Epithermal Gold Deposits-Paf!

I
"k
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Chapter H

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I

The Goldfield Gold District, Esmeralda and

Nye Counties, Nevada
By ROGER P. ASH LEY

The Tonopah Precious-metal District, Esmeralda and

Nye Counties, Nevada
By ROGER P. ASH LEY

The Republic Gold District, Ferry County, Washington

By MORTIMER H. STMTZ and ROBERT C. PEARSON

The Comstock Lode Precious-metal District, Washoe

and Storey Counties, Nevada
By WILLIAM C. BAGBY and ROGER P. ASH LEY

U.S. GEOlOGICAl SURVEY BUllETIN 1857

GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF GOLD IN THE UNITED STATES

DANIEL R. SHAWE and ROGER P. ASHLEY, SCientific Editors

LM.H. CARTER, Techmcal Editor
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
MANUEL LUJAN, JR., Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names 1n th1s publication IS for descnpt1ve
purposes only and does not 1mply endorsement by the U S Government

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1990

For sale by the

Books and Open-F1Ie Reports Section
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Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data

Ep1thermal gold deposits
p em -(Geology and resources of gold 1n the Umted States , ch H )
(US Geolog1cal Survey bulletin, 1857H)
Includes b1bhograph1cal references
Supt of Docs no I 19 3 1857H
1 Gold ores-Nevada 2 Gold ores-Wash1ngton-Ferry
County 3 Hydrothermal deposits-Nevada 4 Hydrothermal
depos1ts-Wash1ngton-Ferry County I Geologrcal Survey (US)
II Senes Ill Senes U S Geologrcal Survey bulletrn , 1857H
QE75 89 no 1857-H
[TN423 N3)
557 3 s-dc20 90-3011
(553 4'1'09793] CIP
CONTENTS
The Goldfield gold district, Esmeralda and
Nye Counties, Nevada
Abstract Hl
Introduction Hl
Geologic setting H2
Characteristics of ore bodies HS
Conclusions H6
References cited H6

The Tonopah precious-metal district, Esmeralda

and Nye Counties, Nevada ~
Abstract H8
Introduction H8
Geologic setting H9
Characteristics of ore bodies H11
Conclusions HU
References cited HU

The Republic gold district, Ferry County, Washington

Abstract H14
Introduction H14
Geologic setting HIS
O'Brien Creek Formation H1S
Sanpoil Volcanics H16
Scatter Creek Rhyodacite H17
Klondike Mountain Formation H17
Ore deposits Hl8
References cited H20

The Comstock Lode precious-metal district, Washoe and

Storey Counties, Nevada
Abstract H21
Introduction H21
Geologic setting H24
Stratigraphy H24
Structure H26
Alteration H26

Contents Ill
 Age relations H27
Ore deposits H27
Conclusions H29
References cited H30

FIGURES
Hl. Index map showing locations of the Goldfield and Tonopah mming
districts, Nevada Hl
H2-5. Maps showing:
H2. Generalized geology of the Goldfield mining district, Nevada H3
H3. Hydrothermally altered and ore-bearing areas of the Goldfield
mming district H4
H4. Generalized geology of the Tonopah minmg district, Nevada H9
H5. Generalized geology of the Republic graben, Ferry County,
Washington H16
H6 Index map showing the mines of the Republic mining district,
Washington H19
H7. Map showing location of the Comstock Lode district in
western Nevada H21
H8. Geologic map of the area of the Comstock Lode H22
H9. K2 0-variation diagram for samples from the Alta and Kate Peak
Formations H2S
HlO. Longitudinal section projecting major ore bodies in the Comstock Lode
onto the plane of the Comstock fault H28
Hll. Schematic cross section of the Comstock Lode at the Consolidated
Virginia bonanza H29

TABLE
Hl. Potassium-argon ages for rocks and vein minerals in the Comstock Lode
district H2S

IV Contents
GEOLOGY AND RESOURCES OF GOLD IN THE UNITED STATES

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I

The Goldfield Gold District, Esmeralda and Nye Counties, Nevada

By Roger P. Ashley

Abstract 12r0_0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~1~18~0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1~16~0---------;11.4o

The Goldfield district is an epithermal prec1ous metal

depos1t of the quartz-alunrte type. Gold ore bod1es are
assoc1ated spatially and temporally wrth a calc-alkalic vol-
canic center of earty M1ocene age Flows, tuffs, and brecc1as
of this center overtap a small caldera of Oligocene age SiliCIC
domes of Oligocene age and porphyritiC rhyodacite domes
of earty M1ocene age both 1ntrude the caldera nng-fracture
zone. Most of the rocks in and around the caldera are
hydrothermally altered, and gold ore bod1es are clustered
along the caldera marg1n, hosted both by Oligocene rocks N E V A D A
cut by the ring-fracture zone and M1ocene rocks that 1ntrude
or overtle the ring-fracture zone. The ore bodies formed at
relatively shallow depths from meteonc water at about 200 to
300 °C.
The d1strict has produced more than 4 2 mllhon ounces
(130 metnc tons) of gold and 1 45 million ounces (45 metnc
tons) of sliver, mostly before Wortd War I, and has modest TONOPAH
reserves and inferred resources of gold M1nor intermittent
production continues.

INTRODUCTION

The Goldfield mining district is located in the

western part of the Basin and Range province, 250 km
northwest of Las Vegas, Nev., and 300 km southeast of
Reno, Nev. (fig. H1 ). It is 40 km south of Tonopah, site
0 100 200 KILOMETERS
of another precious metal district described in a separate
article.
Gold was discovered in the northwestern part of
the Goldfield district in 1902. The first of the major lodes Figure H1 locations of the Goldf1eld and Tonopah m1ning
in the southwestern part of the district was discovered distncts, Nevada.

about 6 months later, in June 1903. Production began

late in 1903, and new mines were developed rapidly
Manuscnpt approved for pubhcatton September 13, 1989 through 1904. The operations of all the major mines

Epithermal Gold Deposits- Part I H1

except the Florence mine were consolidated as the The Goldfield deposit is an epithermal bonanza of
Goldfield Consolidated Mines Company in late 1906. the enargite-gold or quartz-alunite type (Berger, 1986).
Local mills were opened and expanded from 1905 to Such deposits occur in calc-alkalic volcanic rocks, are
1909, rail connections were completed in 1905 and 1907, associated with the effects of intense acid-sulfate hydro-
and a 48-km water-supply pipeline was completed from thermal alteration, and typically have significant byprod-
uct copper. Other examples in the United States include
Lida, Nev., in 1907. Peak annual production came in
Summitville, Colorado; Red Mountain, near Ouray,
1910, and production was small after 1919. Total
Colorado; and the Pyramid, Peavme, and Wedekind
recorded production is 4.19 million oz (130 metric tons) districts near Reno, Nevada Prominent examples else-
of gold, 1.45 million oz (45 metric tons) of silver, and 7 67 where m the world include El Indio, Chile; Chinkuash1h,
million lb (3,420 metric tons) of copper. The value of Taiwan; and Kasuga and Akeshi, Kyushu, Japan.
production, due almost entirely to gold at $20.67/oz, was Goldfield is the largest deposit of th1s type known in
about $90 million. North America, and one of the largest in the world, but it
Early in the 1980's, a joint-venture group consisting is considerably smaller than the related enargite-bearing
of Pacific Gold and Uranium, Inc., Noranda Exploration, massive sulfide deposits described by Sdhtoe (1983).
Inc.: and Southern Pacific Land Company carried out a
drilling program to test remaining near-surface parts of
the main vein system. Blackhawk Mines Corporation,
GEOLOGIC SETTING
the designated operator, stated the proven reserves as
2,060,000 tons at an average grade of 0.07 oz Au/ton,
including approximately 1,700,000 tons to be recovered Volcanic rocks of Tertiary age host the major ore
from three open pits, and the remainder from waste bodies at Goldfield (fig H2). These rocks are mainly
dumps left from previous operations (Blackhawk Mines porphyritic trachyandesite, rhyodacite, quartz latite, and
Corporation, written commun., November 1984). From rhyolite that formed during two episodes of calc-alkalic
1985 through 1987 Blackhawk Mines and a subsequent volcanism, m Ohgocene and early Miocene time A small
operator, Dexter Mining, have intermittently operated a amount of ore in the deepest parts of the vein system
small open pit immediately northeast of Goldfield, and formed in argillite of the Palmetto Formation of Ordo-
have heap-leached both primary ore and waste-dump vician age and quartz monzonite of Jurassic age.
material. From 1981 to 1984 Blackhawk intermittently An inferred caldera, about 6 km in diameter,
operated a small open pit in an ore body located 4 km formed in Oligocene time (Ashley, 1974) owing to
north-northeast of Goldfield. extrusion of silicic ash-flow tuffs (Vindicator Rhyolite
Composite level maps for the major Goldfield and Morena Rhyolite of Ransome, 1909) Quartz latite
mines (Goldfield Consolidated Mines Company, unpub. air-fall tuff (Kendall Tuff of Ransome, 1909) was
data) indicate that at least 8 million tons (7 million metric erupted from a vent inferred to lie along the ring-fracture
tons) of vein rock remain. The grade of this material has zone immediately east of Goldfield. Quartz latite flows
not been tested except for samples from the near-surface followed deposition of the tuff, and the quartz latite that
drilling by Pacific Gold and Uranium-Noranda-Southern filled the vent formed a dome. These flows (unnamed
Pacific, and sampling of open cuts by the U.S. Geological latite of Ransome, 1909) are exposed 3 km east-
Survey (Ashley and Albers, 1975). Results to date sug- northeast of Goldfield, but the dome is seen only in
gest that the average grade of untested remaining vein exposures in mine workings 1 km northeast of Goldfield.
rock is not likely to exceed 0 1 oz Au/ton (3 g!metric ton). Rhyolite air-fall tuff was then erupted mainly from a vent
Identified gold resources thus include measured reserves located along the ring-fracture zone 2 km north of
of about 5 tons ( 4.5 metric tons), and inferred resources Goldfield. Rhyohte (Sandstorm Rhyolite of Ransome,
of 16.5-22 tons (15-20 metric tons) (classification of U.S. 1909) filled the main vent to form a dome. The quartz
Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey, 1980). latite and rhyolite were probably derived from the
Because the inferred resources are mostly deeper than caldera-forming magma system. The Oligocene rocks
about 50 m and are mainly sulfide ore, they presently were extensively eroded before the second period of
include unspecified proportions of inferred reserves, volcanism, in early Miocene time. '
inferred marginal reserves, and possibly inferred sub- The lower Miocene volcamc sequence consists of
economic resources. In any future mining, silver is likely trachyandesite and rhyodacite flows, tuffs, and breccias,
to be of minor value and copper probably will not be with minor quartz latite and basalt (all included in the
economically recoverable. In the category of undis- Milltown Andesite of Ransome, 1909). Rhyolite and
covered resources, additional ore bodies with a few rhyodacite intrude this sequence to form numerous
tenths of a ton to about 1.7 tons (1.5 metric ton) of total domes, and tuff breccias and flows from the vents now
contained gold likely exist. occupied by the domes dominate the upper part of the

H2 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

 EXPLANATION
Quaternary alluvium Jurassic quartz monzonite and Ordovician
Palmetto Formation
: w+: ~ : +: ~ : Upper and middle Miocene basalt,
tuff, and rhyolite
Lower Miocene porphyritic rhyodacite
and rhyolite domes and flows
- - - - - Contact
Lower Miocene intermediate lavas ----Fault
Oligocene silicic flows and tuffs

Figure H2. Generalized geology of the Goldfield mining district. Geology by R.P. Ashley, 1974.

lower Miocene section. A cluster of porphyritic rhyolite right angles to adjacent fault planes, and these faults thus
and rhyodacite domes is located 10 to 15 km east to are shingle faults bounding a series of rotated blocks.
east-northeast of Goldfield, and several domes of dis- Another set of shingle faults on the south side of the
tinctive porphyritic rhyodacite (unnamed dacite of Ran- district trends northwest, and the fault blocks dip
some, 1909) are located along the ring-fracture zone. southwest. Other less well defined fault sets appear to
Numerous normal faults formed late in the early follow the ring-fracture zone, and represent fault
Miocene episode of volcanism. The most prominent set movements that propagated upward from the ring-
trends northeast and dips east; bedding and flow contacts fracture zone through lower Miocene cover rocks,
in the fault blocks are everywhere west-dipping, about at presumably because faults of the ring-fracture system

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H3

 EXPLANATION
13 18 16
17

Argillized and silicified rocks

Surface projections of ore-

bearing areas (from Ransome,
1909, and Searls, 1948)

