UNIT-1

1. Definition, Composition, and Generation of E-waste

Definition of E-waste

E-waste (Electronic Waste) refers to discarded electrical or electronic devices that are no longer useful, wanted, or
functioning. It includes everything from old computers and mobile phones to refrigerators, televisions, and lighting
equipment. Once these items reach the end of their life or are replaced due to newer technology, they become
e-waste.

It is also referred to as:

●​ WEEE: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment​

●​ E-scrap or End-of-Life (EoL) electronics​

Examples of E-waste

●​ Large equipment: Refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners​

●​ Small equipment: Toasters, irons, hair dryers​

●​ IT and telecom: Computers, laptops, tablets, mobile phones​

●​ Consumer electronics: Televisions, radios, DVD players​

●​ Lighting: LED and CFL bulbs, tube lights​

●​ Medical and monitoring devices: Thermometers, non-infectious diagnostic machines​

Why E-waste is a Concern

●​ E-waste is the fastest-growing solid waste stream globally due to rapid technological advancements and
product obsolescence.​

●​ It contains hazardous substances that can cause pollution if not disposed of properly.​

●​ Informal handling, especially in developing countries, leads to serious environmental and health issues.​

●​ Despite its risks, e-waste is also a source of valuable and recoverable materials like gold, silver, and copper.​

Composition of E-waste
E-waste contains a mixture of materials, which makes it both hazardous and resource-rich.

1. Metals

●​ Valuable: Gold, silver, palladium, platinum (mainly from printed circuit boards)​

●​ Common: Copper, aluminum, iron, nickel​

●​ Hazardous: Lead (from solder), cadmium (from batteries), mercury (from switches and lamps), arsenic​

2. Plastics

●​ Found in casings, insulation, and internal parts​

●​ Often contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs), which are toxic and persistent environmental pollutants​

3. Glass

●​ Present in screens, monitors, and bulbs​

●​ Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors contain leaded glass and phosphor, both harmful​

4. Ceramics and Composites

●​ Used in electrical insulation, capacitors, and structural parts​

5. Gases

●​ Refrigerants like CFCs, HCFCs, found in old air conditioners and refrigerators​

●​ These gases are potent greenhouse contributors and can deplete the ozone layer​

Generation of E-waste

Global Scenario

●​ According to the Global E-waste Monitor (2020), 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of e-waste were generated in
2019.​

●​ Less than 20% was properly recycled.​

●​ E-waste generation is expected to reach over 74 Mt by 2030.​

●​ Top producers: China (10.1 Mt), United States (6.9 Mt), India (3.2 Mt)​
India’s Scenario

●​ India is the third-largest e-waste generator globally.​

●​ Generates over 3.2 million metric tonnes annually.​

●​ Major e-waste generating cities: Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata​

●​ Only around 10% is handled by formal recycling units; the rest is processed informally​

●​ Informal recycling includes dangerous practices like open burning and acid leaching, leading to high human
exposure to toxins​

Sources of E-waste

1.​ Household appliances (televisions, microwaves, irons)​

2.​ Information and communication devices (phones, laptops)​

3.​ Lighting equipment (LEDs, CFLs)​

4.​ Medical devices (non-infectious)​

5.​ Tools, toys, and sports equipment with electrical components​

2. Global and National Perspectives on E-waste

A. Global Perspective

1. Magnitude and Growth

●​ The generation of e-waste is increasing rapidly due to:​

○​ Rising global consumption of electronics​

○​ Shortened lifespan of gadgets​

○​ Consumer preference for upgrades over repairs​

●​ According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2020, the world generated:​

○​ 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of e-waste in 2019​

○​ Projected to increase to 74.7 Mt by 2030​

 ○​ This represents an annual growth rate of about 3-4%​

2. E-waste Recycling and Management

●​ Only 17.4% of the global e-waste generated in 2019 was formally collected and recycled.​

●​ The rest was:​

○​ Dumped in landfills​

○​ Burned​

○​ Handled by the informal sector under unsafe and unregulated conditions​

●​ Lack of effective legislation, infrastructure, and awareness contributes to poor recycling rates.​

3. Top E-waste Generating Countries

●​ China: 10.1 Mt (largest generator, due to both production and consumption)​

●​ United States: 6.9 Mt (high per capita generation)​

●​ India: 3.2 Mt​

●​ Other significant contributors include Japan, Russia, Germany, Brazil, and Indonesia​

4. Environmental and Health Concerns

●​ Many countries, especially in Africa and South Asia, receive e-waste from developed countries for informal
recycling.​

●​ E-waste contains:​

○​ Toxic heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury)​

○​ Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)​

○​ These lead to air, soil, and water contamination, affecting ecosystems and public health.​

5. International Conventions and Regulations

●​ Basel Convention (1989):​

○​ Controls transboundary movement of hazardous waste​

○​ Aims to prevent developed nations from dumping toxic waste in developing countries​

●​ Bamako Convention (1991):​

 ○​ African initiative banning hazardous waste imports into the continent​

●​ EU WEEE Directive (2012/19/EU):​

○​ Mandates collection and recycling targets within the European Union​

○​ Applies the principle of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)​

B. National Perspective (India)

1. Current Status

●​ India is the third largest generator of e-waste globally.​

●​ Annual generation is over 3.2 million metric tonnes, and rising.​

●​ Key contributing sectors:​

○​ Information Technology (IT)​

○​ Telecommunication​

○​ Consumer electronics​

○​ Electrical equipment​

2. Geographical Spread

●​ Major e-waste generating cities:​

○​ Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad​

●​ These cities serve as collection, repair, and informal dismantling hubs.​

3. E-waste Management Rules

●​ 2011 (notified in 2012): Introduced the concept of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).​

●​ 2016 Rules:​

○​ Expanded scope to include more electrical and electronic equipment (EEE)​

○​ Introduced collection targets for producers​

○​ Mandated registration for dismantlers and recyclers​

 ○​ Included provisions for take-back mechanisms, labeling, and information sharing​

●​ 2022 Amendment:​

○​ Introduced a centralized online EPR portal​

○​ Enforced traceability of e-waste movement​

○​ Made producers liable for environmental compensation in case of non-compliance​

4. Institutions and Stakeholders

●​ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC): Policy-making​

●​ Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): Implementation and oversight​

●​ State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): Regional monitoring​

●​ Urban Local Bodies (ULBs): Local collection and awareness programs​

●​ Producers, recyclers, bulk consumers, and NGOs: Operational roles​

5. Challenges in Implementation

●​ Informal sector dominance: Handles over 90% of e-waste in unsafe conditions​

●​ Limited awareness: Among consumers and institutions​

●​ Lack of infrastructure: Few authorized collection and recycling centers​

●​ Weak enforcement: Despite the existence of rules, many producers and users do not comply​

●​ Data gaps: Poor record-keeping on actual volumes collected and processed​

6. Efforts and Initiatives

●​ Establishment of Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs) to manage EPR compliance​

●​ Corporate collection programs (e.g., Apple, Dell, HP take-back schemes)​

●​ Startups focused on organized recycling and digital tracking​

●​ NGO-led awareness campaigns on e-waste segregation and safe disposal​

Conclusion:​
Globally, the e-waste crisis is growing faster than the capacity to manage it. While developed countries have formal
mechanisms, large volumes are exported to the Global South. In India, a regulatory framework exists but suffers
from poor implementation, lack of public awareness, and heavy dependence on informal recycling. Strengthening
formal infrastructure, awareness, and enforcement is essential

3. Co-pollutants and Hazardous Properties of E-waste

A. Introduction

E-waste is not only a solid waste management challenge but also a chemical hazard due to the complex mixture
of toxic substances it contains. When improperly handled (especially in the informal sector), these substances are
released into the environment and become co-pollutants, harming air, water, soil, and human health.

