HISTORY OF ANIMAL BREEDING

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 History of Animal Breeding
• Animal breeding is defined as the application of principles of
quantitative genetics for the genetic improvement of farm animals
with respect to particular character of interest.

• Two important tools available with the animal breeder viz.

1. Selection and

2. Mating or breeding system

for changing the genetic properties of the population

• Selection:

Decides the choice of individual to bred as parents to produce

offspring for the next generation

• Mating system:

Decides which males would be mated with which females or

the control of the way in which the parents are mated

• Combination of both selection and mating system is known as

breeding plans

• Animal breeding was started from the domestication of wild

animals and was practiced even before the principles of genetics
were known
 Development of Animal Breeding
Animal breeding practices like selection, mating of superior animals,
inbreeding and out-breeding were followed in earlier days without
knowing the basic principles of genetics

Roman Fall of Roman From 1700 -

Empire – 500 Empire (for again
A.D. – Animal 1000 yrs) – improvement
breeding at Dark Middle
esteem Ages – AH
stand still
 Development of Animal Breeding

British Royalty Earls and Dukes In 1600 –

encouraged horse of England – American Settlers
breeding imported bulls – imported stock
from Holland – from Europe
bred native stock (Holsteins, Brown
Swiss), Shorthorn
from England &
Merino sheep
from Spain
Development of Animal Breeding…

• Era of Private Breeders

• Robert Bakewell – “Father of Animal
Breeding” born in 1726, Dishley in
England
• Toured Europe widely for superior stock
• In 1760 – Industrial Revolution – Demand
for livestock products was more
• Bakewell made improvements in livestock
 ACTIVITIES
• Purchased animals from different places for his breeding work to
create a wide base.

• Selected only those animals, which he considered more suitable for

breeding.

• Intensive inbreeding for several generations to consolidate the type.

• Rejected all the animals with undesirable characters.

• First to conduct systematic progeny testing of rams and bulls.

• He used only those males, which gave the best progeny, in his own
herds
 Principles of Robert Bakewell
1. He got definite ideals / objectives / goals

2. Breed the best to the best

3. Like produces like or some likeness to

ancestor (like begets like)

4.Inbreeding produces refinement and

prepotency

5. Progeny testing of rams and bulls (by ram-

letting or leasing of sires and inspecting
their progenies)

He developed Shire horses, Longhorn

cattle and Leicester sheep in 1760
Development of Animal Breeding…

Tompkins and Galliers –

contributed to
development of Hereford
cattle

Colling brothers –
followed Bakewell’s
methods – Development
of Shorthorn cattle in
1775
Development of Animal Breeding…

Coates – First Herd Book

for Shorthorn in 1822

William Humphery –
Hampshire Southdown
sheep
 Towards the end of 18th century, Breed Associations and Official
Herd Books for various breeds appeared.
 Performance recording was the notable event in animal breeding
after the time of Bakewell.

• In 1879, trap nesting of laying hens

was first introduced in Austria.

• First cow testing association was

established in 1892 in Denmark.

• In 1890 rapid method of fat

determination.

• In 1895, the first milk recording on

farm was started at Denmark.
• Pigs : Growth rate, feed consumption and carcass quality were
recorded.

• Sheep and Poultry: Production performance recording were

introduced.

• After the rediscovery of Mendel’s principles in 1900, conflict between

Mendelianists and Biometricians developed.

• By 1909, the conflict was reconciled based on Johansen’s discovery

that seed weight of beans was influenced by both genes and
environment.

• Nilsson Ehle’s (1908) demonstration that several genes could act

additively to control grain colour in wheat.
 • The Hardy-Weinberg Law, the basis of population genetics, was
formulated in 1908

• Early biometricians working in the field

were Sir Francis Galton (British
statistician) and Karl Pearson (British
mathematician and biostatistician)

• Sir Ronald Fisher (British statistician and

geneticist)and Sewall Wright (American
geneticist) advanced their ideas to lay
the foundations of modern biometric
techniques
• The pioneer in the application of population genetics to animal
breeding was Prof. J.L. Lush.
• He is regarded as the Father of Modern Animal Breeding.

In contrast to Robert bakewell, Lush stated

that
• “Like does not always beget like” i.e.
some progeny of the best parents may
be inferior to some progeny of the worst
parents. Chance plays apart in the
success of a particular mating.

• Similarly the “breed the best to the

best”, although basically sound, requires
the additional phrase, “and hope for the
best” i.e. “Breed the best to the best
and hope for the best”
 In the 1950’s and 1960’s research work on long-term selection
experiments involving various livestock and poultry were initiated.

 In the period from 1960 to 1980 the literature is full of the research
on selection studies, heritability and correlation analyses.

• Animal breeding is no longer an art; but an applied science.

• Therefore, animal breeding is the planned genetic alteration of the

population so that the animals can better fulfil the demands dictated
by animal breeders.
 HERD BOOK / CENTRAL HERD BOOK
• It is an official record book used to record various breeds of cattle.

• It is a record of purebreds or pedigree animals of a breed conforming to

the breed standards.

The herd book supposes to have

a) Register of births
b) Final register of males and
c) Final register of females

The registers were to maintain detailed information on,

1. Production performance of each animal
2. Its characteristics
3. Conformation
4. Reproductive performance
5. Prizes won in competitions, etc.
 The real purpose of herd book is
(i) To furnish the data which gives an insight into the inherited make up of the
breeding animals.
(ii) It was authoritative definition of breed characteristics with rules for such
definition and the formulation of rules and regulations for the operation of
herd book.
(iii) Directions were also given for the maintenance and submission of returns.

Closed Herd Book:

It means that no individual can be
recorded in the herd, that does not have
the duly recorded registered ancestry.

Open Herd Book:

It is one that admits animals when they meet in
certain specific requirements and only one or
neither of the parents is registered.
 Development of Animal Breeding in India
Earlier, no definite records

First Livestock Census in 1920 only

Unreliable because – absence of uniform policy, princely states etc.

Large population with poor production due to poor genetic worth, shortage of
fodder, economic condition of farmers and adverse climate

Formation of ICAR helped in improvement of livestock by research

1941 – First Herd Book for Red Sindhi and Sahiwal by ICAR

Subsequently for Hariana, Murrah, Gir, Kankrej, Tharparkar, Kangeyam and

Ongole breeds
 HERD BOOKS IN INDIA
• In 1942 - Hariana and Murrah.
• In 1945 - Gir and Kankrej breeds.
• In 1947 - Tharparkar, Kangayam and Ongole breeds.

