Great Migrations

Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the

movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that
takes place at regular intervals - often in an annual cycle - that may
involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a
long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh
Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying
degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged
movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend
to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours
concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they
demand special allocations of energy. And one more:
migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by
temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside.

An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take
no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher's boat along the way. While local gulls will dive
voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at
that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it
is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally
focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival.

Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its
larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can
successfully hatch and rear offspring.

But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals
they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large
terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: 'movements from a
seasonal home area away to another home area and back again'. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-
and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren't available within a single area year-round.

But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean - upward by night to seek food, downward by day
to escape predators - can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted
the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid
ever returning to where it started.

Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger's, citing
those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for
example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it's time for takeoff on their big
journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it's appropriate to land. Birds
will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition,
Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the
phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has
produced them all.

Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration.

The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the
New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the
western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down
onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These
pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three
bottlenecks. If they can't pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can't reach
their bounty of summer grazing; if they can't pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those
windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent
on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can
see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only
about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the
pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway.

Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA's National Park Service
and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A
National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected
migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on
private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further - by
vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will
require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer.

Questions 1-5 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes 1-
5 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1 Local gulls and migrating arctic terns behave in the same way when offered food.

2 Experts’ definitions of migration tend to vary according to their area of study.

3 Very few experts agree that the movement of aphids can be considered migration.

4 Aphids’ journeys are affected by changes in the light that they perceive.

5 Dingles aim is to distinguish between the migratory behaviours of different species.

Questions 6-9 Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below. Write the correct letter, A-G. in
boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet

A be discouraged by difficulties.

B travel on open land where they can look out for predators.

C eat more than they need for immediate purposes.

D be repeated daily. '

E ignore distractions.

F be governed by the availability of water.

G follow a straight line.

6 According to Dingle, migratory routes are likely to

7 To prepare for migration, animals are likely to

8 During migration, animals are unlikely to

9 Arctic terns illustrate migrating animals’ ability to

Questions 10-13 Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your
answer sheet.

The migration of pronghorns

Pronghorns rely on their eyesight and 10 ________to avoid predators. One particular population’s summer
habitat is a national park, and their winter home is on the 11________ where they go to avoid the danger
presented by the snow at that time of year

However, their route between these two areas contains three 12________

One problem is the construction of new homes in a narrow 13 ________of land on the pronghorns’ route.

UK companies need more effective boards of directors

A After a number of serious failures of governance (that is, how they are
managed at the highest level), companies in Britain, as well as elsewhere,
should consider radical changes to their directors’ roles. It is clear that the
role of a board director today is not an easy one. Following the 2008
financial meltdown, which resulted in a deeper and more prolonged period
of economic downturn than anyone expected, the search for explanations
in the many post-mortems of the crisis has meant blame has been spread
far and wide. Governments, regulators, central banks and auditors have all
been in the frame. The role of bank directors and management and their
widely publicised failures have been extensively picked over and examined in reports, inquiries and
commentaries.

B The knock-on t of this scrutiny has been to make the governance of companies in general an issue of intense
public debate and has significantly increased the pressures on, and the responsibilities of, directors. At the
simplest and most practical level, the time involved in fulfilling the demands of a board directorship has
increased significantly, calling into question the effectiveness of the classic model of corporate governance by
part-time, independent non-executive directors. Where once a board schedule may have consisted of between
eight and ten meetings a year, in many companies the number of events requiring board input and decisions has
dramatically risen. Furthermore, the amount of reading and preparation required for each meeting is increasing.
Agendas can become overloaded and this can mean the time for constructive debate must necessarily be
restricted in favour of getting through the business.

C Often, board business is devolved to committees in order to cope with the workload, which may be more
efficient but can mean that the board as a whole is less involved in fully addressing some of the most important
issues. It is not uncommon for the audit committee meeting to last longer than the main board meeting itself.
Process may take the place of discussion and be at the expense of real collaboration, so that boxes are ticked
rather than issues tackled. D A radical solution, which may work for some very large companies whose
businesses are extensive and complex, is the professional board, whose members would work up to three or
four days a week, supported by their own dedicated staff and advisers. There are obvious risks to this and it
would be important to establish clear guidelines for such a board to ensure that it did not step on the toes of
management by becoming too engaged in the day-to-day running of the company. Problems of recruitment,
remuneration and independence could also arise and this structure would not be appropriate for all companies.
However, more professional and better-informed boards would have been particularly appropriate for banks
where the executives had access to information that part-time non-executive directors lacked, leaving the latter
unable to comprehend or anticipate the 2008 crash.

