TEACHER’S NAME OLUWATUSIN M.A & ISEYEMI J.

K
SUBJECT AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS YEAR 7
LIST OF TOPICS COVERED WEEK TOPIC
1 Common Breeds and Terminologies Used
in Farm Animals (I)
2 Common Breeds and Terminologies Used
in Farm Animals (II)
3 Factors Affecting Distribution of Farm
Animals in Nigeria.
4 Weeds and Methods of weed control (I)
5 Weeds and Methods of weed control (II)
6 HTA
7 HTB
8 Pests and Methods of Crop Pests Control
(I)
9 Pests and Methods of Crop Pests Control
(II)
10 Factors of Agricultural Production (I)
11 Factors of Agricultural Production (II)
12 FTA
13
WEEK 1 NOTES

COMMON BREEDS AND TERMINOLOGIES USED IN FARM ANIMALS

(1)
BREED: Breed refers to group of farm animals that have common ancestors and are similar in characteristics such as colour, height,
weight at maturity, feed conversion, productivity, etc.

Type refers to the production purpose for which farm animal is kept. For example, we have Beef cattle, Dairy cattle, Dual –purpose
cattle and Work cattle.

A. CATTLE PRODUCTION:
Cattle belong to the family of mammals called Bovidae. The genus name is called Bos, and is of two species. These are Bos Indicus
(humped cattle) and Bos Taurus (humpless cattle).

USES OF CATTLE:
1. Cattle are kept mainly for beef and milk production
2. They are also used on the farm as work animals to pull farm implements.
3. They supply hides and skin for making clothes and shoes, bags, belts etc.
4 Their dung is used as manure on the farm.
5. Their bones and blood are used to prepare animal feeds
6. Their hoofs and horns are used to make adhesives, fertilizers and other things.

TYPES OF CATTLE: There are four major breeds or types of cattle based on their production purpose/uses. These are:
(a). Dairy Cattle: These are cattle kept mainly for milk production. Examples are White Fulani, Jersey, Red Poll, Kerry, Dexter, Holstein
Friesian, South Devon etc.

(b). Beef Cattle: These are cattle reared mainly for meat or veal production. Examples are: N’dama, Red Bororo, Sokoto Gudali,
Keteku, Kuri, Brown Swiss and Rahaji.

(c). Dual Purpose Cattle: These are cattle kept for work as well as for milk and meat production. Examples are: Azawal, Muturu, Biu
and Wadara (Shuwa).

(d) Work Cattle: These are cattle used for work in the farm. Examples are Sokoto Gudali, Red Bororo, The N’dama breed etc.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN CATTLE PRODUCTION.

i. Bull: Adult male cattle.
ii. Cow: Adult female cattle.
iii. Calf: Young cattle of either sex which has not been weaned.
iv. Bull Calf: Young male cattle.
v. Heifer Calf: Young female cattle.
vi. Bullock/Steer: A castrated male cattle.
vii. Vealer: A castrated female cattle.
viii. Servicing: Act of mating in cattle.
ix. Calving: Act of giving birth or parturition in cattle.
x. Gestation period: 278-280 days
xi. Herd: A group of cattle.
xii. Beef: Meat from cattle.
xiii. Veal: Meat from young cattle.
B. GOAT PRODUCTION:
Goat is a hollow horned small ruminant animal also belonging to the family Bovidae of the genus Capra. Goat is reared for its meat,
milk and hide and skin.

BREEDS/TYPES OF GOAT
The following are common breeds of goats reared in Nigeria.
(i). Sokoto Red (Maradi) (ii). Borno Red (iii). Kano Brown (iv). Sahel or Desert Goats
(v). West African Dwarf Goat (vi). Saanen (vii). Anglo-Nubian (viii). Toggen-burg
(ix). Angora (x). Alphine (xi). . Kashmari (xii). Juri

These breeds /types are generally grouped into THREE categories according to what they produce or uses: These are:

(a). Meat Producing Goats: These are goats reared for meat production. They include breeds like West Africa Dwarf Goat, Sokokto
Red, Saanen Goat, Kano Brown, Borno Red etc.

(b). Milk Producing Goats: These goats are reared for milk production. Note that milk from goats is the richest milk in terms of
nutrients. Examples are Anglo-Nubian goats, Alphine goats, Juri breeds etc.

(c). Wool producing Goats: These are goats that produce wool used for making clothes. Examples are Angora breed, Kashmari
breeds

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN GOAT PRODUCTION.

i. Buck (Billy): Adult male goat.
ii. Doe (Nanny): Adult female goat.
iii. Kid: Young goat of either sex which has not been weaned.
iv. Servicing Act of mating in goat.
v. Kidding: Act of giving birth or parturition in goat.
vi. Herd: A group of adult goat.
vii. Wether: A castrated male goat.
viii. Heat Period: The period when the female is ready to accept male for mating.
ix. Oestrus Cycle: The time interval between heat periods.
x. Gestation Period: The period between conception and birth (150 days).
xi. Lactation: The act of producing milk from the udder.
xii. Chevon: The meat of goat

C. SHEEP PRODUCTION:
Sheep are hollow- horned even-toed small ruminants which belong to the family Ovidae. Sheep are reared for their meat, milk and hide
and skin.

