Unit 2.

Harappan Civilization
The Harappan Civilization was one of the ancient civilizations in the world. Mesopotamian,
Mesoamerican, Chinese, Egyptian, Roman civilizations were the other ancient civilizations. By
geographical expanse, based on excavations so far, Harappan civilization was the most
extensive riverine civilization among the ancient civilizations. It was the phase of first
urbanization in India. It is named after the type-site Harappa (currently in West Punjab province
of Pakistan), the first site discovered. It is also called the Indus Valley Civilization. However, the
sites of this civilization are also found in Ghaggar-Hakra river valley which is considered to be
Sarasvati river (as mentioned in Rig Veda) by some scholars. Hence, some historians named this
civilization as the Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization.

Some historians consider Harappan civilization as a Proto-historical age due to its

underdeveloped script. This is considered so because the written records from this period,
though available, are too difficult to decipher. Technologically it is called a Bronze Age because
Harappan people were aware of the art of making Bronze by mixing tin with copper. The period
of Harappan civilization, as per historians, was from 3200 BCE to 1300 BCE. The culture marked
its beginning in 3300 BCE and prospered till 1900 BCE and declined thereafter.

Discovery
Harappan civilization was discovered in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent.
Harappa was discovered in 1826 by Charles Masson, but he misunderstood it by considering the
mound to be the site of battle between Alexander and Porus. Alexander Cunningham found
some stone tools, pottery and a seal with bull. As it was not a humped bull, he misinterpreted it
as a foreign seal.

Eventually the excavation at Harappa was started in 1920 by Rai Bahadur Dayaram
Sahni. The excavation at Mohenjodaro (Sindh Province, Pakistan) was started in 1922 by R. D.
Banerjee. Sir John Marshal (Director General of ASI, 1902-1928) played crucial role in both
excavations and formally declared the discovery of Harappan civilization in 1924. More than
1400 Harappan sites have been found since the declaration of this civilization. Of these, more
than 900 sites were found in India and more than 450 sites in Pakistan. However, only 97 sites
have been excavated. The discovery of sites is an ongoing process even today. Discovery of new
sites is announced based on a checklist of archaeological features such as typical Harappan
pottery (Red ware with designs in black colour), terracotta cakes, standardized burnt bricks

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(1:2:4 ratio of dimensions) and certain types of stone and copper artefacts. Mohenjodaro was
considered to be the largest site earlier. As per recent excavations, Rakhigarhi (Hissar District,
Haryana) in India is the largest Harappan site followed by Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Ganweriwala
and Dholavira.

Excavation at Mohenjodaro Model View of Mohenjodaro

Origin
There are various theories about the origin of Harappan culture. Most accepted theory is of the
indigenous evolution. It is argued that, this culture evolved from rural culture to urban culture
indigenously. The origin of Harappan culture is traced back to the emergence of settled farming
communities in Baluchistan (in Pakistan today) in 7th millennium BCE. The evolution of this
civilization involved a gradual transition from a number of regional traditions towards cultural
uniformity through a cultural convergence.

Phases of Development
The Harappan Civilization had three phases viz. the Pre-Harappan or Early Harappan, the
Mature Harappan and the Late Harappan.

Pre-Harappan or Early Harappan Phase

In the period from late 4th millennium to 2600 BCE, many sites in the Sindh formed the central-
zone of the Pre-Harappan culture. Sites were also found in Baluchistan, the Dera Jat area, the

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Bannu basin, Cholistan tract of Hakra plain and also in the Indus-Gangetic divide region. Amri,
Nal, Kot Diji, Mehergarh, Balakot, Rehman Dheri, Sarai Khola, Kalibangan, Kunal, Banawali,
Rakhigarhi, Bhirrana (recently excavated site in Haryana), Dholavira, Padri and Kuntasi are the
early Harappan sites. At some of these sites such as Kalibangan, Banawali and Rakhgarhi, the
early Harappan phase was succeeded by Mature Harappan phase.

Kot Dijian pottery was a common feature across

most of the early Harappan sites. The Kot Dijian pottery
was mostly wheel-based and was decorated with
brownish bands of paint. A short-necked ovoid pot with
painted designs of the ‘horned deity’, papal leaves and
fish scales was the distinctive pottery of Kot Diji. Apart
from pottery, other artefacts included objects of stone,
shell and bone, terracotta figurines, bangles, beads and
fragments of bronze bangles. This was the formative,
proto-urban phase of Harappan culture. This phase was
characterized by large fortified settlements, wheeled
transport, trade networks and fairly high level of
expertise in specialized craft like stone working, bead
making and metal crafting. Certain symbols which were
used in the mature Harappan script were discovered
from this phase at Padri, Kalibangan and Dholavira. This Kot Dijian Pottery
phase differs from the mature Harappan phase in terms
of urbanization (large cities) and higher levels of craft
specialization.

Mature Harappan Phase

Mature Harappan culture flourished during 2600 BC to 1900 BC. This was the urban, full-
fledged stage of civilization. This unit mainly deals with this phase.

The relation of this phase with the early Harappan phase cannot be defined with
certainty. Though a general understanding that these two phases are linked in the evolutionary
process can be arrived at based on the archaeological finds. However, there are certain gaps in
this understanding too. Certain sites indicate the transition from early to mature phases such as
Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi and Banawali. Balathal is one of the chalcolithic Ahar Culture sites with
certain Harappan elements. As chalcolithic features dominate, Balathal is geographically
located within Harappan zone but culturally outside it. There are certain mature Harappan sites

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where information about such a link is inadequate such as Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
Furthermore, evidence for such a transition is not found at many other mature Harappan sites
such as Lothal, Chanhudaro, Ropar and Alamgirpur. This indicates that the transition may not
have been smooth. At some places there might have been break in occupation.

Late Harappan Phase

The period of Late Harappan phase was from 1900 BC to 1300 BC (early 2nd millennium). This
was a post-urban phase characterised by decline of cities.

Late Harappan phase was found in five geographical zones viz. Sindh, West Punjab and
Ghaggar-Hakra Valley, East Punjab and Haryana, the Ganga-Yamuna doab, and Kutch and
Saurashtra. The late Harappan phase in Sindh was characterised by Jhukar Culture while in
West Punjab and Ghaggar-Hakra Valley it was Cemetery-H Culture with lesser number of sites
than that in the mature Harappan phase. Late Harappan sites in East Punjab and Haryana zone
were smaller in size as compared to mature Harappan sites. The number of sites increased in
the Ganga-Yamuna doab zone and Kutch-Saurashtra zone, but the sites were smaller and
houses were of wattle and daub type.