0 2 KILOMETERS
I I

-- -- --------~--------------.------ -- - - -- I
i . I
I I
I I
I I
35 : 36 31 :
I I
I I
i i T2S
~~~~~~·~-~---~~~=~~---~~~~----~r----·---r---~T-----~
I I T§
I :

I
I
I
St~,:lltfiill~llliiEIJt~~~~i~'ti!D_IEJj£W.;w~.£:~s~Ji~%1S·--.-'\~-----J I
I

1 12
10 l Myers Mtn
I
I
I
I
--:----------
1
I

I
: ' 13
I

R42E R43E R43E R44E

Figure H3. Hydrothermally altered and ore-bearing areas of the Goldfield mining district.

were reactivated. A major fault zone extends from the advanced argillically altered rocks. The zone of advanced
main ore-productive area, along the south side of the argillically altered rock can be divided into two subzones,
ring-fracture zone, and continues S. 80° E. for at least a quartz-rich zone that forms resistant outcrops,
another 6 km. Individual faults that now define this zone surrounded by an outer relatively quartz-poor alunite- or
are the same age or nearly the same age as the shingle pyrophyllite-rich zone that is poorly exposed. The inner
faults. Distribution of some volcanic units of Oligocene resistant subzone commonly follows fractures or faults to
and early Miocene age indicates that this zone is older
form tabular features that are referred to as silicified
than early Miocene, and may have formed during or
immediately after emplacement of the Oligocene vol- zones or silicified ledges (Ransome, 1909; Ashley and
canic sequence. Albers, 1975).
Hydrothermal alteration at Goldfield affected an Geochronology of Goldfield hydrothermal altera-
area of more than 40 km2 (fig. H3). Much of the terrane tion minerals and host rocks has been studied extensively
in and around the ring-fracture zone is altered. Zones by Ashley and Silberman (1976). The lower Miocene
recognized, from the most to the least intense altera- volcanic rocks range from about 22 to 20.5 Ma.
tion, include (1) advanced argillic (quartz± alunite± Potassium-argon ages of premineralization and postmin-
kaolinite±pyrophyllite±sericite±diaspore + leucoxene + eralization units in the early Miocene sequence indicate
pyrite), (2) phyllic-argillic (quartz+ kaolinite+ sericite that hydrothermal alteration and mineralization took
±adularia±opal+pyrite), (3) argillic (quartz+mont- place about 20.5 Ma. This age estimate is confirmed by
morilloni te + iJiite ±kaolinite± relict feldspar+ pyrite), potassium-argon ages of hydrothermal alunite and ser-
and (4) propylitic (chlorite+ albite± epidote± montmoril- icite, and fission-track ages of apatite thermally reset
lonite±calcite±zeolite±pyrite). The ore bodies occur in during the hydrothermal activity.

H4 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORE BODIES radiation spectrographic technique for chalcophile ele-
ments (Heropoulos and others, 1984) showed significant
Ore bodies occur in silicified zones at several amounts of tellurium (100--3,000 ppm) and selenium
locations along the west and north sides of the inferred (70-500 ppm in five samples, < 10 ppm m one sample),
ring-fracture system (fig. H3). Most of the ore produced, but only 2 ppm or less thallium (R.P. Ashley and Chris
and nearly all the unoxidized ore, came from the Heropoulos, unpub. data, 1980).
relatively large productive area immediately northeast of Tellurides were most abundant near the center of
the town of Goldfield. The ore bodies throughout the the main productive area at relatively shallow depths
district were irregular sheets and pipes within crudely (about 60 m) in the upper parts of the vein system. Silver
tabular silicified zones, which constitute the vein systems. and copper content increased downward in the system
The productive silicified zones (veins) have the same relative to gold. Significant amounts of sphalerite and
appearance and alteration minerals as unproductive
galena were found only at the north end of this area.
silicified zones elsewhere in the altered area. The main
Ore-mineral zoning in the district as a whole is obscured
vein in the area, just northeast of Goldfield, has a sinuous
northerly trace, dips east at steep to moderate angles by the oxidized character of ores away from the main
near the surface, and dips at progressively lower angles productive area. There is some indication that the gold-
with increasing depth. Subsidiary veins occur both in the silver ratios generally decreased away from the main
footwall and hanging wall, and generally dip more productive part of the area to the north and northeast
steeply; some of the hanging wall veins appear to splay (Ransome, 1909).
upward from the main vein. Isotopic and fluid-inclusion studies on Goldfield
In relatively low grade ore (less than about 1 oz ores and alteration minerals are limited in scope. Pyrite
Au/ton), gold apparently is disseminated in the silicified from ore samples has o34 S values near 0.0 per mil,
rock; pyrite and lesser amounts of famatinite (tetragonal indicating a magmatic sulfur source, whereas o34 S values
Cu 3 (Sb,As )S4 ; isomorphous with luzonite, Cu 3 AsS4 ) are for several samples of hypogene replacement alunite
the only prominent sulfide minerals. In high-grade ore,
range from + 11.6 to + 23.3 per mil, indicating sulfide-
fractures and brecciated areas in silicified rock are filled
sulfate fractionation at temperatures of 150 oc or higher
with quartz, pyrite, famatinite, tetrahedrite-tennantite,
bismuthinite, native gold, and local gold-stlver tellurides. (Jensen and others, 1971). Some vein alunites have o34 S
Spectacular high-grade ore consists of breccia fragments values near 0.0 per mil, indicating that they were formed
coated with several layers of these minerals, with native from pyrite oxidized during supergene alteration (Field,
gold prominent in one or more of the layers. Two gold 1966). Values of o18 0 for a suite of whole-rock samples
samples examined by electron microprobe have fineness from several alteration zones, including advanced argil-
greater than 980 (Peter Vikre, written commun., 1981). lically altered vein material, range from -3.8 to + 5.8 per
Gold:silver ratios for most unoxidized ore mined in the mil (Taylor, 1973). Taylor proposed that Goldfield
district were about 3:1. Much of the silver probably hydrothermal fluids had the same isotopic composition
occurs in tetrahedrite-tennantite (Ashley and Albers, as those at Tonopah, which he concluded were about -13
1975). Rich ore from the center of the main vein per mil, or perhaps somewhat heavier. Qualitative
contained 1.5 to 2 percent Au by weight (440 to 580 oz
examination of fluid inclusions, which are generally less
Au/ton). Ore containing 100 or more oz Au/ton was not
than a few micrometers in diameter, suggests that
uncommon in the district.
The high gold:silver ratios of the ores relegated temperatures of the hydrothermal system, in the parts
s1lver to byproduct status. The only other significant presently exposed, were typically 200-300 °C, salinities
byproduct was copper, derived from famatmite, were low, and boiling was common. Some samples from
tetrahedrite-tennantite, and minor amounts of chal- mine shafts and drill holes at depths of 300 m or more
copyrite. Sphalerite occurs in some high-grade ores, but show relatively high salinities (greater than 24 weight
zinc was not recovered. Galena is very scarce, but a small percent NaCI equivalent), temperatures in the range
production of byproduct lead is recorded. Tin is reported 300-400 °C, and again, evidence for boiling. Bruha and
from some unoxidized ores mined deep in the main vein Noble (1983) provided data for advanced argillically
system (Searls, 1948); it probably occurs in famatinite. In altered rock collected from a locahty 4 km northeast of
addition to gold, silver, copper, arsenic, antimony, the town of Goldfield. They described fluid inclusions
bismuth, and tellurium, high-grade ores show anomalous that show necking, the result of a wide range of apparent
amounts of lead, zinc, mercury, tin, and molybdenum homogemzation temperatures; they inferred true
(Ashley and Albers, 1975). An unidentified selenium homogemzahon temperatures in the range 250-290 °C.
mineral was reported by Levy (1967). Six samples of Average salimty is 7 percent, and they saw no vapor-
average-grade ore analyzed by a short-wavelength- dominated inclusions, thus no evidence of boiling.

Epithermal Gold Deposita- Part I HS

CONCLUSIONS the characteristic sulfosalt-rich ore-mineral assemblage
(Wallace, 1979).
The geologic features of the Goldfield district
Manuscnpt recetved by sctenttfic edttors May 1985
include all the important distinguishing characteristics of
the enargite-gold type of deposit (Ashley, 1982); indeed,
Bethke (1984) has used the term "Goldfield type" for this
class of epithermal deposits. These deposits (1) occur in REFERENCES CITED
calc-alkalic volcanic centers, associated with domes of
porphyritic rock of intermediate composition; (2) are Ashley, R P, 1974, Goldfield mmmg d1stnct, zn Guidebook to
universally surrounded by prominent areas of acid- the geology of four Tertiary volcamc centers in central
sulfate hydrothermal alteration; and (3) have ores that Nevada Nevada Bureau of Mmes and Geology Report
are characterized by native gold and abundant copper 19,p 49-66
sulfosalts, particularly enargite or luzonite-group min- _ _ 1982, Occurrence model for enargtte-gold deposits, zn
erals such as famatinite. Erickson, R L , compiler, Characteristics of mmeral
deposit occurrences US Geological Survey Open-File
The most important physical ore control for
Report 82-795, p 144-147
enargite-gold deposits was the presence of permeable Ashley, R P, and Albers, J P , 1975, Distnbutton of gold and
zones, including faults, fractures, or permeable beds, other ore-related elements near ore bodtes in the
which provided channelways for hydrothermal fluids. mod~d zone at Goldfield, Nevada U S Geologtcal
Major throughgoing structures, however, were not Survey ProfessiOnal Paper 843-A, 48 p
required; breccias and minor, but commonly abundant, Ashley, R P, and Stlberman, M L, 1976, Direct datmg of
faults and fractures associated with dome emplacement mineralization at Goldfield, Nevada, by potasstum-argon
and growth were adequate. Equally important was the and fission-track methods Economtc Geology, v 71,
open space that was available near the conduits late in p 904-924
the episode of hydrothermal activity, because ore Berger, B R , 1986, Descnptive model of epithermal quartz-
minerals were deposited in this open space. Chemical alunite Au, zn Cox, D P , and Smger, D A , eds , Mmeral
controls of ore deposition presently are not understood, deposit models U S Geologtcal Survey Bulletm 1693,
p 158
and do not provide any additional ore guides.
Bethke, PM, 1984, Controls on base and prectous metal
The close spatial and temporal association between minerahzation m deeper eptthermal envtronments U S
enargite-gold deposits and volcanic domes indicates that Geologtcal Survey Open-File Report 84-890, 14 p
the deposits may have formed as part of the evolution of Bruha, D J , and Noble, D C, 1983, Hypogene quartz-
volcanic centers (Bethke, 1984). Igneous stocks or plugs alumte±pynte alteration formed by moderately sahne,
intruded the volcanic centers to shallow levels, releasing ascendant hydrothermal solutions Geologtcal Society of
plumes of S0 2 -rich magmatic gas that moved upward Amenca Abstracts wtth Programs, v 15, no 4, p 325
and mixed with ground water to establish a hydrothermal Fteld, C W, 1966, Sulfur tsotoptc method for discnmmatton
circulation system in the presence of a high sulfur flux. between sulfates of hypogene and supergene ongm
With declining temperature, S02 disproportionated to Economtc Geology, v 61, p 1428-1435
yield S04 , and with further temperature decrease, H 2 S04 Heropoulos, Chris, Seeley, J L, and Radtke, AS, 1984,
Spectrographic determmation of selemum m sttbmte
dissociated to produce the highly acid solutions respon-
Journal of Apphed Spectroscopy, v 38, p 451-454
sible for the intense hydrolytic alteration and leaching Jensen, M L, Ashley, R P, and Albers, J P, 1971, Pnmary and
that characterized the main stage of hydrothermal secondary sulfates at Goldfield, Nevada Economic
activity. Deposition of silica near the surface resulted in Geology, v 66, p 618-626
episodic self-sealing, development of overpressures, Levy, Qaude, 1967, Contnbut10n a Ia mm~ralogie des sulfures
breakage, flash boiling, and hydrothermal explosions. de cutvre du type Cu3 XS4 [France] Bureau de Recher-
Ore sulfides and sulfosalts were universally deposited ches G~ologtques et Mtmeres M~moire 54, 178 p
during a late stage of hydrothermal activity, filling open Ransome, F L, 1909, Geology and ore deposits of Goldfield,
spaces in zones of advanced argillically altered rock The Nevada US Geologtcal Survey Professional Paper 66,
required open space may have been produced by various 258p
Searls, Fred, Jr, 1948, A contnbution to the pubhshed mfor-
mechanisms, including hydrothermal explosions or tec-
matton on the geology and ore deposits of Goldfield,
tonic breakage, or even by earlier hydrothermal leaching Nevada Nevada Umversity Bulletm, v 42, no 5 (Geol-
of components of the volcanic host rocks. Little detailed ogy and Mmmg Senes 48), 24 p
information is available on conditions at the time of ore Sllbtoe, R H , 1983, Enargtte-beanng masstve sulfide deposits
deposition, so the mechanism and controls of gold high m porphyry copper systems Economic Geology,
deposition are presently unknown. Sulfur must have v 78,p 348-352
remained relatively abundant in the fluids to produce Taylor, H P, Jr, 1973, 0 18/0 16 evidence for meteonc-

H& Geology and Resources of Gold In the United S'-tea

 hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition m the Wallace, A B, 1979, Possible signatures of buned porphyry-
Tonopah, Comstock Lode, and Goldfield mining dis- copper deposits in middle to late Tertiary volcanic rocks
tricts, Nevada. Economic Geology, v 68, p 747-764. of western Nevada (m International Association for the
US Bureau of Mmes and US Geological Survey, 1980, Genesis of Ore Deposits, Sth Quadrenmal Symposium
Pnnciples of a resource/reserve classification for mm- Proceedmgs, v 2)· Nevada Bureau of Mmes and Geology
erals· U.S. Geological Survey Circular 831, S p Report 33, p 69-76

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H7

The Tonopah Precious-metal District,
Esmeralda and Nye Counties, Nevada

By Roger P. Ashley

Abstract built. The main productive period was 1910 to 1930;

The Tonopah dtstnct ts an epithermal precious metal
annual production during this period ranged from 1.9 to
depostt of the quartz-adulana type Andestttc and rhyollttc 11.6 million oz of silver and 20 to 128 thousand oz of gold
lava flows, ash-flow tuffs, volcantc and tntrustve brecctas, and per year. Total recorded production is 174 million oz
volcantclasttc rocks host quartz vems that contatn adulana (5,420 metric tons) of silver, and 1.86 mllhon oz (57 9
