: Introduction

1. The UK’s Ageing Population

• In 2001, the number of people over 60 exceeded those under 16 for the first time.

• By 2051, 1 in 4 people in the UK is expected to be over

2. Historical Shift in Age Structure

• Between 1911 and 2005, the percentage of over-65s rose from 5.2% to 16%.

• From 1971 to 2005, the under-16 population dropped by 2.7 million, while the over-65
group increased by 2.2 million.

• By 2014, people aged 65+ were expected to outnumber those under 16.

3. Causes of Population Ageing

a) Falling Fertility Rate

• UK fertility rate has been below replacement level since 1973.

• Fewer births = fewer young people entering the population.

b) Increased Life Expectancy

• By mid-2000s:

• Men aged 65 could expect to live 16.9 more years.

• Women aged 65 could expect to live 19.7 more years.

• More people are reaching very old age (80+ and even 100).

4. Population Trends Over Time

• In 1821, population sharply declined with age.

• By 2005, the decline was more gradual, with bulges from the 1950s–60s baby boom.

Old Age: A Public Burden?

Many experts believe that as the number of elderly people increases, it could become a financial burden
on society. But just looking at the percentage of people aged 65 and over doesn’t give the full picture.

Old-Age Dependency Ratio

To better understand the situation, experts use something called the old-age dependency ratio.

It compares the number of people aged 65+ to those of working age (16–64 years).

• A low ratio means there are more workers supporting fewer retirees.
 • A high ratio means fewer workers are supporting more retirees.

Declining Worker-to-Pensioner Ratio

The number of workers compared to pensioners is dropping:

• In the 1920s, there were 8.6 workers for every retiree.

• By 2006, it dropped to 3.3 workers for every retiree.

• By 2031, it’s expected to fall further to 2.9 workers for every retiree.

This means fewer people paying taxes to support more elderly people, which puts pressure on pensions
and healthcare.

Rising Healthcare Costs for the Elderly

As people live longer, more of them reach very old ages, needing more medical and social care.

• Healthcare costs rise sharply with age.

• Geriatric medicine (medicine for older people) has made good progress, helping many
live longer and healthier lives.

Political Concerns about Spending

The idea that elderly people are a financial burden has been part of political debates for many years.

• Around one-third of total government spending goes to social security.

• Almost half of that is spent on the elderly.

In the 1980s, the UK government tried to cut costs by promoting community care — encouraging older
people to live at home with support, instead of in expensive care homes.

Negative Views of Dependency

The word “dependency” often creates a negative image.

• “Care” sounds positive and warm.

• “Dependency” sounds cold and negative.

It makes it seem like being dependent is something bad or shameful, especially for elderly people.

Elderly Seen as a Social Problem

Because of all these costs and needs, older people are sometimes unfairly seen as a problem for society.
Challenging the Idea of Old Age as a Public Burden

Many experts argue that viewing elderly people mainly as a burden is unfair and overly negative. They
offer several reasons:
1. Separating Facts from Speculation (Thane, 1989)
• Thane says we need to distinguish between facts and guesses about the costs of an
ageing population.

• During the 1960s and 1970s, the money spent on the elderly did not grow as fast as
their numbers.

• Also, while the number of elderly people is expected to rise, the number of young
dependents (like children) is expected to fall, balancing things out.

• Improvements in general health mean that future elderly people may be healthier,
reducing health care costs per person.

2. The Old-Age Dependency Ratio is a Crude Measure

• The dependency ratio only looks at elderly people compared to working-age adults (16–
64), but ignores children (under 16) who are also dependents.

• Not everyone aged 16–64 is actually working — some are unemployed, sick, caring for
others, or retired early.

3. Contributions of Older People

• Many elderly people keep working even after reaching pension age, either full-time or
part-time.

• Others volunteer or care for family members, helping society in unpaid but important
ways.

• These activities are not counted in the official dependency ratio, but they provide huge
value.

4. Problems with Valuing Paid Work

• The dependency ratio assumes that all paid jobs are equally valuable, which is not
realistic.

• For example, making harmful products like drugs or stink bombs counts the same as
nursing or farming in the ratio.

• It also ignores unpaid work like caring for family, which is very important.

Disengagement Theory
Disengagement theory was one of the first major ideas in social gerontology.

