LEVO

A level
Chemistry
For AQA Exam Board

The ultimate active recall guide

 ABOUT THIS GUIDE

This guide focuses largely on the art of ‘Active recall’ and how to
utilise your brain at its fullest capacity. Active recall is essentially
the opposite of traditional revision methods. Rather than inputting
information by reading, highlighting, and trying to retain it; this
method teaches you to output information instead by consistently
testing yourself and forcing your brain to recall it- until it moves
over to the long-term memory store.

Think of when you passively memorise a song. You don’t read the
lyrics and highlight them hoping they will stick in your brain. You
sing the lyrics either in your head or out loud, and eventually they
stick in your head for years. This is because you are forcing your
brain to actively utilise that information, which it will then
choose to store long term as it is used often.

The structure of this guide, although it may seem odd, will largely
just be questions. These are short and simple questions that you
need to answer to trigger the process of active recall. That’s it.

*These are NOT exam questions and shouldn’t be treated as

such. These are simply questions surrounding the compulsory
topics that you must do, with the intent to allow you to
memorise key information needed for the exams.*
USING THE ACTIVE RECALL METHOD

Answer your questions 3 times

Attempt 1: Answer from memory, mark when finished

Attempt 2: Answer open book

Attempt 3: Answer from memory again, mark when finished

Comparison

Compare attempts 1 and 3 and see if there are any improvements

Identify
Highlight all the questions you got wrong in BOTH attempts 1&3.
Repeat process until all questions are answered correctly
 ACTIVE RECALL QUESTIONS

This section will be the main body of this guide. Below, you
will find active recall questions that will cover every single
compulsory topic for Year 1/AS and Year 2 A level.
 Unit 1: Section 1- Atomic Structure

The Atom
1. What is the smallest particle of an element?
2. Who proposed the plum pudding model?
3. What is the charge of a proton?
4. What does the atomic number represent?
5. How many electrons can the first shell hold?
6. What is the charge of an electron?
7. What is the mass number?
8. What is an isotope?
9. What did Rutherford's gold foil experiment demonstrate?
10. What is the modern atomic model called?

Models of Atomic Structure

1. What did Dalton propose?
2. Who discovered the electron?
3. What model did Thomson propose?
4. What did Rutherford discover?
5. What is the nucleus composed of?
6. Who introduced the nuclear model?
7. What did Bohr propose?
8. What's the current atomic model?
9. What's an atomic orbital?
10. What's the significance of quantum mechanics?

Relative Mass and the Mass Spectrometer

1. What's the relative mass unit?
2. How is relative atomic mass calculated?
3. What's a mass spectrometer used for?
4. What is the basis of mass spectrometry?
5. What is a mass spectrum?
6. What does the abundance mean?
7. How do isotopes affect mass?
8. What's the relative isotopic mass?
9. What does the peak height indicate?
10. How does a mass spectrometer separate ions?
 Unit 1: Section 1- Atomic Structure

Electronic Structure
1. What's an electron shell?
2. How many electrons can each shell hold?
3. What's the maximum number of electrons in the second shell?
4. How is the electron configuration written?
5. What's the electron configuration of carbon?
6. What's the significance of valence electrons?
7. What's the difference between an electron shell and a subshell?
8. What's the shape of an s orbital?
9. What's the shape of a p orbital?
10. What's the shape of a d orbital?

Ionisation Energy
1. What is ionisation energy?
2. How is ionisation energy defined?
3. What happens to ionisation energy as you move down a group?
4. What happens to ionisation energy as you move across a period?
5. Which element has the highest ionisation energy?
6. What's the trend in ionisation energy within a group?
7. What's the trend in ionisation energy within a period?
8. Why does ionisation energy decrease down a group?
9. Why does ionisation energy increase across a period?
10. What's the relationship between ionisation energy and atomic radius?

Trends in First Ionisation Energy

1. What is first ionisation energy?
2. What's the trend down groups?
3. What's the trend across periods?
4. What's the general trend diagonally?
5. What causes the trends observed?
6. Which group has the lowest?
7. What's the exception within groups?
8. Why does ionisation energy decrease?
9. Why does ionisation energy increase?
10. What's the significance of effective nuclear charge?
 Unit 1: Section 2- Amount of Substance

The Mole
1. What is Avogadro's constant?
2. What does one mole represent?
3. What is the molar mass?
4. How is molar mass calculated?
5. What is the unit of molar mass?
6. How many atoms are in a mole?
7. How many molecules are in a mole?
8. What is the relationship between mass and moles?
9. What is the significance of the mole concept?
10. How is the number of moles calculated?

Equations and Calculations

1. What's the formula for density?
2. What's the equation for concentration?
3. What's the ideal gas equation?
4. How do you calculate percentage yield?
5. What's the equation for molarity?
6. What's the formula for moles?
7. How do you calculate gas volume?
8. What's the equation for titrations?
9. What's the equation for pH?
10. How do you calculate heat energy?

Titrations
1. What is a titration?
2. What's the purpose of titration?
3. What's the name of the solution in the burette?
4. What's the name of the solution in the conical flask?
5. What indicator is commonly used?
6. What's the equivalence point?
7. How do you calculate concentration?
8. How do you identify the end point?
9. What's the significance of the indicator?
10. What's the relationship in titrations?
 Unit 1: Section 2- Amount of Substance

Formulas, Yield, and Atom Economy

1. What's the formula for yield?
2. How is percentage yield calculated?
3. What's the formula for atom economy?
4. How do you calculate atom economy?
5. What does a high atom economy indicate?
6. What's the relationship between yield and atom economy?
7. How do you calculate theoretical yield?
8. What's the significance of atom economy?
9. How is actual yield determined?
10. How does stoichiometry relate to yield?
 Unit 1: Section 3- Bonding

Ionic Bonding
1. What is an ion?
2. What's an ionic bond?
3. How are ions formed?
4. What's the charge of a cation?
5. What's the charge of an anion?
6. How do ions achieve stability?
7. What's the difference between cations and anions?
8. What's an example of an ionic compound?
9. How is an ionic bond formed?
10. What's the significance of electronegativity?

Covalent Bonding
1. What is a covalent bond?
2. How are electrons shared?
3. What's the difference between ionic and covalent bonds?
4. What determines bond polarity?
5. What's a polar covalent bond?
6. What's a nonpolar covalent bond?
7. How do you determine bond type?
8. What's the relationship between electronegativity and bond type?
9. What's an example of a polar molecule?
10. How do lone pairs affect bond polarity?

Shapes of Molecules
1. What determines molecular shape?
2. What's the VSEPR theory?
3. What's the shape of CO2?
4. What's the shape of H2O?
5. What's the shape of NH3?
6. What's the shape of CH4?
7. What's the shape of BF3?
8. What's the shape of SF6?
9. What's the shape of NH4+?
10. What's the significance of lone pairs?
 Unit 1: Section 3- Bonding

Polarisation and Intermolecular Forces

1. What is polarisation?
2. What are intermolecular forces?
3. What's the strongest intermolecular force?
4. What's the weakest intermolecular force?
5. What's the force between polar molecules?
6. What's the force between nonpolar molecules?
7. What's an example of London dispersion forces?
8. What's an example of dipole-dipole forces?
9. What's an example of hydrogen bonding?
10. What affects the strength of intermolecular forces?

Metallic Bonding and Properties of Materials

1. What is metallic bonding?
2. What are properties of metals?
3. What's the significance of delocalized electrons?
4. What's the relationship between metallic bonding and conductivity?
5. What's the relationship between metallic bonding and malleability?
6. How do metallic bonds contribute to ductility?
7. What's the difference between pure metals and alloys?
8. What's the effect of alloying on properties?
9. What's the significance of lattice structure in metals?
10. How do metallic bonds affect melting and boiling points?
 Unit 1: Section 4- Energetics

Enthalpy Changes
1. What is enthalpy?
2. What's the difference between enthalpy and internal energy?
3. What's an exothermic reaction?
4. What's an endothermic reaction?
5. How is enthalpy change represented?
6. What's the standard enthalpy change?
7. What's the standard enthalpy of formation?
8. What's the standard enthalpy of combustion?
9. What's Hess's Law?
10. How do you calculate enthalpy change?