The Jhukar Culture was found from excavations at Jhukar (type-site), Chanhudaro and
Amri. The distinctive pottery of this culture was a buff ware with red or cream slip and paintings
in black colour. This pottery showed some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions.
Other Harappan features such as weights and female figurines became rare. Instead of typical
rectangular Harappan seals, the circular stamp seals were found. The script was found only on
potsherds. The Cemetery-H culture is named after the cemetery found in ‘area H’ of Harappa
site. Most of the graves found here were of extended burial type. In pottery, some features
showed continuity and some other showed changes in forms and designs. Some settlements in
this culture were large but most were small. Many mature Harappan sites were abandoned.
Even the number of sites were much lesser than the Mature Phase. The virtual disappearance
of urban features in both Jhukar and Cemetery-H Cultures shows the declining Harappan
civilization.

Diversification of agriculture was characteristic feature of late Harappan phase. This

diversification included cultivation of a variety of crops, double cropping and irrigation in
certain areas such as Kachi plain (in Pakistan today).

In late Harappan phase, the decline was observed in various urban elements of mature
Harappan phase. Cities, long-distance trade, specialized craft, script and seals declined but did

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not disappear. Persian Gulf seal was found in Gujarat which indicates that the trade with
Persian Gulf continued but was probably confined to Gujarat region. In this phase, we observe a
breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural networks. An overlap of late Harappan
phase with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture was observed at Bhagwanpura and Dadheri in
Harayana, and at Katpalon and Nagar in Punjab. Similarly, the overlap with Ochre Coloured
Pottery (OCP) culture was observed at Bargoan and Ambakheri in western Uttar Pradesh. In
doab region, the Chalcolithic cultural sequence was found which included Late Harappan Phase,
OCP Culture, Copper Hoards and the Black and Red Ware (BRW) Culture. Overall, there was an
eastward and southward migration of Harappan people during this phase due to factors which
caused decline of Harappan culture (see ‘Decline of Harappan Culture’ section).

Geographical Extent of Harappan Civilization

The geographical extent of Harappan
civilization was huge. It covered the
parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan
and North-Western Frontier
Province in Pakistan, and parts of
Punjab, Jammu, Haryana, Gujarat,
Rajasthan and Western Uttar
Pradesh in India. It is this vast
geographical extent which goes well
beyond the Indus valley that the
civilization is preferred to be called
Harappan civilization after its type-
site rather than the Indus Valley
Civilization.
Harappan Sites
Extent of the civilisation:

• Manda (Jammu and Kashmir) – Northernmost site

• Malvan (Gujarat) – Southernmost site
• Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) – Easternmost site
• Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran Border) – Westernmost site

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Salient General Features of Harappan Sites
A) Systematic Town Planning
This is the most important feature of Harappan sites. It needs to be understood that though the
Harappan civilization is called urban, majority of the settlements were rural. This civilization
was characterised by a brisk rural-urban interaction sustaining each other. The overall town
planning indicates an intense conservatism in the construction. Across centuries and across
cities, the plans of towns remained more or less same.

There were differences in the house arrangement of the rich and the poorer sections of
the society. Large houses were meant for rich people while poor lived in two-room cottages.
Despite having an overall egalitarian society, there existed a class difference.

Houses and buildings in towns were made up of burnt bricks. Houses mostly consisted
of rooms arranged around a central courtyard. Doors and windows mostly faced side lanes
rather than the main streets. It is interesting to note that privacy was maintained by a wall
which obstructed view from the street. Some of the houses were two storied. The inner walls of
the houses were coated with the mud plaster and the outer walls of the houses were of plain
bricks. Floors were made up of hard-packed earth and ceiling was made up of wooden beams,
reeds and packed clay. Doors and windows were made up of wood and mats. Houses in villages
were made up of mud-bricks with additional use of mud and reeds. Stone was used occasionally
in foundations and drains. The use of stone was widespread in the rocky area of Kutch and
Saurashtra.

Harappan sites had streets with grid pattern which was straight and intersected each
other at right angles. This type of street structure was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt. A
closer observation in recent times indicates that this was not a perfect grid system. Even the
roads did not cross at right angles always. However, the element of planning was quite obvious.

The details of the plans of towns differ. The layouts of Mohenjodaro, Harappa and
Kalibangan are similar, having a raised citadel (on a mound). Lothal and Surkotada do not have
a separate citadel complex; rather it is located within the lower town. Dholavira had three part
layout, instead of two part general pattern, consisting of citadel, middle town and lower town.

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B) Division of City in Two Sections
The Harappan cities were constructed with a
particular pattern in which the city was divided
into two sections i.e. Citadel and Lower Town.
However, variations in this pattern too are
observed across sites (see under feature ‘A’
above). Citadel included public buildings,
religious buildings, granaries and houses of
ruling classes. The lower town consisted of the
houses for common masses.

In Harappa, Mohenjodaro and

Kalibangan, the citadel area contained
monumental structures which stood on a high
mud brick platform. Usually the citadel was build
up on a raised platform, probably to protect the structures form the flooding.

C) Underground Drainage System

The underground drainage system of Indus Valley civilisation indicates the importance and
awareness of hygiene and cleanliness in the Harappan civilization. Both main streets and side
lanes had underground drainage lines at the center. An impressive drainage system was
observed both in cities and villages.

Bathrooms and toilets were essential features of houses. Many houses had separate
bathroom and toilet while some had separate bathrooms and toilets for a group of houses.
Bathrooms were located near the wells. The slope that was provided to the bathroom floor,
carefully made watertight by tightly fitted bricks, led waste water to a small drain. This drain cut
the wall of house and was connected to underground drainage line. The main drains were
covered by stone corbel equipped with manholes for cleaning purpose. Provision of rectangular
soak-pits was made at regular intervals to collect solid waste which also indicates that there
might have been regular cleaning of soak-pits. The main drains had slopes that led entire
sewage water to the fields outside city walls. The sides and floors of drains were covered by
burnt bricks and gypsum (Calcium Carbonate) was used as mortar.

This unique drainage system must have been maintained by some municipal
organization. No other contemporary ancient civilization had such an efficient drainage system.

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D) Use of Standardized Burnt Bricks
The construction of buildings, roads, drains, great bath,
granaries, and wells were made by burnt bricks. Stone
and wood were used on small scale. Use of
standardized burnt bricks was a striking feature of this
civilization. The average dimensions of bricks were
uniform. The dimensions were: 7:14:28 cm for houses
and 10:20:40 cm for fortification walls (identical ratio
of 1:2:4 for both). Various styles of laying bricks, Brick Masonry Patterns
including the English bond style, were followed.

Major Sites and Important Finds

Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro is situated in Larkana district of Sindh, on the right bank of river Indus. As per
recent excavations, it is the second largest Harappan site at present, having an area of about
300 hectare and its approximate population was 35000 to 41,000.