• Proposed by Cumming and Henry (1961), it aimed to explain what happens to people as
they grow older.
 • It says that old age is a special life stage where people gradually and naturally withdraw
from social activities.

Psychological and Sociological Aspects

• On a psychological level: Older people become more self-focused and introspective.

• On a sociological level: Their withdrawal happens in a social context, fitting into a

functionalist view of society (where every part of society has a role to keep it running smoothly).

Fewer Social Roles and Contacts

• When people grow old, they have fewer social roles (like worker, parent, caregiver).

• Their social circle shrinks because of retirement and changes in family life.

• Cumming (1963) described disengagement as a “triple withdrawal

”:

• Loss of roles

• Fewer social contacts

• Less commitment to norms and values

Positive Side of Disengagement

• For individuals:

• They are freed from stressful roles and pressures of competing with younger people.

• For society:

• The gradual withdrawal helps keep social stability, because when elderly individuals
eventually pass away, their departure does not disrupt society.

In short, disengagement is seen as natural and helpful both for older people and for society.

Criticism of Disengagement Theory

• Many critics argue that not all elderly people want to withdraw, and many stay active
and involved.

• They also say the theory makes withdrawal seem automatic, ignoring differences
between individuals.

What is Social Gerontology?

• Social gerontology is the study of the social aspects of ageing (like relationships, work,
income, and health).
 • It is multi-disciplinary — meaning it uses ideas from different fields like sociology and
psychology, instead of building its own independent theories.

Focus of Past Research

• According to Fennell et al. (1988), much of the early research in social gerontology
mostly described how older people lived — their habits, activities, and behaviors.

• Researchers did not focus enough on how ageing connects to economic, social, and
political factors of society.

Criticisms of Disengagement Theory

Although disengagement theory was influential, it has been strongly criticized for several reasons:

1. Lack of Evidence
• A study by Shanas et al. (1968) in the USA, Britain, and Denmark found no strong proof
that older people naturally withdraw from society.

• Older people who had good health and enough income stayed socially active.

• When there was a decline in social activity, it was mostly because of poor health, not
ageing itself.

• Even after losses like bereavement, family and community often helped reintegrate
elderly people back into social life.

Early retirement studies (like Townsend, 1957) also showed:

• Retirement often caused feelings of loss, uselessness, and confusion, not a happy
withdrawal.

• More recent research (Atchley, 1972; Phillipson, 1987) found that many retirees stay
active by forming new friendships, volunteering, or taking part in hobbies.

• Barnes and Parry (2004) highlighted that retirement can mean gaining new roles, not
just losing old ones.

2. Ignoring Social and Economic Factors

• Disengagement theory acts as if withdrawal is natural and automatic, but does not
consider important factors like:

• Financial security

• Living conditions

• Social support
 • Hochschild (1975) argued that disengagement happens not because of ageing alone, but
because of:

• Poor health

• Widowhood

• Poverty

• Position in society (like class and economic status)

In other words, adjusting to old age depends a lot on life circumstances, not just on growing older.

• Wealthier older people may see retirement as a chance for self-directed, enjoyable
activities.

• Poorer older people might see retirement as struggling to survive.

Thus, disengagement does not always serve a positive or “adaptive” role.

3. The Theory is Gender Biased

Disengagement theory was mainly based on men’s experiences when it was first developed.

Focus on Men’s Retirement

• It assumes that men struggle more with disengagement because:

• Men often faced a bigger life disruption when retiring from full-time jobs.

• Men had to find new roles after retirement.

• In contrast, it was believed that women:

• Were less affected because they continued their traditional family roles into old age.

Changes in Women’s Work Lives

• Since the 1950s, women have become a larger part of the workforce.

• Now, women also experience major role changes after retirement.

• Therefore, disengagement cannot simply be assumed to be easier for women anymore.

4. The Theory Can Be Used to Justify Discrimination

The idea that disengagement is natural and inevitable can lead to unfair treatment of elderly people.

Supporting Negative Stereotypes

• Society often assumes that:

• Old age is just about physical and mental decline.

 • Elderly people naturally want to withdraw from society.

• This thinking makes it easier to ignore or accept discrimination against older people.

Impact on Policies

• Policy-makers may believe they are helping by encouraging social withdrawal.

• However, this approach can actually:

• Exclude elderly people.