BREEDS/TYPES OF SHEEP: The following are common breeds of sheep reared in Nigeria.
(i). Ouda (ii). Yankasa (iii). West African Dwarf Sheep

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN SHEEP PRODUCTION.

i. Ram or Tup: Adult male sheep.
ii. Ewe: Adult female sheep.
iii. Lamb: Young sheep of either sex which has not been weaned.
iv. Ram Lamb: Young male sheep.
v. Gimmer or Ewe Lamb: Young female sheep.
vi. Tupping: Act of mating in sheep.
vii. Wether: A castrated male sheep.
viii. Flock: Group of adult sheep.
ix. Fleece: Hair of sheep used as wool
x. Flushing: Act of feeding sheep specially before mating for early reproduction
xi. Oestrus Cycle: The time interval between heat periods.
xii. Lambing: The act of giving birth in sheep.
xiii. Gestation period: 149-150 days.
xiv. Udder: The mammary gland which produces the milk.
xv. Mutton: Meat of sheep.
WEEK 2 NOTES

COMMON BREEDS AND TERMINOLOGIES USED IN FARM ANIMALS

(II)
D. RABBIT PRODUCTION:
Rabbits are mono-gastric or non-ruminant animals. They are medium-sized hopping mammals with long legs, long ears and short tails.
Rabbits are mainly reared for their meat. Rabbit meat is normally regarded as white meat.

BREEDS OF RABBITS: Common breeds of rabbits include:

(i). California white (ii). California red (iii). Flemish giant (iv). Chinchilla white
(v). New Zealand white (vi). The Crosses (vii). New Zealand red (viii). Angora
(ix). Lop (x). Blue Beveren (xi). Dutch breed (xii). English spot.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN RABBIT PRODUCTION.

i.. Buck: Adult male rabbit.
ii. Doe: Adult female rabbit.
iii. Kitten/Warren: Young rabbit of either sex which has not been weaned.
iv. Kindling: Act of giving birth in rabbit.
v. Litter: All the young ones produced at the same time female.
vi. Dam: The mother of a set of young rabbits.
vii. Castrate: A castrated male rabbit.
viii. Servicing: Act of mating in rabbit.
ix. Colony: Group of adult rabbit.
x. In Kindle: Pregnancy in rabbit.
xi. Sucking: Feeding of young ones from the mother’s breast milk.
xii. Pelt: The skin of rabbit
xiii. Sire The father of a set of young rabbit
xiii. White meat: Meat of rabbit.
xiv. Gestation period: 30 days.

E. PIG PRODUCTION:
Pigs are mono-gastric or non-ruminant animals. They belong to the family called susidae. There are two main species of pigs. These
are Sus sacrofa and Sus vittatus.
Pigs are the most prolific of all the farm animals. A female pig can give birth to between 8 and 16 piglets at a time and two pregnancies
are possible within a year because of its short gestation period.

BREEDS OF PIGS: Common breeds of pigs include:

(i). Large White (ii). Large Black (iii). Duroc Jersey (iv). Poland China
(v). Tamworth (vi). Hampshire (vii).West African Dwarf Pig (viii). Landrace
(ix). Chester White (x). Belgium Pie Train.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN PIG PRODUCTION.

i. Boar: Adult male pig.
ii. Sow: Adult female pig.
iii. Piglet: Young pig of either sex which has not been weaned.
iv. Gilt: A young female pig.
v. Hog: Castrated male pig.
vi. Servicing: Act of mating in pigs.
vii. In-Pig: Pregnancy in pig.
viii. Farrowing: Act of giving birth in pigs.
ix. Litter: Group of piglets.
x. Pork: Pig meat.
xi. Lard: Fat from pig.
xii. Bacon: Salted meat from the back and sides of pig.
xiii. Gestation period: 114 days
F. POULTRY PRODUCTION:
The term poultry refers to all domesticated birds reared for meat, eggs and feathers. These include chickens, turkeys, ducks,
geese, guinea fowls and ostriches. They are characterized by the presence of feather which makes them different from other
farm animals
Of all the domesticated birds, chicken is the most popular, especially in the tropics. They are non-ruminant animals and
oviparous in nature.
BREEDS OF DOMESTIC FOWL
Common breeds of fowl include:
(i) White Leghorn (ii) Brown Leghorn (iii) Sussex
(iv) Cornish (v) Cochin (vi) Harco White
(vii) Rhode Island Red (viii) New Hampshire (ix) Harco Black
(x) Plymouth Rock.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN POULTRY PRODUCTION.

i. Cock: Adult male chicken.
ii. Hen: Adult female chicken.
iii. Cockerel: Young male fowl below one year of age.
iv. Pullet: Young female fowl below one year of age.
v. Chick: Young fowl of either sex.
vi. Capon: Castrated male fowl.
vii. Caponization: Act of castration in poultry.
viii. Treading: Act of mating in poultry.
ix. In lay: Pregnancy in poultry.
x. Clutch: A group of young chicken.
xi. Layer: Fowl reared for egg production.
xii. Broiler: Fowl reared for meat production.
xiii. Flock: A group of fowls.
xiv. Gestation period: 21 days.
WEEK 3 NOTES

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION OF FARM

ANIMALS IN NIGERIA.
Many factors affect the distribution of farm animals in Nigeria. The most important factors are:
1. Climatic Factors: Climate refers to the average weather condition of a place over a long period of time between 35 and 40 years. It
includes factors like rainfall, temperature, light, atmospheric pressure relative humidity and wind. Climate to a large determines the type
and number of animals in an area.
For example in Southern Nigeria, there is heavy rainfall and high relative humidity, and this favours the growth and multiplication of
tsetse fly which transmits one of the deadly diseases of farm animals called trypanosomiasis. This means that only animals that are
resistant to trypanosomiasis can be reared successfully in the South. In the Northern Nigeria, rainfall is very low, light intensity is high
with low relative humidity. This makes the area almost entirely free of tsetse fly and this account for one of the reason why more
animals are found in the Northern part of Nigeria than in the Southern part.

