrument
The RSCA is a suite of three self-report scales, Sense of Mastery (20 items),
Sense of Relatedness (24 items), and Emotional Reactivity (20 items), that consists
of a total of 64 items (Prince-Embury, 2006, 2007). The Sense of Mastery Scale
consists of three subscales: Optimism, Self-efficacy, and Adaptability. The Sense of
Relatedness Scale consists of four subscales: Trust, Perceived Social Support, Comfort,
and Tolerance. The Emotional Reactivity Scale consisted of three subscales: Sensitivity,
Recovery, and Impairment.
Item responses are in Likert format. Response options are frequency based,
ordered on a 5-point Likert scale: 0 (never), 1 (rarely), 2 (sometimes), 3 (often), and
4 (almost always). Items were written at a third-grade reading level. Assessment of
resiliency across groups that differ by educational level and culture could be con-
founded by measurement issues, such as reading level of words and sentence com-
plexity. The design of the RSCA took this into account by breaking constructs down
into items written in as simple language as possible. The reading level of the item
was reduced to the lowest reading level possible without compromising the mean-
ing of the constructs being assessed. As a check on reading level, the scales were
examined using the Flesh Kincaid program associated with Microsoft Word.
Individual words were examined for reading level using A Revised Core Vocabulary
(Taylor, Frackenpohl, & White, 1969). Words above a third-grade reading level
were replaced. As an additional check, items were submitted to a panel of test devel-
opment specialists to ensure that the items were appropriate for children aged 9 and
older (Prince-Embury, 2007).
Reliability estimates for the three RSCA global scales and subscales are discussed
in the RSCA technical manual (Prince-Embury, 2007). Alpha coefficients for the
three global scales across age and gender groups between ages 9 and 14 may be sum-
marized as follows: Sense of Mastery Scale alpha coefficients range from .85 to .89.
Sense of Relatedness alpha coefficients ranged from .89 to .91. Emotional Reactivity
alpha coefficients range from .90 to .91. Test-retest reliability correlation coefficients
for the three global scales ranged from .79 to .95. Concurrent and criterion group

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 Prince-Embury / RSCA, Parent Education Level, and Ethnicity 173

validity evidence, including differences between clinical and nonclinical groups, are
provided in the technical manual and Prince-Embury, 2008.

Analysis
Prior to examining associations between parent education level, race/ethnicity,
and RSCA scores, a preliminary analysis of internal consistency using Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient for the three RSCA global scales across parent education level and
ethnic groups was conducted. This was to make limited estimates of internal consis-
tency of the three global scales held across parent education level and ethnicity
groups. It should be noted, however, that sample sizes were too small to adequately
test internal consistency (Charter, 2003).
Two-way ANOVA’s were conducted to examine the main effects of each demo-
graphic variable and their interaction on each RSCA global scale score. Bonferroni
posttests were conducted to determine which group means were significant. Bonferroni
correction was used for family analyses, and alpha of .008 was set as the requirement
for significance in multiple comparisons.
Supplemental ANCOVA analyses were conducted examining the effect of covari-
ance on significant main effects.

Results

Internal Consistency
For the Sense of Mastery Scale, alpha coefficients ranged from .84 (lowest) to .87
(highest two) across parent education level and from .83 (Black) to .88 (White and
Hispanic) across ethnic group (see Table 2). For the Sense of Relatedness Scale,
alpha coefficients ranged from .87 (lowest two) to .92 (highest) across parent educa-
tion level and from .87 (Black) to .92 (White and Hispanic) across ethnic group. For
the Emotional Reactivity Scale, alpha coefficients ranged from .85 (lowest) to .91
(highest) across parent education level and from .89 (Hispanic) to .91 (White) across
ethnic group. These limited estimates suggest good to excellent internal consistency
for all three global scales across parent education level and race/ethnicity groups.
Again, it should be noted that these alpha coefficients are limited estimates in that
sample sizes were not large enough to assure internal consistency (Charter, 2003).
This finding should be replicated with larger samples in future research.