• Marginalize them further.

• Disengagement is treated like something that should just happen without challenge,
which can be very damaging.

5. The Belief That Disengagement Is Desirable Is Questionable

The idea that disengagement is good for elderly people is not fully supported.

Elderly People Resist Disengagement

• After retirement, people may lose some workplace friendships.

• However, this does not always lead to isolation:

• Many older people build new relationships.

• Some strengthen ties with family and old friends.

• As Townsend (1973) says:

“Extensive social interaction may be gradually replaced by intensive local interaction, involving many
fewer people.”

Losses and Gains After Retirement

• Some loss of social contacts does happen.

• But there are also new opportunities for:

• New friendships

• Closer local relationships

Criticism of the Theory’s Focus

• Bromley (1974) suggested that instead of “social disengagement”, it’s better to talk
about:

“Industrial disengagement and increased socio-economic dependence.”

• This highlights that retirement affects jobs and money more than it affects social life.
A Balanced View on Disengagement Theory

• Fennell et al. (1988) agree that:

• Disengagement is not a universal experience.

• But some parts of the theory are still useful.

• Studying the conditions under which people disengage could help understand how
different individuals cope with ageing.

• However, this does not require fully following the functionalist perspective.

The concept of role explains how individuals adjust to aging.

• Different theories provide varying perspectives on role continuity vs. role loss.

• This presentation explores:

• Functionalist Perspective

• Disengagement Theory

• Activity Theory

• Continuity Perspective

Functionalist Perspective on Aging

• Talcott Parsons (1942): Work defines social identity.

• Retirement causes role loss, leading to uncertainty.

• Weakens community ties, creating a “functionless situation.”

Example: A retired businessman feeling disconnected from his previous professional life.

Disengagement Theory
• Proposed that aging involves withdrawing from social roles.

• Encourages age segregation and reduced societal expectations.

• Seen as a natural and beneficial process, allowing for rest.

Example: Elderly people moving to retirement communities with minimal responsibilities.

Activity Theory (Havighurst, 1963)

• Rejects disengagement theory.

• Successful aging depends on staying active and engaged.

• Role loss leads to low self-esteem and isolation.

 • Older adults should take up new roles suited to their abilities.

Example: A retired teacher becoming a mentor or community volunteer.

: Continuity Perspective on Aging

• A balanced approach: Encourages stability between early and later life.

• Personality traits, habits, and social roles continue in old age.

• Aging should be a smooth transition rather than a sudden role loss.

Example: A retired doctor volunteering at a free clinic.

Policy Implications
• Disengagement Theory: Policies supporting retirement communities and pension
systems.

• Activity Theory: Programs for volunteering, lifelong learning, and intergenerational

activities.

• Continuity Theory: Flexible work arrangements and social programs to maintain identity.

: Conclusion

• Theories differ in how they view role loss and adaptation in old age.

• Disengagement vs. Activity Theory: Opposing views on social involvement.

• Continuity Perspective: A balanced approach for smoother transitions.

• Policies should be personalized to fit different aging experiences.

• Aging is a structured process, influenced by social expectations and personal

adaptations.

• Two theories explain how individuals adjust to old age:

1. Age Stratification Theory – Aging is influenced by social structures and norms.

2. Continuity Theory – Individuals seek stability by maintaining lifelong habits.

Example:

• Why do some seniors retire at 65 while others keep working into their 80s?

• Some do so because society expects them to (Age Stratification Theory), while others
choose to continue based on lifelong habits (Continuity Theory)

Age Stratification Theory – Key Ideas

• Society organizes roles based on age.
 • Age norms dictate when individuals transition into new roles.

• Not entirely a personal choice—norms and policies shape expectations.

Example:

• In many countries, the legal retirement age is set at 60 or 65.

• Young people are expected to be students, middle-aged people to be workers, and

elderly people to be retired or dependent.

Age and Social Organisation

• Roles are not chosen freely—they are assigned based on societal expectations.

• Formal norms: Laws about retirement age, minimum schooling years.

• Informal norms: Social pressure to “act your age” (e.g., not expecting elderly people to
take on demanding jobs).

Example:

• Retirement age in Japan vs. the USA:

• In Japan, many people work beyond 70 due to a cultural emphasis on productivity.