2. Availability of Natural Pasture: This is another important factor affecting the distribution of farm animals in Nigeria. The Northern
part of Nigeria consists of Savannah type of vegetation which is characterized by open grassland. Some farm animals like the
ruminants can survive only on pasture. Therefore, where there is availability of pasture more animals will be found in the area because
of abundant feed for them. That is why the population of animals in the North exceeds that in the South.

3. Pests & Diseases: The presence of some diseases in some areas for instance Trypanosomiasis in some areas can affect the
distribution of farm animals in such areas. In northern Nigeria has less population of tsetse flies that help in transmitting the disease
Trypanosomiasis due to the light and short period of rainfall in that area. Large herds of cattle, sheep and goats are reared in these
areas.
On the contrary, the high incidence of tsetse flies in the Southern parts of Nigeria due to thick forest following the heavy rainfall
experienced in the area limits the production of farm animals.

4. Religion & Culture: Religious and cultural beliefs influence the type of farm animal reared in some areas. The general effect of this
is that some animals are reared in some places and not in another area. For instance, piggery production is low in the Northern Nigeria
due to high population of Muslims in the area. Also, animal production will be affected in areas where there is high population of
vegetarians.

5. Socio-Economic Factors: The socio-economic status of people in an area is measured in terms of materials possessed by them.
For instance, the Fulani attach serious importance to the number of heads of cattle in their herds.
Likewise, in the Southern parts of Nigeria, especially in villages, families are ranked in terms of the numbers of goats, sheep, and fowls
etc., each of them keeps. A man with very large size of herd is considered to be a wealthy man.

AGRICULTURAL IMPORTANCE/USES OF FARM ANIMALS

1. Farm animals provide food for man such as meat, milk and eggs.
2. They provide steady source of income to the farmers.
3. The rearing of farm animals provides employment opportunities for the people.
4. It provides foreign exchange to the government through export to other countries.
5. Farm animals are used on the farm as a source of farm power on the farm.
6. Farm animals supply wool, feathers, hides and skin for making clothes, shoes, blankets, jackets, rugs and pillows.
7. The dung and droppings produced by farm animals are used as manure to enrich the soil.
8. Animal products and their by-products are used by many industries to manufacture different products such as soap, adhesives,
vaccines and paints, medical products like insulin, butter cheese fertilizers cosmetics and varnishes.
9. By-products from farm animals such as blood and bones are used to prepare animal feeds like blood meal, bone meal.
10. Farm animals are also used for recreation and sports
11. Farm animals are used to provide security in our homes.
12. Farm animals are used for both field and laboratory researches, e.g., rabbits, guinea-pigs etc.
13. Farm animals provide companionship as pets to man. E.g. dogs, rabbits and cats.
WEEK 4 NOTES

WEEDS AND METHODS OF WEED CONTROL (i)

[A]. DEFINITION OF WEEDS: Weeds can be defined as any plant growing where it is not planted or wanted usually among the
cultivated crops where they constitutes nuisance either to man, livestock or crops.

[B]. CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS:

I. Persistency and Aggressiveness: Many weeds have the ability to remain in the ground throughout the year and continue to grow
under adverse climatic and soil conditions
Ii. High Regenerative Ability: Some weeds grow very fast and cover the land very quickly; this is because they are easily propagated
through stolon, rhizomes and runners apart from the seeds. E.g. Elephant grass, Carpet grass etc.
Iii. High Reproductive Capacity: Some weeds produce fruits and seeds in large quantities or numbers which are easily carried and
spread all over the place by man, animals, wind and water.
Iv. Possession of Various Devices for Dispersal: Weeds are dispersed by many ways which may include hooks, spikes, parachute
of hair, wings, and through explosive mechanism etc.
v. As a Contaminants: Weeds sometimes get matured at the same time with the arable crops cultivated by the farmers thereby falling
into harvested crops and contaminate it causing reduction in market value.
vi. Precocity: This is the ability of the weeds to grow, flower and produce seeds within a very short period of time. E.g. Boerhavia spp
takes only 8 to 10 days.
vii. Rooting System: Weeds have efficient rooting system which enables them to withstand low soil moisture content.
viii. Means of Pollination: Most weeds are pollinated by wind and this aid their quick spread without any hindrance. E.g, Tridax
procumbens.

[C]. CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS:

Weeds are classified into the following groups:
i. Based on Habitat: (i.e. where they grow): This include Terrestrial weeds, Aquatic weeds and Epiphytic weeds
(a). Terrestrial Weeds: These are weeds that live and grow on land. E.g. Tridax, Carpet grass, Sida plant, stubborn weeds, etc.