B. Hazardous Substances Present in E-waste

Here are the major toxic components found in typical e-waste:

1. Heavy Metals

●​ Lead (Pb): Used in cathode ray tubes (CRTs), batteries, solder. Affects the nervous system and causes
developmental damage.​

●​ Mercury (Hg): Found in LCD screens, switches, and fluorescent lamps. Can cause brain and kidney
damage.​

●​ Cadmium (Cd): Used in batteries and semiconductors. Toxic to kidneys and causes bone fragility.​

●​ Arsenic (As): Used in older semiconductors. Toxic to skin and internal organs.​

●​ Chromium (especially Hexavalent Chromium, Cr⁶⁺): Used in metal coatings. Carcinogenic and damages
DNA.​

2. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

●​ Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Found in capacitors and transformers. Known endocrine disruptors and
carcinogens.​

●​ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): Used as flame retardants in plastics. Harm reproductive and
neurological development.​

3. Acids and Solvents

●​ Used during informal recovery processes, such as acid baths for extracting gold and other metals from
printed circuit boards.​

●​ These include nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and cyanide-based solutions, which are highly corrosive and
dangerous.​
4. Other Hazardous Compounds

●​ Beryllium oxide (in power transistors): Causes chronic beryllium disease.​

●​ Dioxins and furans: Released during open burning of plastics. Highly toxic even in small doses.​

C. Co-pollutants and Their Sources

Co-pollutants are secondary pollutants released alongside the primary waste material during disposal, dismantling,
and informal recycling. Common examples include:

Co-Pollutant Source Environmental Effect Health Impact

Dioxins Burning PVC-coated Air pollution Carcinogenic, endocrine

wires disruption

Furans Open burning of Persistent in environment Immune system

electronics suppression

Fine Crushing and Soil/air contamination Respiratory problems

particulates shredding

Acid vapors Acid leaching of Air and groundwater Corrosive damage to lungs
PCBs pollution and skin

4. Effects of E-waste on Human Health and the Environment

A. Effects on Human Health

E-waste contains numerous toxic metals, chemicals, and gases that adversely affect human health through
various forms of exposure, particularly in informal recycling zones. People are exposed through:

●​ Inhalation of toxic fumes and dust​

●​ Direct skin contact with contaminated substances​

●​ Ingestion of polluted water or food grown in contaminated areas​

1. Respiratory and Pulmonary Effects

●​ Burning of e-waste (especially plastics and wires) emits fine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) and toxic
gases.​

●​ These can cause:​

○​ Chronic respiratory conditions like bronchitis and asthma​

 ○​ Damage to lung tissue and reduced lung function​

○​ Increased risk of lung cancer from inhaling dioxins and heavy metals​

2. Neurological and Cognitive Effects

●​ Exposure to lead, mercury, arsenic, and other heavy metals affects the nervous system.​

●​ In children:​

○​ Reduced IQ and cognitive impairments​

○​ Delayed brain development and behavioral disorders​

●​ In adults:​

○​ Headaches, memory loss, and coordination problems​

○​ Long-term risk of neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s​

3. Renal (Kidney) Damage

●​ Cadmium, found in batteries and circuit boards, accumulates in the kidneys.​

●​ Causes kidney failure, impaired filtration, and long-term organ damage.​

●​ Mercury and lead can also stress renal function over prolonged exposure.​

4. Liver Damage and Immunotoxicity

●​ Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs and brominated flame retardants are known to:​

○​ Alter liver enzyme levels​

○​ Suppress the immune system​

○​ Increase vulnerability to infections and diseases​

5. Reproductive and Developmental Effects

●​ Chemicals like phthalates, PBDEs, and heavy metals act as endocrine disruptors.​

●​ Consequences include:​

○​ Hormonal imbalance​

○​ Reduced sperm count and motility​

 ○​ Infertility in both men and women​

○​ Miscarriages and birth defects in fetuses​

6. Dermatological and Ocular Effects

●​ Direct contact with e-waste materials, solvents, and acids can lead to:​

○​ Rashes, burns, and chronic skin irritation​

○​ Eye inflammation, damage to the cornea, or vision impairment due to acid vapors​

7. Carcinogenic Effects

●​ Prolonged exposure to substances like hexavalent chromium, dioxins, and arsenic increases the risk of:​

○​ Lung cancer​

○​ Skin and bladder cancers​

○​ Liver tumors​

B. Effects on the Environment

E-waste affects all major environmental media—air, soil, and water—through various improper disposal practices
such as open burning, dumping, and acid leaching.

1. Air Pollution

●​ Burning e-waste releases:​

○​ Dioxins and furans (toxic organic pollutants)​

○​ Hydrochloric acid fumes from plastics​

○​ Particulate matter that degrades air quality​

●​ These pollutants are not only local threats, but can also travel long distances and affect regional air quality
and climate.​

2. Soil Contamination

●​ Toxic metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury from dismantled components seep into the soil from landfills
or open dumps.​

●​ Long-term impacts include:​

 ○​ Loss of soil fertility​

○​ Changes in soil microbiota​

○​ Entry of toxic metals into the food chain through crop absorption​

3. Water Pollution

●​ Acid solutions and heavy metals are often flushed into nearby streams, rivers, and groundwater sources.​

●​ This leads to:​

○​ Contamination of drinking water​

○​ Decline in aquatic biodiversity​

○​ Bioaccumulation of toxins in fish and other aquatic organisms​

4. Damage to Flora and Fauna

●​ Plants exposed to contaminated soil or water show:​

○​ Reduced growth​

○​ Genetic mutations​

●​ Animals suffer from toxin bioaccumulation, causing reproductive failure, behavioral changes, and even
extinction in sensitive species.​

5. Climate Change Impacts

●​ Disposal of refrigerators, air conditioners, and other cooling devices releases greenhouse gases like:​

○​ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)​

○​ Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)​

●​ These gases contribute to global warming and ozone layer depletion.​

C. Vulnerable Groups

Certain populations are especially vulnerable to the effects of e-waste:

●​ Children: Their developing organs and immune systems make them highly susceptible to toxic exposure.​

●​ Pregnant women: Exposure to heavy metals can affect both mother and fetus.​
 ●​ Informal workers: Often lack protective equipment and operate in unsafe conditions.​

●​ People living near e-waste recycling hubs (e.g., Seelampur, Delhi or Moradabad, UP).​

D. Case Studies

1.​ Guiyu, China​

○​ Known as one of the largest informal e-waste processing towns.​

○​ Reported high levels of lead in children's blood, poor air and water quality, and elevated rates of
miscarriages and cancers.​

2.​ Seelampur, Delhi​

○​ India’s major e-waste dismantling area.​

○​ Reports of respiratory illnesses, skin burns, and low life expectancy among informal workers.​

3.​ Agbogbloshie, Ghana​

○​ A notorious global dumping ground for foreign e-waste.​

○​ Children working in open burning yards suffer from severe neurological and respiratory disorders.​

Conclusion

E-waste has multi-dimensional impacts—it harms human health by exposing individuals to toxic substances and
endangers the environment through pollution of natural resources. The effects are long-term, often irreversible,
and disproportionately affect vulnerable communities. Addressing these impacts requires systemic regulation, safe
technologies, and the formalization of the recycling sector.

5. Domestic E-waste Disposal

A. What is Domestic E-waste?

Domestic e-waste refers to electrical and electronic waste generated by households. This includes end-of-life
devices that are either:

●​ Non-functional (broken)​
 ●​ Obsolete (outdated)​

●​ Replaced with newer models​

Examples:

●​ Mobile phones, chargers, televisions, laptops​

●​ Kitchen appliances: microwaves, mixers, toasters​

●​ Lighting: CFLs, LEDs, tube lights​

●​ Personal care devices: trimmers, hair dryers, electric toothbrushes​

B. Sources of Domestic E-waste

1.​ Urban households – Large contributors due to frequent upgrading of gadgets and appliances.​

2.​ Rural households – Increasingly contributing as electrification and digital access grow.​

3.​ Educational institutions – Often discard used computers and lab equipment.​

4.​ Offices (when classified as domestic in small businesses) – Dispose of printers, monitors, etc.​

5.​ Hotels, restaurants, and small service sectors – Generate used commercial kitchen and entertainment
electronics.​

C. Common Disposal Practices in India

Despite existing rules, most domestic e-waste is disposed of through unsafe or unregulated channels.