and senctte. Most ore consists of sulftde-beanng quartz- metric tons) of gold, plus minor copper and lead for a
adulana-senctte replacements of wall rock, but some con-
total value of $154 million at prevailing prices (Bonham
ststs of vetn quartz wtth dark bands of ore mmerals Silver
occurs tn acanthtte and sulfosalts, and gold occurs tn elec- and Garside, 1979).
trum, accompanted by mtnor amounts of base metal sulftdes Since World War II, exploration programs have
Host rocks and mtneral deposits both are of mtd-Terttary age. been carried out at various times in and around the
Recent stable tsotope and flutd-tncluston studtes tndtcate that Tonopah district by several companies. As a result of this
the ore bodtes formed at relattvely shallow depths from exploration, a small amount of ore was developed and
low-sahntty meteoric water at about 240 to 270 oc produced from the King Tonopah mine, at the north edge
The dtstnct has produced 174 mtlhon ounces (5,420
metric tons} of stlver and 1 86 mtlhon ounces (57 9 metnc of the distnct (Bonham and Garside, 1979). Summa
tons} of gold, has modest tnferred reserves of both stlver and Corporation acquired approximately two-thirds of the
gold, and has large hypothettcal resources of silver formerly productive part of the district in 1969, and
Exploratton acttvtty and productton, however, have been low rehabilitated the shaft of the Mizpah mine, a major
stnce World War II
producer in the center of the district. Houston Oil and
Minerals purchased Summa's properties in 1977 and
INTRODUCTION carried out a modest exploration program in the central
and western parts of the district. Houston Oil and
The Tonopah mining district is located about Minerals was subsequently incorporated in Tenneco
halfway between Las Vegas, Nev., and Reno, Nev. Minerals, and in 1986 Tenneco sold its Nevada gold
(fig. H1). It lies in the western part of the Basin and properties to Echo Bay Inc. Marginal reserves mclude
Range province, 170 km east of the Sierra Nevada. 128 metric tons of silver and 1.1 metric tons of gold in
James L. Butler prospected the site of Tonopah in dumps and tallmgs (Saunders, 1984) Unpublished data
May 1900, and took samples for assay to Belmont, a of Tenneco Minerals suggest that inferred reserves are at
silver camp 70 km to the northeast (Carpenter and
least 233 metric tons of silver and 1.9 metric tons of gold,
others, 1953). After receiving favorable assay results,
Butler returned in August 1900 and staked claims with but are unlikely to exceed about 390 metric tons of silver
partners Tasker L. Oddie and Wils Brougher. Production and 3.1 metric tons of gold Tenneco data also suggest
began late in 1900. Through 1901 Butler and his partners hypothetical resources of silver in the range of about
divided their ground into lease blocks and granted 120 2,200 to 2,700 metric tons, and gold in the range of 9 3 to
leases. The Tonopah Mining Company was organized 14 metric tons (Saunders, 1984; resource/reserve classi-
during 1901, purchased the original Butler claims, and fication of U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological
took possession from the lessees at the beginning of Survey, 1980). There is no reason to believe that reserves
January 1902. During the next 10 years, more than a or resources in any category have Ag:Au significantly
dozen other mining companies were organized, and different from the ratio of approximately 100.1 typical of
seven mills, ranging from 10 to 100 stamps in size, were past production. Thus any ore remaming in the dtstnct

H8 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

 QUATERNARY

IOdl Tailings, dumps, and fill

~ Alluvium

TERTIARY, MIOCENE
Brougher Rhyolite (162 my.)

Oddle Rhyolite

Siebert Formation

Fraction Tuff

Mizpah Formation (20.5 m.y.)

--+-- Surface exposure of vein

- - - - - Contact
-----Fault-Dashed where projected

0 'KILOMElEB
I
t I
0 UllE

I
Figure H4. Generalized geology of the Tonopah mining district, Nevada.

has more potential value for silver than for gold, even at GEOLOGIC SETTING
present high gold-to-silver price ratios.
The Tonopah district is an epithermal precious
J.E. Spurr visited the Tonopah district in 1902 and
metal deposit of the quartz-adularia type (Mosier and
1903, and published a comprehensive report in 1905. The
others, 1986). The quartz-adularia type may be divided most significant subsequent study is that of Nolan (1935),
into gold-rich and silver-rich subtypes (Heald and others, who mapped the extensive underground workings in
1987); Tonopah is a prominent example of the silver-rich 1929-1930. A recent study of Tonopah and the sur-
subtype. Some silver-rich quartz-adularia type deposits rounding region by Bonham and Garside (1979, 1982)
have significant base metal content, but Tonopah is presents new data on the surface geology and geochem-
relatively base metal poor. The only larger deposit of this istry; the underground workings were mostly inaccessible
type known in the United States is the Comstock Lode, a by the time of their work. The generalized geologic map
relatively gold rich deposit, which has greater total (fig. H4) is modified from Bonham and Garside (1979).
production of both gold and silver than Tonopah. Other Kleinhampl and Ziony (1984, 1985) have recently
deposits of this type described elsewhere in this series of summarized the history, geology, and mineral deposits of
reports, also relatively gold rich, include Telluride, the district.
Colorado, and Oatman, Arizona. Worldwide, the most The Tonopah Formation of Nolan (1935) is
prominent examples are in Mexico, and all are relatively exposed in the deeper mine workings of the district. The
silver rich; the four largest are Pachuca-Real del Monte, Tonopah consists of silicic ash-flow and air-fall tuff,
Guanajuato, Guanacevi, and Tayoltita. volcaniclastic rocks, and rhyolite domes and flows of late

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H9

Oligocene age. Bonham and Garside (1979) stated that located about 7 km south of Tonopah. The north margin
the Tonopah Formation unconformably underlies the of this caldera would lie about 1 km south of the
Mizpah Formation where the contact between the two Tonopah district mineralized area.
formations is exposed north of the district. Kleinhampl Bonham and Garside (1979) presented two direct
and Ziony (1985), however, considered these two age determinations for Tonopah mineralization, 19.1±
formations conformable, and claimed that they inter- 0 4 Ma and 181±0.7 Ma. They reasoned that the
tongue locally. Interbedded porphyritic andesite flows, Fraction Tuff is largely if not entirely premineralization
named the Sandgrass Andesite by Spurr (1915), are also in age, based on comparison of the Fraction age range
found only in the mine workings. The Tonopah with these ages. Dating of the Mizpah Formation indi-
Formation is more than 300 m thick in the underground cates that Mizpah volcanism closely preceded Tonopah
workings (Nolan, 1935), but its base is not exposed, and mineralization but was significantly older, by perhaps 1-2
million years. The Extension Breccia and West End
the depth to pre-Tertiary basement in the district is
Rhyolite are products of the most recent premineraliza-
unknown. tion magmatism known in the district, but the difference
Most of the ore-bearing veins at Tonopah occur in in age between this magmatism and the mineralizing
the Mizpah Formation of Bonham and Garside (1979), system is unknown.
originally called the Mizpah Trachyte by Spurr (1911, The most widespread postmineralization unit m
1915). In the Tonopah district the Mizpah consists of the vicinity of Tonopah is the Siebert Formation of
flows and flow breccia, and the formation reaches its Bonham and Garside (1979) (Siebert Tuff of Spurr,
maximum preserved thickness of 600 m, suggesting that 1905). The Siebert consists mainly of fluvial and lacus-
the vein system is located on or near a source vent for trine deposits, including conglomerate, sandstone, and
these volcanic rocks. At most localities the formation is shale. Volcanic rock clasts dominate, and both subaerial
hydrothermally altered, but scarce unaltered material and subaqueous silicic tuffs are common In the vicinity
has yielded two K-Ar ages at about 20.5 Ma (Bonham of Tonopah, the Siebert is about 13 to 17 Ma. Another
and Garside, 1979). Petrochemical data presently important postmineralization unit in the Tonopah district
available for the Mizpah are not adequate to determine is the Oddie Rhyolite of Spurr (1905), which forms plugs
the petrogenetic character of this volcanism. Data for and dikes that cut units as young as Siebert, and has been
other volcanic piles of similar age in the region, however, dated at about 16.5 Ma. Locally in the Tonopah district it
suggest that these rocks are calc-alkalic, with greater is strongly altered and weakly mineralized The Brougher
potassium content than most calc-alkalic series Rhyolite of Bonham and Garside (1979) (Brougher
(Anderson and Ekren, 1968; Ekren and others, 1971, Dacite of Spurr, 1905) forms prominent domes immedi-
Ashley, 1979). ately south and east of the Tonopah district. Although
Two intrusive units, the Extension Breccia and the domes near Tonopah are 16 2 Ma, nearly the same
West End Rhyolite, are exposed in underground work- age as the Oddie, the Brougher ts not altered or
ings in the western part of the district (Nolan, 1930, mineralized.
1935). Both are porphyritic rhyolite with abundant lithic Few faults are seen at the surface in the district.
fragments from the Tonopah Formation, Mizpah The most prominent is the Halifax fault, a north-
Formation, and Sandgrass Andesite, and pre-Tertiary trending, east -dipping normal fault on the east side of the
argillite. The West End Rhyolite is clearly the later of the district which shows both pre- and postmineralization
two, cutting and containing fragments of the Extension displacements. Several other important north-trending
Breccia. Effects of hydrothermal alteration are appar- premineralization normal faults and many minor faults
ently common, perhaps pervasive, in both units. These with the same general trend and various dips were
units are no longer accessible, and thus modern chemical mapped underground by Nolan, but are not recognizable
and age determinations are not available. on the surface. The most important premineralization
The Fraction Tuff of Ekren and others (1971), fault is the Tonopah fault, which is found at shallow levels
redefined by Bonham and Garside (1979), unconfor- in the central part of the district, and dips at moderate
mably overlies the Mizpah Formation. The Fraction is angles to the north and northwest. In the center of the
composed of quartz latite to rhyolite ash-flow tuff district, the fault surface is nearly flat, and to the east and
containing conspicuous moderately abundant lithic south it rolls over to low easterly and southerly dtps,
fragments throughout. Bonham and Garside (1979) respectively, before dying out Much of the ore in the
recognized three distinct ash-flow cooling units, and district came from veins localized along the Tonopah
placed the ages of these cooling units between 20.5 and fault and in steeply dipping, generally east trending
18 Ma, based on multiple age determinations. They hanging-wall splays above the Tonopah fault. The
proposed that a source caldera for at least part of the Tertiary formations of the district show varied but
Fraction may be centered in the Divide mimng dtstrict, generally moderate westerly dips throughout the terrane

H10 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

west of the Halifax fault, eliminating the possibility that and sporadic, and they were deposited earlier than silver-
the Tonopah fault is a folded fault surface. Age rela- and gold-bearmg minerals. Major gangue minerals are
tionships between faults of various trends are complex, quartz, adularia, and sericite; early rhodochrosite and
but the north-trending, moderately to steeply d1pping late barite and calcite are minor gangue components
faults are generally younger than the low- to moderate- (Fahley, 1981). Oxidized ores mined early in the district's
dipping faults and associated steeply dipping splays of the history contained silver haloids and native gold (Burgess,
Tonopah fault system. 1911).
Several investigators, beginning with Spurr {1905), Neither mineral nor chemical zonation has been
have descnbed and interpreted the zoning patterns of systematically investigated in the district, and such
wall rock alteration at Tonopah. Bonham and Garside investigations are not possible with the limited sample
{1979) combined an excellent discussion of earlier collections available. Bonham and Garside {1979) found
observations with data of their own; the following strongly anomalous amounts of silver, gold, and
summary is from their report. The ore-bearing veins of antimony, and weakly to moderately anomalous amounts
the district are mainly quartz, with adularia and sericite. of arsenic, copper, barium, and lead in hydrothermally
They are surrounded by successive replacement alter- altered surface samples from the limited area where
ation envelopes, beginning with a potassium silicate zone veins cropped out. They found strong manganese
having the mineral assemblage quartz + adularia+ anomalies accompamed by weak barium and zinc
sericite + pyrite. The potassium silicate zone grades anomalies over blind ore bodies. Arsenic and mercury
outward into an intermediate argillic zone that is first anomalies occur over some but not all ore bodies.
kaohnite-bearing (kaolinite+ quartz+ sericite+ pyrite), In recent years studies of oxygen isotope geo-
then montmorillonite-bearmg (montmorillonite + . chemistry (Taylor, 1973) and fluid inclusions (Fahley,
quartz+ kaolinite+ sericite+ pyrite). The intermediate 1981) done on the sample suite collected by Nolan have
argillic zone grades outward into a widespread propylitic added much to our understandmg of the conditions, of
zone that was divided into several subzones by Bonham ore deposition at Tonopah. Taylor found that quartz vein
and Garside {1979). Combined widths of potassium samples and rocks with potassium silicate alteration from
silicate and intermediate argillic zones reach tens of
the central part of the district have consistently low o18 0
meters. values of about -7 per mil; samples from workings
peripheral to the center of the district, including quartz
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORE BODIES vein material and rocks with propylitic alteration, have
values a few per mil higher. Taylor assumed tempera-
All ore in the district is localized along faults, and tures of 250--300 oc for alteration and ore deposition in
thus the ore bodies, although commonly very irregular in this epithermal system, and reasoned from oxygen