(b). Aquatic Weeds: These are weeds that grow and live in water. Examples are Water hyacinth, water lily, etc.

c. Epiphytic Weeds: They are weeds that grow and live on other plants. They are sometimes called parasitic weeds. Examples are
mosses, ferns, bromeliads, lichens, liverworts and orchids.

ii. Based on Life Cycle: This may include Annual, Biennial and Perennial weeds
a. Annual Weeds: These are weeds that grow and complete their life cycle in one year. E.g. Tridax procumbens.
b. Biennial Weeds: These are weeds that grow and complete their life cycles in two years.
c. Perennial or Permanent Weeds: These are weeds which grow for more than two years. They have underground organs which
enables them to continue growing from year to year. E.g. Chromolena odorata, Axonopus compressus, Panicum maximum

iii. Based on the Number of Seed Leaves (cotyledons): These are Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous weeds
a. Monocotyledonous Weeds: Also called grasses or sedges. They have long, thin leaves, fibrous root or adventitious root system.
E.g. Bahama grass, Carpet grass, Stubborn grass, Elephant grass, etc.
b. Dicotyledonous Weeds: Also called broad-leaved weeds. They have broad leaves, tap root system. E.g. Tridax, Stubborn weed,
Goat weed etc.

iv. Based on their Habit: These are herbaceous weeds and woody weeds.
a. Herbaceous Weeds: These are weeds that grow up into shrubs or vines
b. Woody Weeds: These are weeds that are hard and grow into trees.

[D]. HARMFUL EFFECTS OF WEEDS ON CROPS AND LIVESTOCK:

i. Weeds compete with crops for space, sunlight, water and mineral salts
ii. Weeds reduce the quality of crops especially cereals
iii. Many weeds harbour insects, fungi and other organisms which are harmful to crops and animals
iv. It increases cost of production when the farmer thinks on how to control it.
v. Some weeds are poisonous and cause stomach upset in man and livestock
vi. Some weeds actually use cultivated crops as their support and since they grow rapidly, they soon strangle the crops to death
vii. Weeds reduce the quality of crops and hides by their seed and eventually reduce yields.
viii. Weeds can invade pastures, thereby reducing the taste of useful forage crops for the animals.

[E]. BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF WEEDS IN AGRICULTURE:

i. Some weeds are used for feeding livestock e.g. Elephant grass, Guinea grass, Tridax, African marigold, etc.
ii. Some weeds are used as food by man e.g. Corchorus olitorus (Ewedu), Waterleaf,
iii. Most weeds are medicinal e.g. Lemon grass, Moringa leaves, Neem tree leaves, etc.
iv. Some weeds are used for beautifying our environment e.g. Pride of Barbados, hibiscus, rose and Cana lily
v. Weeds are also used to conserve moisture in the farm or for controlling erosion e.g. Bahama grass
vi. Weeds help to control soil erosion
vii. Weeds add organic matter and nutrients to the soil when buried in the soil as green manure.
viii. Leguminous weeds like Centrosema, Pueraria, Mucuna, etc., harbours bacteria that help to fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil
ix. Some grass weeds are used for making thatched roofs for farm buildings and structures on the farm.

[F]. SOME COMMON WEEDS IN AGRICULTURE.

S/N COMMON NAME BOTANICAL OR SCIENTIFIC NAME

A COMMON GRASS WEEDS
1. Northern Gamba grass Andropogon gayanus
2. Southern Gamba grass Andropogon tectorum
3. Guinea grass Panicum maximum
4. Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum
5. Giant star grass Cynodon plectostachyum
6. Carpet grass Axonopus compressus
7. Bahama grass Cynodon dactylon
8. Stubborn grass Eleucine indica

B. COMMON LEGUME WEEDS

9. Centro Centrosema pubescens
10. Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis
11. Kudzu or puero Pueraria phaseoloides
12 Calopo Calopogium mucunoides
13. Sun hemp Crotolaria juncea

C COMMON HERB WEEDS

14. African spinach Amaranthus cruentus
15. Wild spinach Amaranthus spinosus
16. Waterleaf Talinum triangulare
17. Siam weed Chromolaena odorata
18. Pig weed Boerhavia diffusa
19. Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides
20. Stubborn weed or wire weed Sida acuta
21. Bush marigold Aspilia africana
D COMMON PARASITIC WEEDS
22. Dodder Cuscuta spp
23. Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
 2022/2023 TERM 3 RESL STUDENT NOTES

WEEK 5 NOTES

WEEDS AND METHODS OF WEED CONTROL (ii)

[A]. DISPERSAL OF WEEDS
Dispersal is the process by which weed seeds or fruits get scattered from the parent weed or infected area to a new uninfected place
where they continue their growth.

[B]. METHODS OR AGENTS OF WEED DISPERSAL

Agents or modes of weed dispersal include the following:
(i). Dispersal of weeds seeds by wind
(ii). Dispersal of weeds seeds by water
(iii). Dispersal of weeds seeds by man and farm animals
(iv). Dispersal of weeds seeds through contaminated farm tools, machines and implement
(v) Dispersal of weeds seeds by explosive mechanism
(i). Dispersal of weeds seeds by wind: Some weeds have fruits or seeds with structures which adapt them for wind dispersal. Some
weed seeds are so small in size and light in weight that they are easily blown by wind. E.g. The seeds or fruits of Tridax procumbens
and Aspillia Africana

(ii). Dispersal of weeds seeds by water: Weed seeds are carried by running water and streams. The seeds keep floating for a long
time on the surface of the running water and can germinate when they are carried to the land. E.g Coconut fruit

(iii). Dispersal of weeds seeds by man and farm animals: Farm animals and man sometimes aid the dispersal of weed seeds and
fruits. Some weed seeds attach themselves to the skin and clothes of man (Farmers) or skin or fur of farm animals during grazing and
are carried to another place before being removed. E.g. Seeds of Desmodium.