Mohenjodaro consists of two mounds. One, the smaller mound of citadel was found on
the western side. Second, the eastern mound was of the lower town. The citadel was located at
a higher level than the lower town.

Important Features

a) Great Bath
It was an important public building situated at the middle of citadel. Great bath is a
burnt brick structure and its remarkable feature is its beautiful brickwork. The
dimensions of this structure are 14.5:7:2.4 m (Length:Width:Depth). Flights of steps at
both the ends of tank lead to the surface and there are also side rooms for changing
clothes. One of the side rooms had a large well that supplied water to the Great Bath. A
general slope was given to the floor that led water to the outlet at the south-west
corner which in turn led to main drain. The floor and walls were made watertight by
tightly fitted bricks (gypsum as mortar) and a layer of bitumen. The purpose of the Great
bath was probably for ritual bathing.

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 Great Bath

b) College of Priests
Adjacent to the Great Bath but across the street, the remains of an imposing building
are found. It is clear from the remains that this imposing building had several rooms, a
10m square courtyard and three verandas. Given the fact that it was situated in the
citadel and adjacent to the Great Bath, it was probably the house of chief priest or of
important priests. Hence, historians called it the “college of priests”.

c) Great Granary
A 50x27 meter solid brick foundation, with 27 rectangular blocks divided by narrow
passageways, was found at the western edge of the citadel. As the superstructure did
not survive, probably it was made up of wood. As per historians, this was probably a
granary. At the northern end of this structure a burnt brick platform was found,
probably a loading dock (called so by the British archaeologist Wheeler). This is the
largest building in Mohenjodaro within Citadel. If it was a granary, it indicates the
centralized tax collecting agency (in kind). Some scholars questioned the identification
of this structure as a granary based on the fact that no evidence of charred grain or
containers was found here. Hence, it is difficult to decide about the function this
structure might have served.

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 Remains of Great Granary Probable Model of Great Granary

d) Oblong Multi-pillared Assembly Hall

An oblong multi-pillared structure was found in the southern part of citadel. It is a large
structure of dimensions 27x27 m. It is difficult to decide the purpose of this structure. As
per historians, this was probably an assembly hall.

e) Bronze Dancing Girl

A bronze female figurine was found in the HR area (named
after excavator of this area H. Hargreaves) of lower town.
John Marshall named this figurine as ‘dancing girl’. It
depicts a very thin woman with her right hand on waist
while the left hand on her thigh. The figurine was
decorated with ornaments. The left arm of the figurine is
completely covered by bangles while there are only 4
bangles on the right arm. A necklace too can be seen
around her neck. It is a naked figurine and the posture
seems too casual, pert and provocative. As per historians,
probably the naked bronze sculpture of female suggests
that it is representative of temple dancers or prostitutes in
Harappan Civilization. However, it is open to interpretation
and some scholars have questioned the interpretation of
Bronze Dancing Girl
she being a dancer or prostitute.

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f) A Statuette of Bearded Man
A stone bust of a bearded man was found at Mohenjodaro.
The eyes of the statuette are elongated and half closed. There
is a fillet with diadem around the head and an armlet around
the right arm. The bust is draped with a robe having trefoil
design. This stone bust is called a “priest-king”. However,
there is no certainty as to whether it was a bust of a priest or a
king or a priest-king.
Priest-King
g) Seals of Pashupati and Mother Goddess
A seal depicting a horned deity in Yogic posture
surrounded by animals was found at Mohenjodaro.
The horned deity is possibly tricephalic (having
three heads). The deity is surrounded by the four
wild animals viz. an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros
and a buffalo. There are two deer beneath the stool
on which the deity is seated. Marshall considered
this to be a depiction of proto-Shiva. However,
other scholars have interpretated it in various ways
such as a chieftain, a divine bull-man and even a
‘lady/goddess of beasts’. Nevertheless, the
similarities between this deity and the later-day Pashupati Seal
Shiva are quite striking. What is certain is that the
worship of horned deity goes back to Harappan
times.
Another seal showing a nude woman with a
plant growing from her womb was found at
Mohenjodaro. This was considered as depiction of
a female goddess. The plant growing from her
womb indicates fertility cult. Hence, this depiction
was considered as “Mother Goddess”. Figurines of
Mother Goddess too were found. A distinct feature
Mother Goddess Figurines
of the Mother Goddess is a fan-shaped head-dress.

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 h) Other Finds
In the HR area of lower town of Mohenjodaro, remains of a large building were found.
At the site of this building a large number of seals and a Priest-king like bust were found.
This building was called proto-temple. Another interpretation by historians was that,
probably this could be a large house of important leader.
Barrack-like single room tenements were also found in HR area of lower town.
Each of these 16 tenements consists of a single room with a bathroom and couple of
smaller rooms behind the main single room. Probably these could have been shops or
residence of workers.
An important discovery was the discovery of about 700 wells, including both
private and public wells. Most of the houses had private well. Certain groups of houses
had common private well. Many wells were found alongside main street which means
these were public wells. The wells were vertically lined with wedge-shaped bricks
(different from those used in other structures) and were 10-15 m deep.
A piece of woven cloth was found on a silver jar which indicates that Harappan
people knew the art of sewing. A doubtful evidence of horse was found at
Mohenjodaro. It is a terracotta figurine which resembles horse. A number of human
skeletons were found together which indicates the possibility of violent death.

Harappa
Harappa was located on the banks of the river Ravi which is in Sahiwal district of Punjab
(Pakistan) today. At present, the Ravi river flows around 10 km away from Harappa.

The layout of this site is such that the higher citadel

mound lies on the western side and the lower town lies to
its south-east. As the structures within citadel are damaged,
it is difficult to find a clear profile of structures, something
that was possible in case of Mohenjodaro. The citadel was
surrounded by a wall with massive gateways and towers.
Most of the structures here were on a raised platform.
Certain structures are found to the north of citadel which
include workmen’s quarters, working floors and a granary,
in that order. There were 15 units with a courtyard and a
room (17 x 7 m), arranged in two rows. These were
interpreted as workmen’s quarters. Next to these quarters
Citadel at Harappa
were 18 circular brick platforms (3 m diameter), interpreted

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as working floors. These might have been used for threshing
gains as husked barley and straw were found on these
floors. To the further north, a structure with 12 rooms
(approximate dimension of each unit was 15x6 m) arranged
in two rows that were divided by a passage was found. This
was interpreted as a granary. To the south of citadel, a
cemetery was found.

The lower town of Harappa is marked as Mound E

which is being excavated. The lower town too was
surrounded by a wall. A large open area is found near the Layout of Harappa
southern gateway of lower town and outside this gateway
houses, drains, bathing platforms and a well are found. This
indicates that the large open space was probably a market
place and goods came here from outside the city. The
structures outside the gateway indicate arrangements for
traders coming from outside the city.