Calorimetry
1. What is calorimetry used for?
2. How is heat measured?
3. What's the principle of calorimetry?
4. What's a calorimeter?
5. What's the heat capacity?
6. What's the relationship between heat and temperature change?
7. How do you calculate heat transfer?
8. What's the formula for specific heat capacity?
9. How do you calculate heat gained or lost?
10. What's the unit for heat?

Hess’s Law
1. What does Hess's Law state?
2. How is enthalpy change calculated?
3. What's the relationship between reactions?
4. How do you use Hess's Law?
5. What's the significance of enthalpy?
6. What's the role of enthalpy?
7. What's the importance of energy?
8. What's the significance of enthalpy changes?
9. What's the impact of reactions?
10. How does Hess's Law simplify?
 Unit 1: Section 5- Kinetics, Equilibria and
Redox Reactions
Reaction Rates
1. What is reaction rate?
2. How is reaction rate measured?
3. What factors affect reaction rate?
4. What's the role of concentration?
5. What's the impact of temperature?
6. What's the effect of surface area?
7. How does catalyst affect rate?
8. What's the relationship between rate and collision theory?
9. What's the significance of activation energy?
10. How do you calculate reaction rate?

Reversible Reactions
1. What is a reversible reaction?
2. What's the significance of equilibrium?
3. What's dynamic equilibrium?
4. How do forward and reverse rates compare?
5. What's the equilibrium constant expression?
6. What does a large Kc indicate?
7. What's Le Chatelier's principle?
8. What factors affect equilibrium position?
9. What's the role of catalysts?
10. How does temperature affect equilibrium?

The Equilibrium Constant

1. What's the equilibrium constant symbol?
2. How is Kc calculated?
3. What does a large Kc indicate?
4. What does a small Kc indicate?
5. What's the relationship between Kc and products/reactants?
6. How does changing temperature affect Kc?
7. What's the significance of Kc?
8. What does it mean if Kc > 1?
9. What does it mean if Kc < 1?
10. How do you interpret Kc values?
 Unit 1: Section 5- Kinetics, Equilibria and
Redox Reactions
Redox Reactions
1. What's a redox reaction?
2. What's oxidation?
3. What's reduction?
4. What's an oxidizing agent?
5. What's a reducing agent?
6. How do you identify redox reactions?
7. What's the significance of electron transfer?
8. What's the role of oxidation number?
9. How are electrons transferred?
10. What's the half-reaction method?
 Unit 1: Section 6- Thermodynamics

Enthalpy Definitions
1. What's enthalpy?
2. How is enthalpy defined?
3. What's the difference between enthalpy and internal energy?
4. What's the standard enthalpy change?
5. What's the enthalpy of formation?
6. What's the enthalpy of combustion?
7. What's the enthalpy of reaction?
8. What's Hess's Law?
9. What's the enthalpy of solution?
10. What's the enthalpy of neutralization?

Lattice Enthalpy and Born-Haber Cycles

1. What is lattice enthalpy?
2. What's the significance of lattice enthalpy?
3. How is lattice enthalpy defined?
4. What factors affect lattice enthalpy?
5. What's the Born-Haber cycle?
6. What's the purpose of Born-Haber cycles?
7. What's included in a Born-Haber cycle?
8. How do you calculate lattice enthalpy?
9. What's the relationship between ion size and lattice enthalpy?
10. How does lattice enthalpy affect ionic compounds' stability?

Enthalpies of Solution
1. What is enthalpy of solution?
2. How is enthalpy of solution defined?
3. What factors affect enthalpy of solution?
4. What's the enthalpy change for dissolving?
5. How does temperature affect enthalpy?
6. What's the relationship between solubility and enthalpy?
7. What's the enthalpy change for exothermic solution?
8. What's the enthalpy change for endothermic solution?
9. How is enthalpy of solution measured?
10. What's the significance of enthalpy of solution?
 Unit 1: Section 6- Thermodynamics

Entropy
1. What is entropy?
2. How is entropy defined?
3. What's the significance of entropy?
4. What's the relationship between disorder and entropy?
5. What's the second law of thermodynamics?
6. What's the change in entropy?
7. How does entropy change with temperature?
8. What's the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero?
9. What's the effect of phase changes on entropy?
10. How does molecular complexity affect entropy?

Free Energy Change

1. What is free energy?
2. How is free energy defined?
3. What's the significance of free energy?
4. What's the relationship between ΔG and spontaneity?
5. How is free energy change calculated?
6. What's the standard free energy change symbol?
7. What does a negative ΔG indicate?
8. What's the relationship between ΔG and equilibrium?
9. How does temperature affect free energy change?
10. What's the significance of ΔG in chemical reactions?
 Unit 1: Section 7- Rate Equations and Kp

Rate Equations
1. What's a rate equation?
2. What's the rate constant?
3. What's the order of reaction?
4. How is rate constant determined?
5. What's the rate-determining step?
6. What's the relationship between concentration and rate?
7. How do you determine reaction order?
8. What's the integrated rate equation?
9. What's the significance of rate equations?
10. How do you calculate rate?

Rate Experiments
1. What's the purpose of rate experiments?
2. How are initial rates determined?
3. What's the method of continuous monitoring?
4. What's the method of initial rates?
5. What's the significance of rate data?
6. How are reaction conditions varied?
7. What's the role of catalysts?
8. How does temperature affect rate?
9. How does concentration affect rate?
10. How does surface area affect rate?

The Rate Determining Step

1. What is the rate-determining step?
2. What's the significance of rate-determining step?
3. How is the rate-determining step identified?
4. What determines overall reaction rate?
5. What's the role of intermediates?
6. What's the relationship between elementary steps and rate-determining step?
7. What happens if rate-determining step changes?
8. How does reaction mechanism affect rate?
9. What's the impact of catalysts on rate-determining step?
10. What's the effect of temperature on rate-determining step?
 Unit 1: Section 7- Rate Equations and Kp

The Arrhenius Equation

1. What's the Arrhenius equation?
2. How does temperature affect reaction?
3. What's the pre-exponential factor?
4. What's the activation energy?
5. What's the significance of activation energy?
6. How does temperature affect rate constant?
7. How is the Arrhenius equation represented?
8. What's the relationship between rate constant and temperature?
9. How do you calculate activation energy?
10. What's the role of collision theory?

Gas Equilibria and Kp

1. What's a gas equilibrium?
2. What's the equilibrium constant?
3. How is Kp calculated?
4. What's the significance of Kp?
5. What's the relationship between pressure and Kp?
6. How is partial pressure determined?
7. What's the equilibrium expression for gases?
8. What's the relationship between Kp and reaction direction?
9. What's the impact of changing pressure on equilibrium?
10. How does temperature affect Kp?
 Unit 1: Section 8- Electrode Potentials and Cells

Electrode Potentials
1. What's an electrode potential?
2. What's the standard hydrogen electrode?
3. How are electrode potentials measured?
4. What's the significance of electrode potentials?
5. What's the relationship between electrode potential and reactivity?
6. How are half-cell potentials determined?
7. What's the Nernst equation?
8. What's the role of standard electrode potential?
9. What's the significance of cell potential?
10. How do you calculate cell potential?

The Electrochemical Series

1. What's the electrochemical series?
2. What determines the placement?
3. What's the role of standard electrode potentials?
4. How are metals arranged?
5. What's the significance of the series?
6. What's the order of reactivity?
7. How does the series help predict?
8. What's the relationship between electrode potential and position?
9. What's the placement for non-metals?
10. How does the series relate to redox reactions?