Descriptive Statistics
Table 3 shows group means, standard deviations, and standard errors for each
RSCA at all four parent education level groups. All parent education mean scores

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174   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

Table 2
Alpha Coefficients for RSCA Global Scales
by Parent Education Level and Race/Ethnicity
Parent Level
RSCA Scale of Education n α Race/Ethnicity n α

Sense of mastery 1 62 .84 White 293 .88

2 121 .86 Black 75 .83
3 148 .87 Hispanic 82 .88
4 119 .87
Total 450 .85-.89 .85-.89
Sense of relatedness 1 62 .87 White 293 .92
2 121 .88 Black 75 .87
3 148 .91 Hispanic 82 .92
4 119 .92
Total 450 .89-.91 .89-.91
Emotional reactivity 1 62 .87 White 293 .91
2 121 .91 Black 75 .90
3 148 .90 Hispanic 82 .89
4 119 .91
Total 450 .90-.91 .90-.91

Note: 1 = <12 years; 2 = high school diploma; 3 = some college; 4 = college+; RSCA = Resiliency Scales
for Children and Adolescents.

were within the average range of scores on the RSCA (T45-T55) and were ranked in
the predicted direction for all three scales. The group with the highest parent educa-
tion was highest in both Sense of Mastery (T52) and Sense of Relatedness (T52),
whereas the group with lowest parent education was ranked lowest on both of these
scales (T47, T46). Conversely, the group with the highest parent education reported
the lowest Emotional Reactivity (T47), whereas the group with the lowest parent
education level reported the highest Emotional Reactivity (T52).
Table 4 displays means and standard deviations for all three race/ethnicity sam-
ples on all global RSCA. All RSCA global scale score means were within the aver-
age range of scores (T45 and T55) and were within three T score points of each
other.

Two-Way ANOVA’s
Table 5 display the results of two-way ANOVA’s examining main effects and
interaction effects of parent education level and race/ethnicity on each of the three
RSCA global scale scores: Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, and Emotional
Reactivity. As displayed in Table 5, only parent education level achieved minimal sig-
nificance as a main effect for the Sense of Mastery Scale (F = 3.69, df = 3, p < .01).

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 Prince-Embury / RSCA, Parent Education Level, and Ethnicity 175

Table 3
Mean Scale Scores, Standard Deviations, and Standard Errors
for RSCA Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness, and Emotional
Reactivity Across Four Levels of Parent Education
Parent Level
RSCA Scale of Education n M SD SE

Sense of mastery 1 62 47.35 9.92 1.26

2 121 49.61 9.70 0.88
3 148 50.09 10.19 0.84
4 119 52.32 9.61 0.88
Total 450 50.18 9.96 0.47
Sense of relatedness 1 62 45.71 9.87 1.25
2 121 49.98 9.47 0.86
3 148 49.92 10.06 0.83
4 119 52.40 9.71 0.89
Total 450 50.01 9.96 0.47
Emotional reactivity 1 62 52.31 10.73 1.36
2 121 51.04 10.91 0.99
3 148 50.28 9.49 0.78
4 119 47.45 8.98 0.82
Total 450 50.02 10.04 0.47

Note: 1 = <12 years; 2 = high school diploma; 3 = some college; 4 = college+; RSCA = Resiliency Scales
for Children and Adolescents.

Table 4
Mean Scale Scores, Standard Deviations, and Standard
Errors for RSCA Sense of Mastery, Sense of Relatedness,
and Emotional Reactivity for Three Ethnic Groups
RSCA Scale Race/Ethnicity n M SD SE

Sense of mastery White 293 50.77 9.96 0.58

Black 75 49.67 9.34 1.08
Hispanic 82 48.50 10.41 1.15
Total 450 50.18 9.96 0.47
Sense of relatedness White 293 50.97 10.11 0.59
Black 75 47.89 8.92 1.03
Hispanic 82 48.54 9.93 1.10
Total 450 50.01 9.96 0.47
Emotional reactivity White 293 49.49 9.56 0.56
Black 75 49.45 11.04 1.28
Hispanic 82 52.40 10.56 1.17
Total 450 50.02 10.04 0.47

Note: RSCA = Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents.

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176   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

Table 5
Two-Way ANOVA’s of RSCA Global Scale Scores
as a Function of Parent Education Level and Race/Ethnicity
Sum of Mean Omega
Squares df Square F p level Square

Source of variation for sense of mastery

Parent education level 1079.65 3 359.88 3.69 .01 .030
Race/ethnicity 354.83 2 177.42 1.82 .16 .004
Parent education level × race/ethnicity 444.14 6 74.02 0.76 .60 0
Within groups 42672.50 438 97.43
Total 44551.13 449 99.22
Omega square for combined effect .018

Source of variation for sense of relatedness

Parent education level 1829.51 3 609.84 6.49 .000 .035
Race/ethnicity 783.66 2 391.83 4.17 .016 .013
Parent education level × race/ethnicity 759.76 6 126.63 1.35 .234 .004
Within groups 41136.98 438 93.92
Total 44509.92 449 99.13
Omega square for combined effect .053

Source of variation for emotional reactivity

Parent education level 1243.78 3 414.59 4.24 .006 .021
Race/ethnicity 571.36 2 285.68 2.92 .055 .008
Parent education level × race/ethnicity 601.67 6 100.28 1.02 .408 .000
Within groups 42864.08 438 97.86
Total 45280.89 449 100.85
Omega squared for combined effect .030

Note: RSCA = Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents.