Five Persian Gulf type seals were found in Harappa.

These seals depicted Sumerian hero/legend “Gilgamesh”
shown to be grappling with a pair of tigers. Apart from this,
a seal depicting a nude female figure (Mother Goddess)
and a seal depicting bull were found. A potsherd depicting Persian Gulf Type Seal
a person wearing dhoti and terracotta models of little
bullock carts and ekkas were also found here.

Chanhudaro
Chanhudaro is an important Harappan site located about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro in
Sindh province of Pakistan. This site was excavated initially by N G Majumdar in 1931 and it was
later excavated on a large scale by Mackay in 1935-36. A notable feature of this site is that it is
the only Harappan site without citadel and fortification. Probably this site was flooded multiple
times, like Mohenjodaro, as multiple layers of alluvium are found during excavation.

The mud-brick platforms were found at this site, which are the remains of various
structures. The streets have covered drains made up of burnt bricks. Probably Chanhudaro was
exclusively devoted for crafts production. Raw material such as steatite, chert, agate, carnelian,
crystal and amethyst and finished and unfinished beads were found in some of the houses.

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Evidences of metal worker shops/factories, ornament maker shops/factories, seal maker shops
and weight maker shops were also found here. Apart from Chanhudaro, other such craft site
was Lothal.

Kalibangan
Kalibangan is located on the bank of dry bed of the river Ghaggar in northern Rajasthan
(Hanumangarh district). The site Kalibangan, which literally means 'black bangles', derives its
name from the dense distribution of the fragments of black bangles which were found at the
surface of its mounds. This indicates that the bangle making was an important craft here. Other
finds at Kalibangan include an ivory comb, a probable stone phallic emblem, a copper bull and a
fragment of terracotta horned figure.

Kalibangan is relatively smaller site. This site consists of two mounds: a smaller western
mound named KLB-2 and a larger eastern mound named KLB-1. These two mounds are
separated by an open space in between. Both early Harappan and Harappan phases were found
at KLB-1 mound while KLB-2 showed mature Harappan phase only. The citadel and lower town
were fortified. To the southwest of citadel, a burial ground was found. Two types of burials
were found viz. rectangular (extended burial) and circular. Objects such as pottery and bronze
mirrors were buried with the dead body. This indicates the belief of Harappan people in the life
after death.

An interesting find was a large number of fire altars found at a third small mound. These
fire altars are similar to those found at Lothal and seem to have served ritualistic purpose. Even
in the houses of lower town, oblong fire altars were found. These evidences indicate the
practice of fire worship. At Kalibangan, the underground drains were found only in citadel. In
the lower town, the drains from houses opened into troughs or large jars outside the house.

Evidence of plough being used was an exclusive feature of this site. A land was
discovered which was ploughed. Two sets of furrows perpendicular to each other were found
which indicates that two types of crops were grown at a time.

Lothal
Lothal is located near the head of Gulf of Cambay, between the Sabarmati river and its tributary
river Bhogavo (Bhal region, Gujarat). Presently this site is around 18km away from seashore but
during Harappan phase it was probably at the seashore.

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 At Lothal both citadel and lower town were surrounded by a single city wall with an
entrance at the south. A burial ground was found to the north-west of this site outside the city
wall. The practice of joint burial (male and female buried together) was found here. The citadel,
approximately trapezoidal in shape, was located in the southern part on an elevated mud-brick
platform. The remains of residential buildings, bathing pavements, streets and lanes with drains
were found in the citadel. More than sixty Harappan seals were found here. In the lower town,
houses were large consisting of 4-6 rooms, bathrooms, courtyard and veranda. In some of the
houses, fire altars were also found. In certain houses kilns, raw materials, finished and
unfinished goods were found, indicating that these were houses of artisans. The streets were
made up of mud-bricks and a top layer of gravels. One street had a number of rooms lined
along its length. This was identified as “bazaar street”. Many terracotta figurines were found
here. An interesting find was the evidence of rice husk, indicating that people cultivated rice
here.

The most significant feature of

Lothal is its artificial dockyard, located at
the eastern end of the site. It is a large
burnt brick structure, approximately
trapezoidal in shape. It was equipped
with a sluice gate and a spill gate to
maintain the water level. On the
western edge of the structure, a mud-
brick platform was found which
probably functioned as wharf to load
and unload goods. This structure indicates that, probably Lothal was an important seaport of
Harappan people and was probably used in the trade with Mesopotamia. The Persian Gulf seals
found here provide further evidence of this trade. Bead-making was an important industry at
Lothal and beads were an important trading commodity.

Banawali
Banawali is located near the dry bed of Rangoi river in the Hissar district of Haryana. This site
shows evidence of all three phases of Harappan civilization viz. early, mature and late.

At Banawali, the citadel and lower town were separated by a wall and both were
fortified. The citadel was also surrounded by a moat. A ramp was provided which connected the
citadel and the lower town. Mud-brick houses and streets with drains were found. Brunt bricks
were used only for drains, bathroom floors and wells. Two large houses were found here. In

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one house many seals and weights were
found, indicating that it probably belonged to
a wealthy merchant. A large number of beads
made up of gold, carnelian and lapis lazuli,
and tiny weights were found in the other
large house, indicating that it probably
belonged to a jeweller.

Other finds include seals, fire altars, a terracotta model of plough and a number of stone
weights. It was interesting to note that the seals were found only in the lower town and not in
the citadel. Fire altars were found in the houses which probably indicate the practice of fire
worship here. It needs to be understood that, at Banawali the terracotta model of plough was
found while at Kalibangan the plough-marks were found.

Dholavira
Dholavira is located on Khadir Bet (Khadir island) in the Rann of Kutch (Gujarat). Dholavira is
one of the largest sites in India. It was discovered by J. P. Joshi and excavated by R. S. Bisht.

Dholavira shares all common Harappan elements. The plan of the town was unique,
divided into three parts i.e. the Citadel, the Middle Town and the Lower Town. It is the only site
with a Middle Town which probably was used by the relatives of ruling classes. The Citadel and
the Middle Town were surrounded by the fortification. However, the lower Town was not
fortified. The citadel was located to the west of settlement and consisted of a small “castle
area” and a bailey (the outer courtyard of a castle). To the north of the citadel lies the middle
town and a large open area called the
stadium is sandwiched between the citadel
and middle town. The open area or stadium
was probably meant for ceremonial
purposes. The complex of citadel and middle
town had large buildings (administrative or
ritualistic), an elaborate drainage system
and a large well. The fortification had
entrances at the center of walls on all four
sides. The lower town was located at the
eastern side. Evidences of craft activities in
houses (bead making, shell working, pottery

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 16

making etc.) were found in the lower town. Outside the
fortification wall, a habitation was found which was
interpreted as a suburb. There was a cemetery outside
the fortification which shows rectangular pit burials. It is
interesting to note that the skeletal remains were not
found here, indicating that these were probably the
memorials to the dead.