Batteries and Fuel Cells

1. What's a battery?
2. How does a battery work?
3. What's an electrolyte in batteries?
4. What's anode and cathode?
5. What's the role of electrodes?
6. What's a fuel cell?
7. How does a fuel cell work?
8. What's the difference between batteries and fuel cells?
9. What's the advantage of fuel cells?
10. What's the environmental impact of fuel cells?
 Unit 1: Section 9- Acids, Bases, and pH

Acids, Bases, and Kw

1. What are acids?
2. What are bases?
3. What's pH?
4. What's pOH?
5. What's the ion product constant?
6. What's the significance of Kw?
7. How is Kw calculated?
8. What's the relationship between pH and pOH?
9. How does temperature affect Kw?
10. What's the pH of neutral solution?

pH Calculations
1. What's the formula for pH?
2. How is pH calculated?
3. What's the pH of a neutral solution?
4. What's the pH of an acidic solution?
5. What's the pH of a basic solution?
6. How is pH related to hydrogen ion concentration?
7. How is pH affected by dilution?
8. What's the pH of a 0.1 M HCl solution?
9. What's the pH of a 0.01 M NaOH solution?
10. What's the pH of a solution with [H+] = 1.0 × 10^-8 M?

pH Curves and Indicators

1. What's a pH curve?
2. How is a pH curve generated?
3. What's the equivalence point?
4. What's a titration?
5. What's an acid-base indicator?
6. How does an indicator work?
7. What's the color change range?
8. What's the indicator's role?
9. How does pH change during titration?
10. How do you choose an indicator?
 Unit 1: Section 9- Acids, Bases, and pH

Titration Calculations
1. What's the purpose of titration?
2. What's a titrant?
3. What's an analyte?
4. How is the endpoint determined?
5. What's the stoichiometry of titration?
6. What's the formula for titration calculations?
7. How do you calculate unknown concentration?
8. What's the relationship between moles and volume?
9. What's the significance of equivalence point?
10. How do you find volume ratio?

Buffer Action
1. What's a buffer solution?
2. How does a buffer work?
3. What's the purpose of buffer?
4. What's the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?
5. What's the role of weak acid/base?
6. How does a buffer resist pH change?
7. What's the importance of buffer capacity?
8. What's the optimal pH range?
9. How are buffer solutions prepared?
10. What's the significance of buffers in biological systems?
 Unit 2: Section 1- Periodicity

Periodicity
1. What's periodicity in chemistry?
2. What's the periodic table?
3. How are elements arranged?
4. What's the significance of groups?
5. What's the significance of periods?
6. What's the trend in atomic size?
7. How does ionization energy change?
8. How does electron affinity change?
9. What's the trend in electronegativity?
10. How do properties vary periodically?
 Unit 2: Section 2- Group 2 and
Group 7 Elements

Group 2- The Alkaline Earth Metals

1. What are alkaline earth metals?
2. How many valence electrons?
3. What's the general electronic configuration?
4. What's the trend in reactivity?
5. What's the trend in atomic size?
6. How do alkaline earth metals react?
7. What's the trend in ionization energy?
8. What's the trend in melting points?
9. How do alkaline earth metals form compounds?
10. What's the significance of alkaline earth metals?

Uses of the Group 2 Elements

1. What are Group 2 elements used for?
2. What's magnesium used for?
3. What's calcium used for?
4. What's strontium used for?
5. What's barium used for?
6. How is magnesium used in alloys?
7. How is calcium used in construction?
8. How is strontium used in fireworks?
9. How is barium used in medical imaging?
10. How are Group 2 oxides used?

Group 7- The Halogens

1. What are halogens?
2. How many valence electrons?
3. What's the trend in reactivity?
4. What's the trend in atomic size?
5. What's the trend in electronegativity?
6. What's the general state?
7. How do halogens exist?
8. How do halogens react with metals?
9. How do halogens react with hydrogen?
10. How do halogens react with each other?
 Unit 2: Section 2- Group 2 and
Group 7 Elements

Halide Ions
1. What are halide ions?
2. What's the charge of halide ions?
3. How do halide ions form?
4. What's the trend in ionic size?
5. What's the trend in solubility?
6. What's the color of halide salts?
7. How do halide ions react?
8. How do halide ions form precipitates?
9. How are halide ions identified?
10. What's the test for chloride ions?

Tests for Ions

1. How do you test for carbonate ions?
2. How do you test for sulfate ions?
3. How do you test for halide ions?
4. How do you test for carbonate ions?
5. How do you test for nitrate ions?
6. How do you test for ammonium ions?
7. How do you test for chloride ions?
8. How do you test for bromide ions?
9. How do you test for iodide ions?
10. How do you test for sulfate ions?
 Unit 2: Section 3- Period 3 Elements

Period 3 Elements and Oxides

1. What are period 3 elements?
2. How many elements are there?
3. What's the trend in electronegativity?
4. What's the trend in atomic radius?
5. What's the trend in melting point?
6. What's the trend in conductivity?
7. How do period 3 oxides react?
8. What's the reactivity of sodium oxide?
9. What's the acidity of period 3 oxides?
10. What's the basicity of period 3 oxides?
 Unit 2: Section 4- Transition Metals

Transition Metals- The Basics

1. What are transition metals?
2. How many valence electrons?
3. What's the general electronic configuration?
4. What's the significance of d-orbitals?
5. What's the trend in atomic size?
6. What's the trend in ionization energy?
7. How do transition metals form ions?
8. What's the trend in oxidation states?
9. What's the significance of color?
10. How do transition metals act as catalysts?

Complex Ions
1. What are complex ions?
2. How do ligands bind?
3. What's a coordination number?
4. What's the role of ligands?
5. What's the charge on complex ions?
6. How do ligands affect color?
7. What's a coordination complex?
8. What's the central metal ion?
9. How do ligands vary?
10. What's the stability of complexes?

Formation of Coloured Ions

1. How are colored ions formed?
2. What causes color in ions?
3. What's the role of d-electrons?
4. How do d-electrons absorb light?
5. What's the significance of ligands?
6. How do ligands affect color?
7. What's the role of crystal field theory?
8. What determines the color intensity?
9. How does coordination number affect color?
10. How do transition metals form colored ions?
 Unit 2: Section 4- Transition Metals

Substitution Reactions
1. What are substitution reactions?
2. How do they occur?
3. What's the role of ligands?
4. What's the leaving group?
5. What's the role of solvent?
6. What determines reaction rate?
7. What's the mechanism involved?
8. How does concentration affect rate?
9. What's the effect of temperature?
10. What's the significance of catalysts?

Variable Oxidation States

1. What are variable oxidation states?
2. How do transition metals exhibit?
3. What determines oxidation state variability?
4. What's the significance of d-orbitals?
5. What's the highest oxidation state?
6. How do oxidation states vary?
7. How do ligands affect oxidation states?
8. What's the role of coordination number?
9. How do oxidation states impact reactivity?
10. How do transition metals form compounds?

Titrations with Transition Metals

1. What's a titration?
2. What's the purpose of titration?
3. How are transition metals titrated?
4. What's the role of indicator?
5. What's the end point color?
6. What's the significance of EDTA?
7. How does EDTA titrate transition metals?
8. What's the stoichiometry of titration?
9. How do you calculate concentration?
10. How do you determine endpoint?
 Unit 2: Section 4- Transition Metals

Catalysts
1. What is a catalyst?
2. How do catalysts work?
3. What's the purpose of catalysts?
4. What's the role of activation energy?
5. How do catalysts affect reactions?
6. What's the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts?
7. What's the significance of enzyme catalysts?
8. How do catalysts speed up reactions?
9. What's the effect of temperature on catalysts?
10. How are catalysts recovered?

Metal-Aqua Ions
1. What are metal-aqua ions?
2. What's the coordination number?
3. What's the role of ligands?
4. What's the significance of d-orbitals?
5. What's the charge on metal-aqua ions?
6. How do ligands affect properties?
7. What determines stability?
8. What's the color of metal-aqua ions?
9. How do metal-aqua ions react?
10. What's the role of solvent?
 Unit 3: Section 1- Introduction to
Organic Chemistry

Basics
1. What is an atom?
2. What's the atomic number?
3. What's an element?
4. What's a compound?
5. What's a molecule?
6. What's a mixture?
7. What's a chemical reaction?
8. What's a chemical formula?
9. What's a chemical equation?
10. What's a chemical property?

Isomerism
1. What is isomerism?
2. What are structural isomers?
3. What are geometric isomers?
4. What's the difference between cis-trans isomers?
5. What's an optical isomer?
6. What's a chiral molecule?
7. What's a meso compound?
8. What's the significance of isomerism?
9. How do isomers differ?
10. How are isomers classified?
 Unit 3: Section 2- Alkanes and
Halogenoalkanes

Alkanes and Petroleum

1. What are alkanes?
2. What's the general formula?
3. How do you name alkanes?
4. What's the boiling point trend?
5. What's the significance of isomerism?
6. What's the role of alkanes?
7. What's the source of petroleum?
8. What's the process of fractional distillation?
9. How are alkanes used industrially?
10. What's the environmental impact?