1. Selling to Kabadiwalas (informal scrap dealers)

●​ Most households sell old electronics to local scrap dealers.​

●​ These dealers either dismantle devices themselves or pass them to informal recycling chains.​

●​ No safety measures, and valuable metals are extracted using toxic methods (burning, acid baths).​

2. Stockpiling at home

●​ Many devices are kept in storage for years and never disposed of properly.​

●​ This creates “invisible e-waste”, which is unaccounted for in official records.​

3. Disposal with household waste

●​ Small devices like chargers, bulbs, batteries are thrown in dustbins.​

●​ These end up in landfills or incinerators, releasing toxic substances into soil and air.​

4. Illegal dumping

●​ In some cases, e-waste is dumped in open spaces or water bodies.​

●​ Results in local environmental pollution and community health risks.​

D. Environmental and Health Impacts of Improper Domestic Disposal

1.​ Soil and groundwater contamination – Especially from batteries and tube lights.​

2.​ Air pollution – From open burning of plastics and wires.​

3.​ Health risks to waste handlers – Informal workers dismantle without gloves or masks, exposing themselves
to lead, mercury, and acids.​

4.​ Public health impact – Communities near landfills or dumpsites suffer from skin problems, respiratory
issues, and gastrointestinal diseases.​

E. Formal Disposal Mechanisms (What Should Be Done)

1. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

●​ Under E-waste Management Rules, producers must set up take-back programs and collection centres.​

●​ Consumers can deposit used electronics here for safe recycling.​

2. Authorized E-waste Collection Centres

●​ Operated by certified recyclers and companies.​

●​ Devices collected are dismantled, sorted, and processed in controlled environments.​

3. Drop-off Points and Collection Drives

●​ Companies and NGOs organize e-waste collection camps in cities and educational campuses.​

●​ Some municipal bodies are setting up e-waste bins at public locations.​

4. Online Pick-up Services

●​ Startups and recycling companies offer home pick-up for old electronics (e.g., Karo Sambhav, Attero,
E-Parisaraa).​

●​ These are linked to formal recycling networks.​

F. Barriers to Proper Domestic E-waste Disposal

1.​ Lack of awareness – Most people don’t know how or where to dispose of e-waste safely.​

2.​ Absence of collection points in rural/small towns​

3.​ Incentive-driven behavior – People prefer to sell to kabadiwalas for money rather than hand over to formal
recyclers.​

4.​ Weak enforcement of rules – Many producers have not fully implemented take-back or awareness
programs.​

G. Need for Awareness and Behavioural Change

●​ Educational campaigns in schools, colleges, RWAs, and workplaces are crucial.​

●​ Public-private partnerships can help create infrastructure and incentives.​

●​ Citizens need to understand that proper disposal protects not just the environment, but also human health.​

Conclusion

Domestic e-waste forms a significant portion of total e-waste, but is largely untracked and mismanaged.
Safe disposal practices must be promoted through a combination of policy enforcement, public
awareness, and infrastructure support. Every household plays a critical role in reducing the harmful
impact of e-waste.

6: E-waste Management – Principles and Components

I. Principles of E-waste Management

The management of e-waste is guided by several key environmental and public policy principles that ensure safe,
sustainable, and efficient handling of electronic waste. These include:
1.​ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3Rs):​

○​ Reduce refers to minimizing the generation of e-waste by encouraging consumers to purchase

durable and upgradeable products. It also involves avoiding unnecessary electronic consumption.​

○​ Reuse involves the repair, refurbishment, and resale of used electronics. This extends the life cycle of
devices and delays their entry into the waste stream.​

○​ Recycle is the process of recovering valuable raw materials from e-waste (such as copper, gold,
aluminium, and plastics) through formal recycling methods.​

2.​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR):​

○​ This principle assigns responsibility to the manufacturer or producer of electrical and electronic
equipment (EEE) for the entire lifecycle of their products, especially take-back, recycling, and final
disposal.​

○​ EPR is legally mandated in many countries, including India under the E-Waste (Management) Rules,
2016, later amended in 2022.​

○​ Producers are expected to create a reverse logistics mechanism to collect and treat e-waste
generated from their products.​

3.​ Polluter Pays Principle:​

○​ According to this principle, the entity responsible for producing pollution (in this case, e-waste) should
bear the cost of managing it to prevent damage to human health and the environment.​

○​ This shifts the financial burden of disposal and clean-up from the government to the actual polluters.​

4.​ Precautionary Principle:​

○​ If there is a potential risk of serious or irreversible damage to the environment or human health, lack of
full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason to postpone preventive measures.​

○​ This principle is especially important in e-waste management because many chemicals in electronic
devices (e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium) can be toxic even in small quantities.​

5.​ Sustainable Development:​

○​ The aim is to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own.​

○​ In the context of e-waste, this involves designing greener products, reducing resource extraction, and
ensuring that waste processing does not harm the environment or human health.​
II. Components of E-waste Management

E-waste management is a structured process involving multiple stages from the generation of waste to its final
treatment or disposal. The essential components include:

1.​ Collection:​

○​ Organized gathering of e-waste from households, businesses, retailers, service centers, and
institutions.​

○​ Can be achieved through drop-off centers, collection drives, or producer take-back schemes.​

2.​ Storage:​

○​ Temporary holding of e-waste in a secure and environmentally safe manner before it is transported or
processed.​

○​ Proper storage prevents environmental contamination and prepares waste for effective segregation.​

3.​ Transportation:​

○​ Movement of collected e-waste to authorized dismantlers or recyclers.​

○​ Must comply with legal and safety standards, such as proper labeling, secure packaging, and route
planning to avoid leakage or accidents.​

4.​ Segregation:​

○​ Sorting e-waste based on categories such as computers, phones, printers, etc., as well as by material
type (ferrous, non-ferrous, plastics, hazardous).​

○​ Effective segregation enhances the efficiency and safety of further processing.​

5.​ Dismantling:​

○​ Manual or semi-mechanical disassembly of devices to recover components such as circuit boards,

batteries, hard drives, and screens.​

○​ This is a labor-intensive step and often the first formal stage of processing in the recycling chain.​

6.​ Recycling:​

○​ Extraction and recovery of useful materials (metals, plastics, glass) using mechanical, chemical, or
thermal processes.​

○​ For example, copper is recovered from wires, and gold from circuit boards.​

7.​ Disposal:​
 ○​ Involves the final handling of non-recyclable and hazardous components (e.g., CRT glass with lead,
certain plastics) in landfills or through incineration.​

○​ Must be done in accordance with environmental laws to prevent pollution.​

Component Explanation

Collection Gathering e-waste from consumers, shops, and businesses.

Storage Safe temporary storage before recycling or disposal.

Transportation Proper vehicles and labeling to safely transport e-waste.

Segregation Separating e-waste based on type (phones, computers, TVs, etc.).

Dismantling Manual or mechanical removal of valuable/recyclable components.

Recycling Recovering usable metals, plastics, and other materials.

Disposal Safe final disposal of toxic/non-recyclable components, usually via landfills.

Conclusion

The management of e-waste is not just a technical process but also a policy and governance challenge. Adherence
to principles such as EPR and the 3Rs, along with the implementation of a structured system covering collection to
disposal, is essential for ensuring environmental sustainability, public health protection, and efficient resource
utilization.

7: Resource Recovery Potential from E-waste

I. What is Resource Recovery?

Resource recovery refers to the process of extracting valuable materials and components from e-waste for reuse,
recycling, or resale. Rather than viewing e-waste as useless or dangerous trash, this concept recognizes it as a
resource reservoir of metals, plastics, and other materials.
II. Why is Resource Recovery Important?