At Dholavira, the structures show large-scale use

of sandstone along with the mud-bricks. A veneer of
stone blocks was used on the outer face of fortification.
Interestingly, the evidence of stone sculpture was also
found here. Fragments of highly polished pillars and
remains of limestone pillar bases were found. A
significant find at Dholavira was a signboard inscription. It is a decayed wooden board with an
inscription using gypsum paste.

The unique feature of Dholavira was an impressive water harvesting and management
system. As we know that this region receives very less rainfall, the people of Dholavira felt the
need for better management of water. Dholavira lies in between two seasonal streams of water
viz. Manhar and Mandsar. The water management system consisted of dams build across these
streams and channels feeding water to more than 15 reservoirs.

Rakhigarhi
On the basis of geographical area, Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site. Rakhigarhi is located
in Hissar district of Haryana on the bank of Saraswati/Ghaggar River (which is a dry river bed
now). Rakhigarhi displays all three phases of Harappan culture viz. early, mature and late.

The excavation at Rakhigarhi is still going on. Much of the site lies under present-day
village and hence difficult to excavate. Nine mounds were identified for excavation, which were
named RGR-1 to RGR-9. Archaeologists say that we have lost many evidences due to
destruction of mounds by farming and bricks (found at the site) used by people in the locality.
However, archaeologists have found many evidences of Harappan features from the excavation
done so far. Structures of residential complexes, a drainage structure and a washing platform
have been found at the mound RGR-4. This mound has been identified as the citadel. A number
of artefacts were found at RGR-4 which included broken lids, miniature pottery, beautifully
painted potsherds, terracotta artefacts, perforated jars and beads made up of carnelian, agate

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 17

and lapis lazuli. Potsherds were painted with concentric circles, wavy patterns, floral designs
and geometric designs. Terracotta artefacts included animal figurines, bangles, cakes and lids.
Circular furnaces and burnt clay clots unearthed at RGR-9 indicate that this might have been
the industrial area. Other finds included a seal with Harappan script with no motif, bathing
platforms and sock jars in residential structures built of mud-bricks, a granary made up of mud-
bricks, ritual pottery (excavated from a symbolic burial) and remains of fortification wall which
stands destroyed to a large extent.

Ropar
Ropar is situated in Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. The site was excavated by the
archaeologist Y. D. Sharma in 1953 but the excavations were stopped in 1955. Sharma showed
that the Ropar yielded a five-fold cultural sequence. The five-fold cultural sequence includes
Harappan culture, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture (Vedic Age), Kushana Period, Gupta Period
and Medieval period. Recent excavations yielded Harappan artefacts such as pottery, terracotta
figurines, bangles and beads. A Harappan cemetery was found to the west of main mound. The
usual extended burials were found here. An interesting burial had skeleton of dog below the
skeleton of human being.

Two important mounds are under the present-day town and hence it is difficult to
excavate. Because of these limitations, very limited information is available regarding this site.
We do not know with certainty whether Ropar had fortification during Harappan period. As per
historians, Ropar was occupied by Harappan people as they migrated eastwards from Indus
valley region.

Surkotada
Surkotada is located in Kutch district of Gujarat. The layout of the town follows typical town
planning of Harappan civilization. To the west of plan lies a citadel which is located at higher
elevation. The lower town lies in the east. The surrounding fortification wall is made up of stone
and mud-bricks. The settlement is relatively small.

The artefacts found here include Harappan pottery, terracotta figurines, standardized
burnt bricks of Harappan dimensions, bathroom platform with sock jar etc. The most striking
feature of this site was discovery of the bone remains of horse. It is the only Indus site with
evidence of actual bone remains of horse.

Bhirrana

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 18

Bhirrana is located in Fatehabad district of Haryana. The site shows both early and mature
Harappan phases. A massive fortification mud-brick wall was found here which belongs to
mature Harappan phase. Multi-room houses were found, floors of which were paved with mud-
bricks. The brick walls of these houses were plastered with mud. In one of the houses a circular
tandoor and chullah were found. The remains of animals such as charred bones and a skull of
bovine animal were found near the chullah. Main streets with drains and other lanes separating
houses were also identified.

The artefacts found here include terracotta animal figurines, steatite seals, bangles and
beads of carnelian, agate, steatite and lapis lazuli. An interesting find was a fragment of red
ware with a female figure incised over it. The pose of this female figure is similar to the pose of
bronze ‘dancing girl’ found at Mohenjodaro.

Shortugai
Shortugai (Shortughai) is located near Oxus (Amu Darya) river. This was an isolated trading
colony of Harappan civilization. This site was important for Harappan people as it provided
access to the Badakshan area which had mines of lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone used in
beads and other ornaments. It also provided access to tin mines of Afghanistan and Ferghana.

Many Harappan features are found at Shortughai. Excavation revealed that, like
Harappan towns, the site had citadel and lower town. Other Harappan artefacts found here
include beads, terracotta figurines, cooper and bronze objects, mud-bricks of Harappan size,
and pottery and seals including a rhinoceros seal with Harappan inscription.

Harappan Economy
Indus economy was an advanced mercantile economy which was ahead of its time and its
remarkable feature was the foreign trade with the other contemporary ancient civilizations.

Historians have identified many factors which can be accounted for the vibrancy of this
mercantile economy. The geographical location of Harappan civilization gave many advantages
to the Harappan people. Rich alluvial plains of the Indus valley ensured surplus food
production. The entire region was intersected by numerous rivers which provided abundant
water, riverine resources and trading routes for long distance trade. The surplus production and
long-distance trade might have led to knowledge about regions having copper mines and other
natural resources such as lapis lazuli (Badakshan area, Afghanistan). A number of artefacts such

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 19

as bronze figurines, beads, bangles and other jewellery found at various sites attest this. This
civilization also had access to ocean which provided marine resources and made foreign trade
possible.

Agriculture
The main occupation of Harappan people was agriculture. Crops cultivated had regional
variations. Evidence of wheat was found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Evidence of barley was
found at Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan. Evidences of sesamum, watermelon seeds,
peas and dates were found at Harappa. The evidence for rice was found at Harappa,
Kalibangan, Lothal and Rangpur. Evidences of millets were identified at Harappa, Surkotada and
Shortughai.

Based on the evidences of crop remains found, it can be said that Harappan people
cultivated variety of crops such as wheat, barley, rice, sesamum, green gram, horse gram,
chickpea, grass pea, field pea, watermelon, date, and grapes. The Harappan civilization shows
earliest evidence of cotton and garlic.