Alkanes as Fuels
1. What are alkanes used for?
2. How do alkanes combust?
3. What's the heat of combustion?
4. What's the role of oxygen?
5. What are the byproducts of combustion?
6. What's the importance of octane?
7. How is octane rating determined?
8. What's the role of additives?
9. How do alkanes affect air quality?
10. What's the significance of sulfur?

Chloroalkanes and CFCs

1. What are chloroalkanes?
2. What's the source of CFCs?
3. How are chloroalkanes named?
4. What's the role of chlorine?
5. What's the significance of CFCs?
6. How do CFCs affect ozone?
7. What's the ozone depletion mechanism?
8. What's the environmental impact?
9. How are CFCs regulated?
10. What are the alternatives to CFCs?
 Unit 3: Section 2- Alkanes and
Halogenoalkanes

Halogenoalkanes
1. What are halogenoalkanes?
2. How are they named?
3. What's the role of halogens?
4. How do halogenoalkanes react?
5. What's the boiling point trend?
6. What's the significance of polarity?
7. What's the environmental impact?
8. How are halogenoalkanes synthesized?
9. What's the use of halogenoalkanes?
10. What's the role of catalysts?
 Unit 3: Section 3- Alkenes and Alcohols

Alkenes
1. What are alkenes?
2. What's the general formula?
3. How are alkenes named?
4. What's the double bond structure?
5. What's the significance of pi-bonds?
6. How do alkenes react?
7. What's the test for alkenes?
8. What's the effect of symmetry?
9. How are alkenes used industrially?
10. What's the environmental impact?

Additional Polymers
1. What are addition polymers?
2. How are they synthesized?
3. What's the significance of catalysts?
4. What's the structure of polyethylene?
5. What's the difference between LDPE and HDPE?
6. What are the properties of PVC?
7. What's the significance of polypropylene?
8. What's the use of polystyrene?
9. What's the structure of Teflon?
10. What are the applications of PET?

Alcohols
1. What are alcohols?
2. What's the general formula?
3. How are alcohols named?
4. What's the role of hydroxyl group?
5. How do alcohols differ from alkanes?
6. What's the significance of polarity?
7. What's the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols?
8. How do alcohols react?
9. What's the test for alcohols?
10. What's the importance of ethanol?
 Unit 3: Section 3- Alkenes and Alcohols

Ethanol Production
1. What's ethanol used for?
2. What's the starting material?
3. What's the process called?
4. What's the role of enzymes?
5. What's the significance of fermentation?
6. What's the ideal conditions?
7. What's the byproduct of fermentation?
8. What's the distillation process?
9. What's the purity of ethanol?
10. What's the environmental impact?

Oxidation of Alcohols
1. What's oxidation of alcohols?
2. What's the oxidizing agent?
3. What's the product of primary alcohol oxidation?
4. What's the product of secondary alcohol oxidation?
5. What's the product of tertiary alcohol oxidation?
6. What's the test for aldehyde?
7. What's the test for carboxylic acid?
8. How are alcohols classified?
9. What's the role of catalysts?
10. What's the importance of oxidation?
 Unit 3: Section 4- Organic Analysis

Tests for Functional Groups

1. What's the purpose of functional group tests?
2. What's the test for alkenes?
3. What reagent is used in the test for alkenes?
4. What's the positive result for alkenes?
5. What's the test for alcohols?
6. What reagent is used in the test for alcohols?
7. What's the positive result for alcohols?
8. What's the test for carbonyl compounds?
9. What reagent is used in the test for carbonyl compounds?
10. What's the positive result for carbonyl compounds?

Analytical Techniques
1. What's spectroscopy used for?
2. What's the principle of spectroscopy?
3. What's the role of spectrometers?
4. What's the purpose of chromatography?
5. How does gas chromatography work?
6. What's the stationary phase?
7. What's the mobile phase?
8. What's the purpose of mass spectrometry?
9. How does mass spectrometry work?
10. What's the significance of NMR?
 Unit 3: Section 5- Isomerism and
Carbonyl Compounds

Optical Isomerism
1. What's optical isomerism?
2. What causes optical isomerism?
3. What are chiral molecules?
4. What's a chiral center?
5. How do enantiomers differ?
6. How many enantiomers can exist?
7. What's a racemic mixture?
8. How are enantiomers represented?
9. What's specific rotation?
10. What's the significance in drugs?

Aldehydes and Ketones

1. What are aldehydes and ketones?
2. How do they differ structurally?
3. What's the functional group?
4. What's the IUPAC suffix?
5. How do they react with nucleophiles?
6. What's the silver mirror test?
7. What's Tollen's reagent used for?
8. What's the role of Fehling's solution?
9. How do they react with oxidizing agents?
10. What's the significance in industry?

Carboxylic Acids and Esters

1. What are carboxylic acids?
2. What's the functional group?
3. How do they differ from alcohols?
4. What's the IUPAC suffix?
5. How do carboxylic acids react?
6. What's the esterification reaction?
7. What's the role of alcohols?
8. How do esters smell?
9. What's the purpose of esters?
10. How are esters hydrolyzed?
 Unit 3: Section 5- Isomerism and
Carbonyl Compounds

Acyl Chlorides
1. What are acyl chlorides?
2. How do they differ structurally?
3. What's the functional group?
4. What's the IUPAC suffix?
5. How are acyl chlorides named?
6. What's the reactivity of acyl chlorides?
7. How do they react with water?
8. How do they react with alcohols?
9. What's the purpose of acyl chlorides?
10. What's the significance in industry?

Purifying Organic Compounds

1. What's the purpose of purification?
2. How is filtration used?
3. What's the purpose of recrystallization?
4. How does recrystallization work?
5. What's the principle of distillation?
6. How does distillation purify liquids?
7. What's chromatography used for?
8. What's the mobile phase?
9. What's the stationary phase?
10. How does TLC work?
 Unit 3: Section 6- Aromatic
Compounds and Amines

Aromatic Compounds
1. What defines an aromatic compound?
2. What's the structure of benzene?
3. How many pi bonds does benzene have?
4. What's the stability of benzene?
5. How does benzene react with electrophiles?
6. What's the electrophilic substitution mechanism?
7. What's the purpose of Friedel-Crafts reactions?
8. How do substituents affect benzene's reactivity?
9. What are common aromatic compounds?
10. What's the significance of aromatics?

Amines and Amides

1. What defines an amine?
2. How do amines differ from ammonia?
3. What's the functional group in amines?
4. How are amines named?
5. What's the purpose of amides?
6. How are amides formed?
7. What's the structure of amides?
8. How do amides react?
9. What's the significance of amines?
10. How are amines used industrially?
 Unit 3: Section 7- Polymers

Condensation Polymers
1. What are condensation polymers?
2. How do they form?
3. What's the monomer structure?
4. What's eliminated during polymerization?
5. What's the key reaction?
6. What are common condensation polymers?
7. How are ester linkages formed?
8. How do amide linkages form?
9. What's the significance of condensation polymers?
10. How are they different from addition polymers?

Disposing of Polymers
1. What are disposal methods?
2. How do landfills handle polymers?
3. What's the concern with incineration?
4. What's recycling's environmental impact?
5. How does recycling benefit society?
6. What's biodegradation's role?
7. How do microbes break down polymers?
8. What's the challenge with biodegradation?
9. What's the potential of composting?
10. How can polymers be reused?
 Unit 3: Section 8- Amino Acids,
Proteins and DNA

Amino Acids
1. What are amino acids?
2. What's their basic structure?
3. How many types are there?
4. What's the significance of side chains?
5. How are amino acids classified?
6. What are essential amino acids?
7. What's the isoelectric point?
8. How do amino acids polymerize?
9. What's the peptide bond formation?
10. What's the role of amino acids?

Proteins and Enzymes

1. What are proteins?
2. What's their primary function?
3. How are proteins structured?
4. What determines protein function?
5. What are enzymes?
6. How do enzymes catalyze reactions?
7. What's the enzyme-substrate complex?
8. What affects enzyme activity?
9. What's denaturation?
10. How are enzymes regulated?