(iv). Dispersal of weeds seeds through contaminated farm tools, machines and implement. E.g. Stubborn weed, Elephant
grass, etc.

(v). Dispersal of weeds seeds by explosive mechanism: The fruits of some weeds that in pod form burst with loud noise thereby
causing the seeds inside the pods to scatter over a wide area from their original parent plant. E.g. Para rubber fruits, Calopogonium,
Centrocema, Peuraeria, etc.

[C]. METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

Among the various methods that can be used to control or prevent the spread of weeds are:
I. CULTURAL WEED CONTROL: The Cultural weed control methods include the following:
(a). Burning of the vegetation
(b). Mulching
(c). Crop rotation
(d). Flooding
(e). Use or planting of clean seeds
(f). Quarantine system
(g). Early or Timely plant, etc.

II. MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL CONTROL: The following are done under the mechanical or Physical weed control method:
(a). Cutting of weeds with farming tools
(b). Hoeing of weeds
(c). Hand pulling or (Rouging)
(d).Use of plough and harrow to bury the weeds.

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III. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: This is a situation where living organisms such as animals, insects, plants and other micro-organisms are
used to control the growth of weeds.
Animals like cattle, sheep and goats can be made to graze on the weeds
Insects or fungi could also be introduced into the weed affected area to feed on the weeds.
Although, care must be taken when using this method to ensure that the insects do not live on the cultivated plants after eliminating the
weeds.

IV. CHEMICAL CONTROL: Chemical weed killers are used under this method.
The chemicals used for killing the weeds are collectively called HERBICIDES.
There are TWO types of herbicides:
(a). SELECTIVE HERBICIDES: They kill specific weeds and leave others. Examples are:
(1). DELAPHIN kills ALL the plants with narrow leaves (i.e. grasses) leaving the ones with broad leaves.

(2). 2,4-D (Dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid) kills plants with broad leaves leaving the ones with narrow leaves.

(b). NON-SELECTIVE HERBICIDES: These kill ALL the plants they come in contact with. Therefore, they are NOT suitable for
controlling weeds among growing crops. They are only useful where every weed is to be controlled. E.g. Gramozone, Paraquat,
Round-up, Force-up, Tackle, Glyphosate etc.

TIME WHEN HERBICIDES CAN BE APPLIED

(i). Herbicides can be applied during land preparation, i.e. Pre-planting application.

(ii). Herbicides can also be applied before seedling emergence, i.e. Pre-emergence application.

(iii). Sometimes herbicides can be applied after seedling emergence. This is called Post-emergence application.

V. INTEGRATED WEED CONTROL: This is the process of combining two or more methods to form one single larger unit or system in
order to achieve increased efficiency of weed management/control.
In this method, AII or some of the measures mentioned above are combined together and used to fight weeds as no single method is
perfect.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING HERBICIDES

The following are some precautionary measures to take when handling herbicides:
i. Never spray herbicides on cultivated crops
ii. Don’t allow the herbicide to get into your mouth
iii. Do not use your bare hands to mix the herbicide in a bucket of water. Always use stick
iv. Never allow the herbicide to get in contact with your body
v. Wear protective clothes and nose guards when spraying or applying herbicides
vi. Wash your hands and faces before immediately after spraying
vii. Do not eat, drink or smoke during application
viii. Always back the direction of wind during spraying to avoid inhaling mist of the herbicide
ix. In case of poisoning, seek urgent medical attention.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD HERBICIDES:

(a). It should be cheap and very easy to get in the market
(b). A good herbicide should be easy to handle and use
(c). It should be selective in its mode of action. (i.e. It should kill the weeds and not the growing crops).
(d). It should be easy to formulate or compound
(e). It should be able to kill the weeds easily. (i.e. It should be phyto-toxic).

GENERAL EFFECTS OF WEED CONTROL ON THE SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT:

(i). Chemical weed control (herbicides) can lead to pollution of the soil and soil water as well as drinking water.

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(ii). Chemical weed control can also contaminate animal pasture and can be harmful to their health.
(iii). The use of chemical to control weeds may also kill other important agricultural soil organisms
(iv). The use of biological method of weed control could alter the natural ecosystem of a place.
(v). Mechanical method of controlling weeds can destroy or alter the soil structure, texture, etc.

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REASONS WHY WEEDS SHOULD BE CONTROLLED: Reasons for controlling weeds on the farm include:
1. To prevent competition for soil nutrients with crops
2. To prevent the attack and spread of pests in the farm
3. It improves the circulation of air around the crops and thus reduces humidity
4. Improves the quality of crop seeds
5. Creates more space in the farm
6. Ensures easy harvest of crops on the farm.

WEEK 6 HALF TERM ASSESSMENT

WEEK 7 HALF TERM BREAK

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WEEK 8 NOTES

Pests of agricultural crop

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MEANING OF PESTS
A pest is any organism that is capable of causing damage to agricultural crops or crop products, therefore bringing economic losses
to farmers.
TYPES OF CROP PESTS
Pests of agricultural crops are classified into TWO main groups. These are (1) Insect pests and (2) Non-insect pests.
Pests of Agricultural Crops

Insect pest Non-Insect pests

Mode of feeding Location found Mammal Non-Mammal

Biting & Chewing Piercing & Sucking Boring & Chewing

(1). INSECT PESTS: Of all the pests of Agricultural crops, insects are the largest in number. They attack and destroy crops at different
stages of their growth and development. Insect pests are grouped according to:
a. Their mode of feeding;
b. The location of their attack.
(a). ACCORDING TO THEIR MODE OF FEEDING:
Under this system of classification, insect pests are grouped into three, namely
(i) Biting and chewing insect pests
(ii). Piercing and sucking insect pests
(iii). Chewing and boring insect pests.
(i). Biting and chewing insect pests: These insect pests possess strong mandible and maxillae (mouth-part) which enable them to
bite and chew plant parts. Examples are termites, grasshoppers, leaf worm, army worm, locust, mantids, beetles, crickets,
caterpillars, cockroach etc.