However, parent education level accounted (Omega squared) for only 1.8% of the
variance in the Sense of Mastery Scale score. Table 5 indicates a significant effect
for parent education level (F = 6.49, df = 3, p < .0003) on the RSCA Sense of
Relatedness Scale score. Also indicated in Table 5 is a lesser significant effect for
race/ethnicity on Sense of Relatedness (F = 4.17, df = 3, p < .02). Omega squared
combined effect for Sense of Relatedness accounted for by parent education level
and race ethnicity was 5%. Table 5 displays a significant main effect for parent edu-
cation level on Emotional Reactivity Scale score (F = 4.24, df = 3, p < .006). Parent
education level accounted for 3% of the variance of this score.

Post Hoc Analyses

Post hoc analyses were conducted using the Bonferroni correction for multiple
comparisons (Hays, 1994. This correction yielded an alpha of < .008. Bonferroni

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 Prince-Embury / RSCA, Parent Education Level, and Ethnicity 177

post hoc comparison of mean Sense of Mastery Scale scores across parent education
level indicated one a significant difference between the highest parent education level
groups and the lowest parent education level group (difference = 4.96, p < .002, d =
.51). Children with parents who had a college degree or more education reported a
higher Sense of Mastery Scale score than those whose parents reported less than a
high school education.
Bonferroni post hoc comparisons of mean Sense of Relatedness Scale scores
across parent education level indicated significant differences between the lowest
parent education level group and all three higher parent education level groups (dif-
ference = -4.28, p < .005, d = .44; difference = -4.21, p < .006, d = .42; difference =
-6.69, p < .0001, d = .68). In all cases, higher level of parent education was associated
with a higher Sense of Relatedness Scale scores. Bonferroni post hoc comparison of
mean scores of Emotional Reactivity across parent education level indicated two sig-
nificant differences between the highest parent education level groups and the two
lowest parent education level groups (difference = 4.85, p < .002, d = .49; difference
= 3.59, p < .006, d = .31). In both cases, higher level of parent education was associ-
ated with lower Emotional Reactivity Scale scores. Post hoc analyses revealed no
significant mean score differences between racial/ethnic groupings.

ANCOVA Analyses
Due to the fact that parent education level and race/ethnicity were confounded in
this study, as they are in the U.S. population at the time of the study, supplemental
ANCOVA analyses were conducted where significant results had been found con-
trolling for confounding variables. The results are reported in Tables 6 though 8.
Regarding Sense of Mastery, the significant effect of parent education level reported
approached but did not achieve significance controlling for race/ethnicity (F = 2.64,
df = 3, p < .051; Table 6). Regarding Sense of Relatedness, significant effects of
parent education level remained when race/ethnicity were controlled for (F = 4.49,
df = 3, p < .004; Table 7). However, the significant effect of race/ethnicity on Sense of
Relatedness did not remain when parent education level was controlled for (Table 7).
Regarding main effects of parent education level on Emotional Reactivity, the main
effect remained minimally significant when ethnicity was controlled for (F = 3.00,
df = 3, p < .03; Table 8).

Discussion

This study employed the RSCA to explore the association between parent educa-
tion level, race/ethnicity, and personal resiliency in a normative sample of 450 chil-
dren aged 9 to 14, stratified demographically to match the U.S. 2003 census. Small
but significant associations were found between parent education level and two of
the three RSCA global scale scores. For the Emotional Reactivity Scale, differences

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178   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

Table 6
Effect of Parent Education Level on Sense of Mastery
Using ANCOVA Controlling for Race/Ethnicity
Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Significance

Corrected model 1117.67a 4 279.42 2.86 .02

Intercept 590077.81 1 590077.81 6045.68 .00
Race/ethnicity 38.01 1 38.01 0.39 .53
Parent education level 762.88 3 254.30 2.61 .05
Error 43433.47 445 97.60
Total 1177465.00 450
Corrected total 44551.13 449

R2 = .025 (adjusted R2 = .016).

a

Table 7
Effects of Parent Education Level and Race/Ethnicity
on Sense of Relatedness Using ANCOVA
Type III Sum Mean
of Squares df Square F Significance

Effects of parent education level on sense of relatedness using ANCOVA controlling for race/ethnicity
Source controlling for race/ethnicity
Corrected model 1874.136a 4 468.534 4.890 .001
Intercept 582576.500 1 582576.500 6080.492 .000
Race/ethnicity 44.623 1 44.623 0.466 .495
Parent education level 1291.118 3 430.373 4.492 .004
Error 42635.784 445 95.811
Total 1170110.000 450
Corrected total 44509.920 449