DNA
1. What does DNA stand for?
2. What's DNA's full structure?
3. What are DNA's base pairs?
4. How does DNA replicate?
5. What's the function of DNA?
6. What's DNA's sugar-phosphate backbone?
7. What's the complementary base pairing?
8. What's the significance of DNA?
9. What's the role of DNA polymerase?
10. How is DNA organized?
 Unit 3: Section 9- Further Synthesis
and Analysis

Organic Synthesis
1. What's organic synthesis?
2. What's the purpose of synthesis?
3. What are reagents in synthesis?
4. How are functional groups added?
5. What's a retrosynthesis approach?
6. What's the significance of yields?
7. What's a protecting group?
8. How are reactions optimized?
9. What's the role of catalysts?
10. How are products purified?

NMR Spectroscopy
1. What does NMR stand for?
2. What does NMR spectroscopy analyze?
3. What's the principle of NMR?
4. What's the role of magnetic field?
5. How does NMR detect nuclei?
6. What's chemical shift in NMR?
7. What's integration in NMR?
8. What's coupling in NMR?
9. How are spectra interpreted?
10. What's the application of NMR?

1H NMR
1. What does 1H NMR analyze?
2. What does the "1H" represent?
3. What's the main nucleus?
4. What's the purpose of NMR?
5. What affects chemical shift values?
6. How is multiplicity determined?
7. What's the role of integration?
8. How is a spectrum plotted?
9. What's a singlet in 1H NMR?
10. What's a quartet in 1H NMR?
 Unit 3: Section 9- Further Synthesis
and Analysis

Chromatography
1. What is chromatography used for?
2. What does chromatography separate?
3. What's the mobile phase?
4. What's the stationary phase?
5. What's the principle of chromatography?
6. What's retention time in chromatography?
7. What's the role of solvents?
8. How are compounds detected?
9. What's the purpose of standards?
10. What's the application of chromatography?
 ACTIVE RECALL ANSWERS

Please find the answers for your Active recall Questions

Below
 Unit 1: Section 1- Atomic Structure

The Atom
1. Proton
2. Thomson
3. +1
4. Number of protons
5. 2
6. -1
7. Protons + Neutrons
8. Atoms with same protons
9. Atom mostly empty space
10. Bohr model

Models of Atomic Structure

1. Indivisible particles, solid spheres
2. J.J. Thomson
3. Plum pudding model
4. Nucleus and protons
5. Protons and neutrons
6. Rutherford
7. Electrons orbiting the nucleus
8. Electron cloud model
9. Probability space for electrons
10. Explains atomic behavior accurately

Relative Mass and the Mass Spectrometer

1. Atomic mass unit (amu)
2. Average of isotopic masses
3. Measuring masses of atoms
4. Separation by mass-to-charge ratio
5. Graph of ion abundance
6. Proportion of each isotope
7. Different masses, different abundances
8. Mass of an isotope
9. Relative abundance of ions
10. By magnetic field strength
 Unit 1: Section 1- Atomic Structure

Electronic Structure
1. Energy level around nucleus
2. 2, 8, 18, 32...
3. 8
4. Electron shell and subshell
5. 1s² 2s² 2p²
6. Chemical bonding and reactivity
7. Subshells are within shells
8. Spherical
9. Dumbbell-shaped
10. Complex, four-leaf clover

Ionisation Energy
1. Energy to remove electrons
2. Energy to remove one electron
3. Decreases
4. Increases
5. Helium
6. Decreases down a group
7. Increases across a period
8. More electron shielding
9. Increased effective nuclear charge
10. Inverse relationship

Trends in First Ionisation Energy

1. Energy to remove first electron
2. Decreases down groups
3. Increases across periods
4. Increases diagonally across periods
5. Effective nuclear charge and shielding
6. Group 1
7. Group 3
8. More electron shielding
9. Increased effective nuclear charge
10. Influences ionisation energy trend
 Unit 1: Section 2- Amount of Substance

The Mole
1. 6.022 x 10^23
2. 6.022 x 10^23 particles
3. Mass of one mole
4. Sum of atomic masses
5. Grams per mole (g/mol)
6. Avogadro's number
7. Avogadro's number
8. Directly proportional
9. Counting and comparing particles
10. Mass divided by molar mass

Equations and Calculations

1. Mass over volume
2. Moles over volume
3. PV = nRT
4. (Actual/Theoretical) x 100%
5. Moles over volume (mol/L)
6. Mass over molar mass
7. Pressure times volume equals moles times gas constant times temperature
8. C₁V₁ = C₂V₂
9. -log[H⁺]
10. Mass times specific heat capacity

Titrations
1. Chemical analysis technique
2. Determine concentration of solution
3. Titrant
4. Analyte
5. Phenolphthalein, methyl orange
6. Equal moles of reactants
7. Molarity x volume
8. Indicator color change observed
9. Signals completion of reaction
10. Stoichiometry and equivalence point
 Unit 1: Section 2- Amount of Substance

Formulas, Yield, and Atom Economy

1. (Actual/Theoretical) x 100%
2. (Mass of desired product/Total mass of reactants) x 100%
3. (Molar mass of desired product/Sum of molar masses of all reactants) x 100%
4. (Mass of desired product/Total mass of products) x 100%
5. Efficient use of resources
6. Both indicate reaction efficiency
7. Stoichiometric calculations
8. Efficiency of chemical process
9. Experimentally in lab
10. Guides theoretical yield calculation
 Unit 1: Section 3- Bonding

Ionic Bonding
1. Charged particle
2. Transfer of electrons between atoms
3. Loss or gain of electrons
4. Positive
5. Negative
6. By achieving noble gas configuration
7. Cations are positive, anions negative
8. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
9. Electron transfer from metal to non-metal
10. Determines degree of ionic character

Covalent Bonding
1. Sharing of electrons between atoms
2. Equally or unequally
3. Transfer vs. sharing of electrons
4. Difference in electronegativity values
5. Unequal sharing of electrons
6. Equal sharing of electrons
7. Electronegativity difference
8. Greater difference, more ionic
9. Water (H2O)
10. Increase polarity of molecule

Shapes of Molecules
1. Electron pair repulsion
2. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
3. Linear
4. Bent/angular
5. Trigonal pyramidal
6. Tetrahedral
7. Trigonal planar
8. Octahedral
9. Tetrahedral
10. Affects molecular geometry
 Unit 1: Section 3- Bonding

Polarisation and Intermolecular Forces

1. Distortion of electron cloud
2. Forces between molecules
3. Hydrogen bonding
4. London dispersion forces
5. Dipole-dipole forces
6. London dispersion forces
7. Hydrocarbons, noble gases
8. Water, ammonia
9. Hydrogen attached to N, O, F
10. Molecular polarity and size

Metallic Bonding and Properties of Materials

1. Delocalized electrons in sea
2. High conductivity, malleability, ductility
3. Contribute to conductivity and malleability
4. Facilitates electrical and thermal conductivity
5. Allows layers to slide past
6. Allows layers to slide past
7. Alloys contain more than one
8. Alter properties for specific purposes
9. Allows for layers to slide
10. High melting and boiling points
 Unit 1: Section 4- Energetics

Enthalpy Changes
1. Heat content of system
2. Enthalpy includes pressure effects
3. Releases heat to surroundings
4. Absorbs heat from surroundings
5. ΔH
6. Enthalpy change under standard conditions
7. Enthalpy change forming one mole
8. Enthalpy change when burning one mole
9. Total enthalpy change independent of path
10. Sum of reactants and products

Calorimetry
1. Measure heat changes
2. In joules or calories
3. Heat gained equals lost
4. Device measuring heat changes
5. Amount of heat absorbed
6. Directly proportional
7. By mass, specific heat capacity
8. q = mcΔT
9. q = mcΔT
10. Joules or calories

Hess’s Law
1. Enthalpy change is constant
2. Sum of individual changes
3. Add or subtract reactions algebraically
4. Sum of enthalpy changes
5. Measure of heat content
6. In chemical reactions
7. In chemical processes
8. In energy transformations
9. On surroundings and system
10. By eliminating intermediates and steps
 Unit 1: Section 5- Kinetics, Equilibria and
Redox Reactions
Reaction Rates
1. Change in concentration over time
2. Rate of disappearance of reactants
3. Concentration, temperature, surface area
4. Increase speeds up reaction
5. Increase speeds up reaction
6. Increase speeds up reaction
7. Increases without being consumed
8. Rate proportional to collisions
9. Energy needed to start
10. Change in concentration over time