detail, are generally tabular sheets. The productive fraction factors for the quartz-water system at these
segments of the veins are confined to a carapace-shaped temperatures that the ore fluid must have been domi-
zone about 200 m thick with an apex at the surface in the nated by meteoric water with o18 0 between -10 and -16
center of the district. The carapace extends downward per mil. He postulated that an intrusive body beneath the
400--500 m on the east and west ends of the district, district drove a meteoric-hydrothermal system, and that
respectively, but only 200--300 m on the north and south higher fluid temperatures, or greater volume of fluid
sides of the district (Nolan, 1935). Much of the ore upflow, or both produced the lower o18 0 values in the
occurs as sulfide-bearing quartz-adularia-sericite replace- center of the district.
ments of wall rock, and most of the ore bodies had assay Fahley {1981) divided the main mineralization
walls (Nolan, 1935). Open-space fillings account for only episode at Tonopah mto three stages: an early barren
mmor amounts of ore; here quartz with irregular dark stage, an ore deposition (silver) stage, and a late barren
bands of ore minerals lines cavities and is overgrown by stage. Although the temperature ranges for all fluid-
much more conspicuous coarser grained quartz combs inclusion measurements are large for all three stages
representing a late barren stage of vein filling. Judged (80--180 °C), early barren stage quartz was deposited
from Nolan's block diagrams of the underground geology mostly between 250 and 270 °C, silver stage quartz was
(Nolan, 1930, 1935), major ore bodies typically reach deposited at about the same, or perhaps slightly lower
maximum dimensions of 300--400 m in the planes of the temperatures, and late barren quartz was deposited
host fault zones, and Nolan {1935) stated that stope mostly at 240--250 °C. Following the late barren stage,
widths reach 40 ft {12 m). temperatures declined to 140--160 °C, recorded by fluid
The main silver-bearing mineral is acanthite, and inclusions in the latest quartz and associated barite and
silver sulfosalts (polybasite and pyrargyrite) are also calcite. Salinity of the fluid was low throughout all stages,
important. Gold occurs in hypogene ores as electrum. w1th typical values of about 1 weight percent NaCI-
Sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite are generally minor equivalent. Some samples from all stages showed

Epithermal Gold Deposita-Part I H11

features interpreted as the result of boiling of the fluid at Rhyolite sequence, the volcano-tectonic setting of the
the time of entrapment. Although wide ranges of homo- district at the time of mineralization is not clear. The
genization temperatures commonly are observed at critical problem is the age relationship between various
individual localities, Fahley's (1981) data suggest that members of the Fraction Tuff and mineralization; the
temperatures during the silver stage were highest at age data upon which Bonham and Garside (1979) based
depth in the western part of the district rather than in the their interpretation that the mineralization postdated the
center of the district. He postulated that fluids in the Fraction are not compelling If their interpretation IS
upper parts of the meteoric-hydrothermal convection correct, however, the district may have formed immed-
system moved upward along the Tonopah fault system iately north of a caldera marg~n. If so, deeper parts of the
and into its hanging-wall fractures; the center of the meteoric convective system were likely localized by
district was an area of high flmd discharge. caldera-related structures, and some or all of the emg-
matic mmeralized structures of the district may be
related to caldera formation. If mmeralization predated
CONCLUSIONS the Fraction Tuff, the convective system may have
Tonopah is a prominent example of the quartz- formed in or on the flank of a stratovolcano In this case,
adularia type of epithermal precious metal deposit. the center of the system may have been on the west side
Characteristics of this deposit type are described by or immediately to the west of the district, in the area
inferred to host the feeders for the Extension Breccia and
Berger and Eimon (1983), Heald and others (1987), and
Bethke (1984), and summarized by Mosier and others West End Rhyolite, as depicted by Fahley (1981).
(1986). Discussions of genetic models by Buchanan Mineralization at Tonopah clearly predated Basin-Range
(1981), Berger (1982), Berger and Eimon (1983), and faulting, which began in this part of the Great Basin
Bethke (1984), as well as earlier work (Wh1te, 1981; about 17 to 16 million years ago (Bonham and Garside,
Wetlaufer and others, 1979) pointed out the similarities 1979; Ashley, 1979).
between quartz-adularia-type epithermal systems and
Manuscnpt received by SCientific editors November 1985
active geothermal systems that have been investigated
The hydrothermal origin of the Tonopah deposits
has been recognized since the early investigations of the
district (Spurr, 1905; Nolan, 1935). The combined results REFERENCES CITED
of Taylor's and Fahley's work bring many aspects of
earlier models out of the realm of speculation and Anderson, R E, and Ekren, E B, 1968, Widespread Igneous
provide a basis for sound interpretations. Fahley's tem- rocks of mtermed1ate composition, southern Nye County,
perature data show that Taylor's assumptions are largely Nevada, m Eckel, E B , ed , Nevada Test S1te Geological
correct, and point to a specific a18 0 value for the fluids Society of Amenca MemOir 110, p 57-63
associated with hydrothermal alteration and ore deposi- Ashley, R P, 1979, Relation between volcamsm and ore
tion of about -13 per mil. The temperature data also give deposition at Goldfield, Nevada, m International
credence to Taylor's interpretation that water·rock ratios Association for the Genesis of Ore Deposits (IAGOD),
associated with the hydrothermal alteration process were 5th Quadrenmal Symposium Proceedmgs, Vol II
quite high (2:1 or greater). Fahley's observations of Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Report 33,
p 77-86
boiling in alteration and ore-forming fluids, coupled with
Berger, B R, 1982, The geological attnbutes of Au-Ag-
a reasonable assumption of prevruling hydrostatic con- base metal epithermal deposits, m Erickson, R L ,
ditions, allow an estimate of depth of ore formation of compiler, Charactenst1cs of mmeral-depos1t occurrences
300 to 600 m below the paleosurface. The stable isotope US Geological Survey Open-File Report 82-795,
data, temperatures, boiling conditions, paleodepths, and p 119-126
uniformly low salinities all indicate conditions very Berger, B R, and E1mon, PI, 1983, Conceptual models of
similar to those seen in the explored, near-surface parts epithermal precious metal deposits, Chapter 15 m
of active geothermal systems. Fahley (1981) called on Shanks, W C , III, ed , Cameron volume on uncon-
boding and resulting effects, mcluding temperature drop, ventional mmeral deposits Society of Mmmg Engineers
/ 01 increase, pH increase, and / 51 decrease, to produce
of the Amencan Institute of Mmmg, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers, Inc, p 191-205
ore deposition. Not all samples of Silver-stage quartz,
Bethke, P M , 1984, Controls on base and precious metal
however, show evidence of boiling. mmerabzat10n m deeper epithermal environments U S
Although it seems reasonable that mineralization Geological Sutvey Open-File Report 84-890, 14 p
at Tonopah is genetically related to an episode of Bonham, H F, Jr, and Garside, LJ, 1979, Geology of the
intermediate to silicic volcanism represented by flows, Tonopah, Lone Mountam, Klondike, and northern Mud
flow breccias, and intrusions of the Sandgrass Andesite, Lake quadrangles, Nevada Nevada Bureau of Mmes and
Mizpah Formation, Extension Breccia, and West End Geology Bulletm 92, 142 p

H12 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

___ 1982, Geochemical reconnaissance of the Tonopah, Nolan, T B , 1930, The underground geology of the western
Lone Mountam, Klondike, and northern Mud Lake part of the Tonopah mmmg d1stnct, Nevada Umvers1ty
quadrangles, Nevada Nevada Bureau of Mmes and of Nevada Bulletm, v 24, no 4, 35 p
Geology Bulletm 96, 68 p ___ 1935, Underground geology of the Tonopah mmmg
Buchanan, L J, 1981, Precious metal deposits associated w1th d1stnct, Nevada Umvers1ty of Nevada Bulletm, v 29, no
volcamc environments m the Southwest Anzona Geologi- 5, 49 p
cal Society Digest, v 14, p 237-262 Saunders, F T, 1984, Summary report of the exploratiOn
Burgess, J A, 1911, The halogen salts of silver and associated potential of Tenneco Mmerals holdmgs m the Tonopah
mmerals at Tonopah, Nevada Economic Geology, v 6, mmmg d1stnct, Nye-Esmeralda Counties, Nevada Ten-
p 13-21 neco Mmerals unpublished report, 11 p
Carpenter, J A, Elliott, R R, and Sawyer, B F W, 1953, The Spurr, J E, 1905, Geology of the Tonopah mmmg d1stnct,
h1story of fifty years of mmmg at Tonopah, 1900-1950 Nevada US Geolog.cal Survey Professional Paper 42,
Umvers1ty of Nevada Bulletm, v 47, no 1, 157 p 295 p
Ekren, E B , Anderson, R E , Rogers, C L , and Noble, D C, ___ 1911, Tonopah geology Mmmg and Scientific Press, v
1971, Geology of Northern Nellis A1r Force Base 102,p 560-562
Bombmg and Gunnery Range, Nye County, Nevada U S ___ 1915, Geology and ore deposition at Tonopah, Nevada
Geolog.cal Survey Professional Paper 651, 91 p Economic Geology, v 10, p 713-769
Fahley, M P, 1981, Fluid mclus10n study of the Tonopah Taylor, H P, Jr, 1973, 0 18/0 16 eVIdence for meteonc-
district, Nevada Golden, Colo , Colorado School of hydrothermal alteration and ore depos1t1on m the
Mmes M S thesis, 106 p Tonopah, Comstock Lode, and Goldfield mmmg
Heald, Pamela, Foley, N K, and Hayba, D 0, 1987, d1stncts, Nevada Economic Geology, v 68, p 747-764
Comparative anatomy of volcanic-hosted epithermal US Bureau of Mmes and US Geolog.cal Survey, 1980,
deposits-Acid-sulfate and adularia-sericite types Eco- Principles of a resource/reserve classification for
nomic Geology, v 82, p 1-26 mmerals US Geological Survey C1rcular 831, 5 p
Wetlaufer, P H , Bethke, P M , Barton, P B , Jr, and Rye, R 0 ,
Klemhampl, F J , and Z1ony, J I , 1984, Mmeral resources of
1979, The Creede Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu-Au distnct, central San
northern Nye County, Nevada Nevada Bureau of Mmes
Juan Mountams, Colorado-A fossil geothermal system,
and Geology Bulletin 99B, 243 p zn International Assoc1atton for the Genesis of Ore
_ _ 1985, Geology of northern Nye County, Nevada· Deposits (IAGOD), 5th Quadrenmal SymposiUm
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Bulletm 99A, Proceedmgs, Volume II Nevada Bureau of Mmes and
172 p Geology Report 33, p 159-164
Mosier, D L, Singer, D A, and Berger, B R, 1986, Descriptive Wh1te, DE, 1981, Act1ve geothermal systems and hydro-
model of Comstock epithermal vems, m Cox, D P , and thermal ore deposits, m Economic Geology 75th
Smger, D A , eds , Mmeral deposit models· U S Anniversary Volume Economic Geology Pubhshmg
Geolog.cal Survey Bulletm 1693, p 150 Company, p 392-423

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H13

The Republic Gold District, Ferry County, Washington

By Mortimer H. Staatz and Robert C. Pearson

Abstract mills were built during the early years, and considerable
ore was handled, mostly unsuccessfully. Mining con-
The Republic district up to 1987 has produced approxi-
tinued until1901, when several of the mines, including
mately 2,450,000 ounces of gold and 14 mllhon ounces of
sliver, mak1ng rt by far the largest gold producer in the State the Republic (the leading producer at the time), shut
of Washington. Pnnc1pal production has come from a down. After the arrival of the railroads in 1902 and 1903,
number of moderate-size veins of limited depth near the town ore shipments were made to smelters in British Colum-
of Republic. Many veins were exhausted in the first part of the bia and western Washington (Full and Grantham, 1968,
20th century. Consolidation of many properties by Knob Hill p. 1483). From then through World War II (1945),
Mines, Inc., aggressive exploration by Day Mines, Inc., and
since 1981 by Hecla M1mng Co., and the rise in the price of
annual production in the district fluctuated markedly. By
gold have kept this district active into 1989. 1907 it had fallen to approximately 390 oz of gold; it
The ore bodies in the Republic mining district are increased in 1908 and by 1911 reached 38,000 oz.
pnnc1pally f1ssure f111ings Although the district lies within the Production then declined steadily to 1922 when 4,000 oz
Repu bhc graben, most of the graben is not favorable for gold was produced. By 1927 production had increased to
exploration. Localization of the district with1n the graben 15,600 oz; it fell in 1929 and 1930 to 900 oz, and rose in
probably was dependent upon three essential features. F1rst, 1944 to 33,400 oz (Muessig, 1967, p. 115-116). During
and probably the most Important, IS the presence of the the early history of the Republic district, the Republic,
m1ddle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation that occurs in Lone Pine, and Quilp at one time or another were the
only a relatively small part of the graben along rts west side.
leading mines in the district. In 1936, however, Knob Hdl
The gold veins were formed after deposrt1on of the Tom
Thumb Member but before extrusion of the upper basalt
Mines, Inc., acquired claims in the central part of the
member of the Klond1ke Mounta1n. Second, the gold veins district and built a mill to handle low-grade ore from
occur 1n or are associated with minor faults wrth1n the graben open-pit mining. The open-pit ore was worked out by
that had 1nterm1ttent movement and that acted as a plumbing 1944, and since then the company has operated from
system. Th1rd, competent wall rocks, such as flows in the underground workings (Full and Grantham, 1968,
Sanpoll Volcan1cs, were necessary to allow formation of p.1483). The Knob Hill Mine has been by far the largest
through-go1ng open fractures that permitted access of producer in the district, and in some years since the
m1nerahz1ng fluids 1940's it has been the only one. Production figures for the
district for many years were not released, especially after
about 1936. Moen (1976, p. 103), however, estimated the
INTRODUCTION district's production from 1897 to 1975 to be about
2 million oz of gold and nearly 10 million oz of silver.
The Republic district is in the northern part of More recently, total pr-oduction for the district through
Ferry County in northeast Washington. Originally named 1987 is given as 4.4 million tons of ore, having an average
Eureka, the town of Republic was founded in the district grade of 0.557 oz Au/ton and 3.23 oz Aglton (Republic