It is already mentioned in this unit that the evidences for use of plough were also found.
A ploughed field was found at Kalibangan while the terracotta models of plough were found at
Banawali and Bahawalpur. Some evidences of irrigation (gabarbands or embankments) too
were found at Allahdino and Shortughai. It is difficult to identify whether Harappan region had
extensive irrigation system as even if there was a canal network it is difficult to trace today.

Animals
A number of evidences were found at Harappan sites for both wild and domesticated animals.
Bone remains of deer, boar, pig, goat, elephant, camel and ass (bone remains of ass are
doubtful) were found. Bones of rhinoceros were found only at Amri. Bones of marine catfish
were found at Harappa which indicates intra-civilization trade of dry fish. Another evidence of
wild animals is their depiction on seals and in terracotta figurines. Rhinoceros, tiger, leopard,
elephant and deer were depicted on seals. Rhinoceros terracotta figurines were also found.
Terracotta figurines of rabbit, peacock, pigeon, duck, monkey and wild fowl were found, and
these were also depicted in paintings on pottery.

Among domesticated animals, the remains of both humped and humpless cattle, sheep,
goat and buffalo were found. These animals were used for meat, milk, wool and also as draught
and pack animals. Dogs were also domesticated as dog figurines were found. The domestication
of horse is contested as the remains of horse found are supposed to be doubtful.
History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 20
Craft Production and Technology
A large number of artefacts unearthed from
Harappan sites indicate mass production of
standardised craft items by Harappan
people. Some sites such as Chanhudaro and
Lothal were craft sites. Craft activity took
place in a specific part of the settlement.
Harappan craft included pottery, terracotta
figurines, stone work, seal making, bead
making and copper and bronze artefacts. As
per the available evidence, Harappan people
were first to manufacture cloth.

It is clear based on the evidences that there was a mass-production of pots. Sites such as
Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro and Nausharo corroborate this as pottery kilns were
found at these sites. Although a great variety of pottery was found, the typical Harappan
pottery was a fine and sturdy wheel-made ware
with bright red slip and painted black design
decoration. While the red colour was made form
red ochre (geru or iron oxide), the black colour was
made by mixing dark coloured iron oxide with black
manganese. The variety included dish-on-stand,
large slender-footed bowl, large jars, small vessels,
vase with s-profile, cylindrical perforated jar, pot
with pointed base, ring stand, cooking pots etc. The
cooking pots have strong rims with black or red slip
and a strengthened rounded bottom. The rim was
projected outwards in order to facilitate grip. There
was variety in designs on the pots too. The design
patterns included simple horizontal lines,
geometric patterns and pictorial motifs. Depiction
of human figures was rare and crude.

A large number of terracotta artefacts were

found at Harappan sites. Terracotta figurines were
of various animals as well as of humans (both male

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 21

and female). Apart from these figurines, terracotta toy carts and bangles too were found.
Another material used for such artefacts was faience. The faience was crushed quartz coloured
with minerals. Artefacts prepared from faience were animal figurines, miniature vessels and
ornaments such as bangles, pendants and rings.

Though brick was used predominantly for construction purposes, evidences for the use
of stone were also found at sites where stone was available. Dholavira is such a site where
sandstone was used along with mud-bricks in various structures. The evidence of stone
sculpture in the form of highly polished pillar fragments and remains of limestone pillar bases
were found at Dholavira. Apart from this, stone craft included chert blades, stone flakes and
cores which were found at almost all sites. A distinctive craft was stone ware bangles with tiny
script inscribed on them.

The greatest artistic creations of

Harappan civilization were seals. Most of
the seals were made up of steatite. A few
seals were made up of silver, copper,
faience, soapstone and calcite. Two
unicorn silver seals were found at
Mohenjodaro. The unicorn was a one-
horned mythical animal. Copper and
soapstone seals were found at Lothal.
Majority of the seals were square or
rectangular in shape while some were
cylindrical and round. The seals were
carved using the technique of intaglio
(sunken or depressed engraving). The stone seals were carved with chisels and drills. The
animal motifs depicted on the seal were of rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, humped bull, buffalo,
antelope, hare, crocodile and unicorn. Some seals were without motifs but had some script
engraved. Seals were of single motif or of composite motifs. A short inscription in Harappan
script was found on most of the seals. As mentioned earlier, deities too were depicted on the
seals such as Pashupati or Mother Goddess.

Bead making was an important craft as beads were export material. Harappan long
barrel cylinder beads found in royal burials in Mesopotamia corroborate this. Beads were made
up of precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, steatite, agate, carnelian, shell,
gold, silver, copper and even terracotta and faience. Steatite paste was used to make tiny
micro-beads. Cylindrical stone drills, used to perforate beads, were found at Mohenjodaro,
History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 22
Harappa, Chanhudaro and
Dholavira. Excavations at
Chanhudaro and Lothal unearthed
bead making factories along with
tools, furnaces and finished and
unfinished beads.

Shell making was another

craft practiced by Harappan
people. The inlay work of shell
decorated using beads and
bracelets of semi-precious stones testify the skills of shell makers. Apart from shells with inlay
work, bangles made of conch shell were also found. The important centers of shell making were
Chanhudaro and Balakot. Dholavira, Rangpur, Kuntasi, Lothal, Nagwada and Bagsara were other
centers of shell making. It seems that this craft was popular in Gujarat region during Harappan
times.

A large number of copper and bronze artefacts were found at Harappan sites. Copper
objects far exceeded bronze objects in terms of number. However, bronze objects testify the
fact that Harappan people knew the art of metallurgy, particularly making of alloys. Harappan
craftsmen alloyed copper with tin, nickel and arsenic. Hence, technologically Harappan period is
called ‘Bronze Age’. The copper and bronze artefacts were vessels, knives, axes, spears,
arrowheads, fishhooks, rings, needles, mirrors and bangles. Around 16 copper furnaces were
found at Harappa. Copper workshops were found at Lothal. Copper oxide was found at
Mohenjodaro in a pit lined with bricks. The probable source of copper for Harappan people was
Khetri mines in Rajasthan.

Other Harappan crafts included bone working, ivory carving, gold and silver jewellery
and textile. Beads, pins and awls were made using bone. Ivory objects were combs, pins, sticks,
gamesmen and a carved plaque. Various evidences of textile such as traces of cloth (cloth
impression on vessel), threads, spindle whorls and terracotta figurines wearing cloth were
found at Harappan sites. Moreover, the import of cloth from Meluhha is mentioned in
Mesopotamian texts. Meluhha was the name used by Mesopotamia for a region that included
Indus valley.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 23

Trade and Commerce
Harappan people were mercantile community with vibrant trade and commerce. However, in
spite of the vibrant trade, no evidence of use of any currency was found. Probably Harappan
trade was based on barter system.