Reversible Reactions
1. Reactants form products, vice versa
2. Balancing of forward, reverse rates
3. Constant forward and reverse rates
4. Equal at equilibrium
5. [Products] / [Reactants]
6. More products at equilibrium
7. System adjusts to disturbance
8. Concentration, pressure, temperature changes
9. Speeds up attainment of equilibrium
10. Shifts equilibrium position depending

The Equilibrium Constant

1. Kc
2. [Products] / [Reactants]
3. More products at equilibrium
4. More reactants at equilibrium
5. Products over reactants ratio
6. Temperature shifts equilibrium position
7. Describes extent of reaction
8. Products favored at equilibrium
9. Reactants favored at equilibrium
10. Degree of completion of reaction
 Unit 1: Section 5- Kinetics, Equilibria and
Redox Reactions
Redox Reactions
1. Electron transfer reaction
2. Loss of electrons
3. Gain of electrons
4. Oxidizes another substance
5. Reduces another substance
6. Change in oxidation states
7. Determines reaction direction
8. Indicates electron transfer
9. From reducing to oxidizing agent
10. Balances redox reactions
 Unit 1: Section 6- Thermodynamics

Enthalpy Definitions
1. Heat content of system
2. Heat transfer at constant pressure
3. Includes pressure-volume work
4. Enthalpy change under standard conditions
5. Enthalpy change forming one mole
6. Enthalpy change when burning one mole
7. Enthalpy change during chemical reaction
8. Total enthalpy change constant
9. Enthalpy change when dissolving substance
10. Enthalpy change in acid-base reaction

Lattice Enthalpy and Born-Haber Cycles

1. Energy to form lattice structure
2. Stability of ionic compounds
3. Energy change when one mole
4. Charge, size of ions
5. Series of reactions illustrating
6. Determine lattice enthalpy experimentally
7. Formation, dissociation, atomization, etc.
8. By Hess's Law or Born-Haber cycle
9. Smaller ions, larger lattice enthalpy
10. Higher lattice enthalpy, more stable

Enthalpies of Solution
1. Heat change when dissolving solute
2. Energy change when dissolving solute
3. Nature of solute and solvent
4. Either endothermic or exothermic
5. Increasing temperature increases enthalpy
6. High enthalpy, low solubility
7. Releases heat to surroundings
8. Absorbs heat from surroundings
9. Directly or calorimetrically
10. Determines solubility and dissolution
 Unit 1: Section 6- Thermodynamics

Entropy
1. Measure of disorder
2. Measure of randomness or disorder
3. Determines spontaneity of reaction
4. More disorder, higher entropy
5. Entropy of universe increases
6. ΔS
7. Increases with increasing temperature
8. Zero
9. Increases during phase changes
10. More complexity, higher entropy

Free Energy Change

1. Energy available for work
2. Energy available to do work
3. Predicts spontaneity of reaction
4. Negative ΔG, spontaneous reaction
5. ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
6. ΔG°
7. Spontaneous reaction
8. ΔG = 0 at equilibrium
9. Higher temperature, less negative
10. Predicts direction of reaction
 Unit 1: Section 7- Rate Equations and Kp

Rate Equations
1. Relates rate to concentrations
2. Constant in rate equation
3. Sum of exponents in rate
4. Experimentally from reaction data
5. Slowest step in mechanism
6. Directly proportional
7. Experimental determination from data
8. Relates concentration to time
9. Describes reaction kinetics mathematically
10. Change in concentration over time

Rate Experiments
1. Determine rate of reaction
2. At the start of reaction
3. Measure change over time
4. Using varying reactant concentrations
5. Provides kinetic information
6. To investigate rate dependence
7. Speed up reaction without consumed
8. Increases rate of reaction
9. Higher concentration, higher rate
10. Increased surface area, increased rate

The Rate Determining Step

1. Slowest step in mechanism
2. Dictates overall reaction rate
3. Slowest step in reaction mechanism
4. Rate of rate-determining step
5. Formed and consumed during reaction
6. Rate-determining step limits rate
7. Overall rate changes accordingly
8. Influences rate-determining step kinetics
9. Speed up rate-determining step
10. Increases rate of reaction
 Unit 1: Section 7- Rate Equations and Kp

The Arrhenius Equation

1. Relates rate constant to temperature
2. Increases reaction rate exponentially
3. Constant dependent on reaction mechanism
4. Minimum energy for reaction
5. Determines reaction rate sensitivity
6. Rate constant increases exponentially
7. k = A * e^(-Ea/RT)
8. Rate constant increases with temperature
9. By plotting ln(k) vs 1/T
10. Explains effect of temperature

Gas Equilibria and Kp

1. Balance between forward, reverse reactions
2. Measure of reaction extent
3. Pressure of products over reactants
4. Describes equilibrium position
5. Independent of pressure changes
6. By Dalton's law
7. Partial pressure of products/reactants
8. Determines direction of reaction
9. Shifts equilibrium position accordingly
10. Changes equilibrium constant value
 Unit 1: Section 8- Electrode Potentials and Cells

Electrode Potentials
1. Potential difference at electrode
2. Reference electrode for comparison
3. Using standard conditions and cells
4. Indicates likelihood of reaction
5. Higher potential, more reactive
6. Using standard hydrogen electrode
7. Relates concentration to electrode potential
8. Basis for comparison of electrodes
9. Measure of cell's ability
10. Difference between two electrode potentials

The Electrochemical Series

1. Order of electrode potentials
2. Standard electrode potentials
3. Determines relative reactivity
4. In order of electrode potential
5. Predicts likelihood of reactions
6. Higher potential, more reactivity
7. Outcomes of redox reactions
8. Higher potential, higher position
9. Above hydrogen, below metals
10. Guides which reactants oxidize/reduce

Batteries and Fuel Cells

1. Stores and releases energy
2. Converts chemical energy into electrical
3. Conducts ions between electrodes
4. Negative and positive terminals
5. Where oxidation and reduction occur
6. Converts fuel directly into electricity
7. Uses chemical reactions for power
8. Fuel cells continuously generate electricity
9. Higher efficiency, lower emissions
10. Produce electricity with less pollution
 Unit 1: Section 9- Acids, Bases, and pH

Acids, Bases, and Kw

1. Proton donors
2. Proton acceptors
3. Measure of hydrogen ion concentration
4. Measure of hydroxide ion concentration
5. [H+][OH-]
6. Indicates water's ionization level
7. [H+][OH-] = 1.0 × 10^-14
8. pH + pOH = 14
9. Increases with increasing temperature
10. pH = 7

pH Calculations
1. -log[H+]
2. By hydrogen ion concentration
3. pH = 7
4. pH < 7
5. pH > 7
6. Inversely proportional
7. Decreases with increasing dilution
8. pH = 1
9. pH = 12
10. pH = 8

pH Curves and Indicators

1. Shows pH change during titration
2. By plotting pH against volume
3. Point of neutralization
4. Chemical analysis technique
5. Substance changing color based
6. Changes color based on pH
7. pH range of color change
8. Signals endpoint of titration
9. pH increases or decreases
10. Matching indicator range with pH
 Unit 1: Section 9- Acids, Bases, and pH

Titration Calculations
1. Determine unknown concentration
2. Solution of known concentration
3. Solution of unknown concentration
4. Indicator color change observed
5. Mole ratio of reactants
6. Molarity1 × Volume1 = Molarity2 × Volume2
7. Using stoichiometry and volume
8. Directly proportional at equivalence
9. Reached at stoichiometric equivalence
10. Volume of titrant to analyte

Buffer Action
1. Resists pH change
2. By neutralizing added acid/base
3. Stabilizes pH in solution
4. pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA])
5. Acts as conjugate acid/base
6. Equilibrium shifts counter pH
7. Determines pH stabilization ability
8. Close to pKa of acid
9. Mixing weak acid/base solutions
10. Maintain stable internal environment
 Unit 2: Section 1- Periodicity