shortly after the first mines were located. Unit staff and Dayton, 1988). Thus, 2,450,000 oz of gold
Gold was discovered while the area was a part of and 14,212,000 oz of silver have been produced. In 1987,
the Colville Indian Reservation. When the northern half record production of 70,095 oz of gold and 341,272 oz of
of the reservation was opened to prospecting on silver was attained, and in 1988, resources in place
February 21, 1896, all the principal veins were claimed amounted to 1.2 million short tons grading 0.50 oz
within a few weeks (Full and Grantham, 1968, p. 1482). Au/ton (Republic Unit staff and Dayton, 1988).
These included the Knob Hill, Ben Hur, Lone Pine, The Golden Promise vein system, a major dis-
Mountain Lion, Quilp, Republic, San Poil, Sunrise, anCil covery that will keep the district operating for many
Tom Thumb (fig. H6) (Muessig, 1967, p. 115). Three years, was found in 1984 about 7,000 ft southeast of the

H14 Geology •nd Reaouroea of Goldin the Unllld ...._

 Knob Hill mine (Republic Unit staff and Dayton, 1988). rocks (Muessig, 1962). This sequence has been divided
Although exploration in the Golden Promise area had into the O'Brien Creek Formation, Sanpoil Volcanics,
noted mineralized rock as early as 1963, several periods Scatter Creek Rhyodacite (in part the intrusive
of drilling were required to delineate large tonnages of equivalent of the Sanpoil), and the Klondike Mountain
ore in at least seven veins 0.6--6 m thick. A shaft was sunk Formation. The O'Brien Creek Formation was probably
in 1986, and production began soon after from the deposited in early Eocene time, the Sanpoil Volcanics are
Golden Promise system. middle Eocene, and the Klondike Mountain Formation is
probably also middle Eocene (Pearson and Obradovich,
1977). Extrusion of the voluminous Sanpoil Volcanics
GEOLOGIC SETTING into the Republic graben is considered to be one of the
primary causes of graben subsidence (Staatz, 1964).
The Republic district is within the Republic
graben, one of several such north-trending structural Because of their association with the gold deposits in the
features in northeastern Washmgton (fig. H5). The Republic district, these rocks will be described herein.
district is near the west side of the graben near its
midpoint. The graben was first described by Staatz
(1960), and parts of it have been mapped in considerable
detail by Parker and Calkins (1964), Muessig (1967),
O'Brien Creek Formation
Staatz (1964), and Moye (1984). The graben has a
north-northeast trend, and it extends from southern The oldest Tertiary deposits in the Republic area
Canada southward for more than 84 km It ranges m are tuff, tuffaceous sandstone, and conglomerate of the
wtdth from 6.5 to 16 km. Vertical displacement on the O'Brien Creek Formation, which was deposited in a
boundary faults is not known, but some 21 km south of subsiding basin. The formation crops out in the central
Republic, the mtddle of the graben is at least 2,140 m part of the graben northeast of Republic and along the
lower structurally than the adjacent blocks (Staatz, 1960, graben margins JUSt west of the town and about 16 km to
p. B304). Similarly, Parker and Calkins (1964, p. 71) the east. At many places along the graben margins the
noted that the western boundary fault about 29 km north O'Brien Creek has been faulted out or overlapped by the
of Republic, where this fault crosses the Kettle River, has younger Sanpml Volcamcs The thtckness of the O'Brien
a stratigraphic throw in excess of 5,180 m. Eros10n, Creek is highly varied, and along the north side of the
especially of the uplifted blocks adjacent to the graben, North Fork Sanpoil River, some 13 km northeast of the
has been great, and in most places there is httle Republic district, it is at least 1,280 m thick (Muessig,
topographtc relief across the graben boundary faults. 1962, p. 057). In the Republic district, however, the
The Republic graben began to form in early thickness of the O'Brien Creek ranges from a meter to
Tertiary time in a region underlain by plutonic and low- about 30m (Full and Grantham, 1968, p. 1485).
to high-rank metamorphic rocks ranging in age from The tuffaceous deposits that form the O'Brien
pre-Permian to Cretaceous(?). The floor of the graben IS Creek are largely well bedded sandstones that resulted
now covered largely by Tertiary volcanic rocks that were from reworking of atr-fall tuff. They consist mainly of
extruded as the graben developed; in part, the floor of the plagioclase and quartz grains set in varied amounts of
graben is covered by pre-Tertiary metamorphtc rocks clayey matrix. Chips of gray slate or phyllite are so
raised along subsidiary faults, both along the graben characteristic of these beds that the chips, like the
margin and in its central part. The adJacent horsts consist plagioclase and quartz phenocrysts, must have had a
mainly of pre-Tertiary plutonic and metamorphic rocks pyroclastic origin, and their presence has resulted in this
and also of Tertiary intrusive rocks that are coeval with unit bemg referred to as "chip-pebble" formation by
the volcanics in the graben. In the vicinity of Repubhc, mine geologists within the Republic district (Full and
the adjacent horsts are composed of granodtonte of, Grantham, 1968, p 1485). Conglomerate is present at
Cretaceous(?) age. Staatz (1964), Parker and Calkins numerous places in the formation, but it is most common
(1964), and Muessig (1967) agreed that the graben near the top and bottom. Full and Grantham (1968)
formed as a complexly faulted block that dropped, m part reported an igneous-cemented conglomerate containing
at least, in response to withdrawal of magma from depth. rounded pebbles as much as several inches in diameter to
Cheney (1980), however, believed that the Republic be present irregularly at the top of the formation Plant
graben IS basically a post-Eocene syncline in which the fossils from a water-laid tuff within the O'Brien Creek
formerly more extensive volcamc rocks are preserved. As have been reported to be Eocene(?) (Muessig, 1962, p.
the graben developed, orogenic conglomerate and vol- 057). A K-Ar age determination on biotite from tuff
canogenic sediments accumulated in it; these were correlated with the O'Brien Creek is 54.5 ± 1.5 Ma (Pear-
covered by a thtck accumulation of intermediate vol- son and Obradovich, 1977, recalculated using 1977
canics, and all were intruded by hypabyssal and plutonic lUGS constants).

/
Epithermal Gold Deposita-Part I H15
 INDEX MAP OF WASHINGTON

EXPLANATION

KLONDIKE MOUNTAIN FORMATION

Eocene sediments. pyroclastics and flows

REPUBLIC GRABEN FILL

Dominantly Oligocene-Eocene sediments, volcanics.
and intrusives of the O'Brien Creek Formation,
Sanpoil Volcanics, and Scatter Creek Formation

GRANITIC ROCKS
Intrusive rocks of early Tertia~y and Mesozoic age

MESOZOIC AND PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

CONTACT

------.
FAULT
Dashed where approximately located

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS
I I I
I
0 tO
I
20MII.£S

Figure H5. Generalized geology of the Republic graben, Ferry County, Wash. (modified from geologic map of Washington,
1961, by Full and Grantham (1968)).

Sanpoil Volcanics imately 1,220 m. Although the Sanpoil is now confined to

the Republic graben and other structurally low areas, the
The Sanpoil Volcanics are mainly a thick sequence abundance of coeval plutons in adjacent structurally high
of rhyodacite and quartz latite lava flows and breccias. regions suggests that the volcanics once covered much of
These brown to gray fine-grained rocks are widespread in northeast Washington and large parts of British
the Republic graben. At several places south of Republic, Columbia and have since been eroded. The Sanpoil
the Sanpoil Volcanics are nearly continuous from one correlates with the Marron Formation in British
side of the graben to the other. The thickness probably Columbia, and both units have been determined by K-Ar
varies greatly, but in most places either the upper or the ages on biotite, hornblende, and plagioclase to be about
lower contact is not exposed; however, on the east side of 52 Ma (Pearson and Obradovich, 1977). Colors of the
Klondike Mountain, about 4.8 km northeast of Republic, flows range from drab shades of brown, green, purple,
Muessig (1962, p. D57) estimated a thickness of approx- and greenish gray to gray and black. The rocks are

H16 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

strongly porphyritic, containing 30-65 percent pheno- tion, but contacts between Scatter Creek and the green
crysts in a fine-grained to aphanitic groundmass. Plagio- andesite member of the Sanpoil Volcanics are commonly
clase is the most abundant phenocryst, but hornblende, indefinite or gradational (Full and Grantham, 1968,
biotite, and augite are present in various combinations. p. 1487).
Although called andesite by some (Umpleby, 1910, The Scatter Creek Rhyodacite is generally a light-
gray to greemsh-gray porphyritic rock containing 20-
p. 23--26; Full and Grantham, 1968, p. 1487), chemical
65 percent phenocrysts in an aphanitic or fine-grained
analyses indicate that nearly all of them are rhyodacite or
groundmass. The most common phenocrysts are white
quartz latite (Muessig, 1967; Staatz, 1964; Pearson and euhedral plagioclase. Hornblende and biotite are the
Obradovich, 1977; and Moye, 1984). principal mafic minerals. Some intrusives contain a few
Flow breccias are found in a number of places in phenocrysts of quartz. The groundmass contains mostly
the Sanpoil Volcanics. They were noted along the Sanpoil plagioclase, orthoclase, and quartz. Chemical analyses
River 11-19 km south of the town of Republic by indicate that the Scatter Creek is rhyodacite or quartz
Muessig (1967) and Staatz (1964, p. F39), and they also latite similar in composition to the Sanpoil Volcanics
occur in the eastern part of the Republic mining distnct. (Staatz, 1964, p. F41-F44).
These breccias are generally in depositional units 3--6 m The Scatter Creek Rhyodacite is intruded along
thick that can rarely be traced more than 60 m, but one some important faults in the Republic mining district,
body 19 km south of Republic is at least 60 m thick. and it contains several important veins (Full and
Air-fall tuff and water-laid tuffaceous beds sep- Grantham, 1968, p. 1487).
arate some lava flows, but they rarely crop out. They are
most common in the southern part of the graben (Staatz,
1964). The tuffs consist of angular to subrounded rock Klondike Mountain Formation
fragments and crystals in a matrix of devitrified ash. The Klondike Mountain Formation is not nearlY as
Within the Republic mining district, the Sanpoil widespread in the Republic graben as are the other
Volcanics have been divided into a lower green andesite volcanic units. This formation extends for 33 km along
member that contains nearly all the veins and an upper the west side of the Republic graben from a point 5 km
purple andesite member (Full and Grantham, 1968,
south of the town of Republic to JUSt north of the Kettle
p.1487). The green andesite member in the western part River. The irregular north-trending belt vanes m width
of the district is 65-90 m thick but thickens to the east
from about 1.6 to 7.2 km. The Klondike Mountain
and contains pyroclastic as well as flow rocks. Detailed Formation 1s separated from the underlying volcanic
mine mapping has resulted in the division of the green
units by an angular unconformity whose locally high
andesite member into three units: upper and lower units relief indicates that considerable erosion occurred before
that consist mostly of flows, separated by a middle unit the Klondike Mountain was deposited in a north-
that is mostly pyroclastic rocks. As the purple andesite
trending synclinal basin that had begun to subside during
member contains few veins, it has not been well studied deposition of Sanpoil Volcanics. The Klondike Mountain
in the mimng district.
is divided into three members: (1) the lower or Tom
Thumb Tuff Member, (2) a middle member, and (3) an
upper basalt member. The Tom Thumb Tuff Member
contains a thin basal unit of coarse pyroclastics, including
Scatter Creek Rhyodacite
volcanic breccia, tuff breccia, and conglomerate (Mues-
sig, 1967, p. 71). Most of this member, however, is made
The Scatter Creek Rhyodacite is the hypabyssal- up of fine-grained water-laid tuff. In the southern part of
intrusive equivalent of the Sanpoil Volcanics. Large the mmmg d1stnct, numerous thin flows are interbedded
numbers of the intrusives that make up the Scatter Creek with the tuff. The thin-bedded tuffs have been referred to
are scattered throughout the entire length of the graben, as lake beds (Umpleby, 1910, p. 24-25; Lindgren and
most commonly along the graben-bounding faults. Some Bancroft, 1914, p. 141-142) that are noted for their
also cut the granitic rocks west of the graben's margin. content of plant, msect, and fish fossils. The plant fossils
The Scatter Creek cuts metamorphosed Permian sedi- were interpreted by Brown (1959, p. 127) as Oligocene,
mentary rocks, Cretaceous granite, O'Brien Creek but K-Ar age determinations indicate that the Klondike
Formation, and Sanpoil Volcanics, which it resembles Mountain is probably middle Eocene (Pearson and
and locally grades into. As the Scatter Creek bodies Obradovich, 1977). Wilson (1978, 1979) believed the fish
represent feeders to the Sanpoil Volcanics, the Scatter fossiis tend to confirm an Eocene age. The thickness of
Creek is, at least in part, equivalent in age to the the Tom Thumb Tuff Member ranges from about 580 m
volcanics. In the mine workings of the Republic district, northeast of the Knob Hill mine to 1.6 km to the east.
Scatter Creek intrusives cut the O'Brien Creek Forma- The member also thins abruptly to the north and south.

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H17

 The middle member of the Klondike Mountain ORE DEPOSITS
Formation consists mainly of coarse pyroclastic rocks
containing volcanic conglomerate, volcanic breccia, tuff, Most ore mined in the Republic district has come
tuffaceous sandstone, and tuffaceous mudstone (Mues- from veins in a north-trending belt about 1.6 km wide
sig, 1967, p. 73). Here and there it contains a few buff to that extends about 6.4 km north and 3.2 km south of the
gray latite flows. In the northern part of its exposure, it town of Republic (fig. H6). The veins are along and near
has thin black glassy flows at its base (Parker and Calkins, north- to northwest-trending faults that are typical of
1964, p. 63). The lower part of this member consists many north-trending faults within the Republic graben,
largely of volcanic conglomerate and breccia that form except that only those within the district seem to have
massive indistinct gradational layers which probably guided mineralization. Muessig (1967), whose mapping