1.​ High-value materials:​

○​ E-waste contains precious metals like gold, silver, palladium, and platinum.​

○​ It also has base metals like copper, aluminium, and iron, and rare earth elements like neodymium
and tantalum.​

2.​ Environmental benefits:​

○​ Reduces mining activities and conserves natural resources.​

○​ Decreases greenhouse gas emissions and pollution caused by raw material extraction.​

3.​ Economic opportunities:​

○​ Urban mining (recovery from waste) can be more efficient and less expensive than traditional mining.​

○​ Generates income and employment in the formal recycling sector.​

4.​ Reduction in landfill burden:​

○​ Recovering useful materials reduces the volume of waste requiring disposal.​

III. Examples of Valuable Recoverable Materials in E-waste

Component Material Recovered Use

Printed Circuit Boards Gold, Silver, Palladium, Electronics, Jewellery, Conductors

Copper

Wires and Cables Copper, Aluminium Electrical wiring, construction

Screens (CRT, LCD, Glass, Lead, Indium Glass products, soldering

LED)

Batteries (Li-ion, NiMH) Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel New batteries, alloys

Plastics & Casings ABS, Polycarbonate Recycled plastics for consumer

goods

IV. Global and Indian Perspective on Resource Recovery

●​ According to the Global E-waste Monitor (2020), only 17.4% of global e-waste is formally collected and
recycled.​

●​ India is among the top e-waste generating countries, but its recovery efficiency is still low due to:​
 ○​ A large informal sector.​

○​ Lack of awareness and infrastructure.​

○​ Limited consumer participation in recycling.​

V. Challenges in Resource Recovery

1.​ Lack of segregation at source:​

○​ Mixing of recyclable and non-recyclable waste reduces efficiency.​

2.​ Informal recycling practices:​

○​ Unsafe and inefficient recovery methods using acid baths or open burning.​

3.​ Technological limitations:​

○​ Advanced recovery requires investment in high-end technologies (e.g., hydrometallurgy,

pyrometallurgy).​

4.​ Economic unviability for some materials:​

○​ The cost of recovery for certain materials might exceed their market value.​

Conclusion

E-waste, when properly managed, is not just waste but a source of valuable raw materials. Maximizing the potential
of resource recovery is essential for environmental sustainability, economic growth, and reducing dependence on
virgin resources. However, it requires a strong policy framework, modern technologies, and public participation.

8: Technologies for Resource Recovery from E-waste

I. Introduction

The recovery of valuable materials from e-waste requires the application of specialized technologies. These
technologies aim to extract metals, plastics, and other reusable components with maximum efficiency and
minimum environmental harm.

Technologies are generally divided into two categories:

1.​ Mechanical Processes​

2.​ Chemical and Thermal Processes​

II. Mechanical Processing Technologies

These involve physical separation techniques and are usually the first stage of treatment.

1.​ Manual Dismantling:​

○​ Trained workers dismantle e-waste items manually.​

○​ Useful for extracting easily removable components like hard drives, batteries, and circuit boards.​

○​ Common in both formal and informal sectors.​

2.​ Shredding and Crushing:​

○​ Devices are shredded into small pieces using industrial shredders.​

○​ Increases surface area for better separation in the next steps.​

3.​ Magnetic Separation:​

○​ Uses magnets to separate ferrous metals (iron, steel) from the shredded material.​

4.​ Eddy Current Separation:​

○​ Separates non-ferrous metals (aluminium, copper) using induced electrical currents.​

5.​ Density Separation (Air and Water):​

○​ Separates materials based on their weight.​

○​ Lighter plastics are separated from heavier metal particles.​

III. Chemical and Thermal Processing Technologies

These methods are used to extract specific metals and treat hazardous materials.

1.​ Pyrometallurgy (High-Temperature Processing):​

○​ Involves smelting e-waste at high temperatures to extract metals.​

○​ Used for recovery of copper, lead, gold, and silver.​

○​ Disadvantages include high energy use and toxic emissions (requires air pollution control systems).​

2.​ Hydrometallurgy (Chemical Leaching):​

 ○​ Metals are dissolved in chemical solutions (acids like cyanide or nitric acid).​

○​ Precious metals like gold and palladium can be selectively extracted.​

○​ Generates liquid waste that must be treated carefully.​

3.​ Bioleaching (Microbial Recovery):​

○​ Uses specific bacteria or fungi to extract metals from e-waste.​

○​ Environmentally friendly but slower and not yet widely adopted on a commercial scale.​

4.​ Plasma Arc Recycling:​

○​ Uses a plasma torch to reach extremely high temperatures (>5000°C).​

○​ Breaks down hazardous components and recovers valuable metals.​

○​ High setup and operating costs.​

IV. Technology Use in India vs. Developed Countries

●​ Developed Countries:​

○​ Use advanced automated technologies with pollution control.​

○​ Strong enforcement of E-waste regulations.​

○​ Higher recovery rates and better worker safety.​

●​ India (Largely informal sector):​

○​ Manual dismantling, open burning, and acid baths are common.​

○​ Low recovery efficiency and serious health/environmental impacts.​

○​ Formal recyclers are emerging but still limited in capacity.​

V. Role of R&D and Policy in Advancing Technology

●​ Government-supported R&D can make recovery technologies cheaper and scalable.​

●​ Policy instruments like subsidies, EPR enforcement, and public-private partnerships are crucial.​
Conclusion

Effective e-waste resource recovery depends on selecting appropriate technologies based on environmental safety,
cost, and material type. A shift from manual and hazardous methods to clean, efficient technologies is essential for
sustainable e-waste management.

9: Steps in Recycling and Recovery of Materials through Mechanical Processing

I. Introduction

Mechanical processing is the initial stage in e-waste recycling. It involves non-chemical, physical techniques to
break down and separate components based on size, weight, and magnetic properties. This process is relatively
safer and more environmentally friendly compared to chemical methods.

Mechanical processing is important because it:

●​ Prepares e-waste for further treatment.​

●​ Recovers a large portion of metals, plastics, and glass.​

●​ Reduces the volume of waste that needs chemical or thermal processing.​

II. Main Steps in Mechanical Processing

The process typically follows a systematic sequence of stages:

1.​ Collection and Transportation:​

○​ E-waste is collected from various sources (households, institutions, businesses) and transported to
processing units.​

○​ Proper labeling and packaging ensure safe and legal movement.​

2.​ Manual Sorting and Dismantling:​

○​ Workers manually disassemble large components like monitors, CPUs, and printers.​

○​ Items such as batteries, circuit boards, and cables are removed for separate handling.​

3.​ Shredding or Crushing:​

○​ The dismantled parts are shredded into smaller pieces using industrial shredders.​

○​ This improves separation efficiency and exposes embedded materials.​

 4.​ Screening (Sieving):​

○​ The shredded material is passed through vibrating screens to separate it based on particle size.​

○​ Fine particles (dust, glass) are separated from larger metal or plastic parts.​

5.​ Magnetic Separation:​

○​ Ferrous metals (such as steel and iron) are extracted using strong magnets.​

6.​ Eddy Current Separation:​

○​ Non-ferrous metals like aluminium and copper are separated using eddy currents.​

○​ This technique creates a magnetic field that repels non-ferrous metals from other materials.​

7.​ Density Separation (Air or Water):​

○​ Materials are separated based on their density.​

○​ Lighter materials (plastics) float, while heavier ones (metals) sink.​

○​ Air classifiers may also be used to separate materials using airflow.​

8.​ Plastic and Glass Separation:​

○​ Plastics are often sorted using infrared sensors or manual sorting.​

○​ Glass (from screens or casings) is collected separately, especially CRT glass, which may contain
lead.​

III. Output of Mechanical Processing

After all the separation steps, the main recovered fractions include:

●​ Ferrous and non-ferrous metals (for refining or resale)​

●​ Plastics (for recycling into new products)​

●​ Glass (for safe disposal or reuse)​

●​ Residue or hazardous fractions (sent for specialized treatment or disposal)​

IV. Advantages of Mechanical Processing

 ●​ Low environmental risk compared to chemical processing.​

●​ Cost-effective for bulk processing.​

●​ Efficient for pre-treatment before advanced recovery methods.​

●​ Scalable and adaptable to local conditions.​

V. Limitations

●​ Cannot recover all types of materials (e.g., some precious metals remain embedded).​

●​ Produces mixed waste fractions that require further sorting or treatment.​

●​ Informal sector often skips safety measures, leading to health risks.​

Conclusion

Mechanical processing plays a foundational role in the e-waste recycling chain. It prepares e-waste for efficient
recovery while minimizing environmental harm. Investing in better mechanical technologies can significantly enhance
resource recovery and reduce the volume of hazardous waste.