Periodicity
1. Trends in periodic table
2. Organizes elements by properties
3. By increasing atomic number
4. Similar chemical properties vertical
5. Physical and chemical properties horizontal
6. Decreases down a group
7. Increases across a period
8. Increases across a period
9. Increases across a period
10. Based on atomic structure
 Unit 2: Section 2- Group 2 and
Group 7 Elements

Group 2- The Alkaline Earth Metals

1. Group 2 elements
2. 2 valence electrons
3. ns² configuration
4. Increase down the group
5. Increases down the group
6. Reactivity increases down group
7. Decreases down the group
8. Decreases down the group
9. Form +2 oxidation state compounds
10. Important in industry and biology

Uses of the Group 2 Elements

1. Various industrial and medical applications
2. Alloys, construction, medicine
3. Construction, calcium supplements
4. Fireworks, electronics, medicine
5. Fireworks, medical imaging, drilling
6. Lightweight and strong materials
7. Building materials, mortar, cement
8. Firework coloring agent
9. Contrast agent in X-rays
10. In ceramics and glass-making

Group 7- The Halogens

1. Group 17 elements
2. 7 valence electrons
3. Decreases down the group
4. Increases down the group
5. Increases up the group
6. Diatomic molecules or ions
7. As diatomic molecules
8. Form metal halides
9. Form hydrogen halides
10. Form halogen displacement reactions
 Unit 2: Section 2- Group 2 and
Group 7 Elements

Halide Ions
1. Anions of halogens
2. -1
3. By gaining one electron
4. Increases down the group
5. Decreases down the group
6. White, unless complexed
7. Form salts with cations
8. With silver or lead ions
9. Through specific tests
10. Silver nitrate solution, white precipitate

Tests for Ions

1. Acid, fizz with HCl
2. Barium chloride solution, white precipitate
3. Silver nitrate solution, white precipitate
4. Acid, fizz with HCl
5. Add sodium hydroxide, ammonia smell
6. Add sodium hydroxide, ammonia smell
7. Silver nitrate solution, white precipitate
8. Silver nitrate solution, cream precipitate
9. Silver nitrate solution, yellow precipitate
10. Barium chloride solution, white precipitate
 Unit 2: Section 3- Period 3 Elements

Period 3 Elements and Oxides

1. Elements in third period
2. Eight
3. Increases across period
4. Decreases across period
5. Varies across period
6. Increases across period
7. With acids to form salt
8. Very reactive with water
9. Amphoteric or basic
10. Amphoteric or acidic
 Unit 2: Section 4- Transition Metals

Transition Metals- The Basics

1. Middle of periodic table
2. Variable, typically 1-2
3. (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2
4. For bonding and reactivity
5. Variable across the period
6. High compared to s-block
7. By losing s and/or d
8. Variable and diverse
9. Due to d-electron transitions
10. Speed up chemical reactions

Complex Ions
1. Metal ions with ligands
2. Via lone pair electrons
3. Number of ligands attached
4. Stabilize metal ion structure
5. Often positive
6. Cause d-electron transitions
7. Metal ion surrounded by ligands
8. Surrounded by ligands
9. Vary in size and shape
10. Highly stable under conditions

Formation of Coloured Ions

1. Absorption of specific wavelengths
2. Transition metal d-electrons
3. Absorb and re-emit light
4. Excited to higher energy levels
5. Influence d-electron energy levels
6. Shifts d-electron energy levels
7. Explains splitting of d-orbitals
8. Number of d-electrons present
9. More ligands, greater splitting
10. By forming coordination complexes
 Unit 2: Section 4- Transition Metals

Substitution Reactions
1. Replace one group with another
2. Through nucleophilic attack or elimination
3. Influence reaction rate and mechanism
4. Group replaced by nucleophile
5. Determines reaction conditions and solvation
6. Reaction mechanism and conditions
7. Nucleophilic substitution or elimination
8. Higher concentration, faster reaction
9. Increases reaction rate
10. Accelerate reaction without being consumed

Variable Oxidation States

1. Different oxidation states exhibited
2. Due to incomplete d-subshell
3. Electron configuration and ligands
4. Determine oxidation state possibilities
5. Typically highest in period 4
6. Depending on electron configuration
7. Influence d-electron energy levels
8. Affects stability of oxidation states
9. Affect redox properties and reactivity
10. Through variable oxidation states

Titrations with Transition Metals

1. Analytical technique for concentration
2. Determine unknown concentration of solution
3. With EDTA or other chelating agents
4. Indicates endpoint of titration
5. Change in color observed
6. Chelates with metal ions
7. Forms stable complexes with metals
8. 1:1 ratio for metal:EDTA
9. Using titration results
10. Indicator change or EDTA addition
 Unit 2: Section 4- Transition Metals

Catalysts
1. Speeds up chemical reactions
2. Lower activation energy barrier
3. Increase reaction rate
4. Lower before reaction starts
5. Without being consumed themselves
6. Same or different phase respectively
7. Biological catalysts for specific reactions
8. By providing alternate reaction pathway
9. Higher temperature, faster reaction
10. Often reused after reaction

Metal-Aqua Ions
1. Metal ions surrounded by water
2. Usually 6
3. Influence properties and reactivity
4. Allow for coordination with ligands
5. Typically positive
6. Can change coordination number
7. Interaction with ligands and solvent
8. Often colorless
9. With other ions or molecules
10. Determines solvation and reactivity
 Unit 3: Section 1- Introduction to
Organic Chemistry

Basics
1. Basic unit of matter
2. Number of protons
3. Pure substance made of atoms
4. Two or more elements
5. Two or more atoms
6. Combination of substances
7. Transformation of substances
8. Representation of chemical composition
9. Representation of chemical transformation
10. Behavior during chemical change

Isomerism
1. Same molecular formula, different structure
2. Same molecular formula, different connectivity
3. Same connectivity, different spatial arrangement
4. Different spatial arrangement around bond
5. Non-superimposable mirror images
6. Mirror-image isomer with asymmetry
7. Symmetrical compound with chiral centers
8. Important for understanding molecules
9. In structure or spatial arrangement
10. Structural, geometric, and optical
 Unit 3: Section 2- Alkanes and
Halogenoalkanes

Alkanes and Petroleum

1. Saturated hydrocarbons
2. CnH2n+2
3. Based on longest carbon chain
4. Increases with chain length
5. Different physical and chemical properties
6. As fuels and raw materials
7. Organic matter decomposition over time
8. Separates petroleum components by boiling point
9. Fuels, plastics, and solvents
10. Pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

Alkanes as Fuels
1. Energy sources for combustion
2. In the presence of oxygen
3. Energy released during combustion
4. Provides oxidizing agent for combustion
5. Carbon dioxide and water
6. Determines gasoline quality and efficiency
7. Comparison to standard combustion fuels
8. Improve performance or reduce emissions
9. Produce pollutants and greenhouse gases
10. Causes environmental pollution and acid rain

Chloroalkanes and CFCs

1. Alkanes with chlorine substituents
2. Industrial and aerosol applications
3. Include chloro- prefix
4. Increases chemical stability and persistence
5. Used as refrigerants and propellants
6. Destabilize ozone molecules in stratosphere
7. Chlorine radicals break ozone molecules
8. Leads to ozone layer depletion
9. Banned by Montreal Protocol
10. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
 Unit 3: Section 2- Alkanes and
Halogenoalkanes

Halogenoalkanes
1. Alkanes with halogen substituents
2. Include halogen prefix
3. Increase reactivity and polarity
4. Undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions
5. Increases with halogen size
6. Influences solubility and reactivity
7. Persistence in environment and toxicity
8. Via free radical or nucleophilic substitution
9. As solvents or intermediates
10. Enhance substitution reactions
 Unit 3: Section 3- Alkenes and Alcohols

Alkenes
1. Unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds
2. CnH2n
3. Based on longest carbon chain
4. Planar and sp2-hybridized
5. Allows for rotation and resonance
6. Undergo addition reactions
7. Decolorize bromine water solution
8. Affects reactivity and stability
9. As starting materials for plastics
10. Pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

Additional Polymers
1. Formed by monomer addition
2. Through polymerization reactions
3. Control polymerization rate and properties
4. Long chains of ethylene monomers
5. Density and crystallinity differences
6. Versatile and durable plastic
7. Used in packaging and fibers
8. Packaging, insulation, and disposable utensils
9. Long chains of tetrafluoroethylene monomers
10. Bottles, fibers, and films