originated as lahars. The upper part of this member is was based only on surface exposures in a poorly exposed
area, believed the principal structure within the district,
mainly interbedded tuff and volcanic conglomerate, tuff-
which he named the Republic fault (fig. H5), to be one
aceous sandstone, and tuffaceous mudstone. In the that separates the Tom Thumb Tuff Member on the east
Republic mining district, clasts in the volcanic breccia from Sanpoil Volcanics and Scatter Creek Rhyodacite on
and conglomerate are principally of porphyritic flow the west; the throw was inferred to be down to the east
rocks. In the northern part of the area, many clasts are more than 300 m. South of Republic, the Republic fault
also of pre-Tertiary rocks, including quartzite, chert, trends about north and contains the vein at the Repubhc
phyllite, argillite, and greenstone. The middle member mine; about 1.6 km north of Republic, it bends to the
varies greatly in thickness, from 915 m thick on the east northwest. Full and Grantham (1968, figs. 6 and 7),
side of Mount Elizabeth, 16 km northeast of the town of however, showed this contact to be depositional and
Republic, to 15 m thick about 1.5 km farther north unfaulted, but they did show a fault extending from about
(Parker and Calkins, 1964, p. 63). The middle member in 300 to 600 m to the west that they called the Eureka fault
the Toroda Creek graben about 32 km north and (fig. H6). Its trace is in the bottom of Eureka Gulch,
where Muessig (1967) also inferred a fault that branched
northwest of Republic is probably no younger than 48
from his Republic fault farther south. The Eureka fault
Ma, or middle Eocene (Pearson and Obradovich, 1977). dips steeply northeast and has normal throw of about
The upper member was originally described by 60 m. Full and Grantham (1968, fig. 3) showed the
Muessig (1962, p. 058) as a brownish-black porphyritic Eureka fault to be of pre-Klondike Mountain age,
basalt. An irregular basalt intrusive that cuts the lower whereas Muessig (1967) interpreted it as a northerly
two members of the Klondike Mountain Formation in continuation of his Republic fault that offsets the Klon-
the town of Republic is considered to be equivalent in dike Mountain. Some of the north-trending faults were
age to flows of the upper member. Mapping in the intruded by Scatter Creek Rhyodacite, which has been
Republic district (Full and Grantham, 1968, p. 1485) has sheared by later movement and mineralized locally, and
divided the upper member into a lower andesite unit and by trachyandesite dikes that are unsheared and unmin-
an upper basalt unit. Sixteen to 24 km north of Republic, eralized.
where the upper member is thicker, it is made up of Although the Eureka fault is mineralized and veins
along it have been mined at several places, most of the
mafic and intermediate flows, and small quantities of
highly productive veins are along minor fractures in the
locally interlayered tuff-breccia in the upper part. The hanging wall within 610 m of the Eureka fault. Most of
thickness of the member varies widely. Within 5 km of these veins trend north to northwest, and some in the
the town of Republic, it reaches 60 m (Muessig, 1967, southern Eureka Gulch area trend northeast (Full and
p. 71). Sixteen kilometers north of town on Mount Grantham, 1968, fig. 8). Some veins appear to be offset
Elizabeth, the member is at least 365 m thick, but 4 km by numerous northeast-trending cross faults, but Full
farther to the northwest on Granite Mountain it is only and Grantham (1968, p. 1491) stated that movement on
60 m thick (Parker and Calkins, 1964, p. 64). these was premineralization. At the Tom Thumb mine in
Late trachyandesite and dacite dikes, sills, and the northern part of the district the veins trend northeast
other small intrusive masses cut the other Tertiary (fig. H6).
volcanic rocks in the Republic mining district including The veins are generally simple fissure fillings
the Klondike Mountain Formation. Muessig (1967) consisting dominantly of chalcedomc to fine-grained
described the trachyandesite as olive drab, micro- quartz and minor calcite, adularia, fluonte, and ore
crystalline, and highly vesicular and amygdaloidal. The minerals. Replacement of wall rocks by vein minerals is
dacite is very fine grained and composed of plagioclase also evident, particularly adjacent to wider veins, some of
and minor quartz; in the mines it has been observed to be which have been mined to widths of more than 15 m.
younger than the ore (Full and Grantham, 1968, p. 1488). Complex branching of veins in the Knob Hill mine was

H18 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

 and smaller unreplaced fragments are common in the
I~ N
ore. At least two generations of quartz have been
identified. In the richest ore the quartz IS dark gray to
I ~;-'j;J TOM THUMB
~ I,{, REBATE black, forming laminae or bands arranged parallel to vein

~
walls or to wallrock fragments w1thm the vems. The
sulfides and other ore minerals that impart the dark color

~I are mainly pyrite but also include stephamte, nauman-

~~ nite, native silver, and electrum (Muessig, 1967). Moen
(1976) also reported native gold, chalcopyrite, tetra-

~~
(Jo/
'
~ MOUNTAIN LION
hedrite, stibnite, realgar, pyrargyrite, argentite, and
umangite (Cu 3 Se2 ) from the district. Precious metal
content of the ore mined from 1902 to 1951 averaged
about 0.34 oz Au/ton and 2 18 oz Ag!ton according to
Moen (1976), and 0.557 oz Au/ton and 3 23 oz Ag!ton
according to the Republic Unit staff and Dayton (1988).
Nlld la~'fl
~NOB HILL NO.2 However, the gold.silver ratio varied from mine to mine
II:J ~ !;ilKNOB HILL N0.1 and within mines from 1:3 to 1:12 (Moen and Hunttmg,
~ RACE DOLLAR
1975, p 55-58).
EUREKA FAll/. T ~ LITTLE COVE
BEN HUR \~.-PEARL Although the veins are as much as about 600 m
long, the mined ore shoots within them are much smaller
SAN POll ~\~'\~~LAST CHANCE
~ \~ :-..LONE PINE (Moen, 1976) Maximum stope length is about 105m and
ljl'\ \; BLACKTAIL maximum pitch length is 400 m.
SEATTLE • 1
SURPRISE ~BELLIGERENT The productive veins in the Eureka Gulch part of

~r~:~:ES
the district are essentially all confined to the massive
\ I lavas in the lower part of the green andesite member and
MORNING~ I ~ their intrusive equivalent, Scatter Creek Rhyodacite.
GLORY ~ L__l Some veins in the district, however, occur in the under-
V'"FLAG
HILL lymg O'Brien Creek Formation (chip-pebble formation)
REPUBLIC aqd in the overlying purple andesite member of the
I Sanpoil Volcanics and the Klondike Mountain Forma-
tion (Full and Grantham, 1968, p. 1489). Disseminated
ore has also been produced from volcaniclastic deposits
EXPLANATION I L_\ in the lower part of the Klondike Mountain. The decided
tendency of the massive lava flows and intrusive rocks to
FAULT / J) REPUBt:<-1-C~ host the veins is ascribed to their competence to hold
fractures open during vein formation (Full and

IIvI t~INCESS
Grantham, 1968) The pyroclastic umt that forms the
MAUD
VEINS middle part of the green andesite member is much less
!;il BUTTE AND
competent, and veins die out abruptly upon entering it
BOSTON
J.. j;jl The upper part of the green andesite member also
MINES consists of competent lava flows that contam several
veins including the Tom Thumb, Rebate, Mountain Lion,
and the upper parts of the Republic and Knob Hill veins
0 2 3 KILOMETERS
I
The recently discovered Golden Promise vein system,
I
0
I
I
2Mil£S
however, is considered to be in pyroclastic rock
(Republic Unit staff and Dayton, 1988).
Figure H6 Index map, showing the mines of the Republic The disseminated ore in the volcanic rubble at the
mmrng drstrrct, Washington (from Full and Grantham, 1968, base of the Klondike Mountain Formation was about
frg 4) 15 m thick and was mined from an open pit beginmng
in 1936 by Knob Hill Mines, Inc. This low-grade ore
illustrated by Full and Grantham (1968, fig. 10). Horses body overhes vein deposits in the Sanpoil Volcanics that
of altered wall rock are present in the wider vein zones, were discovered later. These veins do not extend upward

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H19

into the incompetent rubble, but the mineralizing solu- Moen, W S, 1976, S1lver occurrences of Washington Wash-
tions from the veins were able to permeate the weakly Ington Department of Natural Resources, Division of
consolidated debns and produce a low-grade dissem- Geology and Earth Resources Bulletm 69, 188 p
inated deposit. Moen, W S, and Hunttmg, M T, 1975, Handbook for gold
Mineralization occurred during emplacement of prospectors m Washington Washmgton Department of
the rocks of the Klondike Mountain Formation. The Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Earth
Tom Thumb Tuff Member of the Klondike Mountain is Resources Information Circular 57, 40 p
the youngest unit that has been mineralized. Unaltered Moye, F J, 1984, Geology and petrochemistry of Tertiary
and unmineralized trachyandesite dikes cut the veins at Igneous rocks m the western half of the Seventeenmde
the Mountain Lion mine, and basalt d1kes cut veins at Mountain 15' quadrangle, Feny County, Washmgton
other places. The trachyandesite is correlated with lava Moscow, Idaho, Umversity of Idaho Ph D thesis, 242 p
flows in the upper member of the Klondike Mountain, Muesstg, Siegfned, 1962, Tertiary volcamc and related rocks
and the basalt dikes are correlated with the youngest of the Repubhc area, Feny County, Washmgton U S
Klondike Mountain lavas. Hence, the mineralization Geological Survey ProfessiOnal Paper 450-D,
took place after the lower member was emplaced but p D56--D58
before the upper member of the Klondike Mountain was ___ 1967, Geology of the Repub he quadrangle and a part of
formed. the Aeneas quadrangle, Feny County, Washmgton U S
Geological Survey Bulletm 1216, 135 p
Manuscnpt rece1ved by scaenhfic edttors Apnl1985 Parker, R L , and Calkms, J A , 1964, Geology of the Curlew
quadrangle, Feny County, Washmgton US Geological
Survey Bulletm 1169, 95 p
Pearson, R C , and ObradoVIch, J D , 1977, Eocene rocks in
REFERENCES CITED northeast Washmgton-RadiOmetnc ages and correla-
tion US Geolog.cal Survey Bulletm 1433, 41 p
Brown, R W, 1959, A bat and some plants from the upper Republic Umt staff and Dayton, S H , 1988, Hecla's Republic
Oligocene of Oregon Journal of Paleontology, v 33, Umt-Small mme packs a big earnmgs punch
p 125-129 Eng.neenng and Mmmg Journal, v 189, no 12, p 34--39
Cheney, E S , 1980, Kettle dome and related structures m Staatz, M H, 1960, The Republic graben, a maJor structure m
northeastern Washmgton, m Cnttenden, M D , Jr, and northeastern Washmgton U S Geolog.cal Survey
others, eds , Cordilleran metamorphiC core complexes Professional Paper 400-B, p B304--B306
Geological Society of Amenca MemOir 153, p 46~84 _ _ 1964, Geology of the Bald Knob quadrangle, Feny and
Full, R P, and Grantham, R M, 1968, Ore deposits of the Okanogan Counties, Washmgton US Geological
Republic minmg d1stnct, Feny County, Washmgton, m Survey Bulletin 1161-F, p F1-F79
R1dge, J D , ed , Ore deposits of the Umted States, Umpleby, R W, 1910, Geology and ore deposits of Repub-
1938-1967 (Graton-Sales Volume) American Institute lic mmmg d1stnct Washmgton Geological Survey
of Mmmg, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc , Bulletin 1, 67 p
v 2,p 1481-1494 Wilson, M V H, 1978, Paleozoic msect faunas of western North
Lindgren, Waldemar, and Bancroft, Howland, 1914, Republic Amenca Quaestiones Entomological, v 14, p 13--34
mmmg d1stnct, m Bancroft, Howland, The ore deposits ___ 1979, A second species of Lzbotomus (P1sces Percop-
of northeastern Washington US Geological Survey Sidae) from the Eocene of Washmgton state Cope1a,
Bulletm 550, p 133-166 no 3,p 400-405

H20 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United Statea

The Comstock Lode Precious-metal District,
Washoe and Storey Counties, Nevada

By William C. Bagby and Roger P. Ashley

Abstract

The Comstock Lode d1stnct 1n the V1rg1n1a Range of

western Nevada was d1scovered 1n 1859, and subsequently
produced a total of more than 8 m1ll1on ounces of gold and
190 m1ll1on ounces of sliver. Its most product1ve penod lasted
from 1860 to 1880, when large bonanza ore bod1es were
mined The ore bodies were localized along the fault plane
and in the hang1ng wall of the Comstock fault, an east-
d1pp1ng normal fault that d1splaces M1ocene andesrt1c rocks
of both the Alta and Kate Peak Formations The ore IS
dom1nated by quartz, sphalente, and galena, w1th lesser
amounts of argent1te, polybas1te, stephanrte, chalcopyrite,
pynte, gold, and electrum Flu1d-1nclus1on fllhng temperatures
for ve1n quartz range from 240 to 295 oc, w1th sahmt1es
between 2 7 and 3 6 eqUivalent we1ght percent NaCI Stable
1sotope studies ind1cate that hydrothermal fluids were
dommated by meteonc water 1n most parts of the deposit,
except for deep levels wh1ch may have been dom1nated by
magmatic water Penods of volcamsm, tectomsm, and
prec1ous metal m1nerahzat1on overlapped

INTRODUCTION
The Comstock Lode district is located 25 km

map~
southeast of Reno, Nev. (fig. H7). The mining camps of
V1rginia City, Gold Hill, and Silver City are located over Area of
the most productive parts of the lode. The Flowery and 0 SKILOMET£RS NEVADA
Jumbo districts flank the Comstock Lode district on the I I
I
I I
I
I I I
east and west, respectively (fig. HS). 0 SMILES
Gold was first discovered in Gold Canyon by John
Orr and Nick Kelly in 1850 (Smith, 1943). This discovery Figure H7 Locat1on of the Comstock lode d1stnct 1n western
led to a period of placer mining along Gold Canyon and Nevada The Comstock lode refers to the mmes that were
Six Mile Canyon. Although most of the best placer developed on mineralized rock between and mcludmg S1lver
deposits were exploited by 1855, a few persistent miners C1ty and V1rg1ma C1ty
continued working the canyons until 1859, when Peter
O'Riley and Patrick McLaughlin discovered the Ophir
bonanza in the northern part of the Comstock Lode. In New ore was discovered m the early 1860's, and by
the same year, 1859, James Finney, Jack Yount, and John 1863 the Comstock Lode had produced about $10
Bishop discovered gold in place at the head of Gold million in gold and silver from near-surface workings
Canyon. This location later became Gold Hill (Smith, (Bonham, 1969). Interest in the Comstock Lode was
1943). fired by successful exploration during the late 1860's.

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H21

 1
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39
 EXPLANATION

~ ----Contact, showmg dip-

Pre- to Post- Lake Lahontan sediments ~ Dashed where approximately located

lompl 70
Concealed contact

McClellan Peak Ohvme Basalt _1._.!!. - -

d
Fault, showmg d1p-
Dashed where opprox1mately located,
loTn I dotted where concealed,
u, upthrown s1de,
Kmckerbocker Andes1te d, downthrown s1de