• In the USA, many workers retire at 65 due to social security policie

Age Cohorts and Shared Experiences

• People born in the same generation share historical and cultural events that shape their
values.

• These shared experiences influence how they view aging and their social roles.

Example:

• Baby Boomers (Born 1946-1964): Grew up during post-war economic growth, value hard
work and financial security.

• Millennials (Born 1981-1996): Experienced the digital revolution, value work-life balance
over traditional career stability.

• Silent Generation (Born 1928-1945): Lived through World War II, value frugality and
resilienc

Continuity Theory – Key Ideas

• People try to maintain consistency in personality, habits, and social roles as they age.

• Aging is a continuation, not a break from earlier life.

 • People prepare for aging through anticipatory socialization—adopting roles before they
fully transition.

Example:

• A lifelong artist continues painting even after retirement.

• A retired professor teaches part-time instead of stopping work entirely.

Anticipatory Socialisation and Stability

• People prepare for future roles before they enter them.

• This ensures smoother transitions across life stages.

• However, major role changes (retirement, widowhood) disrupt stability.

Examples:

1. Doctors and Lawyers: Many continue consulting part-time after retirement because they
have prepared for a slower transition.

2. Athletes: Often face difficulties after retiring because they have not been socialized for a
life without competitive sports.

3. Widowhood: A partner who has always managed finances may find it easier to continue
after their spouse’s death, while someone unprepared may struggle.

Comparison of Theories

Age Stratification vs. Continuity Theory

A 70-year-old entrepreneur in Silicon Valley:

• Age Stratification View: They should retire because society expects older people to slow
down.

• Continuity View: They continue working because they’ve always been business-minded.

Policy Implications
Age Stratification Perspective:
• Governments should provide structured retirement benefits.

• Societies should ensure age-appropriate roles (e.g., elderly care services, pensions).

Continuity Perspective:
• Policies should support lifelong engagement (e.g., volunteering, flexible work).

• Encourage lifelong learning and skill adaptation to allow aging individuals to remain
socially and professionally active.
Example:
• Countries like Sweden and Denmark promote flexible retirement policies, allowing
seniors to work part-time and gradually transition.

Slide 10: Conclusion

• Age Stratification Theory: Society defines roles and structures aging.

• Continuity Theory: Aging is a continuation of past habits rather than a sudden change.

• A balanced approach is needed in policy-making—some structured roles, but also room

for personal adaptation.

Example:

• Some seniors retire completely, while others remain active in business, arts, or
volunteering.

Continuity Theory vs. Interactionist Perspective in Aging

Aging is a complex process that involves adjustments in social roles and personal identity. While some
theories view aging as a passive process where individuals conform to predetermined roles, continuity
theory and the interactionist perspective emphasize personal agency and adaptability. Let’s break down
these concepts with real-life examples.

Continuity Theory: Maintaining Personal Identity in Aging

Continuity theory suggests that individuals strive to maintain their established habits, preferences, and
social roles as they age. Rather than completely adapting to new roles, they try to preserve aspects of
their earlier lives in ways that feel natural and comfortable.

Example:
• A retired teacher continues tutoring students instead of completely withdrawing from
education. By doing so, they maintain a part of their identity rather than fully stepping away from their
career.

• An elderly musician still performs at community events even if they no longer tour
professionally. This allows them to stay engaged in an activity that has always been meaningful to them.

• A former athlete becomes a coach after retiring from professional sports. This transition
allows them to maintain their connection to their passion while adjusting to age-related limitations.

2Interactionist Perspective: Role Negotiation in Aging

The interactionist perspective argues that social roles are not rigidly imposed but are shaped through
interaction and negotiation with others. As people age, they redefine their social identity based on
personal experiences and social exchanges.

Example:

• Retirement and Social Identity: A person retiring from a corporate job may feel a loss of
identity, but through social interactions, they might redefine themselves as a mentor, volunteer, or
entrepreneur. Their new role is not simply “given” by society but shaped through conversations and
personal choices.

• Widowhood and Social Role Adjustment: An elderly woman who loses her spouse may
initially struggle with her identity as a widow. However, through interactions with support groups and
family, she may take on new roles, such as a community leader or caregiver for grandchildren.

• Grandparenting as a Negotiated Role: Some grandparents take an active role in raising

their grandchildren, while others prefer a more distant role. This variation is not dictated by societal
norms alone but results from discussions and agreements within the family.