E One of the main criticisms of boards and their directors is that they do not focus sufficiently on longer-term
matters of strategy, sustainability and governance, but instead concentrate too much on short-term financial
metrics. Regulatory requirements and the structure of the market encourage this behaviour. The tyranny of
quarterly reporting can distort board decision-making, as directors have to ‘make the numbers’ every four
months to meet the insatiable

appetite of the market for more data. This serves to encourage the trading methodology of a certain kind of
investor who moves in and out of a stock without engaging in constructive dialogue with the company about
strategy or performance, and is simply seeking a short¬ term financial gain. This effect has been made worse
by the changing profile of investors due to the globalisation of capital and the increasing use of automated
trading systems. Corporate culture adapts and management teams are largely incentivised to meet financial
goals.

F Compensation for chief executives has become a combat zone where pitched battles between investors,
management and board members are fought, often behind closed doors but increasingly frequently in the full
glare of press attention. Many would argue that this is in the interest of transparency and good governance as
shareholders use their muscle in the area of pay to pressure boards to remove underperforming chief
executives. Their powers to vote down executive remuneration policies increased when binding votes came
into force. The chair of the remuneration committee can be an exposed and lonely role, as Alison Carnwath,
chair of Barclays Bank’s remuneration committee, found when she had to resign, having been roundly
criticised for trying to defend the enormous bonus to be paid to the chief executive; the irony being that she
was widely understood to have spoken out against it in the privacy of the committee.

G The financial crisis stimulated a debate about the role and purpose of the company and a heightened
awareness of corporate ethics. Trust in the corporation has been eroded and academics such as Michael Sandel,
in his thoughtful and bestselling book What Money Can’t Buy, are questioning the morality of capitalism and
the market economy. Boards of companies in all sectors will need to widen their perspective to encompass
these issues and this may involve a realignment of corporate goals. We live in challenging times.

Questions 1-7 Reading Passage has seven paragraphs, A-G. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph
from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
1 Paragraph A

2 Paragraph B

3 Paragraph C

4 Paragraph D

5 Paragraph E

6 Paragraph F

7 Paragraph G
 List of Headings

i Disputes over financial arrangements regarding senior managers

ii The impact on companies of being subjected to close examination

iii The possible need for fundamental change in every area of business

iv
Many external bodies being held responsible for problems

v The falling number of board members with broad enough experience

vi A risk that not all directors take part in solving major problems

vii Boards not looking far enough ahead

viii A proposal to change the way the board operates

Question 8-11 Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage?
In boxes 8-11 on your answer sheet, write

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

8 Close scrutiny of the behaviour of boards has increased since the economic downturn.

9 Banks have been mismanaged to a greater extent than other businesses.

10 Board meetings normally continue for as long as necessary to debate matters in full.

11 Using a committee structure would ensure that board members are fully informed about significant issues.

Questions 12-14

Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 12-14 on your answer sheet.

12 Before 2008, non-executive directors were at a disadvantage because of their lack of .

13 Boards tend to place too much emphasis on considerations that are only of short-term relevance.

14 On certain matters, such as pay, the board may have to accept the views of

The risks agriculture faces in developing countries

Synthesis of an online debate

A Two things distinguish food production from all other

productive activities: first, every single person needs food each
day and has a right to it; and second, it is hugely dependent on
nature. These two unique aspects, one political, the other natural,
make food production highly vulnerable and different from any
other business. At the same time, cultural values are highly
entrenched in food and agricultural systems worldwide.
B Farmers everywhere face major risks; including extreme weather, long-term climate change, and price
volatility in input and product markets. However, smallholder farmers in developing countries must in addition
deal with adverse environments, both natural, in terms of soil quality, rainfall, etc. and human, in terms of
infrastructure, financial systems, markets, knowledge and technology. Counter-intuitively, hunger is prevalent
among many smallholder farmers in the developing world.

C Participants in the online debate argued that our biggest challenge is to address the underlying causes of the
agricultural system’s inability to ensure sufficient food for all, and they identified as drivers of this problem our
dependency on fossil fuels and unsupportive government policies.

D On the question of mitigating the risks farmers face, most essayists called for greater state intervention.
In his essay, Kanayo F. Nwanze, President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development, argued that
governments can significantly reduce risks for farmers by providing basic services like roads to get produce
more efficiently to markets, or water and food storage facilities to reduce losses. Sophia Murphy, senior advisor
to the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, suggested that the procurement and holding of stocks by
governments can also help mitigate wild swings in food prices by alleviating uncertainties about market supply.