• The minimum criteria for milk production in 300 days of lactation for
each breed were as follows.
Sahiwal – 1700 kg Tharparkar – 1400 kg Red Sindhi – 1400 kg
Gir – 1100 kg Hariyana – 1100 kg Kankrej – 700 kg
Ongole – 700 kg Kangayam - 500 kg Murrah – 1400 kg

For entering in Central Herd Register animals must have unique

identification number, must be over 6 months of age and conform to the
breed characteristics and themselves satisfy the milk yield qualifications
besides dam’s or daughters yield.
Development of Animal Breeding…
From 1870 to 1900 – Formation several Breed
Associations – Introduction of Breed Registry –
Purity of Breeds – Competitive spirit among
breeders

Govt – Technical guidance – ‘Livestock shows’

1880 to 1950 – Increase in livestock population

& productivity as well
 Chronological Events in Genetics & Breeding

1866 1876 1939

Mendel – Law of First AI in India

Heredity – J. First Herd Book by Sampath
Zoological for Swine kumaran at
Society of (Berkshire Breed) Mysore Palace
Austria Dairy Farm
 Chronological Events in Genetics & Breeding

1942 1953 1990

First scientific
study on AI in Watson and Formal launch of
India by P. Crick – Double Human Genome
Bhattacharya of Helix of DNA Project
IVRI, Izatnagar
 Chronological Events in Genetics & Breeding

1997 1998 1998

“Dolly” sheep
Cloned mouse by
cloning by SCNT Cloned calves
SCNT at
at Roslin from Friesian
University of
Institute by Ian Cow at USA
Hawai
Wilmut et.al.
 Chronological Events in Genetics & Breeding

1999 2000 2010

Cloned buffalo
Cloning 8 calves Cloned dairy calf calf named
at Kinki at University of ‘Shresth’ at
University, Japan California NDRI, Karnal,
India
 Development of Animal Breeding in India
Institutes Contributing to Livestock Improvement

Indian Veterinary Central Institute National National Dairy

Research for Research on Research on Pigs, Research
Institute, Cattle (CIRC), Rani, Assam Institute , Karnal,
Izat Nagar Meerut Haryana
Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
 Development of Animal Breeding in India
Institutes Contributing to Livestock Improvement

National Central Sheep Central Central

Bureau of and Wool Institute for Institute for
Animal Research Research on Research on
Genetic Institute Buffaloes Goats (CIRG),
Resources (CSWRI), (CIRB), Hissar, Makhdom, UP
(NBAGR), Avikanagar, Haryana
Karnal, Rajasthan
Haryana
 Development of Animal Breeding in India
Institutes Contributing to Livestock Improvement

Central Avian National National Indian

Research Equine Camel Grassland
Institute Research Research and Forage
(CARI), Centre (NRC- Centre (NRC- Research
Izatnagar, Equine), Camel), Institute
Uttranchel Hissar, Bikaner, (IGFRI),
Haryana Rajasthan Jhansi, UP
 Development of Animal Breeding in India
Institutes Contributing to Livestock Improvement

ICAR Regional National 25 State 14 Veterinary

Centre - Research Agricultural Universities
North-Eastern Centre on Yak Universities
Hill Complex, (NRC-Yak),
Shillong, Dirang,
Megalaya Arunachal
Pradesh
DOMESTICATION

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
• Domestication of most animal species took place about 5000 to 12000
years ago.

• Domestication might have been happened simultaneously and

independently in several regions.

• They are genetically distinct from their wild ancestors.

• Domesticated animals have been selectively bred and genetically adapted

over generations to live alongside humans.

• Available evidences indicated that most of the animals had been

domesticated in Central and Western Asia, though there is some evidence
for it in Egypt and Europe.

• Dog was the first animal domesticated. This fact was represented in
Egyptian tombs as early as 3400 B.C.

• Sheep and goats were the first domesticated ruminants.

2
 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
From early human-animal relationships came many generations of
breeding in which people bred animals with the most beneficial traits
and discarded the undesirable one.

• Animal domestication falls into three main groupings:

(1) Domestication for companionship (dogs and cats)
(2) Domestication for food (sheep, cows, pigs, turkeys, etc.)
(3) Domestication for draft purpose (horses, donkeys, camels)
3
 How were Animals Domesticated?
• Domestication is a long and endless process by which animals
become adapted to both humans and captive conditions.

• Three main pathways of domestication for land animals:

(1) Commensal pathway
(2) Prey pathway
(3) Directed pathway

1. Commensal pathway:
• Animals first moved into an anthropogenic habitat, because of
attraction to throwaway waste (animals’ remains) by human.
• For example dog, cat or chicken
4
 How were Animals Domesticated?
2. Prey pathway:
• Humans had initiated domestication, as a response to depletion of
prey animals that humans had hunted for thousands of years and to
enhance the yield of a resources.
• Ex.: Sheep, goat or cattle.

3. Direct pathway:
• Humans deliberately domesticated some species.
• This pathway started with the capture of wild animals with
deliberate intention of controlling their behaviour and reproduction.
• Ex.: Horse, donkey, and camel

5
 Domestication Process
• Domestication happened through selective breeding.

• Individuals that exhibited desirable traits were selected for breeding

and these desirable traits were then passed on to future
generations.

• After domestication of dogs, next the domestication of livestock

animals were started, which coincided with a widespread shift from
foraging to farming.

• As major acts of domestication began before recorded history, we

don’t know much about the exact process behind the journey from
wild animal to domesticated pet or livestock.

6
 How have Animals Evolved during Domestication?
• During domestication, five main genetic processes were involved,
1. Inbreeding (Uncontrolled processes)
2. Genetic drift (Uncontrolled processes)
3. Natural selection in captivity (Partially controlled processes)
4. Relaxation of natural selection (Partially controlled processes)
5. Active selection (one controlled process)

• Two uncontrolled processes are due to the limited size of the population
(inbreeding) and the random changes in gene frequencies (genetic drift).
• The two partially controlled processes account for selection imposed on
captive populations and transition from wild to captive environments.
• The fifth genetic process (active selection) is controlled because changes
are directional. 7
 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
• Behaviour is probably the first to have been modified during
domestication.
• One of the most remarkable behavioural changes shared by all
domesticated animals is their tolerance of proximity to (or complete
lack of fear) people.
• Modifications resulting from domestication concern morphoanatomy,
physiology, behaviour and genetics.