3. Key Differences Between Theories

Conclusion

Both theories emphasize that aging is not just about losing roles but about adapting in ways that align
with personal identity. While continuity theory highlights maintaining past behaviors, the interactionist
perspective focuses on how people actively shape their new roles through social interactions. Together,
these perspectives provide a more dynamic understanding of aging as a personalized and negotiated
experience.

Structural Dependency and the Need for

Change
From a political economy perspective, the problems older people face are not just personal—they are
created by wider economic, political, and social systems.

Manifesto for Old Age’ (Bornat et al., 1985) recommends:

• Better financial support for older people.

• More creative retirement policies.

• Action against age discrimination.

• Reducing health inequalities and promoting good health in old age.

• Specific support for ethnic minority elders.

 • Making education a right for older adults.

• More funding for housing and transport.

• Involving older people in the planning of services that affect them.

3. Gender and the ‘Forgotten Female’

• Older women often suffer quietly—they’re everywhere, yet ignored.

• Sheila Peace (1986) says their needs and voices are overlooked.

• Only in the 1990s did feminists really begin to study gender inequalities in old age.

4. Changing Experiences of Retirement

• Retirement today is less likely to be forced or seen as a crisis.

• Newer retirees are often healthier and wealthier than previous generations (Hyde et al.,
2004).

But a good retirement still depends on many factors:

Positive retirement experiences are more likely when:

• People choose when to retire.

• They feel financially stable.

• They stay socially active and keep friendships.

However, these positive outcomes depend on one’s gender, race, and class, which shape the
opportunities available.

1. Mabel’s Story – A Real-Life Example

• Mabel, aged 84, is lively and active in her care home despite serious health issues
(paralysed legs).

• She contributes to the community (mending socks, playing piano) but struggles mentally
and physically.

• A nurse treats her like a child, both physically (e.g., stroking her) and in attitude, which
highlights a paternalistic or infantilizing view of older people.

2. The Stereotype of Dependency in Old Age

• Common belief: Growing old means becoming more dependent—on family, friends, or
government help.

• This is often blamed on natural ageing (failing health, frailty), but this view is too
simplistic.
3. Types of Dependency

Dependency isn’t just physical—it’s multi-dimensional. Scholars offer different ways to understand it:

Fraser and Gordon (1994) identify 4 types:

• Economic: Relying on others for money.

• Socio-legal: Having fewer rights or freedoms under the law.

• Political: Lacking a say in decisions that affect your life.

• Moral/Psychological: Feeling like a burden or being treated as lesser.

Walker (1982) adds 5 dimensions:

• Physical – Needing help with tasks.

• Psychological – Struggling emotionally or mentally.

• Social – Lacking meaningful social connections.

• Economic – Not having enough money.

• Political – Having little power or influence.

4. Society Is Built on Interdependence

• In truth, everyone depends on others in some way.

• Yet society selectively labels some groups (e.g., older people, welfare users) as “
dependent,” which carries negative stigma.

• Example: Men relying on wives for daily household management are not seen as
dependent, but women doing unpaid care work are labeled as financially dependent.

5. The Problem with the Word ‘Dependence’

• It’s often used negatively, especially in politics (e.g., “dependency culture”).

• Suggests being a burden or weak, which can harm the dignity of those who need help.

6. Independence in Care Work

• Care professionals often think of independence and dependence as total opposites.

• But this black-and-white view misses the complexity—people can be dependent in some
areas and independent in others.

Independence and the Elderly – A Personal View

Sixsmith (1986) studied how older people define independence for themselves, especially in the context
of living at home. He found three common meanings:
 • Managing without help for personal care or daily chores.

• Freedom to make choices and direct one’s own life.

• Not relying on charity or feeling indebted to others.

This shows that independence is more than just physical ability—it includes pride, dignity, and autonomy.

2. Resources and Dependency – Arber and Ginn (1991a)

Arber and Ginn explain that dependency in old age 1is influenced by access to three key resources.
These are:

The Interlocking Resource Triangle:

1. Material resources – money, housing, and physical goods.

2. Health resources – physical and mental well-being.

3. Caring resources – help from family, friends, or services.

These are interconnected: lacking one can affect the others.