E Shenggen Fan, Director General of the International Food Policy Research Institute, held up social safety
nets and public welfare programmes in Ethiopia, Brazil and Mexico as valuable ways to address poverty among
farming families and reduce their vulnerability to agriculture shocks. However, some commentators responded
that cash transfers to poor families do not necessarily translate into increased food security, as these
programmes do not always strengthen food production or raise incomes.
Regarding state subsidies for agriculture, Rokeya Kabir, Executive Director of Bangladesh Nari Progati
Sangha, commented in her essay that these ‘have not compensated for the stranglehold exercised by private
traders.
In fact, studies show that sixty percent of beneficiaries of subsidies are not poor, but rich landowners and non-
farmer traders.

F Nwanze, Murphy and Fan argued that private risk management tools, like private insurance, commodity
futures markets, and rural finance can help small-scale producers mitigate risk and allow for investment in
improvements. Kabir warned that financial support schemes often encourage the adoption of high-input
agricultural practices, which in the medium term may raise production costs beyond the value of their harvests.

Murphy noted that when futures markets become excessively financialised they can contribute to short-term
price volatility, which increases farmers’ food insecurity. Many participants and commentators emphasised that
greater transparency in markets is needed to mitigate the impact of volatility, and make evident whether
adequate stocks and supplies are available. Others contended that agribusiness companies should be held
responsible for paying for negative side effects.

G Many essayists mentioned climate change and its consequences for small-scale agriculture. Fan explained
that in addition to reducing crop yields, climate change increases the magnitude and the frequency of extreme
weather events, which increase smallholder vulnerability. The growing unpredictability of weather patterns
increases farmers’ difficulty in managing weather-related risks.

According to this author, one solution would be to develop crop varieties that are more resilient to new climate
trends and extreme weather patterns. Accordingly, Pat Mooney, co-founder and executive director of the ETC
Group, suggested that ‘if we are to survive climate change, we must adopt policies that let peasants diversify
the plant and animal species and varieties/breeds that make up our menus.

H Some participating authors and commentators argued in favour of community- based and autonomous risk
management strategies through collective action groups, co-operatives or producers’ groups. Such groups
enhance market opportunities for small-scale producers, reduce marketing costs and synchronise buying and
selling with seasonal price conditions.

According to Murphy, ‘collective action offers an important way for farmers to strengthen their political and
economic bargaining power, and to reduce their business risks. One commentator, Giel Ton, warned that
collective action does not come as a free good. It takes time, effort and money to organise, build trust and to
experiment. Others, like Marcel Vernooij and Marcel Beukeboom, suggested that in order to ‘apply what we
already know’, all stakeholders, including business, government, scientists and civil society, must work
together, starting at the beginning of the value chain.

I Some participants explained that market price volatility is often worsened by the presence of intermediary
purchasers who, taking advantage of farmers’ vulnerability, dictate prices. One commentator suggested farmers
can gain greater control over prices and minimise price volatility by selling directly to consumers.
Similarly, Sonali Bisht, founder and advisor to the Institute of Himalayan Environmental Research and
Education (INHERE), India, wrote that copipunity-supported agriculture, where consumers invest in local
farmers by subscription and guarantee producers a fair price, is a risk-sharing model worth more
attention. Direct food distribution systems not only encourage small-scale agriculture but also give consumers
more control over the food they consume, she wrote.

Questions 1-3 Reading Passage has nine paragraphs, A-l. Which paragraph contains the following
information?

Write the correct letter, A-l, in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.

1 a reference to characteristics that only apply to food production

2 reference to challenges faced only by farmers in certain parts of the world

3 a reference to difficulties in bringing about co-operation between farmers

Questions 4-9 Look at the following statements (Questions 4-9) and the list of people below. Match each
statement with the correct person, A-G.

Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet.

NB You may use any letter more than once.

4 Financial assistances from the government does not always go to the farmers who most need it.

5 Farmers can benefit from collaborating as a group.

6 Financial assistances from the government can improve the standard of living of farmers.

7 Farmers may be helped if there is financial input by the same individuals who buy

8 Governments can help to reduce variation in pages.

9 Improvements to infrastructure can have a major impact on risk for farmers. from them

List of People

A Kanayo F. Nwanze

B Sophia Murphy

C Shenggen Fan

D Rokeya Kabir

E Pat Mooney
 F Giel Ton

G Sonali Bisht

Questions 10-11 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 10-11 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO problems are mentioned which affect farmers with small farms in developing countries?

A lack of demand for locally produced food

B lack of irrigation programmes

C being unable to get insurance

D the effects of changing weather patterns

E having to sell their goods to intermediary buyers

Questions 12-13 Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 12-13 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO actions are recommended for improving conditions for farmers?

A reducing the size of food stocks

B attempting to ensure that prices rise at certain times of the year

C organizing co-operation between a wide range of interested parties

D encouraging consumers to take a financial stake in farming

E making customers aware of the reasons for changing food prices