• Domesticated animals typically share certain traits

1. Grow and mature quickly, making them efficient to farming
2. Bred easily and have multiple periods of fertility in a single year
3. Eat plant-based diets, which makes them inexpensive to feed
4. Hardy and easily adapt to changing conditions
5. Live in herds, making them easy for humans to control
8
Consequences of Domestication

Poor communication,
Domestication traditions

Selection, Close Breeding

Breeding & (Out breeding only if
Better Feeding migration / invasion)

Productivity Development of
Improvement ancient breeds
Domestication of Animals

Started at pre-historic days for

meat, milk, draught power etc

Most at Central & Western Asia,

some in Egypt and Europe

Chicken & Elephant – India

Domestication of Animals

First animal to be domesticated –

DOGS – Egypt – 3400 BC

Cattle next – Europe & Asia

Sheep – Europe & Cooler regions

of Asia
Swine – Europe & Asia at 1600 to
2000 B.C.
Domestication of Animals

Swine – China

Horse – Eastern Europe &

West Asia

Turkey & Guinea Pig -

America
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MAJOR DOMESTICATED ANIMALS

• About 40 species around the world that directly or indirectly

contribute to agriculture are domesticated.
• Several of those domesticated species have a distinct scientific name
than their wild ancestors.
• Fourteen most important domesticated mammal species are sheep,
goat, cattle, pig, horse, dromedary (Arabian camel), Bactrian camel,
llama & alpaca, donkey (ass), reindeer, buffalo, yak, Bali cattle and
mithun.
• The “big five” are cattle, pig, sheep, goat, and horse.
• For the five most valuable species, the domestication resulted in the
creation of hundreds of breeds, particularly in the past centuries.
• Breeds have both a biological sense (common features) and a social
acceptance.
13
 SPECIES AND REGION OF DOMESTICATION

No. of
Species Region
breeds
Cattle Europe and Asia (8000 BP) 815
Sheep Europe (9000 BP) 850
Goat Asia (9000 BP) 320
Swine China (8000 BP) 350
Horse Eastern Europe and Western Asia (6000 BP) 350
Donkey Egypt / Africa (6000 BP) 70
Dromedary
East Africa (4500 BP) 50
(Arabian Camel)
Bactrian Camel
Asia (4500 BP) 6
(Double-humped)
Buffalo Asia (6000 BP) 70
BP = Before Present 14
15
AREAS OF DOMESTICATION
1 Turkey
2 Ilama, Alpaca
3 Pig, Rabbit
4 Cattle, Donkey
5 C,P,S,G,BC
6 C, G, Ch,RB
7 Horse
8 Yak
9 P,SB,Ch
10 Ch,Pig,C
11Dromodery
12 Reindeer
16
 CATTLE
• The wild ancestor of cattle is Bos
primigenius (now extinct); had a very
wide geographic distribution, which
extended from East Asia to Europe
and North Africa

• Two major types of domestic cattle

are zebu (Bos indicus) which have a
prominent thoracic hump and taurine
(Bos taurus), which do not have hump

• Zebu cattle were domesticated in the

Indus valley region around 8000 BP,
whereas taurine cattle were
These two species fully interbred;
domesticated in Anatolia (Asian taurine-zebu admixture found over
Turkey) around 10,000 BP Europe, southwest Asia and Africa
 CATTLE
• Yak (Bos grunniens) were crossed with
cattle in Nepal or banteng (Bos
javanicus) in Southeast Asia and
Indonesia, to increase genetic
variability

• During several millennia, extensive

gene flow among different groups of
domestic cattle, as well as with wild
ancestor was possible, leading to high
effective population sizes and
preventing genetic drift.
Banteng
• This might partly explain the relatively
large cattle gene pool
18
 GOAT (Capra hircus)
• The wild ancestor of goat is Capra
aegagrus
• The first archaeological evidence of goat
domestication traces back to about 9,000
years ago
• Extraordinary adaptability and hardiness
of goats favoured their rapid spread over
the Africa, Asia and Europe.
• Goats have successfully adapted to
desert, mountainous and tropical areas
where other livestock species would not
thrive.
• Over the course of domestication, several
morphological traits were modified, such
as horn and ear shapes, the presence of
wattles, long hair, by selection.
19
 SHEEP (Ovis aries)

• The wild ancestors of the domestic

sheep are probably the mouflon (Ovis
musimon) and the urial (Ovis orientalis)

• Domestication centre of sheep was in

eastern Anatolia (Asian Turkey) and
North-West Iran between 8500 and
12000 years ago

• Sheep were first farmed for access to

meat before for wool and milk
commenced 4000 to 5000 years ago

20
 SHEEP (Ovis aries)

• Absence of horns, likely to be one of the

oldest morphological modifications that
accompanied domestication and a trait
now common across many modern sheep
breeds

21
 HORSE (Equus caballus)
• The wild ancestor of domestic horse is
the now extinct, Equus ferus from
central Asia.

• The Asian wild horse, Equus

przewalskii also significantly Equus ferus
contributed to the genetic makeup of
domestic horses.

• Domestication of horse in the western

Eurasian Steppes of Ukraine dates
back to 5500 years ago.

Equus przewalskii
 HORSE (Equus caballus)
• Over the course of domestication,
horses were not only used as a
source of meat and milk; their
stamina and quickness provide
humans with rapid transportation.

• Domestic horses exhibit remarkable

variation in coat coloration

23
 PIG (Sus domesticus)
• The wild ancestor of domestic pigs is
Sus scrofa
• Wild boars occurred throughout Eurasia
and North Africa
• Multiple independent domestication
events, mainly in Asia, Europe and East
Asia, have probably occurred, starting
approximately 9000 years ago
• These domestication events were
separated not only by thousands of
kilometres but also by thousands of
years
• Chinese breeds originated in East Asia,
whereas European breeds are believed to
have originated in Southwest Asia 24
 PIG (Sus domesticus)
• During millennia, it is likely that out-crossing of domestic pigs with
wild boar was common in traditional pig husbandry across Europe.
• European and Asian domestic pigs were genetically very different.

• From the 18th century, pig breeds were selectively bred for specific
production traits such as early maturation, rapid growth and
increased prolificacy.

25
 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Ever since Darwin, the study of domestication has puzzled scientists.

• Hundreds of articles are published each year as well as books.

• Domesticated species are the result of a long and endless process

that started millennia ago.

• Process of domestication was assumed to be initiated by humans,

involving strong bottlenecks (drastic reduction in population size ) in
the domestic population and reproductive isolation between wild
and domestic forms.

26
 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Archaeological, genetic and ethno-historical evidences suggest that

long-term gene flow between wild and domestic stocks and selective
breeding of females was largely absent during the early phases of
animal domestication.