10: Occupational and Environmental Health Effects of E-waste

I. Introduction

The handling, dismantling, and processing of e-waste—especially in informal or unregulated settings—poses serious
health risks to workers and causes environmental contamination. These effects arise mainly from the hazardous
substances present in electronic products such as lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, brominated flame
retardants, and chlorinated plastics.

II. Occupational Health Effects

Workers in the e-waste sector—particularly those in the informal sector—are exposed to toxic materials during:

●​ Manual dismantling without safety gear.​

●​ Open burning of wires and plastics.​

●​ Acid leaching to extract metals.​

●​ Handling of broken cathode ray tubes (CRTs), batteries, and printed circuit boards.​
Common Health Effects Include:

1.​ Respiratory Problems:​

○​ Inhalation of toxic fumes from burning plastics or soldering releases dioxins, furans, and heavy
metals.​

○​ Can lead to asthma, bronchitis, and lung damage.​

2.​ Skin Disorders and Allergies:​

○​ Direct contact with acids or toxic dust can cause rashes, burns, and long-term skin conditions.​

3.​ Neurological Damage:​

○​ Lead, mercury, and cadmium exposure can impair brain development (especially in children) and
cause memory loss, headaches, and cognitive disorders.​

4.​ Reproductive and Developmental Issues:​

○​ Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may affect fertility, fetal development, and cause birth
defects.​

5.​ Cancer Risk:​

○​ Long-term exposure to carcinogenic compounds like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy
metals increases the risk of cancers.​

6.​ Eye and Vision Problems:​

○​ Exposure to toxic fumes or metal dust may lead to eye irritation or even vision loss over time.​

III. Environmental Health Effects

Improper disposal or processing of e-waste contaminates soil, water, and air. These effects are often long-lasting and
affect both urban and rural ecosystems.

1.​ Soil Contamination:​

○​ Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, arsenic) leach into soil from landfills or open dumping.​

○​ Reduces soil fertility and enters food chains through crops.​

2.​ Water Pollution:​

○​ Acids and chemicals used in metal extraction often reach groundwater or surface water sources.​

○​ Harmful to aquatic life and contaminates drinking water.​

 3.​ Air Pollution:​

○​ Burning of wires and plastics releases dioxins, furans, and fine particulate matter.​

○​ Contributes to air pollution and smog, affecting large populations.​

4.​ Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification:​

○​ Toxic elements accumulate in organisms and move up the food chain.​

○​ Can affect birds, animals, and ultimately humans.​

IV. Vulnerable Populations

1.​ Children:​

○​ Often involved in informal recycling; more susceptible to toxins.​

○​ Lower body weight and developing organs make them extremely vulnerable.​

2.​ Women:​

○​ May face reproductive health issues from chemical exposure.​

○​ In some areas, women are employed for manual sorting and dismantling.​

3.​ Informal Sector Workers:​

○​ Typically untrained and unprotected; face the highest exposure to hazards.​

V. Preventive Measures and Solutions

1.​ Formalization of E-waste Sector:​

○​ Moving recycling activities into the formal sector with proper training and safety protocols.​

2.​ Use of Protective Equipment:​

○​ Gloves, masks, goggles, and proper ventilation in workspaces.​

3.​ Worker Health Monitoring:​

○​ Regular medical check-ups and exposure tracking.​

4.​ Strict Regulation and Enforcement:​

 ○​ Enforcement of laws under the E-waste (Management) Rules and environmental standards.​

5.​ Public Awareness and Education:​

○​ Educating workers, consumers, and producers about health risks and safe practices.​

Conclusion

E-waste poses serious occupational and environmental health hazards, particularly in developing countries where
informal recycling is widespread. Addressing these issues requires coordinated efforts in regulation, technological
upgrade, worker protection, and public participation.

UNIT 1 SUMMARY NOTES

E-waste Composition, Generation and Management

1. Definition, Composition, and Generation of E-waste

●​ E-waste: Discarded electrical or electronic devices.​

●​ Composition: Metals (iron, copper, aluminium, gold), plastics, glass, hazardous materials (lead, mercury,
cadmium).​

●​ Generation: Rapid technology obsolescence, increased consumerism, and low recycling rates contribute to
rising e-waste.​

2. Global and National Perspectives

●​ Global: 53.6 million tonnes generated in 2019; only 17.4% recycled formally.​

●​ India: Third-largest e-waste generator after China and USA. Informal sector dominates recycling with unsafe
practices.​

●​ Policy: E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 (amended in 2022) with Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR).​

3. Co-pollutants and Hazardous Properties

●​ Co-pollutants: Emissions from burning plastics, acid baths, etc.​

 ●​ Hazardous substances: Lead, cadmium, mercury, brominated flame retardants, arsenic.​

●​ Properties: Toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and carcinogenic potential.​

4. Effects on Human Health and Environment

●​ Health Effects: Respiratory issues, neurological damage, skin diseases, reproductive disorders.​

●​ Environmental Effects: Soil and water contamination, air pollution, bioaccumulation, ecosystem damage.​

5. Domestic E-waste Disposal

●​ Practices: Dumping in landfills, open burning, resale in informal markets.​

●​ Challenges: Lack of awareness, inadequate infrastructure, informal recycling.​

●​ Need for: Segregation, awareness, and formal collection systems.​

6. E-waste Management – Principles and Components

●​ Principles:​

○​ 3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle​

○​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)​

○​ Polluter Pays and Precautionary Principles​

○​ Sustainable Development​

●​ Components: Collection, storage, transportation, segregation, dismantling, recycling, safe disposal.​

7. Resource Recovery Potential

●​ Valuable materials: Gold, silver, copper, aluminium, rare earth metals.​

●​ Benefits: Economic gain, reduced environmental impact, conservation of resources.​

●​ Challenges: Informal handling, poor infrastructure, low consumer participation.​

8. Technologies for Resource Recovery

●​ Mechanical: Dismantling, shredding, magnetic and eddy current separation.​

●​ Chemical/Thermal:​

○​ Pyrometallurgy (smelting)​

○​ Hydrometallurgy (acid leaching)​

○​ Bioleaching (microorganisms)​

○​ Plasma arc recycling​

●​ Developed nations use advanced methods; India relies on informal manual practices.​

9. Steps in Recycling through Mechanical Processing

1.​ Collection and transportation​

2.​ Manual dismantling​

3.​ Shredding​

4.​ Screening/sieving​

5.​ Magnetic separation (for ferrous metals)​

6.​ Eddy current separation (for non-ferrous metals)​

7.​ Density separation (air/water-based)​

8.​ Output: separated metals, plastics, glass; hazardous residues sent for safe disposal.​

10. Occupational and Environmental Health Effects

●​ Occupational Hazards: Chemical exposure, respiratory issues, skin disorders, neurological problems.​

●​ Environmental Impact: Soil and water pollution, air emissions, harm to biodiversity.​

●​ At-risk Groups: Children, women, informal workers.​

●​ Solutions: Formalization of sector, safety equipment, public awareness, regulatory enforcement.​

UNIT-2

1. Factors in Global Waste Trade Economy

Overview:

The global trade in waste, especially electronic waste (e-waste), is driven by a complex set of economic, political,
and regulatory factors. Developed countries often export waste to developing nations due to economic incentives
and weaker environmental regulations.

Key Factors:

1. Cost Advantages:

●​ Recycling or disposing of e-waste in developed countries is costly due to strict environmental laws and labor
costs.​

●​ Developing countries offer cheaper labor and looser regulations, making waste disposal more profitable.​

2. Technological Disparity:

●​ Advanced countries possess high-end recycling technologies but still export e-waste.​

●​ Developing nations rely on manual labor and informal methods for recycling and material recovery.​

3. Demand for Raw Materials:

●​ Countries with growing manufacturing sectors (like India, China) see e-waste as a source of valuable
metals like gold, copper, and palladium.​

4. Weak Enforcement & Loopholes:

●​ E-waste is often labeled as “second-hand goods” or “donations” to bypass trade restrictions.​

●​ Lack of proper checks at ports enables illegal trade.​

5. Global Economic Inequality:

●​ Developed nations offload environmental burdens on poorer countries, reflecting a form of environmental
injustice.​

6. Lack of Global Regulation:

 ●​ Treaties like the Basel Convention aim to restrict hazardous waste trade, but enforcement is weak.​

●​ The U.S. hasn't ratified the Basel Convention, enabling it to export more waste.​

Implications:

●​ Encourages the growth of informal and unsafe recycling industries in poorer nations.​

●​ Leads to occupational health risks, environmental degradation, and exploitation of vulnerable communities.