Alcohols
1. Organic compounds with -OH group
2. R-OH
3. Using -ol suffix
4. Determines properties and reactivity
5. Presence of hydroxyl group
6. Influences solubility and reactivity
7. Based on carbon attachment
8. Undergo substitution and oxidation reactions
9. Oxidation to carboxylic acids
10. Common solvent and beverage
 Unit 3: Section 3- Alkenes and Alcohols

Ethanol Production
1. Fuel, solvent, and beverage
2. Sugars from biomass
3. Fermentation
4. Convert sugars to ethanol
5. Biological conversion of sugars
6. Warm, anaerobic conditions
7. Carbon dioxide
8. Separation from fermentation mixture
9. Usually around 95%
10. Pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

Oxidation of Alcohols
1. Alcohol to aldehyde or ketone
2. Acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
3. Aldehyde
4. Ketone
5. No reaction
6. Silver mirror test
7. Effervescence with sodium carbonate
8. Based on carbon attachment
9. Accelerate reaction rate
10. Synthesis of valuable compounds
 Unit 3: Section 4- Organic Analysis

Tests for Functional Groups

1. Identify functional groups in compounds
2. Bromine water test
3. Aqueous bromine solution
4. Decolorization of bromine water
5. Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) test
6. Acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
7. Color change to green
8. 2,4-DNP test
9. 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine solution
10. Orange/red precipitate formation

Analytical Techniques
1. Identify substances in samples
2. Interaction of light with matter
3. Measure light absorption or emission
4. Separate components in mixture
5. Based on differential migration rates
6. Fixed in column
7. Gas or liquid
8. Determine molecular structure and composition
9. Ionization and analysis of fragments
10. Determine molecular structure and purity
 Unit 3: Section 5- Isomerism and
Carbonyl Compounds

Optical Isomerism
1. Isomerism due to chiral centers.
2. Asymmetric carbon atom presence.
3. Non-superimposable mirror image molecules.
4. Carbon atom bonded to 4 different groups.
5. Mirror-image but not superimposable.
6. Maximum of two.
7. Equal mixture of enantiomers.
8. Labeled as R and S.
9. Measure of optical activity.
10. Biological activity and effectiveness.

Aldehydes and Ketones

1. Carbonyl-containing organic compounds.
2. Aldehydes have terminal carbonyl.
3. Carbonyl group (C=O).
4. "-al" for aldehydes, "-one" for ketones.
5. Form addition products.
6. Test for aldehydes.
7. Test for aldehydes.
8. Test for reducing sugars.
9. Form carboxylic acids.
10. As solvents and intermediates.

Carboxylic Acids and Esters

1. Organic acids with carboxyl group.
2. -COOH group.
3. Contain carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.
4. "-oic acid".
5. Form carboxylate ions and H+.
6. Alcohol reacts with carboxylic acid.
7. Reactants in ester formation.
8. Often have pleasant odors.
9. Used in flavorings and fragrances.
10. React with water to reform.
 Unit 3: Section 5- Isomerism and
Carbonyl Compounds

Acyl Chlorides
1. Derivatives of carboxylic acids.
2. Chlorine atom replaces hydroxyl.
3. -COCl group.
4. "-oyl chloride".
5. Replacing "-ic acid" with "-yl chloride".
6. Highly reactive towards nucleophiles.
7. Hydrolyze to carboxylic acid.
8. Form esters with alcohols.
9. Used in synthesis reactions.
10. As intermediates and catalysts.

Purifying Organic Compounds

1. Remove impurities from compounds.
2. Separate solid impurities from solution.
3. Remove soluble impurities from crystals.
4. Dissolving and reprecipitating crystals.
5. Separating liquids based on boiling points.
6. Boiling and condensing fractions.
7. Separating and analyzing mixtures.
8. The moving solvent.
9. The immobile absorbent material.
10. Based on compound affinity.
 Unit 3: Section 6- Aromatic
Compounds and Amines

Aromatic Compounds
1. Alternating single and double bonds.
2. Hexagonal ring of carbon atoms.
3. Three delocalized pi bonds.
4. High due to resonance stabilization.
5. Via electrophilic aromatic substitution.
6. Electrophile attacks aromatic ring.
7. Introduce substituents onto benzene.
8. Directing and activating or deactivating.
9. Benzene, toluene, xylene, etc.
10. Used in dyes, drugs, plastics.

Amines and Amides

1. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds.
2. Organic substituents replace hydrogen.
3. Nitrogen bonded to carbon(s).
4. Replace "-e" with "-amine".
5. Used as functional groups.
6. From carboxylic acids and amines.
7. Carbonyl group bonded to nitrogen.
8. Undergo hydrolysis and substitution.
9. Used in drugs and dyes.
10. In pharmaceuticals and agriculture.
 Unit 3: Section 7- Polymers

Condensation Polymers
1. Formed by condensation reactions.
2. Through the elimination of water.
3. Contains functional groups.
4. Water or another small molecule.
5. Condensation or esterification.
6. Nylon, polyester, proteins, etc.
7. From carboxylic acids and alcohols.
8. From carboxylic acids and amines.
9. Used in fibers and plastics.
10. Water is a byproduct.

Disposing of Polymers
1. Landfill, incineration, recycling, biodegradation.
2. Buried and compacted underground.
3. Releases harmful emissions and ash.
4. Reduces waste and pollution.
5. Conserves resources and energy.
6. Naturally decomposes in environments.
7. Enzymes hydrolyze polymer bonds.
8. Slow rate in some conditions.
9. Breakdown of organic materials.
10. In new products or materials.
 Unit 3: Section 8- Amino Acids,
Proteins and DNA

Amino Acids
1. Building blocks of proteins.
2. Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, side chain.
3. 20 standard amino acids.
4. Determine properties and functions.
5. By their side chain.
6. Must be obtained from diet.
7. pH where they're neutral.
8. Through condensation reactions.
9. Between amino and carboxyl groups.
10. Protein structure and function.

Proteins and Enzymes

1. Biological macromolecules made of amino acids.
2. Perform various biological functions.
3. Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structures.
4. Their shape and structure.
5. Biological catalysts made of proteins.
6. Lower activation energy.
7. Intermediate during enzyme reaction.
8. pH, temperature, substrate concentration.
9. Loss of protein's native structure.
10. By inhibitors or activators.

DNA
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid.
2. Double helix with nucleotides.
3. Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine.
4. Through semi-conservative replication.
5. Stores and transmits genetic information.
6. Alternating sugar and phosphate groups.
7. A-T, C-G.
8. Contains genetic instructions.
9. Catalyzes DNA replication.
10. Into chromosomes in cells.
 Unit 3: Section 9- Further Synthesis
and Analysis

Organic Synthesis
1. Making organic compounds.
2. Creating specific organic molecules.
3. Chemicals used in reactions.
4. Through chemical transformations.
5. Working backward from product.
6. Measure of reaction efficiency.
7. Shields reactive functional groups.
8. Adjusting conditions for efficiency.
9. Speed up reaction rates.
10. Through separation techniques.

NMR Spectroscopy
1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.
2. Atomic nuclei in molecules.
3. Interaction of magnetic fields.
4. Aligns atomic nuclei spins.
5. Based on nuclear spin.
6. Indication of chemical environment.
7. Quantifies relative number of nuclei.
8. Splitting of NMR signals.
9. Identifying functional groups and structure.
10. Analyzing molecular structure.

1H NMR
1. Hydrogen nuclei in molecules.
2. Hydrogen nuclei specifically.
3. Proton (hydrogen) nuclei.
4. Analyzing molecular structure.
5. Electronic and chemical environment.
6. Number of adjacent protons.
7. Quantifies relative number of nuclei.
8. Signal intensity versus frequency.
9. Single peak in spectrum.
10. Peak with four sub-peaks.
 Unit 3: Section 9- Further Synthesis
and Analysis

Chromatography
1. Separating and analyzing mixtures.
2. Components of a mixture.
3. Moves through the system.
4. Remains stationary during analysis.
5. Differential migration of components.
6. Time taken to elute.
7. Control solvent polarity.
8. Detector response to eluting compounds.
9. For comparison and identification.
10. Drug testing, environmental analysis.
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