• Complete separation between wild and domestic populations was

relatively late and region-specific.

• During domestication, farm animals have been managed in a

sustainable way by farmers, which lead to animals well adapted to
local conditions.

27
 Selection
Classification and Complications

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor

Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding

Madras Veterinary College
Chennai
 SELECTION

Breeders can change the genetic properties of the population by

two ways:

1. Selection (choice of individuals to be bred as parents)

2. Mating system (control of the way in which parents are mated)

The combination of both selection and mating systems

constitutes a breeding plan.
 Selection

• Selection is the process in which certain individuals in a

population are given an opportunity to produce offspring, while
others are denied this opportunity.

• Selection in animal breeding concerns itself with differential

rate of reproduction within a population, whereby animals with
some characters tend to have more offspring than animals
without those characters.
 Genetic effects of selection

 Does not create new genes; but only sorts the existing genes.

 Animals possessing favourable genes to reproduce – increases the

frequency of desirable genes

 If the frequency of desirable gene is increased, the proportion of

individuals homozygous for that desirable gene also increased.

 Individuals with undesirable genes are discarded

 Genetic Effects of Selection…
Selection does not create new genes

Practised to increase frequency of desirable

genes & decrease the frequency of undesirable
genes

ILLUSTRATION:
‘A’ – desirable gene
‘a’ – undesirable gene
 Genetic Effects of Selection…
Generation Mating
Parents AA x aa
↓
F1 Aa
All ‘Aa’ & frequency of desirable gene (A) is 50%

Aa x Aa
↓
F2 AA Aa aa
1 2 1
Again the frequency of ‘A’ is only 50%
 Genetic Effects of Selection…
If we cull all ‘aa’
individuals in F2,
the remaining
•4A and 2a
genes would be

AA Aa Aa aa (cull) • The frequency of ‘A’ gene

↓
would be increased to
67% and ‘a’ gene
4A & 2a decreased to 33%
 Genetic Effects of Selection…
Selection
The increased frequency of ‘A’ also
increases the proportion of individuals
with ‘A’ (desirable gene)

Increase in the frequency of desirable

genes & decrease in the frequency of
undesirable genes

The proportion of individuals

homozygous for the desirable gene is
also increased
 1. Natural Selection
• Natural selection is influenced by nature and not by man.

• The main force responsible for natural selection is ”Survival of the

fittest” in a particular environment. e.g. wild animals.

• In long run, natural selection leads to an improved genetic

acclimatization of the population to the prevailing environmental
condition mainly with regard to fertility among the parents and
viability among their progeny.
• Natural selection is a very complicate process and many factors
determine the proportion of individuals that will reproduce.
They are
1. Differences in degree of fertility of individuals in that population.
2. Differences in mortality in the population especially in early life.
3. Differences in the duration and degree of sexual activity.
4. Differences in the lifetime of different individuals.
 Artificial Selection
Selection practiced by man.
• Defined as the efforts of man to increase the frequency of
desirable genes in his herd / flock by locating or saving those
individuals with superior performance.
• It may differ from natural selection both in intensity and
direction.
• This merely sorts genes and permits the better ones to be
saved and the poorer ones to be discarded.
• Artificial selection has two aspects: Replacement selection
and Culling.
 Replacement • Decides which animal will become
parents for the first time
Selection • New animals to replace the parents
that have been culled.

• Decides which parents will no

longer remain parents – Removal
of inferior animals
Culling • Should be for genetic reasons –
Errors due to environment
reasons, other reasons like
individual selection (after
lactation, twins) avoided

• Replacement selection and culling go together and they are really just
different sides of the same coin.
• They involve different sets of animals, but their purpose is the same.
• Artificial selection is aptly called as the “Keystone of the arch” of
the animal breeding.
 COMPLICATIONS OF SELECTION

• Selection is carried out for a variety of traits in different species.

Ex.: Speed in racehorses, milk yield in dairy cattle, litter size in swine, wool
yield in sheep, market weight in goats and egg production in poultry.

• In farm animals’ selection should always be directed to greater utility.

• However, selection is not so simple task to produce immediate

results.

• Selection is also not always successful.

• If selection were always being effective, the animal breeder’s problems

would be largely resolved.

• But the failures of selection serve to dampen the enthusiasm of many

people engaged in animal breeding.
 Complications of
Selection

Genetic Operational

Heredity & Genotype & Objectives in Number of

Environment Phenotype Selection Traits

Regression Foundation Level of

Heritability
to Mean Stock Performance

Type of Gene Correlation Systems of Number of

Action of Traits Selection Animals

Effect of Length of
Inbreeding Time
 Genetic complications

i) Heredity and environment

• Most traits of economic importance are controlled by many genes and
are greatly influenced by environment.

• Environment therefore may also alter the traits as to mask the real
genetic worth of the individuals.

For example, an animal with a faster growth rate raised on faulty

environment (deficient diet) and an animal with poor genetic constitution
for rate of growth, but raised in a good environment can be responsible for
mistakes in selection.
 Genotype & Environment Interaction
HIGH T Temperate
Adapted
E
D M
I P
F
F E
N
I V
N I Tropical
P Adapted
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N Tropical
Adapted D T
I R
F O
F P

I E
Temperate N N
Adapted

LOW

TEMPERATE ENVIRONMENT TROPICAL

• This effect of environment can be responsible for mistakes in selection.

• However, this effect could be overcome by keeping the stock

under selection in a standard and suitable environment wherein
the better genotype will be able to express itself.

• Under such conditions, the breeder will have a chance to recognize the
differences that are hereditary and thus increase the accuracy of
selection.
ii) Genotype and phenotype
• Genotype is animals’ genetic constitution.

• The genotype remains constant for an animal throughout its life.

• But phenotype is the result of interaction between the genotype and

environment in which the animal is developing.

• The phenotype unlike the genotype changes with time. Hence it affects
selection.

• Selection is done for the genotype but seldom could it be assessed

correctly.

• So the genotype is assessed based on phenotype of the individual

though it is not accurate.
• If we know the transmitting abilities of our animals, the progress from
selection will surely be there.

• But it will not be possible even after extensive progeny tests.

• The performance also varies with the age of the individual.

• So for the selection to be effective, it should be done at the market age

when the economic traits show up in meat animals like sheep, swine
and poultry.

• Cows should be selected at the end of first lactation.

iii) Heritability
• Most selection processes are based on phenotypic differences.
• Though we are selecting on phenotypic basis, our aim is to select the best
genotype.
• If the phenotype accurately reflects the genotype the selection will be quite
accurate.
• But phenotype is not the true indicators of genotype.