~~~~:]Tk!]
ly Stnke and d1p of beds-
Sedimentary rocks, bedded pyroclastic
Kate Peak Formation and antrus1ve andes1te porphyry rocks, and lava flows

~ 4cy Stnke and d1p of planar structure-

Platy parting m lava flows and shallow
Dav1dson Granod1onte Intrusions, follat1on 1n metamorphic rocks

!Tar I I Stnke of vertical planar structure

American Ravme Andes1te Porphyry

Mine shaft

§}Tal "
Alta FormatiOn w1th Sutro Member

l:-r~3 0 2 3 KILOMETERS
I I I I
Sant1ago Canyon Tuff I -T 1 -.
0 1 2 3 MILES
m
"a 1 gdJ9cif]
~
CD Granod1onte and fohated granod1onte
3
!. (!!\_VS'l
G)
0
a: Metavolcamc and metasedimentary rocks

~
"a
0 D
"'
;; Bleached rock
"'I
-:
~
Figure HS. Geology of the Comstock Lode area. Modified from Thompson and Whrte (1964). Con V1rg1nta 1s Consolidated V1rQ1nta m.ne.

:a:
~
This led to discovery of the big bonanzas in the Crown (fig. H8). These tuffs were originally mapped as the
Point and Belcher mmes in 1870 and in the Consohdated Hartford Hill Rhyolite by Gianella (1936). Thompson
Virginia mine in 1873. (1956) referred to these rocks as the Hartford Hill
Boom years for the Comstock lasted from 1860 to Rhyolite Tuff, based on the occurrence of flattened
1880. During this period 5.9 milhon oz of gold and 143 pumice lapilli. Bingler (1978) abandoned the name
million oz of silver were produced (Bonham, 1969). Hartford Hill Rhyolite Tuff and separated Thompson's
Production from the Comstock began decreasing in (1956) unit into six separate ash-flow tuffs of regional
1880, but mining continued until about 1955, resulting in extent based on different eruptive and cooling histories
total production of 8.3 mdhon oz of gold and 192 million The rhyolite at Hartford Hill near Silver City was na~ed
oz of silver. Although copper was first produced in 1905 the Santiago Canyon Tuff after its type section at the
and lead in 1907, gold and silver continued to be the mouth of Santiago Canyon (Bingler, 1978). The tuff
major products of the district. contains phenocrysts of plagioclase, quartz, sanidine,
hornblende, biotite, and sphene in a groundmass of
GEOLOGIC SETTING flattened pumice lapilli and glass shards. The formation
has a maximum thickness of 300 m and is composed of
The geology of the Comstock Lode district has one simple cooling umt. K-Ar ages of biotite and sanidme
been described by Becker (1882), Reid (1905), Gianella from the tuff range from 23 to 20 Ma (table H1).
(1936), Calkins (1944), Thompson (1956), Thompson The Miocene rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs in the Com-
and White (1964), and Bonham (1969) Other studies stock Lode district are overlain by a thick pile of andesitic
include published topical reports on ore mineralogy rocks erupted from vents within the Virgmia Range.
(Bastin, 1922; Coats, 1936) and alteration (Coats, 1940; These intermediate volcanic rocks are divided into two
Whitebread, 1976; Ashley and others, 1979), and major formations, the Alta and Kate Peak (Gianella,
unpublished mining company reports. 1936; Thompson, 1956; Thompson and White, 1964).
Each formation consists of lavas, tuffs, tuff breccias, and
intrusive rocks. Although Thompson and White (1964)
Stratigraphy regarded tuff breccia as the most common textural type,
recent mapping by D.M. Hudson and H F. Bonham
The oldest rocks in the Comstock Lode district are (written commun., 1983) in the Virginia Range, the
pre-Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks that crop Peavine district (northwest of Reno), and the northern
out near American Flat (fig. H8). These rocks are Carson Range indicates that the Kate Peak Formation IS
considered to be Triassic, though parts of the sequence dominated by lava. Volcanic conglomerate and sand-
may be as old as Paleozoic or as young as Jurassic stone in both formations and shale in the Alta Formation
(Thompson, 1956; Thompson and White, 1964; Rose, are interbedded with lava and pyroclastic rocks. Each
1969). Sedimentary rocks include argillite, slate, phyllite, formation is dominated by potassium-rich calc-alkalic
sandstone, and conglomerate derived from volcanic andesite (fig. H9); the Kate Peak Formation contains
rocks, and minor limestone. Volcanic rocks are basalt some rhyolite, but the most siliceous rocks in the Alta
and andesite. All these rocks are metamorphosed to at Formation are dacitic.
least greenschist facies, and the volcanic rocks are The Alta and Kate Peak Formations were origi-
characterized by albite, epidote, chlorite, and amphibole. nally distinguished in the district on the basis of uncon-
More intense metamorphism near plutonic contacts formable relations and the more pervasive alteration of
produced amphibolite-facies hornfels, schist, marble, and the Alta. Thompson and White (1964), however, stated
skarn. that structural discordance is small or absent and that the
Cretaceous plutonic rocks occur as small scattered degree of alteration effects varies more from area to area
bodies that intrude the metavolcanic rocks west of Silver rather than from one formation to another. On the other
City in the Comstock Lode district (fig H8). Several hand, D.M. Hudson (written commun., 1983) reported
small inliers that are surrounded by Tertiary and that lavas in the lower part of the Kate Peak Formation
Quaternary rocks also appear along the east flank of the regionally are strongly altered, whereas lavas in the upper
Flowery Range. Most of the Cretaceous intrusions are part of the Kate Peak are unaltered. It thus appears that
granodiorite, however, the small intrusions in the Com- neither unconformable relations nor alteration is an
stock Lode district are quartz monzonite porphyry uneqUivocal gUide for distinguishing the two formations.
(Thompson, 1956; Thompson and White, 1964, Calkins, Instead, they are probably best distinguished on the basis
1944). of phenocryst content. Thompson (1956) cited evidence
The oldest Tertiary rocks m the Comstock Lode suggesting that the two formations intertongue in the
area are rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs of early Miocene age that Virgima City quadrangle. Potassium-argon ages for the
crop out on McClellan Peak west and south of Silver City Alta Formation range from 17 Ma to 14 Ma, whereas

H24 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

Table H1. Potass1um-argon ages for rocks and ve1n mmerals 1n the Comstock Lode d1stnct

Age
Rock type M1neral Reference
(my)
McClellan Peak Ohv1ne Basalt (whole rock) 114 Doell and others, 1966
Kate Peak Formation b1ot1te 123±02 Whitebread, 1976
Kate Peak Formation .ntrus1ve rock b1ot1te 124±03 Do
Kate Peak Formation mtrus1ve rock b10t1te 12 7±04 Do
Kate Peak Formation dac1te lava plag.oclase 128±08 Silberman and McKee, 1972
Occ1dental ve.n adulana 128±04 Whitebread, 1976
Kate Peak Format1on lava hornblende 12 9±04 Do
hornblende 13 7±16 Do
Comstock vem adulana 13 7±04 Do
Kate Peak Formation lava b1ot1te 13 8±03 Do
Kate Peak Format1on mtrus1ve b1ot1te 141±0 4 Do
hornblende 14 9±04 Do
Alta Formation plag.oclase 144±04 Do
Alta Formation plag1oclase 165±05 Silberman and McKee, 1972
Dav1dson Granod1onte b1ot1te 17 (ML Silberman and R P Ashley,
unpub data, 1976)
Santiago Canyon Tuff san1dme 205 Bmgler, 1978
Santiago Canyon Tuff b10t1te 218 Do
Santiago Canyon Tuff b1ot1te 225±07 Whitebread, 1976

.....
z
w
u
a=
w
5
Q..

.....
~
(.!)
w 3
~
z 2

0 1
N
~
0
50 55 60 65 70
5102, IN WEIGHT PERCENT
Figure H9 ~O-variat1on diagram for samples from the Alta and Kate Peak Format1ons Data from
Thompson and Wh1te (1964), and Whitebread (1976) Class1f1cat1on boundanes from Peccenllo and
Taylor (1976). C1rcles and squares represent Alta and Kate Peak Format1on samples, respectively

ages for the Kate Peak Formation range from 15.3 Ma to Tuff and may also mtrude the Alta Formation (Calkins,
12.1 Ma (table H1). These ages overlap between 15.3 and 1944; Thompson, 1956). Its age thus is probably between
14.0 Ma, corroborating Thompson's (1956) evidence for that of the Alta and that of the Kate Peak, as the two
intertonguing of the formations. formations are dtstinguished south of the Comstock
The American Ravine Andesite Porphyry crops Lode (Calkins, 1944; Thompson, 1956).
out in American Ravine and Gold Canyon (near south The Davidson GranodiOrite cuts the Alta Forma-
edge of area of fig. H8). It intrudes the Santiago Canyon tion on and near Mount Davidson, immediately west of

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H25

the Comstock Lode (center, fig. H8). The granodiorite is Occidental faults (fig. H8), of which the Comstock fault
medium grained, contains andesine, quartz, orthoclase, is the largest. The Comstock fault displaces both the Alta
augite, hypersthene, and sparse biotite and hornblende, and Kate Peak Formations, and is at least 11 km long.
and has hypidiomorphic-granular texture. Potassium- Gianella (1936) ,estimated displacement along the Com-
argon (biotite) and fission-track (apatite) ages of the stock fault as 1,050 m, based on the relative positions of
Davidson Granodiorite suggest that it was emplaced the locally occurring water-laid strata of the Sutro
about 17 Ma (M.L. Silberman and R.P. Ashley, unpub. Member of the Alta Formation. However, Thompson
data, 1976). The Davidson Granodiorite is important (1956) revised this estimate to 760 m by considering the
because it is the only known intrusion in the Virginia eastward dips in the footwall strata.
Range that has a texture suggesting relatively deep, but The Comstock fault strikes northeast and is
still probably hypabyssal, emplacement. Although it is intersected by the northwest-striking Silver City fault just
apparently older than the Kate Peak Formation, its south of Gold Hill (fig. H8). Both faults dip about 45° E.
composition is similar to that of dacitic rocks in the Kate Thompson (1956) noted that this dip is low for normal
Peak. faults and attnbuted it to later tilting of the fault planes
The Alta Formation, American Ravine Andesite and of the enclosing strata. Reid (1905) stated that the
Porphyry, Davidson Granodiorite, and Kate Peak Silver City and Comstock faults are separate structures
Formation are products of regional Miocene igneous and that the Silver City fault is younger than the Com-
activity that spanned at least 5 m.y. All show effects of stock fault. Calkins (1944) agreed with Reid's inter-
hydrothermal alteration at many localities. The domi- pretation and suggested that the Comstock fault
nantly intermediate calc-alkalic volcanic pile of the continues around the western edge of American Flat,
Virginia Range is similar to other volcanic piles in southwest of its intersection with the Silver City fault
western Nevada that host large epithermal precious- (fig. H8).
metal deposits (Silberman and others, 1976). Cross faults disrupt the Silver City fault and the
The Alta Formation is overlain by the Knicker- southwestern part of the Comstock fault near American
bocker Andesite on Basalt Hill, southwest of Silver City Flat (fig. H8). Reid (1905) described cross faults cutting
(Calkins, 1944). This andesite is virtually unaltered and the Virginia City segment of the Comstock Lode. He
contains phenocrysts of olivine, plagioclase, augite, and argued that movement along these faults was responsible
hypersthene. Calkins (1944) considered the Knicker- for creating the gashes in the hanging wall of the Com-
bocker Andesite as younger than the Kate Peak Forma- stock fault that later served as deposition sites for the
tion. This age difference was substantiated by Thompson great bonanzas. Neither Calkin's (1944) nor Thompson
(1956), who stated that dikes of the Knickerbocker cut and White's (1964) maps place emphasis on these cross
the Kate Peak. faults. However, continued work in the area suggests that
The McClellan Peak Olivine Basalt is the youngest cross faults do in fact exist and that some movement
volcanic unit in the Comstock Lode district. This basalt along them may be quite recent (D. M. Hudson, oral
was originally called American Flat Basalt (Gianella, commun., 1983).
1936) but was renamed by Thompson (1956). The unit is
distinguished by abundant olivine and augite phenocrysts
in a groundmass of plagioclase laths. Doell and others
Alteration
(1966) reported a K-Ar age (on whole rock) of 1.14 Ma Wallrock alteration in the Comstock Lode district
for a small remnant of the basalt near Silver City has been considered contemporaneous with vein miner-
(table H1). alization (Becker, 1882; Gianella, 1936). Hydrothermal
alteration typical of the Comstock Lode district is not
Structure limited to the district, however, but extends throughout
the Virginia Range (Whitebread, 1976). The lower part
Pre-Tertiary metavolcanic and metasedimentary of the Kate Peak Formation and older rocks show effects
rocks are intricately sheared and foldeCJ (Calkins, 1944). of several types of hypogene alteration, which include
Cretaceous plutonic rocks are apparently unsheared, propylitic, argillic, and silicic alteration. Zoning patterns
suggesting that they were emplaced near the 'end of defined by different types of alteration are controlled
Mesozoic deformation that affected the Sierra Nevada largely by permeable zones, which include faults,
region (Calkins, 1944; Thompson, 1956). fractures, and various fragmental units in volcanic rocks.
Thompson (1956) indicated that structural relief in Propyhtized rocks form a zone of weak hypogene
Cenozoic rocks of the Virginia City quadrangle was alteration that is transitional to both unaltered and
caused by a combination of normal faulting, tilting, and intensely altered rocks. The most characteristic propylitic
warping. The dominant structural features in the Com- mineral assemblage is the albite-epidote-chlorite-calcite
stock Lode district are the Comstock, Silver City, and assemblage (Coats, 1940). Montmorillonite and pyrite