• For example, someone with poor health but good material resources might still
maintain independence by buying mobility aids or home help.

3. Access to Resources Depends on Social Position

• Whether a person has enough of these resources often depends on their:

• Gender

• Social class

• Ethnic background

This highlights how inequality plays a key role in shaping independence in old age.

4. Levels of Resources

Resources can be considered at four levels:

• Individual (e.g. personal income or health)

• Household (e.g. support from a partner or family)

• Community (e.g. local services or social networks)

• State (e.g. pensions, home care, or disability benefits)

The more resources someone has at these levels, the greater their independence.

Dependency in Old Age: A Social Construct

1. Dependency is Not Just About Age or Health
 • Society often sees old age as a time of natural dependency, due to physical decline.

• But dependency is shaped more by social and economic structures than by biological
ageing (Walker, 1982).

• It’s a socially created condition, not just a natural outcome.

2. Dependency Is About Power and Social Relationships

• Hockey and James (1993) argue that dependency comes from social, economic, and
political power structures.

• Dependency isn’t a personal trait—it’s a relationship shaped by power.

• To understand who is seen as dependent, we must look at how power works in society.

3. The Concept of ‘Personhood’

• Personhood = the social identity given to someone based on cultural values of what it
means to be “fully human.”

• In Western society, personhood is linked to:

• Autonomy

• Independence

• Self-determination

• If someone lacks these traits, society may not fully recognize them as a person.

4. Childhood as the Model of Dependency

• Childhood has become the dominant image of dependency.

• As a result, elderly and disabled adults are often treated like children—even if they’re
capable in other ways.

• This leads to loss of status and full personhood in old age.

5. Infantilization of the Elderly

• Infantilization = treating adults like children through language and behavior.

• Examples:

• Calling elderly people names like “poppet” or “little people”.

• Referring to deceased patients with terms like “sweetie”.

• These behaviors:

• Reinforce stereotypes that the elderly are like children.

 • Can be humiliating for the elderly.

• Help justify unequal treatment and discrimination.

6. The Cultural Impact

• Infantilizing the elderly is not accidental—it’s part of cultural norms.

• Society uses childlike metaphors to define and limit the elderly’s role.

• This makes age discrimination seem natural and keeps older people marginalized.

1 . What Is Quality of Life in Old Age?

• Quality of life is defined by the individual, based on personal goals, preferences, and
expectations.

• As one older adult put it:

“I don’t expect to sit back and expect quality of life to come through the door.”

(Gabriel and Bowling, 2004)

2. A Positive View of Ageing

• Social gerontology no longer focuses only on:

• Illness

• Decline

• Dependency

• Poverty

• It now includes positive experiences of ageing, such as:

• “Ageing well” (Vaillant, 2002)

• “Successful ageing” (Rowe and Kahn, 1997)

3. WHO’s Definition of Quality of Life

“An individual’s perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in
which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards, and concerns.”

4. Quality of Life Is Hard to measure

• It’s a multi-dimensional concept.

• Influenced by:

• Research methods
 • Sample populations

• Cultural and environmental context

“Quality of life is best regarded as a multi-dimensional construct.”

— Smith et al. (2004)

1. The Complexity of Quality of Life

• Quality of life (QoL) is multi-dimensional and not always clearly defined.

• Debate exists: Are certain factors predictors of QoL or are they part of QoL itself?

2. Influencing Factors: Key Research Findings

A. Personal Relationships and Health

• Farquhar (1995):

• Most people aged 65+ say family relationships are most important for QoL.

• In those 85+, health and physical function matter more than material well-being.

B. Poverty and Financial Security

• Scharf et al. (2002):

• Older people in poverty are twice as likely to report poor QoL.

C. Neighbourhood and Environment

• Richard et al. (2005), Hanson & Emlet (2006):

• QoL improves with good local amenities and neighbourly social contact.

D. Loneliness

• Bramston et al. (2002):

• Perceived loneliness is a major factor in lower QoL.

E. Ethnicity and Cultural Context

• Grewal et al. (2004):

• Core QoL factors (e.g. feeling valued, independence) do not vary across ethnic groups,
but how they are experienced may differ.