• Heritability of a trait may be defined as that portion of the

phenotypic variation that is due to additive gene action.
• If most of the phenotypic variation is due to environment,
progress from selection will be slow.
• On the other hand, if the additive genetic variation is
larger, then the heritability estimate will more accurately
predict the genotype.
• The heritability values are not constant and vary from herd to herd
and in the same herd from time to time.

• Inbreeding for instance increases homozygosity and reduces the

hereditary variation.

• Heritability therefore will decrease with inbreeding and increase with

outcrossing.

• In other words phenotype or individual selection will be more

effective for traits, where the heritability is high.

• Hence, knowledge on heritability of economic traits in livestock is

therefore essential for a breeder.
 (iv) Regression to Mean

• Offspring of outstanding
“Galton’s parents often have
law of Filial tendency to regress
towards average of the
Regression” population

• Combination of genes: Segregation

and independent assortment of
genes → ideal combination broken
Reasons up → average
• Environment: Offspring are in
environment, different from
parents → average
 Regression to Mean…
How to avoid this regression?
If superiority of
parents is due
lucky combination Nothing could be done!
of genes

If due to high % of
homozygosity of Inbreeding
desirable genes

No control over segregation →

heterozygous individuals used as
If due to heterosis market animals – DO NOT USE FOR
BREEDING

If due to Keep the

environmental environment
effects
uniform
 (v) Type of Gene Action

Genes act differently • Accurate selection difficult

in different • ‘AA’ & ‘Aa’ – same
combinations phenotype

•‘AA’ breed true & ‘Aa’ will segregate and

may not produce desired result
If ‘A’ is dominant to • But in case of over dominance, Aa will
‘a’, produce larger effect than AA / aa.
• So in heterozygous condition selection
will not produce desired results.

• Cross appropriate inbred lines

To have desired • Hence the job of the breeder is to increase
the frequency of favorable alleles and to
effect discard the less favourable ones.
 vi) Correlation of traits

• Some characteristics are positively correlated for example, rate of gain in

weight and efficiency of gain in swine.
• Whereas, some others are negatively correlated for example, milk yield
and butter fat percentage in dairy cattle.
• If the desirable traits are positively correlated selection becomes
somewhat easier.
• If you select for one trait, the other trait automatically improves.
Whereas, for the traits with negative correlation; selection for one trait
will affect the other trait.
• Hence, knowledge of correlation of different traits will be of great help in
avoiding mistakes in selection.
Correlation of Traits – Positive Correlation

Body Efficiency
weight of gain
gain (pigs)
(pigs)
Correlation of Traits – Negative Correlation

Milk
yield

Fat %
in milk
vii) Effect of inbreeding
 It is generally known that a decline in all attributes of vigor usually
accompanies inbreeding.
 Breeders therefore hesitate to practice inbreeding. However, it is necessary to
practise inbreeding in order to induce gene segregation and to fix desirable
gene combinations.
 Inbreeding increases prepotency.
 Regularity of transmission is increased with increased homozygosity that is
obtained only through inbreeding and selection.
To avoid depressing effects of inbreeding
• Choose foundation stock that is superior in production
• Rigid selection from beginning to offset the possible bad effects of inbreeding
on performance
Flexible system of mating that permits besides close breeding, mating of best
individuals that is controlled breeding
Operational Complications
(1) Objectives in Selection
Lack of
definite Failure
objectives

Clear Effective
objectives Selection

Should be
Objectives defined by
measurements

Judgements by Never replace

measurements measurements
 (2) Number of Traits

Solution to this
For Single Trait For more traits
problem
• Rank animals • Difficult – • Number of
& select Animal good traits must be
in one trait & kept as small as
possible and
poor in must be those
another! – with greatest
Few will be value from the
good in all stand of utility.
traits
 (3) Foundation Stock

If genetically poor & lack

genetic variability

Selection ineffective

Selection is sorting of good

genes – therefore, foundation
stock should be good
 (4) Number of Animals

Little
Smaller Otherwise
Fewer Restricted opportunity
selection cull most of
Animals Selection for genetic
pressure the animals
segregation
 (5) Level of Performance

Variable stock

Selection effective for first few generations only as

homozygosity and frequency of favourable genes
increases

Further progress is slow

To off-set, follow system of mating which

brings new gene combinations
 6) System of selection
• Too much rigid in the systems of selection may be a handicap to
progress in animal breeding programme.

• For example, a breeder may specify that no cows should be selected

with the lactation yield of less than 2000 kg.

• But only few cows will be available earlier period and after few years
very few animals will reach the standard.

• Hence, a selection index (multi-trait selection) giving relative

importance to each trait is good.

• But the importance of the trait at that particular time should be taken
into consideration for selecting the trait.
 7) Length of time
• The turnover in livestock is slow both in number of animals and
in number of generations because small herds or flocks offer so
little opportunity for genetic segregation.
• So the breeder must be prepared to continue his project for a
relatively longer period of time.
• Progress in a single generation is apt to be masked by
environmental effect and it takes many years to turn over several
generations in large animals.
• Although progress per year is small, real improvement can be
effected over a long period of time.
Thank You
Aids to Selection

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Aids to Selection

• Any progress in animal breeding through the application of selection will

depend upon the ability to recognize superior animals in terms of
traits of our interest.

• Those superior animals could be identified either based on its own

performance or based on its relatives or pedigree or progeny or by
combination.

• The various sources or criteria of information used for estimating the

breeding value of an individual is refereed to as Basis of selection /
Aids to Selection / Selection criteria
• It would be relatively easier for selecting qualitative traits eg. Egg shell
colour and body coat colour

• But selection for quantitative traits, it would be a challenging situation,

where majority of them are economic traits eg. Milk production, birth
weight, body weight, etc..

• As quantitative traits are governed by multiple genes, its become quite

difficult to select / improve.
 Aids to Selection

 Based on individual’s own performance (Individual selection)

 Based on pedigree performance (Pedigree selection)

 Based on Family performance (Family selection)

 Based on Progeny performance (Progeny testing)

“Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be,

his pedigree tells us what he ought to be
but the performance of his progeny tells us what he is”

These aids are also called as tools to selection

 Aids to selection / Basis of selection / Selection Criteria

1. Individual/
Mass selection
Own phenotype
performance

2. Pedigree
4. Progeny testing
selection
Performance of its
Performance of its
progenies
ancestors

3. Family and Sib

selection
Performance of
collateral relatives
Relationship between individual and its relatives
 Individual Selection

• Selecting an individual on the basis of its own phenotypic value

of the trait concern.