Effects of ethnicity on sense of relatedness using ANCOVA controlling for parent education level
Source controlling for parent education level
Corrected model 1756.475b 3 585.492 6.108 .000
Intercept 106166.066 1 106166.066 1107.515 .000
Parent education level 972.816 1 972.816 10.148 .002
Race/ethnicity 265.139 2 132.569 1.383 .252
Error 42753.445 446 95.860
Total 1170110.000 450
Corrected total 44509.920 449

R2 = .042 (adjusted R2 = .033).

a

R2 = .039 (adjusted R2 = .033).

b

were quite small and significant only between groups of children with the highest
and lowest levels of parent education. Associations between parent education level
and Sense of Relatedness were slightly stronger. Mean differences were in the

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 Prince-Embury / RSCA, Parent Education Level, and Ethnicity 179

Table 8
Effects of Parent Education Level on Emotional
Reactivity Using ANCOVA Controlling for Race/Ethnicity
Type III Sum Mean
Source of Squares df Square F Significance

Corrected model 1331.11a 4 332.78 3.37 .01

Intercept 584666.46 1 584666.46 5919.86 .00
Race/ethnicity 87.33 1 87.33 0.88 .35
Parent education level 889.19 3 296.40 3.00 .03
Error 43949.78 445 98.76
Total 1170981.00 450
Corrected total 45280.89 449
a
R2 = .029 (adjusted R2 = .021).

predicted direction; children of parents with less than a high school education
reported significantly less Sense of Relatedness than any of the three other groups
of children whose parents had higher levels of education. These findings were con-
sistent with the findings of Felner et al. (1995), who found that youth from families
where neither parent graduated from high school exhibited significantly poorer
socioemotional and academic adjustment than did those whose parents had higher
educational levels, independent of family income.
A second purpose of the study was to contribute to the validity evidence of the
RSCA. Support for use of the RSCA across diverse groups is provided by the find-
ing that mean RSCA global scores were all within the average range and that lim-
ited internal consistency estimates were good to excellent for all three global scale
scores across all groups. Validity evidence for the RSCA was provided by findings
of small but significant associations between parent education level and the RSCA
Sense of Relatedness Scale score, which was consistent with previous research
findings. Effect sizes, even when significant, were very small. Sameroff (2005) had
suggested that single variables considered alone may have statistically significant
effects on children’s behavior, but their effects are small in comparison with the
accumulation of multiple negative influences that characterize high-risk groups.
The findings of this study are consistent with previous evidence that suggests that
the effects of specific risk factors in isolation on later outcomes often tend to be
modest (Fergusson & Horwood, 2003; Fergusson, Horwood, & Lynskey, 1994;
Garmezy, 1987; Rutter, 1979).

Limitations
The categorization of parent education level used in this study may be considered
a broad-stroke variable. First, averaging parent education level may obscure differ-
ences that might be found in analysis of education level of each parent considered

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180   Canadian Journal of School Psychology

separately. Additional research might explore associations with personal resiliency

using parent education of individual parents.
It is recognized that each of the broadly defined ethnic groups examined in this
study included groups from a variety of different cultural backgrounds. It is possible
that this heterogeneity diluted effects of ethnicity. Therefore, failure to find signifi-
cant effects for race/ethnicity does not mean that these do not exist but rather that
the RSCA is not sensitive to differences within the groups as categorized in this
study.
This study is limited in that parent education level and ethnicity are confounded;
minority status is represented more in the lower parent education groups, whereas
nonminority status is overrepresented in the higher parent education groupings.
This limitation reflects that the normative sample was drawn to represent the U.S.
census for which these variables are confounded. For this reason, examination of
interaction effects between parent education level, ethnicity, and personal resiliency
with larger sample sizes is recommended to further tease out specific effects of
these demographic variables.

Research Implications for the RSCA

Additional research is needed to replicate these findings and to further explore
possible interaction effects with larger, fully crossed samples. Future research might
also explore whether the small differences found in this study of children aged 9 to
14 are true for adolescents aged 15 to 18. It is possible that additional education and
socialization experiences may eliminate the modest differences found in this sample
of children.
In summary, findings of this study support the use of the RSCA in future research
of personal resiliency in diverse groups in that the instrument appears to be free of
bias across race/ethnic groups but sensitive to subtle differences that may be pre-
sented by differences in parent education level.

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Sandra Prince-Embury is a clinical psychologist and family therapist. She is author of the Resiliency
Scales for Children and Adolescents and director of the Resiliency Institute of Allenhurst. She has exten-
sive experience working with families, children, and adolescents. She also served as graduate faculty at
Pennsylvania State University and as a senior research director for the Psychological Corporation.

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