2. Waste Trading and Electronic Recycling

A. What is Waste Trading?

Waste trading refers to the international or domestic exchange of waste materials—especially hazardous or
valuable waste like e-waste—between countries or regions. In global terms, it often means exporting e-waste from
developed to developing countries for recycling or disposal.

B. Why is E-waste Traded?

1.​ Economic Reason:​

○​ Developing countries accept e-waste because it contains recoverable materials like copper, gold,
silver, and aluminum.​

○​ The cost of labor and environmental compliance is lower, making recycling more profitable.​

2.​ Avoiding Regulation:​

○​ Exporters label e-waste as "second-hand electronics" or "refurbished goods" to bypass customs

and environmental checks.​

3.​ Global Demand for Raw Materials:​

○​ There's a high demand for metals in electronics manufacturing.​

○​ Extracting these from e-waste is cheaper than mining raw ore.​

C. What is Electronic Recycling?

Electronic recycling is the process of recovering reusable parts and materials from discarded electronic
products.
Types:

●​ Formal Recycling (Organized Sector):​

○​ Uses scientific and safe methods like mechanical shredders, chemical processes, and automated
systems.​

○​ Environmentally safe and regulated.​

●​ Informal Recycling (Unorganized Sector):​

○​ Workers manually dismantle electronics using unsafe tools.​

○​ Often done without protective equipment, exposing them to hazardous substances.​

D. Steps in E-waste Recycling:

1.​ Collection and Transportation – Gathering discarded electronics from various sources.​

2.​ Sorting and Dismantling – Manually or mechanically separating parts.​

3.​ Mechanical Processing – Shredding, magnetic separation, and eddy current to recover metals.​

4.​ Refining and Recovery – Extracting valuable elements like gold and silver using chemical methods.​

E. Issues in Waste Trading and Recycling:

●​ Health Risks: Toxic exposure to mercury, lead, and cadmium.​

●​ Environmental Damage: Soil and water pollution from improper disposal.​

●​ Child Labor: In some areas, children are involved in informal recycling.​

●​ Policy Gaps: Lack of coordination between exporters and importers leads to unregulated trade.​

Summary:

Waste trading and electronic recycling are driven by economic benefits but come with serious health and
environmental costs, especially in countries lacking strong waste management systems. The informal sector
dominates in many developing countries, leading to unsafe recycling practices.

3. Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) as a Means of Waste Trading

A. What are Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)?

Free Trade Agreements are treaties between two or more countries that aim to reduce or eliminate barriers to
trade, such as tariffs, import quotas, and export restrictions. While these agreements promote economic
cooperation, they can also create loopholes that allow hazardous waste, including e-waste, to be traded more
freely.

B. How FTAs Facilitate Waste Trading:

1.​ Liberalized Trade Rules:​

○​ FTAs reduce restrictions on cross-border movement of goods, including used or second-hand

electronics.​

○​ This opens the door to exporting e-waste under the label of reusable electronics, making
regulation difficult.​

2.​ Lack of Specific Environmental Provisions:​

○​ Many FTAs do not include strong clauses for environmental protection or hazardous waste
control.​

○​ This makes it easier for e-waste exporters to shift their waste burden to countries with weaker
enforcement.​

3.​ Exploitation of Regulatory Gaps:​

○​ Developed countries use FTAs to send end-of-life electronics to developing countries.​

○​ These imports are often not properly inspected and end up in informal recycling units.​

C. Key Examples:

●​ NAFTA (now USMCA): Facilitated the movement of used electronics from the U.S. to Mexico for recycling.​

●​ India's Trade Relations: India has FTAs with countries like Japan, ASEAN, and South Korea. These
relationships have made it easier for large volumes of used electronics to enter India, often leading to
unregulated recycling in cities like Delhi and Moradabad.​

D. Environmental Concerns:
 ●​ Toxic Waste Inflow: FTAs can lead to increased import of hazardous e-waste disguised as usable goods.​

●​ Dumping Risk: Poor nations may become dumping grounds for rich nations’ waste.​

●​ Weak Oversight: Customs officials often lack the capacity to distinguish between reusable electronics and
waste.​

Summary:

Free Trade Agreements, while boosting global commerce, have unintentionally become tools for legalizing the
trade of e-waste, particularly by not clearly regulating hazardous waste trade. Developing nations like India face
the challenge of managing these inflows in the absence of robust environmental safeguards.

4. Import of Hazardous E-waste in India

A. What is Hazardous E-waste?

Hazardous e-waste refers to electronic waste that contains toxic and harmful substances such as:

●​ Lead in CRT monitors and batteries​

●​ Mercury in switches and lamps​

●​ Cadmium in chip resistors and semiconductors​

●​ Brominated flame retardants in plastics​

These substances can cause serious harm to health and the environment if not handled properly.

B. Why is E-waste Imported into India?

1.​ Low Cost of Processing:​

○​ Recycling is cheaper in India due to low labor costs and weaker environmental regulations.​

○​ Importers make profit by extracting precious metals like gold, silver, copper from e-waste.​

2.​ Weak Regulation and Enforcement:​

○​ Loopholes in laws allow the import of e-waste disguised as:​

 ■​ Donations​

■​ Refurbished goods​

■​ Second-hand electronics​

○​ Lack of infrastructure at Indian ports and customs to properly inspect shipments.​

3.​ High Demand for Raw Materials:​

○​ India’s growing electronics industry increases the demand for recovered materials.​

○​ It’s cheaper to import e-waste and extract materials than to mine or import refined metals.​

C. Legal Framework Governing E-waste Import in India

1. Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016:

●​ These rules prohibit import of e-waste for disposal.​

●​ Allow import only for:​

○​ Refurbishing​

○​ Research​

○​ Recycling by registered facilities​

2. Basel Convention (1992):

●​ An international treaty to control transboundary movements of hazardous wastes.​

●​ India is a signatory.​

●​ Despite this, illegal e-waste imports still occur due to poor enforcement.​

D. Trends and Data:

●​ A 2019 study by Toxics Link revealed that India imported around 1 million tonnes of e-waste annually,
much of it illegally.​

●​ Major exporting countries include USA, UK, Japan, and South Korea.​

●​ Ports like Mundra (Gujarat), Nhava Sheva (Mumbai), and Chennai are key entry points.​
E. How is the Waste Imported?

1.​ False Labeling: E-waste is declared as usable electronics.​

2.​ Donation Route: Old computers and devices are donated to NGOs or schools.​

3.​ Re-export from Third Countries: Waste is first sent to a third country and then re-exported to India under a
different name or category.​

4.​ Shipbreaking Industry: Large quantities of obsolete electronics come in with old ships, especially in Alang,
Gujarat.​

F. Environmental and Health Impacts:

●​ Soil and Water Pollution: Toxic substances leach into the environment from unregulated dumps.​

●​ Air Pollution: Burning of wires and plastics releases dioxins and furans.​

●​ Human Health Hazards:​

○​ Neurological damage due to lead and mercury exposure​

○​ Respiratory issues from toxic fumes​

○​ Skin and eye irritation from acid baths used in informal recycling​

G. Government Response:

●​ Strengthening Customs Monitoring: Deployment of scanning and detection units at ports.​

●​ Amendments in E-waste Rules: 2022 rules tighten norms for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).​

●​ Crackdowns on Illegal Units: Some unregistered e-waste processing centers have been shut down.​

Summary:

India, despite laws restricting hazardous waste imports, continues to face a surge in e-waste shipments due to
regulatory loopholes, economic incentives, and insufficient enforcement. The health and environmental risks
are significant, especially in informal sectors. Stronger border control, better monitoring, and formalization of the
recycling industry are essential for managing this issue.
5. India’s Stand on Liberalizing Import Rules for E-waste

A. Background Context

India, as one of the fastest-growing electronics markets, faces a dual challenge:

●​ Rapid increase in domestic e-waste generation.​

●​ Increasing pressure from international waste traders and global economic actors to allow imports of
e-waste, especially under the guise of second-hand electronics or refurbished devices.​

India’s stance on liberalizing import rules reflects a tension between economic benefits and environmental
protection.