Harappan civilization had both inter-regional and foreign trade. Inter-regional trade
included trade within Harappan cultural zone and trade of Harappan sites with contemporary
Chalcolithic and Neolithic sites in regions of Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Parts of UP and Bihar. Foreign trade included trade with West Asia and Central Asia. Harappan
people mainly imported raw materials and exported finished goods.

Harappan people might have imported agate from Saurashtra, amethyst from
Maharashtra, gold from Karnataka, turquoise from Persia, copper from Rajasthan, tin from
Tosam area (Haryana) or Kazakhstan, jade from Turkmenistan and chert from Sukkur and Rohri
hills (Sindh). Lapis lazuli was imported from Badakshan area of Afghanistan. Main exports were
agricultural produce and a variety of finished artefacts such as beads, jewellery, ivory products,
pottery, terracotta figurines, cloth, shell and bone inlays.

A significant feature of Harappan trade was considered to be its foreign trade, especially
with Mesopotamia. Main evidence for this was the discovery of Harappan artefacts and seals
found outside Indus region i.e. in West Asia, Afghanistan and Central Asia. Apart from these
artefacts, Mesopotamian texts mention trade with Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha. Dlimun,
Magan and Meluhha are identified with Bahrain, the Makran coast and the Indus valley
respectively. As per Mesopotamian texts the imports from Meluhha were lapis lazuli, carnelian,
gold, silver, copper, ebony, ivory, tortoiseshell, a chicken-like bird, dog, cat and monkey, while
the exports include fish, grain, raw wool, woollen garments and silver. Harappan artefacts and
seals were found in Turkmenistan and Iran. A Harappan rectangular seal with Harappan script
unearthed at Altyn Depe (Turkmenistan) was the most conclusive evidence of Harappan trade
with this region. Shortughai, the isolated colony of Harappan people in Afghanistan, provides
evidence of trade with Afghanistan and Central Asia. Harappan trade with the Persian Gulf is
evident from a round short-horned bull seal and Harappan artefacts such as Harappan jar
fragments (probably used as containers for trading goods) found in this region. Harappan
artefacts were found on the island of Bahrain too, which include ivory piece, circular mirror,
ling-shaped object and Harappan seals. Harappan artefacts such as carnelian beads, pottery
fragments, a square steatite seal and chert weights were found in Oman.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 24

 Some scholars consider trade with Mesopotamia as a significant feature of Harappan
civilization. However, some other scholars considered it as secondary feature as the quantum
of foreign trade was minor compared to trade within the civilization or with the regions in the
Indian subcontinent. It is true that the Harappan artefacts found in Mesopotamia and vice versa
were much lesser than what was mentioned in the Mesopotamian texts. Probably, this
indicates that the trade was not direct and was not significant for the development and
sustenance of Harappan civilization.

Harappan traders used land, riverine and marine routes for transportation. Important
mode of transportation was two-wheeled carts. A number of terracotta and bronze carts were
found at various Harappan sites. Depiction of boat on seals and clay models of boat found at
Harappa and Lothal indicate that riverine/marine transportation was used. Mesopotamian texts
mention Meluhha people as seafarers. Apart from carts and boats, Harappan people might
have used pack animals such as oxen, sheep, goat, donkey and camel for transportation. As
evidences found are scanty, use of horse seems to be rare.

Harappan Polity
There is no clear evidence about the political structure of Indus Valley civilisation. Historians
like D. D. Kosambi believed that probably priests were the rulers in the Harappan society. But
historian R. S Sharma opined that probably merchants used to rule society because of the
evidence of number of seals excavated from the sites. These seals were probably used by the
merchants to carry out trade.

Despite the debates about the ruling class in the society it is clear that the polity of
Harappan civilization must have been elaborate and efficient. This is evident from the
systematic town planning, organized underground drainage system and standardized burnt
bricks. Such a uniformity in various elements across sites indicates existence of an efficient
polity.

Harappan Society
The major impediment in the analysis of Harappan society is the lack of written evidences as
the script remains undeciphered. Recent studies consider racial classification of the Harappan
people as arbitrary and hence not acceptable. Probably, people of different regions had
different biological traits. The whole analysis by historians is based on the archaeological
evidences.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 25

 The Harappan society comprised of villagers as well as city folk. It consisted of numerous
occupational groups such as farmers, craftspeople, merchants, rulers, administrative officials,
ritual specialists, fisherfolk, shopkeepers, sweepers, garbage collectors etc. The degree of social
differentiation seems less as compared to other contemporary societies such as Mesopotamian
or Egyptian. However, based on the sizes of houses and the precious items found in these
houses, it can be said that the differences in social and economic status did exist. Probably
rulers, land owners and merchants constituted the higher status group. Probably there were
class and rank differences based on occupation. It must be noted however that the historians
have discarded the possibility of caste system in the Harappan society as highly speculative.

Harappan Religion
Many features of Harappan religion were identified based on the archaeological evidences. As
the Harappan script is not deciphered yet, all identified features are open to interpretation.
Hence, though Harappan people had different religious beliefs, we don’t have clear evidence
about the philosophical aspect of their religion.

Based on the available archaeological evidences, certain ritualistic aspects can be

identified. As per John Marshall, the Mother Goddess seal indicates worship of a female
goddess associated with fertility and the Pashupati (the lord of animals; a horned deity) seal
indicates worship of a male god. Apart from the Mother Goddess seal, a number of female
figurines indicate the following of fertility cult. One of the figurines shows growth of a plant
through womb of a women. The horned deity was depicted on pottery too. A terracotta cake
found at Kalibangan has the horned deity on one side and a depiction showing a man dragging
an animal on the other side. This indicates that the practice of animal sacrifice was followed.
Moreover, a cylindrical seal found at Kaligangan even shows human sacrifice. In this seal, a
woman is shown to be held by two men with swords in their other hands raised over her head.

The fire altars unearthed in excavations in various sites such as Lothal and Kalibangan
suggests the following of fire cult. As the cattle bones were found in the adjacent pits, probably
the practice of animal sacrifice was followed. Trees, plants and animals were depicted on seals,
copper tablets and pottery. Numerous terracotta animal figurines were found. These evidences
indicate the worship of trees, plants and animals. Some historians contest this view and
consider these as toys. The depiction of composite animals and the ‘unicorn’ on seals clearly
indicate that these depictions had mythological or religious significance. The copper, faience,
terracotta and metal tablets were found which were identified as amulets used to ward off
evils. As per this interpretation, the Harappan people had demonophobia.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 26

 The Harappan people seemed to have followed a variety of religious practices. Though
there are striking similarities of these practices with later-day traditions, it is difficult to
consider them as same traditions. The important element of temple worship seems missing as
no structure resembling a temple was found at any of the sites.