F. Racism and Discrimination

• Racism affects QoL via:

• Exposure to hate crimes or harassment

 • Reduced income due to workplace discrimination

3. Measuring Quality of Life

A. Two Types of Variables

• Objective variables:

• Health, income, community involvement

• Subjective variables:

• Personal evaluations of life satisfaction

B. Standard Tools
• WHO Quality of Life Measure

• Satisfaction with Life Scale

• Uses Likert-scale questions like:

“In most ways my life is close to my ideal.”

C. Scoring System
• Individuals rate items; scores are averaged to produce a single numerical value for QoL.

4. Importance of Subjective Experience

•

• Subjective views explain more variance in QoL than objective conditions.

• QoL models should be based on what older people themselves value.

5. Key Components of QoL from Older People’s Perspective

Older adults value:

• Autonomy and independence

• Being treated with respect

• Having meaningful relationships

• Physical and emotional health

• Access to good services and environments

 • Purpose and activity in life

• Freedom from fear (e.g. of crime or discrimination)

1. Interconnectedness of Variables
• Objective and subjective factors both influence the quality of life (QoL).

• It is difficult to isolate the impact of any single factor:

• Some factors act directly.

• Others act indirectly or are mediated through different variables.

• There are individual differences in how people perceive their own QoL

2. Key Theme: Identity, Belonging, and Community

• QoL is closely linked to feelings of identity, belonging, and community participation.

• Older adults’ daily behaviour is shaped by their physical and social environments.

• These environments are socially constructed and influenced by interactions and

community norms.

3. The Role of the Local Environment

• Explored older people’s views in three Glasgow neighbourhoods.

• Found that physical surroundings impact health and well-being.

B. Important Environmental Dimensions

Key elements of a supportive environment include:

• Safe and clean spaces

• Opportunities for social interaction

• Accessibility for physical activity

• Sense of security and comfort

• These dimensions are interconnected:

• A clean, safe environment encourages exercise and socialising.

Example: Feeling safe outdoors leads to more walking and community engagement.

4. Avoiding Environmental Determinism

 • Caution: Physical environments can support social connections but cannot create
community spirit by themselves.

• The presence of good features enables, but does not guarantee, social bonding or
improved QoL.

5. Home and Locale: Sources of Identity

• For many older people, home and neighbourhood are central to their sense of self and
stability.

• These places contribute to identity maintenance, emotional security, and social

belonging in later life.

1. Emotional Attachment to Place

• Older people often feel a strong emotional connection to their home and
neighbourhood.

(Phillipson et al., 2001)

• This attachment helps them maintain identity in a changing world

2. Inequality in Community Attachment

• Not all older people experience the same level of attachment:

• Some are empowered to shape their communities.

• Others face disempowerment, marginalisation, or alienation.

(Phillipson, 2007)

• A social divide exists between:

• Those with expanding lifestyles and choices.

• Those excluded by poverty, poor health, or location.

3. Social Exclusion and Quality of Life

• Community attachment as a QoL measure shows clear inequality:

• Some can choose where they live and influence their environment.

• Others lack the resources or health to make these choices.

• Social exclusion leads to:

• Limited access to services and information.

• Inability to engage in meaningful social activities.

4. Local Environment and QoL: A Comparative Study

Study Context:

• Compared two neighbourhoods:

• Beckfield (deprived area, north-east England)

• Affluent area (south-east England)

1. Social Exclusion and Its Effects

• Living in socially excluded areas affects people of all ages, but older adults may face
greater challenges.

• Problems such as poor access to services, transport, and safety are worsened by age-
related issues (e.g. declining mobility or health).

2. Challenging Assumptions About Ageing

• It’s incorrect to assume that older people are simply passive recipients of care.

• Older adults often remain active contributors to family and community life.

• Loss of Community?

• Some research (e.g. Charles & Davies, 2005) highlights a decline in community ties.

• Active Participation

• Other studies (e.g. Boneham & Sixsmith, 2006) show older women’s active roles in
community and health networks.

3. Role of Environmental Gerontology

• Focuses on understanding how older people connect with their communities.

• Considers how access to and control over resources (economic, social) affects these
connections.

4. Implications for Policy

• Effective policies must:

• Recognise diversity and inequality within the older population.

• Avoid treating older people as a homogeneous, dependent group.

• Support social integration and combat exclusion.

• Enhance quality of life by addressing structural barriers (e.g. poverty, poor

infrastructure, discrimination).