• Individual selection for appearance or breed type and

production.

• Selection is strictly based on individual phenotypic value and

phenotype is taken as the sole estimate of the individual's
genotype.

• Also called Phenotypic Selection.

• Individual selection is also known as Mass selection

• This term is often used for individual selection especially when the
selected individuals are put together en masse for mating or
breeding.

• Ex. Drosophila Flour beetle

• The term Individual Selection is used more specifically when the

mating is controlled or recorded as in the case of large animals.
 Individual selection may be for
i) Breed Type or Appearance

ii) Production Performance

 Individual Selection for Breed Type:

 It is the outward conformation of individuals, i.e. the
morphological characters and physical measurements like body
colour, size, shape of horn, ears, body length, height and girth etc.

 Breed type - refers to the complex external characteristics, which

are typical of the breed.

 Usually there are official standards set for each of the breeds by
the respective Breed Associations.
 Individual Selection for Type / Appearance

In show ring or livestock exhibition besides the physical conformation, an

aesthetic value is always attached to beauty and behaviour of animals.

How much attention should be given to type in selection depends upon

• Relative value it fetches in the market over production traits.

• How closely type is correlated with production.

 Individual Selection for Production

Selection of animals based on their individual production

performance

• It is necessary to maintain accurate records

and all available records should be used.  Birth weight
• Before utilizing the data it should be  Weaning weight,
standardized to remove the effect of non- yearling weight

genetic (environmental) factors to a uniform  Age at first heat

comparable basis.  Age at first lambing /

calving
• Average of many records will reduce the
 Number of lambs born
environmental variations.
• Incomplete records should not be  Fleece traits - length,
diameter
considered.
 The individual selection for production can be based on

i) Based on single measurements / single record

 Select the individual based on single record, even though multiple records are
available.

 It is always employed for traits with higher heritability values.

ii) Based on multiple measurements (repeated measurements)

 For traits like milk yield, fleece weight, litter size repeated observations can be
made and multiple records are available.

 The advantage of multiple records is that it increases the accuracy of selection.

 For traits with very low heritability and repeatability, selection using multiple
records is advantageous.

 The disadvantage is that it increases generation interval.

 TRAIT RATIO
• Phenotypic merit of the individual is determined by comparing the
individual’s own phenotype with that of the average of all the
individuals within a group from which it is selected.

Individual’s Record for a trait

Trait Ratio = --------------------------------- x 100
Group Average for the same trait
 PROBABLE BREEDING VALUE (PBV)
• It is used to estimate genetic superiority or inferiority of the individual in
comparison to the group or population from which it was selected.

• It is estimated from its phenotypic value as a deviation from the population

mean times the heritability of the trait.

PBV = P + h2 (Pi - P)

Where h2 is the heritability for the trait

P = is the population mean

Pi = is the phenotypic values of the individual

• PBV is always near the population average than its own phenotypic value
because environmental effects are not transmitted to the individual’s
offspring.
 ADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUAL SELECTION

 Individual selection is effective only when the characters being selected are
expressed in both sexes.
 Traits with high heritability, eg. growth rate, body type etc.

Advantages
i) When information on individuals are easily available.

ii) Generation interval is shorter.

iii) Can be applied earlier to progeny testing.

iv) Gives a direct estimate of breeding value.

v) In the absence of pedigree and progeny records, this is the only available
guide for selecting the breeding stock.
 LIMITATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL SELECTION

• Cannot be practiced in sex limited traits. e.g. milk production,

litter size.

• It is not effective if the heritability of trait is low (many

economic traits have low to medium heritability)

• It cannot be practiced for carcass traits and traits expressed in

later part of life.
 Pedigree Selection

• It is based on record of an individual’s ancestors related to

it through its parents, which includes sire, dam, grand sire,
grand dam and earlier ancestors.

• From a practical standpoint, knowledge on the productivity of

the ancestors is necessary if pedigree is to be useful, such
pedigrees are known as performance pedigree.
 Pedigree Selection
• The B.V of an animal is estimated on the basis of the
performance of their ancestors.

• Each parent passes a sample half of its genes to its offspring, the
other half being received from the other parent.

• The percentage of ancestral genes is halved in each

generation.

• Therefore, ancestors more closely related to the individual

(recent ancestor) should receive the most emphasis in
pedigree appraisal than distant ancestors (great grand
parents).

• Parent – 0.50, grand parent – 0.25 and great grand parent –

0.125.
• The inclusion of more remote ancestors results only in marginal
gain in accuracy of selection due to the halving process and
sampling nature of inheritance.

• When individual record is not available, pedigree selection is

preferred.

• But it must be remembered that if the individual is having

records, it should be given more importance than its ancestors.
 Selection of ewes / does based on
pedigree performance

Dam Other relatives

• No anatomical deformities - Productivity of sisters, aunts,
• Doesn’t miss breeding season grandmothers, etc
• History of lambing
- Performance of sire’s progeny
• Always lambs without any difficulty ADG, FEC, scrotal circumference
• No prolapse
• No udder problems
• No repeated health issues
 Advantages
 It is practiced when the breeder wants to select the individuals before
they reach productive age.

 Used to select traits expressed in only one sex (sex limited) such as
milk production, egg production, semen production, etc.

 Useful for selection of traits expressed in later life or after the death of
the animal

 Helpful in detecting carriers of defective genes.

 For traits with low heritability pedigree information can be combined

with individual’s record.

 Helpful when two individuals have similar performance but one has better
pedigree.
 Limitations

• Unintentional and unknown mistakes may result in condemnation of

an entire family for breeding when otherwise it may be free of any defect

• One is not entirely sure of the genetic makeup of the parents since
phenotype is not necessarily indicative of the genotype due to
complications by dominance, epistasis and environment

• Due to sampling nature of inheritance for genes it is impossible for us

to be exactly sure of what the individual (offspring) has received from its
parents (whether it is better half or the poor half)

• A pedigree may often become popular because of fashion or fad and

not because of true merit of the individual it contains.

• Introduces non-random error because pedigree records are for different

environmental conditions.
 How to use pedigree for selection?
• Whether to choose a good individual from poor parents or a
mediocre individual from excellent parents ancestors?

Animal Parentage Genetic reason Future inheritance Decision

available for
selection

Good Poor Lucky combination of Regularity - Not preferred

genes Questionable

Mediocre Excellent Does not have good Able to transmit Preferred

combination of genes few good genes –
Lack of few genes for its mate will
successful combination supplement few
good genes
 SELECTION ON THE BASIS OF COLLATERAL
RELATIVES

• Collateral relatives are not directly related to an individual as

ancestors or progenies.