Harappan Burial Practices

The Harappan sites such as Harappa, Kalibangan,
Lothal, Rakhigarhi and Surkotada had separate
cemeteries, usually outside the fortification wall.
The most common type of burial was the extended
burial in which the dead body was placed in an
extended position with the head towards north. The body
was placed in a simple pit or brick chamber. Along with the
skeleton, various objects such as pottery, tools and
ornaments were found in the graves.

Apart from the extended burial other burial types

were fractional burial and post-cremation burial. In
fractional burial, the dead body was exposed to nature and
then the remains were buried. In the post-cremation burial,
the dead body was cremated first and then the ash kept in
an urn was buried.

There were site-specific burial practices. The site-specific

burials were coffin and fractional at Harappa, joint (male and female)
burial at Lothal, pot burial at Surkotada and cist and symbolic burial at
Kalibangan. A burial with a woman and baby was found at Harappa in
recent excavations. This probably was due to death in childbirth. Like
religious practices, burial practices of the Harappan people show
variations.

Harappan Language and Script

The least information is known about the language and script of the Harappan people. The
script remains undeciphered and hence nothing can be known about the language with
certainty.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 27

 Probably, people from various parts spoke
different languages. Some scholars believed that these
languages belonged to Dravidian family of languages
while others believed they belonged to Indo-Aryan
family. Probably, the language in the script found on
the seals was the language of ruling class.

Numerous objects on which the script was

inscribed were found, mostly on seals and
sealings. Some of the copper tablets, copper or
bronze implements, pottery and other objects
had the script inscribed. Script was found to be
inscribed on stone bangles and gold jewellery
too. More than 50% of such objects were found
at Mohenjodaro and around 87% were from
Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Most of the writings
were short while some were long. The longest
writing was of 26 signs. Around 400 to 450 basic signs were used in the script which makes it
difficult to decipher. The script is logo-syllabic which means each symbol stood for particular
alphabet or syllable. The short writing was generally written from right to left while the long
writing followed boustrophedon style. The boustrophedon style involves writing consecutive
lines starting in opposite directions.

There are various views as to the function of writing and the level of literacy of the
Harappan people. The script on seals probably functioned as identification mark in trading or of
elites. The script on other objects was used either to ascertain ownership or as identification
mark in trading. The script on pottery probably indicated the name and status of person for
whom the pot was manufactured. The Dholavira signboard certainly indicates the civic use of
writing but its difficult to judge the level of literacy. As the script was same across sites, it
indicates cultural convergence in the Harappan civilization. The script virtually disappears after
the Mature Harappan phase which indicates that it was closely linked to the urban life.

Harappan Weights & Measures

Almost at every Harappan site, cubical weights were found. The weights were made up of
material such as chert, chalcedony, black stone etc. The remarkable feature of weights was
their accuracy across all Harappan sites, indicating high level of standardization.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 28

 Though there were no markings on the
weights, two sets of weighing articles following a
progression were found. One set was of smaller
weights which followed the system of binary
(1:2:4:8:32:64). The other set was of higher
weights following decimal system (160, 320, 640,
1600). Apart from weights, shell and ivory scales
were found at Mohenjodaro and Lothal
respectively. A shell object was found in
Saurashtra which probably was used for
measuring angles.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

Various theories were advanced in order to explain the decline of Harappan Civilization. Two
broad views emerge from these theories. The first view states that the civilization had sudden
death. The second view states that the civilization declined gradually.

The first view of sudden death considers natural calamity or external invasion as the
cause of the disappearance of Harappan civilization. This is not considered as a plausible
explanation as it seems impossible that a single natural calamity could have decimated the
civilization territorially as large as the Harappan Civilization. Based on skeletal remains found at
Mohenjodaro and the references to god Indra’s epithet Purandara (destroyer of enemy fort)
and a place named Hariyupiya in Rig Veda, Mortimer Wheeler pointed to the Aryan invasion.
However, other scholars have rejected this view as it is not supported by the concrete
archaeological evidences.

The second view seems to advance more plausible explanation of the decline of
Harappan Civilization. Probably, it was not a single natural calamity but a number of them
which caused a gradual decline of the civilization. Repeated episodes of floods, tectonic
movements, shifting of river courses and increasing aridity due to environmental change might
have contributed to the decline. The environmental change could have been the result of
environmental damage caused by increasing population and overexploitation of resources. The
coastal sites might have declined due to oceanic floods owing to oceanic rise. This in turn might
have impacted the trade and commerce. Hence, most probably multiple factors contributed to
the gradual decline of Harappan Civilization.

History: Study Material by Pankaj Vhatte | 29

 Above views are ultimately based on hypotheses. The concrete archaeological evidence
is lacking in this regard. The evidences found at Mohenjodaro and Dholavira indicate that
probably these sites declined gradually while those found at Kalibangan and Banawali indicate a
sudden death. Hence, the reasons may vary across sites. However, when it comes to entire
civilization the gradual process of de-urbanization seems to be a clear fact.

Conclusion
The Harappan civilization was the most extensive riverine civilization of its time and was the
first urban culture in the Indian subcontinent. It developed indigenously in three phases viz.
Early, Mature and Late.

The archaeological evidence provides a lot of insights into the Harappan Civilization. The
civilization was an advanced mercantile economy with vibrant trade and numerous industries.
However, as the script remains undeciphered aspects such as political, social, religious and even
the decline remain speculative.

Previous Year Questions with Model Answers

UPSC Mains 2014: Q. 1. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of
the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to the present day urbanization?
Discuss. (12.5 Marks; 200 words)
Ans: The urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) provided inputs to a
considerable extent to the present day urbanization, notwithstanding the differences in scale
and complexity.

The haphazard growth of towns, especially in India today, is one of the major issues in
urbanization leading to numerous other issues. Highly planned cities of IVC provide significant
inputs to the present day urbanization such as the arrangement of houses, segregation of
official and public buildings, arrangement of roads and elaborate underground drainage
system. Most of the urban centers of India lack planning with a few exceptions such as
Chandigarh.

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 The urban culture of the IVC was characterized by more or less egalitarian society. In
today’s urban centers, extreme inequality can be observed in high rise buildings and slums.
Numerous craft based industries provided livelihood to the people. The impressive water
management ensured availability of water. The attention paid to the hygiene through sanitary
arrangements was remarkable. Considering all these elements, it can be said that the
administration of towns was quite efficient. This is in contrast to the conditions of urban poor
in present day cities.

In the context of numerous issues faced by the urban centers today such as slums,
urban poverty, unemployment and the unhygienic living conditions, the urban planning and
culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provides inputs to a considerable extent.

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