B. Historical Policy Approach

1. Pre-2016: Weak Controls

●​ Before 2016, e-waste imports into India were poorly regulated.​

●​ Several loopholes in customs declarations and inadequate infrastructure allowed imports of used electronics
and e-waste.​

2. 2016 Hazardous and Other Wastes Rules

●​ The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 were a
turning point.​

●​ India prohibited the import of e-waste for disposal.​

●​ Allowed imports only for:​

○​ Refurbishment (by authorized units)​

○​ Testing or R&D​

○​ Recycling by registered facilities​

●​ Companies had to provide detailed documentation and clearances.​

C. Recent Developments: Liberalization Pressure and Policy Shifts

India’s position has evolved due to global trade pressures and industry lobbying:
1. Industry Arguments for Liberalization:

●​ Boost to Repair and Refurbishment Industry:​

○​ Electronics reuse generates employment.​

○​ Devices like laptops, servers, and mobile phones can be refurbished and sold at lower prices.​

●​ Raw Material Recovery:​

○​ India has the expertise to extract valuable materials like gold, copper, and palladium.​

●​ Circular Economy Goals:​

○​ Reuse and recycling align with sustainability and waste-to-wealth models.​

●​ Demand for Affordable Devices:​

○​ Low-income groups benefit from cheaper, second-hand electronics.​

2. Government’s Balanced Position:

●​ The government is cautiously opening up to allow certain controlled imports while keeping hazardous and
unmanageable waste out.​

●​ Some specific exemptions have been made:​

○​ Import of used medical equipment under strict norms.​

○​ Laptop and server imports by refurbishing companies in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).​

●​ However, India remains opposed to unrestricted import of end-of-life electronics for disposal.​

D. Criticisms and Concerns Over Liberalization

1. Environmental Risks:

●​ Import of near-end-of-life devices can lead to more e-waste dumping within India.​

●​ Many devices labeled as “refurbishable” are essentially non-functional and hazardous.​

2. Strain on Informal Sector:

●​ India’s informal sector lacks safety protocols.​

●​ Liberal imports may increase the burden of unsafe and polluting recycling practices.​
3. Dilution of Basel Convention Principles:

●​ India, as a party to the Basel Convention, is supposed to restrict transboundary movement of hazardous
waste.​

●​ Liberalization may contradict its global environmental commitments.​

4. Monitoring Challenges:

●​ Indian customs and port authorities often lack the expertise and equipment to differentiate between
genuine second-hand goods and disguised e-waste.​

E. Recent Example: 2019 Laptop Import Policy Case

●​ In 2019, India relaxed norms for import of used laptops under pressure from electronics refurbishers.​

●​ However, after environmental concerns were raised, the policy was reviewed and tightened again in
subsequent years.​

F. Way Forward:

1.​ Strict Certification Requirements:​

○​ Only allow imports from certified refurbishers and recyclers.​

○​ Mandatory labelling and traceability mechanisms.​

2.​ Boost Domestic Collection & Recycling:​

○​ Focus on managing domestic e-waste effectively before accepting global waste.​

3.​ Digital Monitoring Systems:​

○​ Use of digital tracking systems like Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Portals.​

4.​ Strengthen Enforcement Agencies:​

○​ Equip customs officials with training and tools for better detection.​

5.​ Public-Private Partnerships:​

○​ Collaborate with industry for building formal recycling infrastructure while ensuring environmental
safety.​
Summary:

India’s stance on liberalizing import rules for e-waste remains measured and cautious. While there is an economic
incentive to allow controlled imports for reuse and material recovery, the environmental risks, health hazards, and
potential for illegal dumping have kept the government from fully opening up. A balanced policy with strict
enforcement, traceability, and support to the formal sector is key to managing this complex issue.

6.E-waste Economy in the Organized and Unorganized Sector

India’s e-waste management system is dual in nature, comprising both organized (formal) and unorganized
(informal) sectors. Each plays a significant role in the collection, dismantling, recycling, and disposal of electronic
waste, but they differ drastically in their methods, environmental impact, efficiency, and regulatory compliance.

1. Unorganized Sector (Informal)

Overview:

●​ Dominates e-waste processing in India — handling over 90% of e-waste.​

●​ Largely consists of kabadiwalas, scrap dealers, rag pickers, and small-scale workshops.​

●​ Operates outside the legal regulatory framework and lacks technical expertise or environmental safeguards.​

Processes Used:

●​ Manual dismantling: Workers open up electronic devices using rudimentary tools like hammers and
screwdrivers.​

●​ Open burning: For extracting copper from wires or isolating metals from plastics, causing toxic emissions.​

●​ Acid baths: Used to extract precious metals like gold from circuit boards, releasing harmful fumes and
wastewater.​

●​ Dumping and burning of residuals: Non-valuable components are discarded in landfills or burnt in open
spaces.​

Environmental and Health Hazards:

●​ Toxic exposure (e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium) to workers, often without protective gear.​

●​ Soil and water pollution due to leaching of heavy metals.​

●​ Air pollution from open burning of plastics and other materials.​

●​ Children and women are often involved in hazardous tasks.​

Economic Aspects:

●​ E-waste is a source of livelihood for thousands of informal workers.​

●​ The sector is cost-effective and widespread, but unsustainable and environmentally damaging.​

2. Organized Sector (Formal)

Overview:

●​ Consists of registered recyclers and dismantlers under CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) and
SPCBs.​

●​ Operates under the E-waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended in 2018 & 2022).​

●​ Has access to modern, environmentally friendly recycling technologies.​

Processes Used:

●​ Mechanical shredding and separation using advanced machines.​

●​ Chemical processes for safe recovery of precious metals.​

●​ Wastewater treatment and air purification systems to limit pollution.​

●​ Documentation and traceability as per legal and environmental norms.​

Advantages:

●​ Efficient material recovery with minimal environmental harm.​

●​ Compliance with regulations, including Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).​

●​ Generates green jobs and contributes to the circular economy.​

Challenges Faced:

●​ High operational costs and expensive machinery.​

●​ Low inflow of e-waste due to dominance of informal sector.​

●​ Lack of awareness and segregation at source makes it hard to obtain usable e-waste.​

●​ Illegal diversion of e-waste from formal to informal sector due to faster cash payments.​
Government Initiatives to Bridge the Gap

●​ EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility): Mandates producers to channel e-waste to authorized recyclers.​

●​ Awareness campaigns to inform consumers and waste generators.​

●​ Incentives and subsidies for formal recyclers to improve their operations.​

●​ Integration efforts to train and incorporate informal workers into the formal economy.​

●​ Introduction of E-waste exchange platforms for transparent and trackable e-waste flows.​

Conclusion

The Indian e-waste economy is a paradox — while the unorganized sector provides livelihoods and collects most of
the waste, it does so at the cost of environmental and human health. The organized sector, though cleaner and safer,
remains underutilized. A collaborative approach, with policy support, public awareness, and infrastructure
investment, is essential to create a sustainable and effective e-waste management system in India.

7.Production and Recycling of E-waste in Indian Metro Cities

India’s metro cities are both the largest consumers of electronics and the biggest generators of electronic waste.
The production and recycling patterns of e-waste in these cities reveal a lot about the urban consumption culture,
waste management systems, and the duality between the formal and informal sectors.