(ii). Piercing and sucking insect pests: These insect pests have stylet and proboscis which they use to pierce plant tissues and suck
liquid materials called sap from them. By this way, they cause destruction of cell walls as well as transmitting viral diseases to the
plant. Examples are aphids, cotton stainers, mealy bugs, scale insects, capsids or mirids, moths, butterflies, whiteflies etc.

(iii). Chewing and boring insect pests: These insects including their larvae are capable of burrowing into plant parts and destroying
the tissues of the plant or fruits or seeds. By this way, they reduce the product to powder. Examples include beans beetle, stem
borer, maize weevils, rice weevils etc.

(b). ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF THEIR ATTACK: Insect pests can also be divided into two based on their location. These
include;
(i). Field insect pests
(ii). Storage insect pests
(i). Field Insect Pests: These are insects that attack and destroy crops on the field before harvesting. Examples include grasshoppers,
caterpillars, locust, capsids, mealy-bugs, crickets, termites, aphids etc.

(ii). Storage Insect Pests: These are insects that attack and destroy crop products in the store house. Examples are bean beetles, rice
weevils, maize weevils etc.

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2. NON-INSECT PESTS: These are vertebrate pests. They are bigger pests with backbone. They can either be mammals or birds. They
cause great damage to crops in many ways. Examples of non- insect pests that are mammals are squirrels, grass cutters, monkeys,
rodents, goats, sheep, cattle, donkeys etc. While non-insect pests that are birds include; bush fowl, parrot, and dove, bat etc.

IMPORTANT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS

NAME OF PEST CROPS AFFECTED METHOD OF FEEDING NATURE OF DAMAGE PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1. Yam beetle Yam tubers Biting and chewing i. Beetle bore holes into the yam i. Dust yam sett with Aldrin dust before
tubers ii. Low yield planting ii. Early planting exercise
iii. Reduction in quality and market iii. Harvesting must be done on time
value

2. Cassava mealy Cassava, Cocoa, Piercing and sucking i. Twisting of the stems of infected i. Practise early planting. ii. Plant resistant
bugs Kolanut, Rubber, plant ii. Shortening of plant varieties iii. Spraying of bugs with
Pawpaw etc. internodes iii. Swelling of plant insecticides like Gammalin 20. iv. Practise
shoot iv. Low yield crop rotation
3. Locust and Maize, Rice, Cassava, Biting and chewing i. Adults and larvae eat up the leaves i. Spraying of insecticide like Adrex 40
grasshopper Yam, Vegetables, and green stem ii. Reduced ii. Hand picking of insect by farmer
etc. rate of photosynthesis iii. Introduction of birds iv.
iii. Low growth rate and yield Practise crop rotation
4. Aphids Legumes like Piercing and sucking i. Suck plant juice from leaves and i. Spray insecticide to kill the vector
Cowpea, Soya bean, new shoots ii. Causes ii. Uproot and burn infected crops
Groundnut, Okra, weakening of crops iii. Help iii. Practise crop rotation iv.
Melon, Pumpkin, to transmit viral diseases like Regular weeding v. Plant
Citrus, Cotton, groundnut rosette in groundnut and resistant varieties
Banana, etc. cassava mosaic disease in cassava
iv. Low yield.
5. Cotton Stainer Cotton Piercing and sucking i. They pierce and suck sap from i. Spray insecticides ii. Hand picking
bugs plants ii. Reduce the iii. Biological control by introducing birds
quality of cotton bolls
iii. Distortion of plant leaves
iv. Produce toxic saliva
6. Rodents like Rice, Maize, Cassava, Biting and chewing i. Destroy whole plant ii. i. Setting of traps ii. Use of
Rats, Grass Yam, Fruits, etc. Feeding on plant parts iii. guns iii. Wire or net fencing iv.
cutter, Rabbit, Causes low yield iv. Increase Use of poison baits v. Use of
Monkeys, etc. farmers’ cost of production scarecrow, etc
7. Birds Rice, Maize, Millet, Piercing and sucking i. Feed on grains on the field i. Early harvesting ii. Use of catapult
Guinea corn, Wheat, ii. Reduce plant quality and yield iii. Use of scare crows
Fruits, etc iii. Causes low income
8. Bean beetle or Stored produce like Boring insect i. Bore holes into grains and eat i. Early harvesting ii. Proper storage
Grain weevil maize and cowpea them up of produce iii. Proper drying of
ii. Reduce the quality of stored grains grains before storage
iii. Also reduces the quantity of
stored produce
iv. Reduces farmer’s income
v. Reduces the viability of infested
grains

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WEEK 9 NOTES

Pests of agricultural crops (Ii)

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HARMFUL EFFECTS OF PESTS IN AGRICULTURE.
i. They eat the leaves of crop plants or help in defoliating the leaves
ii. Insect pests reduce the grains into powder in the store
iii. Heavy attack by pests may result into total crop failure
iv. Pests attack on crops and their products reduces their market value
v. They increase the farmer’ cost of production when trying to control them
vi. Pests attack always reduce the quantity of agricultural products
vii. There is reduction in quality of harvested products
viii. Pests reduce the viability of seeds thus leading to poor germination
ix. Pests eat up the heart wood of the plant thereby leading to the breaking down of such plants during windy or rainy periods, (i.e.
lodging of crops)
x. Heavy pests’ infestation can lead o the death of crops
xi. Some pests act as carrier of some certain crop diseases. E.g. Aphid transmitting Groundnut Rosette disease, Mealy bug
transmitting Cocoa swollen shoot disease.