• They are the individuals brothers, sisters, cousins, uncles, aunts,

etc.

• They will provide the more valuable information about genetic

worthiness of an individual for selection purposes.
 SELECTION ON THE BASIS OF COLLATERAL
RELATIVES
 Information on collateral relatives is complete,
1. Gives an idea (???) of the kinds of genes and combination of genes the
individual is likely to possess.
2. Used in livestock where the desired characters are expressed only in one sex.
For instance, in the selection of a bull, there is no information available from the
bull itself since he does not give milk.

 While it is possible to obtain large number of half sisters, whose milk

production is a fair guide to the genes in the bull.
 Using mothers production along with the production of the sisters (paternal and
maternal), gives a much better estimate of the genetic constitution of the bull.
 Also done for selection of carcass character.
 Family in Animal breeding…
• Family in animal breeding consist of full sib and half sibs.

• Half sibs all have one parent in common, whereas full sibs have both
parents in common.

• In random mating population half sibs have a relationship of 25% and

full sibs have a relationship of 50% - Such family members are
collaterally related and not directly related.

• Here the individual does not receive any gene from collateral relatives.

• Because of their common ancestor, the individual and collateral

relatives will have certain genes in common.
 Kinds of Family
Families can be broadly classified into three types:

Sire Family
 These are progeny of one sire born out of different dams born in
the same year (contemporaries) or born over a number of years

Dam Family
 By different sires born in the same year or born over a number of
years

Sire and Dam Families

 Progenies by one sire out of one dam.
 Family selection
• If the records of the individual are
included in arriving in the family
average and used as a criterion
for selection, then it is known as
family selection.

• The selection is based on mean

phenotypic value of the family.

• Here the whole families are

selected or rejected as units
according to the mean phenotypic
value of the family.
 Sib Selection
• Here the individual’s records are not included in arriving the
family average and selection is based only on the value of
relatives.

• Selection on the basis of sib means that an individual is kept for

breeding or rejected (culled) on the basis of the average phenotypic
value of its brothers and sisters (maternal half–sib, paternal half-sib,
or full sibs).

• This is also a family selection, but the selected individual has

not contributed to the estimate of their family mean.

• Family selection and sib selection are practiced largely in swine and
poultry where the number of progenies produced by female are high
(large families).
 Accuracy of Selection

The accuracy of selection on the basis of the phenotypes of sibs

depends upon the

– Heritability (h2) of the trait.

– Relationship of the sibs and the individual being selected.

– Number of sibs(n) used to determine the sibs average.

– Degree of correlation (t) between the phenotypes of the

sibs.
 Family and Sib Selection
Advantages
• It improve the characters of low heritability with high reproductive rates
species (pig and poultry).
• Reduces generation interval.
• Practised for sex limited traits and carcass traits
• Practiced for threshold traits eg. twinning in cattle, disease resistance,
survival or death etc.

Limitations
 Increased possibility of inbreeding since the entire group or members of
family are selected
 Increases the cost and space requirements since it requires larger
families.
 Within family selection
The best individual in each family is selected

• Here individuals are selected on

the basis of their own
phenotypic value expressed
as deviation from their family
mean.

• The individuals that exceed

their family mean by the
greatest amount are selected
instead of selecting the whole
family.

• Thus it is opposite to family

selection because family mean
is given no weight.
• This selection criterion is preferred when a large component of
environmental variance common to all members of a family.
• The selection within family eliminates the environmental
differences among families.
• Ex. Pre-weaning growth in pigs wherein a large part of the variation in
weaning weight is influenced by milk production of the sow and its
mothering ability and hence the environmental variance is common to
all members of a family.
• In this method each family contributes equally to the parents of next
generation.

Advantages

i) When compare to family selection it is economic in terms of

number of animals to be maintained and space.
ii) Rate of inbreeding is reduced
 Common Environment Effect (C-effect)

 Family members share common environment during pre-and

post-natal stage.

 Hence, environmental effects common for all members of the

same family - known as common environmental effects (c-
effects)

 The c-effects create resemblance within family members over

and above the resemblance due to having common genes and
this contributes to the variation between families.

 The c-effects are more for full-sibs than for half-sibs.

• Estimation of the B.V of an individual depending upon the
inclusion or exclusion of individual’s own record in estimating the
family mean.

• The principles involved to estimate the PBV of an individual is the

same as that used in pedigree and progeny selection.
 Progeny Selection

• A large scale genetic evaluation scheme widely used in cattle

breeding in achieving genetic improvement in a particular breed.

• Progeny Selection means the breeder makes a decision to keep

or cull a sire or a dam based on the average performance of
their offspring for a trait of interest.

• Estimation of the individual’s transmitting ability / breeding value

for any specific trait based on the average performance of its
progeny.

Progeny Testing refers to evaluation of bulls on the basis of their

daughter’s performance.
 Principle

• Each progeny receives a sample one-half of inheritance from each

of the parents

• Two or more offspring from the same parent will vary from each
other genetically, because they will not receive the same genes
from a parent (Mendelian error), unless that parent is homozygous
for all the genes.

• By increasing the number of progenies and calculating the

average of these progeny, it is possible to obtain an estimate of
the parent’s breeding value (usually a sire) and to estimate the
kinds of genes that parent have.
 Requirements

• More than required number of males must be kept so as to have

better selection among progeny tested sires.

• Large population is required with frozen semen technology and

accurate data recording.

• The progeny should be tested in several herds and stations and

comparisons should be made with contemporaries from other sires.

• No progeny should be culled until the end of the test.

• The PT should be completed as early as possible in the life of the

males.
 Precautions

• Females mated to each sire should be a random sample.

• There should not be any selection among progeny to be studied.

• Large number of progenies should be studied to reduce sampling

error.

• When the heritability is high, less number of progenies is

required.

• When the heritability is low, large number of progenies are

required.
 Precautions

• At least 100-125 of either sex per sire for growth and

production traits and 300-400 progeny for traits like fertility.

• Progeny of any sire should not be subjected to special

environmental influences.

• Every effort should be taken to control the non-genetic

(environmental) variations.

• The data recorded should be adjusted / corrected for

environmental effects such as year, season, lactation length etc.
 Advantages

• For selection of males for characters expressed only in one sex

(eg. milk production).

• When the h2 of the trait is low.

• For selection of carcass traits.

• For testing population for recessive characters (inherited

disorders).

• For selection of animals that nick well.