1. Why Metro Cities?

Metro cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, and Kolkata are major e-waste hubs due to:

●​ High population density and urbanization.​

●​ Rapid IT sector growth, especially in Bangalore and Hyderabad.​

●​ Large volumes of corporate e-waste (servers, laptops, telecom equipment).​

●​ Rising consumer electronics consumption in households.​

●​ Shorter product life cycles due to tech obsolescence and increased affordability.​

2. Patterns of E-waste Generation

 ●​ Delhi NCR: Among the largest e-waste generators. The hub of informal recycling. Key areas: Seelampur,
Mustafabad, Mandoli.​

●​ Mumbai: Large commercial and industrial e-waste sources. Dharavi (Asia’s largest slum) has thousands
engaged in informal recycling.​

●​ Bangalore: Major IT hub. Corporate and personal device turnover is very high.​

●​ Hyderabad & Chennai: Electronic manufacturing hubs. Large volumes of industrial and household e-waste.​

●​ Kolkata: Major trading and dumping center for imported e-waste.​

3. E-waste Production – Sectoral Contributions

●​ Corporate sector (IT, telecom, banking): Contributes significantly to bulk e-waste (computers, servers,
routers).​

●​ Households: Increasing contributor due to smartphones, TVs, ACs, washing machines, etc.​

●​ Educational institutions and government offices: Also contribute regularly to e-waste.​

●​ Manufacturing and assembly industries: Generate process-related waste and defective electronic
components.​

4. E-waste Recycling Practices

Informal Sector (Dominant in Metro Cities):

●​ Operates through street-level collectors, kabadiwalas, and unregulated workshops.​

●​ Major activities:​

○​ Manual dismantling.​

○​ Extraction of metals using unsafe methods (burning wires, acid leaching).​

○​ Dumping or burning of residual toxic waste.​

●​ Health risks: Workers suffer from exposure to lead, cadmium, and other toxins.​

●​ Environmental damage: Water contamination, air pollution, and land degradation.​

●​ Economic reality: It’s cheaper and more accessible than formal channels.​

Formal Sector (Growing but still limited):

 ●​ Government-registered units with proper safety protocols.​

●​ E-waste collection through:​

○​ Authorized pickup centers.​

○​ Public awareness drives.​

○​ Tie-ups with corporations via EPR obligations.​

●​ Facilities have:​

○​ Machinery for shredding, separation, and metal recovery.​

○​ Proper waste disposal mechanisms and legal compliance.​

●​ However, faces problems like:​

○​ Low inflow of materials.​

○​ Inconsistent consumer participation.​

○​ Competition from the informal sector.​

5. Key Challenges in Metro Cities

●​ Lack of segregation at source – E-waste often mixed with household waste.​

●​ Consumer unawareness – Most people don’t know where to dispose of old electronics.​

●​ Inadequate infrastructure – Even in cities, authorized e-waste collection points are scarce.​

●​ Weak enforcement of e-waste rules and loopholes in monitoring.​

●​ Illicit trade and smuggling of e-waste from developed countries into Indian cities.​

6. Government Interventions & City-Level Initiatives

●​ E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 & Amendments – Promote EPR, collection targets, and formal
recycling.​

●​ Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) working with NGOs for e-waste collection drives (e.g., Delhi’s "E-waste
Collection on Wheels").​

●​ Smart Cities Mission emphasizes better solid and e-waste management.​

 ●​ Digital India and Swachh Bharat Missions promote clean tech and digital waste awareness.​

●​ Pollution Control Boards of states like Delhi, Maharashtra, and Karnataka have published e-waste recycling
guidelines.​

7. Best Practices from Metro Cities

●​ Bangalore: IT companies partner with formal recyclers through take-back programs.​

●​ Delhi: E-waste collection kiosks set up in collaboration with local authorities and recyclers.​

●​ Mumbai: Campaigns to educate students and residents about e-waste hazards.​

●​ Chennai: Startups emerging in formal recycling using AI and data-driven collection.​

8. The Way Forward

●​ Integration of informal sector through training and registration.​

●​ Strict monitoring and licensing of informal units.​

●​ Public-private partnerships to improve collection and recycling infrastructure.​

●​ Awareness campaigns targeting consumers and institutions.​

●​ Incentives for proper e-waste disposal (monetary rewards, discounts, take-back credits).​

●​ Data-driven policy making to track e-waste flows city by city.​

Conclusion

India’s metro cities sit at the heart of both the e-waste problem and its potential solution. While informal recycling
continues to dominate, metro cities also hold the infrastructure, consumer base, and political will to shift toward
sustainable, formal e-waste management systems. Balancing livelihood concerns with environmental protection
is the key to this transition.

Import of Hazardous E-Waste in India

1. What is Hazardous E-waste?

Hazardous e-waste refers to electronic waste that contains substances harmful to human health and the
environment, such as:

●​ Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Chromium VI​

●​ Brominated Flame Retardants​

●​ Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)​

●​ Acids and solvents used in processing​

These can cause:

●​ Neurological damage​

●​ Respiratory issues​

●​ Soil and water contamination​

●​ Long-term ecosystem degradation​

2. India’s Role in Global E-waste Trade

India is both a producer and a receiver of global e-waste. Despite international bans and domestic regulations, a
significant amount of hazardous e-waste enters India through:

●​ Illegal imports​

●​ Mislabeling as “donations” or “second-hand goods”​

●​ Grey markets and informal networks​

3. Reasons Why E-waste is Imported into India

●​ Cheaper disposal costs in India than in developed countries​

●​ Weak enforcement of environmental laws at ports​

●​ High demand for recyclable materials (gold, copper, aluminum) in the unorganized sector​

●​ Loopholes in trade rules that allow e-waste to enter as reusable goods or metal scrap​

●​ Informal recyclers offer low-cost processing using labor-intensive methods​

4. Common Entry Points for E-waste Imports

●​ Sea Ports: Mumbai (Nhava Sheva), Chennai, Kolkata, and Kochi​

●​ Dry Ports & Warehouses: Inland transit points in cities like Delhi, Ahmedabad, and Ludhiana​

●​ These are often used to smuggle or re-route e-waste shipments.​

5. Impact of Hazardous E-waste Imports

Human Health Hazards

●​ Exposure to toxic fumes during burning of plastics​

●​ Poisoning from handling circuit boards and chemicals without protection​

●​ Health impacts on children working in informal recycling units​

Environmental Hazards

●​ Leaching of heavy metals into soil and groundwater​

●​ Open-air burning causing air pollution​

●​ Water bodies polluted with acids and industrial sludge​

Socio-economic Issues

●​ Exploitation of cheap labor in informal recycling​

●​ Lack of safety measures for workers​

●​ Disruption of domestic e-waste markets by imported materials​

6. India’s Stand on Import Regulations

India has a dual approach:

●​ On one hand, it tries to restrict and regulate imports of e-waste.​

●​ On the other, trade liberalization and pressure from import lobbies have led to policy dilution in some
cases.​
Key Policies & Legal Framework:

●​ Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016:​

○​ Prohibit import of e-waste unless for repair, reuse, or research under strict conditions.​

●​ E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 & 2022 Amendments:​

○​ Focus on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) but don’t cover import loopholes directly.​

●​ Basel Convention (International Treaty):​

○​ India is a signatory.​

○​ Bans transboundary movement of hazardous waste from developed to developing countries.​

○​ India has reservations on the Basel Ban Amendment.​

7. Loopholes and Policy Gaps

●​ Misclassification of e-waste as “used goods” allows entry without strict checks.​

●​ Lack of proper tracking and inventory systems at ports.​

●​ Minimal penalties for violators.​

●​ Weak coordination between Customs, MoEFCC, and Pollution Control Boards.​

8. Recent Developments

●​ 2019: The Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) banned import of certain e-waste categories.​

●​ 2022: Discussions on tightening EPR rules to prevent dumping.​

●​ Green tribunals and NGOs have raised awareness and filed cases on illegal imports.​

●​ Increased scrutiny at ports, but still not widespread or consistent.​

9. Suggestions & Solutions

●​ Stronger implementation of the Basel Ban and national import restrictions.​

 ●​ Training customs officials to detect disguised e-waste.​

●​ Better inventory systems to track e-waste flows.​

●​ Transparency in trade reporting and enforcement of EPR at import level.​

●​ Collaboration with global agencies to block e-waste at the source.​

●​ Formalizing informal sector to reduce demand for illegally imported waste.​

Conclusion

Despite regulations, hazardous e-waste continues to enter India due to regulatory loopholes, poor enforcement,
and economic incentives. To protect human health and the environment, India must enhance its monitoring
mechanisms, strengthen legal frameworks, and invest in safe recycling alternatives.