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF PESTS IN AGRICULTURE

i. Some pests are edible and can be eaten by man. E.g. Grass cutters, Birds, Monkeys etc.
ii. Pests can help in the process of plant pollination
iii. Pests can be used to carry out scientific investigations
iv. Some pests can be used to control the population of other dangerous ones, (Biological control).

METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

The general methods of controlling pest can be grouped into FIVE major headings. These are:
i. Physical (Mechanical) method
ii. Cultural method
iii. Biological method
iv. Chemical method
v. Quarantine method

(A). PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL METHOD: This involves the use of hand to pick insect pests and other physical methods of destroying
pests which include:
i. Setting traps to catch rodents and birds
ii. Shooting birds and rodents with gun
iii. Fencing or wire netting to prevent rodent attack
iv. Use of scarecrow to scare away birds and monkeys
v. Hermetic storage which involves storage of grains in air-tight bins or containers to suffocate insect pests due to heavy accumulation
of carbon-dioxide and depletion of oxygen.

(B). CULTURAL METHOD: This involves the use of good agricultural practices to enable crops escape pest attack or to reduce or
destroy their population. The method includes:
i. Practicing bush fallowing
ii. Practice of crop rotation system
iii. Change in time of planting
iv. Regular weeding
v. Planting of resistant varieties
vi. Proper storage of planting materials
vii. Destruction of crop residue/remains
viii. Proper tillage
ix. Timely harvesting.
(C). BIOLOGICAL METHOD: This involves the use of parasites or predators which are natural enemies of the pests in question.
Examples include the following:
i. Use of cat to kill rats in the store
ii. Centipedes, scorpions, spiders that do not naturally attack crops can be used to control the population of insect pests by feeding on
them.
iii. Some vertebrates like toads, frogs, lizards that feed on insects could be used to reduce their population.

(D). CHEMICAL METHOD: This is one of the most effective ways of controlling pests. Chemicals used for controlling pests are
collectively called PESTICIDES.
i. Those used for controlling insect pests are called Insecticides. E.g. Didimac 25, Gammalin 20, DDT, etc.
ii. Those used for killing rodents are called Rodenticides. E.g. Rogor 40.Thses are added to food as poison. Note that rodenticides are
poisonous to man when consumed.

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iii. Chemicals that control birds are known as Avicides.
iv. Chemicals used for controlling nematodes are called Nematicides. E.g. Nemagon 20, Vapan D.D.
FORMS OR GROUPS OF INSECTICIDES
There are FOUR (4) groups or forms of insecticides used to control insect pests of agricultural crops. These forms and their mode of
action are:
S/N GROUPS OF INSECTICIDE MODE OF ACTION
i. Powdery form By contact method
ii. Liquid form By systemic
iii. Granular form By stomach poisoning
iv. Gaseous form By fumigation

(E) QUARANTINE METHOD: This is the method used by many countries to avoid the introduction of pests into their country when new
varieties of crops are imported. During quarantine period, the imported agricultural materials are kept under observation in sealed
compartments for a period long enough for any pest symptoms to be detected. When detected, the crop varieties are destroyed; but if
they are free from pests, the varieties are then allowed into the country.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL PESTS CONTROL METHOD

i. The residue on the edible parts of farm produce poses health hazards to humans and animals
ii. Spraying injury to the crops may occur due to over concentration of the chemical on plant produce
iii. Frequent spraying of chemicals to control pests may result in development of resistance by the pests
iv. Chemical control of pests usually disturbs or destroys the biological or ecological equilibrium of the farmland
v. Chemical control of pests results to environmental and soil pollution
vi. Chemical method of controlling pests also decreases the fertility of the soil by lowering the soil pH.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES WHEN HANDLING CHEMICALS USED FOR KILLING PESTS:

i. Do not pour pesticides into drinking bottle or use pesticide containers for food or water.
ii. Do not spray or dust pesticides in windy environment
iii. Never allow the children to use pesticides or have contact with it.
iv. Always read the label and get professional advice before using a pesticide
v. When mixing the chemicals, follow recommendations on dose and wear protective clothing. Please keep children and animals out of
reach and destroy or bury the empty containers.
vi. Do not allow children to apply or spray pesticides.
vii. On the farm as well as in the store house, keep pesticides securely out of the reach of children.
viii. Wash your hands and face before eating, drinking or smoking after application.
ix. In case of poisoning, quickly seek for medical attention and show the label.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF BIOLOGICAL PESTS CONTROL METHOD

i. The newly introduced organism may start to attack the crops which were originally free from their attack.
ii. The predators expected to control other pests may end up eating the beneficial insects
iii. The activities of the newly introduced organism may cause serious imbalance in the ecosystem.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CULTURAL PESTS CONTROL METHOD

i. Resistant varieties may soon become adapted to the local environment leading to its resistance to be short lived where fire is used
ii. Use of fire to kill harmful pests may also lead to destruction of the beneficial ones
iii. If not properly handled, fire may extend to other farmlands especially during dry season
iv. Use of fire may also lead to the destruction of soil organic matter
v. Use of fire can also lead to the destruction of soil structure leading to soil erosion.
COMMON PESTS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS

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WEEK 10 NOTES

FACTORS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (I)

MEANING OF PRODUCTION:
Production refers to all economic activities which result in the creation of goods and services in agriculture.
For goods and services to be created during the process of production in agriculture, certain resources must be combined. These
resources are called Factors of Production.
Factors of Production include the following:
1 Land. 2 Labour.
3 Capital. 4 Entrepreneur / Management.