H26 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

are also common, and zeolites are locally abundant. minerals is ambiguous. Whitebread (1976) noted that
Epidote, however, is not everywhere present. White- pyrite-bearing propylitized rocks have been affected by
bread (1976) described the following propylitic assem- supergene alteration and are thus converted to bleached
blages in detail: (1) chlorite-montmorillonite-calcite- rocks with the quartz-montmorillonite-ilhte assemblage,
quartz, (2) mo ntmo rilloni te-chlo rite-calcite-quartz- an assemblage that is indistinguishable from oxidized
argillized rocks.
pyrite, and (3) montmorillonite-calcite-quartz-pyrite.
The presence of calcite distinguishes montmorillonite-
bearing propylitized rocks from argillized rocks. Contacts
are gradational between these propylitic assemblages. Age Relations
Whitebread's work showed that montmorillonite-bearing
propylitized rocks are common in the Virginia Range Radiometric age data are provided in table H1 for
north of and including the Comstock Lode district. vein material from the Comstock and Occidental faults,
Mineral assemblages in the argillic zone described along with data for volcanic rocks in the Comstock Lode
by Whitebread (1976) include (1) montmorillonite- district. Adularia from the Comstock fault yielded a
cristobalite-pyrite, (2) illite-montmorillonite (mixed K-Ar age of 13.7±0.4 Ma (Whitebread, 1976). This age
layer )-quartz-pyrite, and (3) kaolinite-quartz-pyrite. is bracketed by the Kate Peak Formation (see table H1).
Rocks of the montmorillonite-cristobalite-pyrite argillic Likewise, adularia from the Occidental vein is dated at
assemblage locally contain heulandite or clinoptilolite in 12.8±0 4 Ma (Whitebread, 1976). This age also falls
the groundmass and along fractures. Original rock within the age range for the Kate Peak Formation. These
textures are preserved generally, and plagioclase and data indicate contemporaneous volcanism, faulting, and
biotite commonly have escaped alteration. Rocks of the mineralization during the Miocene.
illite-montmorillonite (mixed layer)-quartz-pyrite argillic
assemblage are more intensely altered. For example,
plagioclase and ferro magnesian minerals are mostly oblit- ORE DEPOSITS
erated. These rocks may also contain montmorillonite
and illite (not mixed layer), kaolinite, mixed ··layer Ore bodies associated with the Comstock fault
montmorillonite-chlorite, and chlorite. Rocks of the were grouped into three spatial zones by Becker {1882):
kaolinite-quartz-pyrite argillic assemblage surround the Bonanza, Central, and Gold Hill zones. The
alunitized rocks, and separate them from rocks with distribution of ore bodies in these zones is shown in the
montmorillonite-bearing argillic assemblages. The longitudinal section in figure H10. The ore bodies are
groundmass and phenocrysts of rocks in the kaolinite- tabular along strike but appear as irregularly shaped
quartz-pyrite assemblage are completely altered to bodies when projected onto the longitudinal section. The
kaolinite and quartz. In addition, the texture of the great bonanza of the Consolidated Virginia mine formed
original rock is seldom discernible. in an open fracture in the hanging wall of the Comstock
Silicified rocks occur as two mineral assemblages: fault whereas other bonanzas occurred along the Com-
(1) alunite-quartz-pyrite, and (2) alunite-jarosite-quartz- stock fault (fig. H11).
pyrite (Whitebread, 1976). Alunite preferentially has Becker (1882) described the great bonanza of the
replaced feldspar phenocrysts. Silicified zones formed Consolidated Virginia and California mines as a group of
along fractures and represent the most intensely altered three ore bodies. Each ore body was composed of
rocks in the hydrothermally altered areas. These rocks crushed quartz and fragments of wall rock. These crushed
form resistant craggy outcrops owing to the abundance of zones were cut by rare narrow veins containing stephan-
quartz. D.M. Hudson (written commun., 1983) noted ite. The whole mass of crushed quartz carried argentite
that in the hanging wall of the Comstock Lode, alunite- and gold with a moderate amount of pyrite. Clays were
quartz altered rocks are zoned outward to an assemblage present but apparently were not prominent in the
of quartz and kaolinite, pyrophyllite, and (or) diaspore Consolidated Virginia and California bonanza.
that is followed outward by an assemblage of quartz and Bastin {1922) noted that the Comstock ore min-
sericite, illite, and (or) montmorillonite, ending in pro- erals are fine grained; metallic minerals are commonly
pylitized rocks. less than 1 mm in diameter but do attain diameters of
Mineralogical changes associated with supergene 5-10 mm. The ores have a granular texture (the sugar
alteration were generally minimal in silicified and quartz of Becker, 1882), and "banding" (layering) is rare.
argillized rocks, even though most such rocks contain The most abundant minerals in nearly all specimens
pyrite that has been oxidized to limonite. Rocks with studied by Bastin (1922) were quartz, sphalerite, galena,
progressively weaker hypogene alteration effects show chalcopyrite, and pyrite. An approximate paragenetic
progressively greater supergene changes. However, the sequence, based on Bastin's (1922) study, shows that
exact proportion of hypogene minerals versus supergene quartz and sphalerite crystallized throughout the period

Epithermal Gold Deposits- Part I H27

 0 300 METERS

0 1000 FEET

Figure H10. Projection of maJor ore bodies in the Comstock Lode onto the plane of the Comstock fault. Underground m1ne
workings are s1mphf1ed The dashed vert1cal hnes separate different m~nes along the Comstock Lode Modlf1ed from Becker
(1882).

of mineralization. Calcite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, filling temperatures of 295 °C with 3.1 weight percent
argentite, gold, electrum, and polybasite all occur inter- equivalent NaCI, whereas the secondary inclusions had a
stitially between quartz and sphalerite. Aguilarite, a filling temperature range of 240-258 oc with 2.7-3.6
silver selenide, replaced the base-metal sulfide minerals weight percent equivalent NaCI. This sample also had
and was, in turn, replaced by argentite, electrum, and substantially different isotope values (D = -68.5;
18
stephanite (Coats, 1936). 0 = + 8.9 per mil) compared to other samples
Supergene enrichment has been minor, but it has (D=-87.5 to -132.5 per mil; 18 0= +1.1 to +3.2 per
been recognized in the shallow parts of the lode (Bastin, mil). O'Neil and Silberman (1974) concluded that the
1922). Supergene minerals include covellite and chal- deep sample from the Consolidated Virginia formed
cocite that replaced chalcopyrite, and native silver that from water that contained a large magmatic component
replaced argentite. Supergene enrichment occurred only (about 80 percent), whereas other samples from shallow
to a depth of about 130m, and Bastin (1922) concluded parts of the system were dominated by meteoric water.
that such enrichment had a negligible effect on tenor of There are no published systematic geochemical
the ore. studies of the Comstock Lode ore deposits. However,
Taylor (1973) collected samples of andesite from Cornwall and others (1967) and Whitebread (1976)
the Alta Formation and Davidson Granodiorite along a examined surface rock and soil samples in the Virginia
traverse parallel to the Comstock fault and analyzed City quadrangle. The results of these studies showed that
these, and three samples of vein quartz, for their oxygen gold and silver anomalies delineate areas of known major
isotope compositions. His data show that the rocks are production. On the other hand, mercury anomalies occur
locally depleted in 18 0. Taylor (1973) concluded that the away from known deposits. Cornwall and others (1967)
hydrothermal fluids in the Comstock Lode district suggested that mercury is zoned both vertically and
contained a major component of meteoric water. O'Neil laterally away from silver. Whitebread (1976) noted that,
and Silberman (1974) determined the isotopic composi- although arsenic and mercury show the distribution
tion of hydrogen and oxygen in vein quartz from the noted by Cornwall and others (1967), highly anomalous
Savage, Dayton, and Consolidated Virginia mines. They values are limited to fracture fillings and quartz veins in
obtained a sample from the 1200 level of the the hanging wall of the Comstock Lode. Thus, White-
Consolidated Virginia high-grade bonanza that con- bread (1976) concluded that ore-related trace elements
tained primary sulfide minerals, sulfosalts, and quartz. are most abundant near productive areas where they are
The quartz in this sample contained both primary and localized along structures but not dispersed far into
secondary fluid inclusions The primary inclusions had country rock.

H28 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

WEST EAST

Figure H11. Schematic cross section of the Comstock lode at the Consolidated V1rg1ma bonanza. Mod1f1ed from Becker
(1882) and Reid (1905).

CONCLUSIONS Features of the Comstock Lode similar to those of

other epithermal deposits in Tertiary volcanic terranes of
The Comstock Lode silver-gold deposits are western North America include: (1) localization along a
classified as epithermal bonanza deposits in quartz veins normal fault, (2) significant hangmg wall mineralization,
hosted by volcanic rocks. This type of deposit was (3) temporal and spatial association with Igneous activity,
exploited in many of the famous early mining camps of (4) both precious- and base-metal sulfide mmerahzation,
western North America including: Tonopah, Nevada and (5) fluid inclusions indicating a temperature range of
(Spurr, 1905), Oatman, Arizona (Ransome, 1923), and 200-300 °C for meteoric-dominated hydrothermal solu-
Creede, Colorado (Emmons and Larsen, 1913, 1923) tions in the shallow parts of the deposit. On the other
in the United States; and Tayoltita, Durango (Smith and hand, the Comstock Lode ore bodies have a prominent
others, 1982), Pachuca-Real del Monte, Hidalgo (Geyne characteristic that is different from other epithermal
and others, 1963), and Guanajuato, Guanajuato deposits: the bonanzas are zones of crushed quartz with
(Wandke and Martinez, 1928) in Mexico. Most of these sulfide minerals that show little of the continuous band-
deposits have low gold.silver ratios. For example, Com- ing typical of other deposits.
stock and Tonopah have Au:Ag = 1:40 and 1:100, Genesis of the Comstock Lode can be considered
respectively. Gold-rich deposits include Oatman, in terms of geothermal models (Buchanan, 1981; Berger
Arizona (Au·Ag= 1:1), and Hayden Hill, California and Eimon, 1982; Henley and Ellis, 1983.). These models
(Au:Ag=3:1) (Nolan, 1933). suggest that heat, provided by igneous activity, drives a

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H29

convecting hot-water system. The hot water flows _ _ 1940, Propyhtizatton and related types of alteration on
through conduits provided by fractures, and minerals are the Comstock lode, Nevada Economic Geology, v. 35,
deposited in the open spaces of fractures and breccias. p 1-16.
Albers and Kleinhampl (1970) suggested that intrusion Cornwall, H.R , Lakm, H W , Nakagawa, H M , and Stager,
and uplift in the volcanic vent area of the Comstock Lode H K., 1967, Stiver and mercury geochemtcal anomahes
district were responsible for the heat and structural in the Comstock, Tonopah, and Silver Reef districts,
conduits necessary for ore deposition in the Comstock Nevada-Utah· U S Geologtcal Professional Paper
Lode. The ages of the volcanic and intrusive rocks in the 676-B, p B10-B20
district bracket ages of vein minerals (table Hl). These Doell, R R , Dalrymple, G B N , and Cox, Allan, 1966,
relations indicate that convecting geothermal fluid, Geomagnetic polanty epochs-Sierra Nevada data,
Part 3. Journal of Geophystcal Research, v 71, no 2,
driven by igneous activity, flowed through the Comstock p 531-541
structures. Vein minerals were deposited in the struc- Emmons, W H, and Larsen, E S, 1913, A prebmmary report
tures in response to changing physical and chemical on the geology and ore deposits of Creede, Colorado.
parameters, including cooling, boiling, and changes in US Geologtcal Survey Bulletin 530-E, p 42-65
fluid chemistry owing to wallrock/water interactions. _ _ 1923, Geology and ore deposits of the Creede district,
Colorado US Geologtcal Survey Bulletin 718, 198 p
Manuscnpt receiVed by scaentafic edators June 1984 Geyne, A.R , Fries, C , Segerstrom, K , Black, R F , and
Wtlson, IF, 1963, Geology and mineral deposits of the
Pachuca-Real del Monte distnct, state of Hidalgo,
MeXIco Consejo de Recursos Naturales o Renovables,
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p C1-C10. anctent and modem-A geochemtcal review. Earth
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Geological Survey Open-File Report 79-960, 41 p Engtneers, p 623-640
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Becker, G F , 1882, Geology of the Comstock lode and the Peccerillo, A, and Taylor, S R, 1976, Geochemistry of Eocene
Washoe dJStrtct U S. Geological Survey Monograph 3, calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from the Kastamonu area,
422p. northern Turkey: Contnbutions to Mmeralogy and
Berger, B R, and Etmon, PI, 1982, Comparative models of Petrology, v. 58, p 63-81.
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the mtddle Terttary ash-flow tuffs m the Carson City- Rose, R L, 1969, Geology of parts of the Wadsworth and
Stlver Ctty area, Nevada U S Geologtcal Survey Churchtll Butte quadrangles, Nevada Nevada Bureau of
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W R , and Payne, W D, eds , Relations of tectomcs to ore Igneous acttvtty, tectonics, and hydrothermal precious-
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Soctety Digest, v. 14, 288 p ttme SoCiety of Mming Engineers, Transactions, v 260,
Calkms, F C, 1944, Outline of geology of the Comstock Lode p 253-263
dtstnct, Nevada. U S Geological Survey, 35 p Smith, D M, Jr, Albmson, T, and Sawkms, FJ, 1982,
Coats, R R , 1936, Agutlante from the Comstock lode, Virginia Geologic and fluid mcluston studtes of the Tayoltita
Ctty, Nevada American Mineralogtst, v 21,no 8, silver-gold vem depostt, Durango, MeXIco Economic
p 532-534 Geology, v 77, p. 1120-1145.

H30 Geology and Resources of Gold In the United States

 Smith, G H, 1943, The history of the Comstock lode· Wandke, A , and Martinez, J , 1928, The Guanajuato mining
University of Nevada Bulletm, v 37, no 3, 305 p d1stnct, GuanaJuato, Mexico· Economic Geology, v 23,
Spurr, J E , 1905, Geology of the Tonopah mmmg district, p 1-44.
Nevada· US Geolog~cal Survey Professional Paper 42, Whitebread, D H, 1976, Alteration and geochemistry of
295 p Tertiary volcanic rocks m parts of the VIrgmia Ctty
Taylor, H P, Jr., 1973, 0 18/0 18 evtdence for meteoric- quadrangle, Nevada· US Geological Survey Pro-
hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition in the fessiOnal Paper 936, 43 p
Tonopah, Comstock Lode, and Goldfield mmmg d1stncts,
Nevada Economic Geology, v 68, p 747-764 Note added in press:
Thompson, G A, 1956, Geology of the VIrgmia C1ty
A recently published art1cle by Vlkre (1990) provtdes excellent
quadrangle, Nevada: U S Geological Survey Bulletin
extenstve details from flu1d-mmeral relat1ons in the Comstock
1042-C, p. 45-77.
Lode that greatly clarify the depositiOnal history of the Silver-
Thompson, G A, and Wh1te, DE., 1964, Reg~onal geology of
gold ores
the Steamboat Springs area, Washoe county, Nevada·
U S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 458-A, p Vtkre, P G, 1990, Fluid-mmeral relations in the Comstock
A1-A52 Lode Economic Geology, v 84, p 1574-1613

Epithermal Gold Deposits-Part I H31

~US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1990-773-047/06067

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