[1]. LAND: Land is a free gift to nature. It refers to where productive activities like growing of crops, rearing of animals and
establishment of farmstead, etc., are carried out.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND
I. Land is a free gift of nature
Ii. Land is immobile
iii. It is a fixed factor of production.
iv. Land can appreciate in value if it is properly managed.
v. It can also depreciate in value if not properly managed.
vi. The reward for use of land is rent.

TYPES OF LAND IN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE

(A). AGRICULTURAL USE OF LAND:
i. Land is used for planting food crops like maize, rice, cowpea, yam, cocoyam, cassava etc.
ii. It is used for planting of cash crops like cocoa, rubber, oil palm, cotton, wheat etc.
iii. Land is used for rearing farm animals.

NON-AGRICULTURAL USE OF LAND:

i. Land used for building of houses
ii. Land used for building of schools
iii. Land used for establishing airport
iv. Land used for construction of roads, railway
v. Land used for establishing markets, stadia, cemeteries etc.

[2]. LABOUR: Labour is a human resource. Labour includes all forms of productive human efforts put into or utilized in production.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LABOUR:
i. Labour as human efforts can be intellectual or mental, manual or physical
ii. Labour exists in three forms: These are: Skilled labour which is white collar jobs, Semi-skilled labour and Unskilled labour which
is brown collar jobs.
iii. Labour is mobile, and has feelings and cannot be used anyhow
iv. The unit of labour is man-hour or man-day
v. Rest and Leisure
vi. Improvement in Productivity
vii. The reward of labour is wage and salary.

IMPORTANCE OF LABOUR IN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE

i. Skilled labour provides the expertise required for major farm operation.
ii. Labour ensures the success of any agricultural enterprise
iii. Intellectual labour ensures high agricultural production.

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WEEK 11 NOTES

FACTORS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (II)

[3]. CAPITAL: Capital includes all man-made productive assets used in agricultural production.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPITAL:
i. Capital hoe, cutlass, rake, tractor, farm buildings, cash in hand etc., used for agricultural production
ii. Capital can depreciate or appreciate in value
iii. Capital is a stock of assets used in production.
iv. Sources of capital may include personal savings, banks, government agencies, cooperative societies, etc.
v. The reward for capital is interest.

TYPES OF CAPITAL IN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE

i. Fixed Capital: These are assets that are not used up of consumed during production. Examples of fixed assets are farm building,
motor vehicles, farm tools and implements, land furniture and fittings, incubators, plough, harrow, tractor, etc.

ii. Working or Variable Capital: These are capital or assets that are used up or consumed during the process of production. Examples
are: water, animal feeds, drugs, vaccines, fertilizers, seeds, chemicals etc.

IMPORTANCE OF CAPITAL IN AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE

i. Working capital is used in the day to day running of the farm enterprise.
ii. Working capital is used for paying wages.
iii. Working capital is used for buying inputs, maintenance services on the farm, feeding livestock.
iv. Fixed capital in form of buildings provides shelter for farm workers.

[4]. ENTREPRENEUR OR MANAGEMENT. This refers to the person or group of persons who coordinates, organizes and controls the
use of other factors of production.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENTREPRENEUR
i. It involves the management skills of an individual or group of persons
ii. It influences the organization of other factors of production.
iii. It coordinates and controls other factors of production
iv. It involves decision making
v. It determines the level of pay or wages
vi. The reward for management is profit.

FARM MANAGER
In agriculture, the farm manager is usually regarded as the entrepreneur whose duties include the organization, administration,
production and marketing of farm produce.

FUNCTIONS OF FARM MANAGER: The functions of farm manager can be grouped into five headings.
a. Organization
b. Administration
c. Production
d. Marketing
e. Evaluation.

A. ORGANIZATION:
i. The farm manager secures suitable land for farming
ii. He determines what to produce.
iii. He also determines the scale of production.

B ADMINISTRATION:
i. A farm manager supervises the work on the farm
ii. He arranges work rosters
iii. He directs staff on day-to-day activities

C. PRODUCTION:
i. Farm manager is responsible for the purchase and use of farm inputs
ii. He ensures that health status of animals or crops on the farm
iii. He makes arrangement for general security on the farm

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D. MARKETING:
i. The farm manager determines the quantity of produce to sell
ii. He determines the best marketing channel to use to make maximum profit.

PROBLEMS OF A FARM MANAGER: These may include the following:-

i. Inadequate information ii. Problem of marketing
iii. Inadequate farm inputs iv. Financial problem
v. Inadequate personnel vi. Unstable government policies
vii. Transportation problems viii. Administrative problems

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WEEK 12 FULL TERM ASSESSMENT

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 2023/2024 TERM 3 RESL STUDENT NOTES
WEEK 13 NOTES

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