 Limitations

• It takes long time, increases the generation interval and

therefore reduces the annual genetic gain.

• It is expensive – because of the necessity of maintaining a large

number of breeding bulls for longer period awaiting the test results
and for milk recording on large number of progenies.

• Sires can be selected only when the progeny come for production
by the time the sire become old.

• Effective only when adequate number of progenies is tested.

Flow chart for Progeny Testing
Thank You
METHODS OF SELECTION

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Introduction
• Net economic value of an animal depends upon several traits that may
not be of equal economic value for all traits under study.

Ex. a dairy cow will be more economical, if she produces more milk
+ higher fat % + longer lactation length + shorter dry period

• On the other hand, if a cow produces more milk + low fat % + shorter
lactation length, it will not be economical to maintain

• Therefore, it is essential to estimate the total breeding worth of an

animal based on several characters, which is known as multi-trait
selection (simultaneous selection for several characters)
 Methods of Selection
(Multi-trait Selection)

For selecting more than one character in a breeding programme.

Methods of
Selection

Independent Selection
Tandem
Culling Level Index
 Tandem Method
• Selection is practiced - One trait at a time – till it is improved.
• Then to another trait for its improvement.
• Traits are assumed to be independent.
• Time spent for each trait depends on its importance.
• Efficiency depends on correlation between traits.
• Inefficient method if traits are not genetically correlated.
• Takes long time to reach the goal.
• Improvement is small.
If the traits are negatively correlated, when trait `A’
improves, the trait `B’ become worse (See-saw effect)

Trait ‘A’ Trait ‘B’ Trait ‘C’

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
GENERATIONS
Merits

(1) It is simple to practice

(2) Intensity of selection is more

(3) If there is a desirable genetic correlation with other traits, it produces

progress in the related traits

6
Demerits

(1) Only one character is considered at a time

(2) Efficiency of this method is low

(3) It takes very long period of time to achieve desirable efficiency. In the
mean time the breeder may change his goal

(4) If there is undesirable correlation between traits that will also hinder
the progress. i.e. genetic improvement obtained in previous generations
will be lost

7
 Independent Culling Level
• Selection may be practised for two or more traits at a time or at
different times in the lifetime of an individual.

• For each trait, a minimum standard is to be set; so that each animal

must meet those standards in order to be selected.

• Failure to meet the minimum standard for any one trait, makes the
animal to be rejected .

• Effectiveness of this method depends on the level kept for each of the
traits.

Generally, this method has been used in selection of animals for show
purposes; where the animals are selected for type, colour and body
conformation traits, ignoring its performance for economic traits
• In case of keeping low levels, few animals are culled and it affects the
genetic progress.
• On the other hand, if the standards are kept high, the number of
animals selected will be very less and leads to gradual extinction.
Ex. In dairy cattle selection for two traits: Milk yield and Milk Fat
per cent is as follows:

Milk yield Fat percentage

Cow No. Result
3000 kg 4.0%
Cow-A 3000 kg 4.5 % Selected
Cow-B 2500 kg 5.0 % Rejected
Cow-C 4000 kg 3.0 % Rejected
Cow-D 3200 kg 3.5 % Rejected
Merits

1) This method is superior to tandem method because simultaneous

selection is made for more than one trait.

2) Independent culling levels are easy to perform.

3) It allows culling animals earlier, which are inferior in traits expressed in

early life.

10
Demerits
1) No compensation for other traits
Possibility of culling genetically superior animals for some traits if they are
less than the culling levels for any one of the traits whereas, mediocre
animals those just meeting the minimum standards are likely to be selected
2) Tedious work to determine optimum culling levels.
3) More emphasis to early expressed traits.
4) Reduces the selection intensity with increase in number of traits to be
selected.
5) If genetic correlations among traits are in the undesirable direction, it will
further reduce the efficiency.

11
 Selection Index or Total Score Method
• Principle of selection index theory for animals - Hazel (1943)
• Index is the best estimate of candidate’s breeding value.
• An index is a single numerical value, which is the total of scores given
for each trait considered in the selection.
• Each trait is weighed by a score and the individual scores are summed
up to a total score / index value for each animal which is the selection
criterion.
• In this method, superiority in some traits can be made up by mediocrity
in others.

• Amount of weight given to each trait depends upon its relative

economic value, the heritability of the trait and genetic and
phenotypic correlation between the traits
• If the traits are uncorrelated, each character is weighted by the
product of relative economic value and its heritability
• Selection index is a total score that includes all the advantages and
disadvantages of an animal.
• Animals with highest score / index are selected for breeding.
• Selection index method, culling levels are flexible.
• If there are `n’ traits under selection, the selection index are constructed
by multiple regression analysis:
Selection Index (I) = b1X1 + b2X2 + -- - - - + bn Xn
Where,
I = selection index
X1, X2 . . Xn are the phenotypic value of 1, 2 - - n traits of the individual
b1, b2 . . . bn are the corresponding weighing factors of the trait (multiple
regression coefficient) by which each measurements / phenotypic value
are weighed
• Equation in matrix form can be written as:
[P] [b] = [G] [a]
Where
[P] = is the phenotypic variance – covariance matrix
[b] = is the vector of weighing factors
[G] = is the genotypic variance – covariance matrix
[a] = is the vector of relative economic values

• ‘b’s are estimated by solving set of normal simultaneous

equations whose number is equal to the number of traits
under selection.
[b] = [P]-1 [G] [a]
 Information required for construction
of selection index
1. Heritability, genetic and phenotypic correlation among traits
The heritability and genetic correlation are used to
obtain the estimate of variance and co-variance component

2. The economic weights for each trait

Economic value (a) is defined as the increment in profit

occurring from improving the particular trait by one unit,
depends on improvement in other traits
 If `n’ equally important traits are included in the selection,
the genetic improvement in the individual trait is only about
1/√n time as efficient as selection for a single trait alone.

Conclusion
• Independent culling method is more efficient than tandem method;
but inferior to selection index method.
• Index method is the most superior and tandem selection is least;
whereas the efficiency of independent culling level method is
intermediate.
Merits
(1) Most efficient method of selection among the three methods.

(2) It allows the individuals, which are superior in some traits to be

selected regardless of their deficiency in other traits.

(3) All the characters are given proper weightage for optimum selection.

(4) Efficiency of index method increases with the number of traits.

(5) It requires less time to bring about an overall improvement.

17
Demerits

(1) Selection index is difficult to construct because of complex computations

involved.

(2) Relative economic value, genetic parameters are likely to change from time
to time and from population to population. Therefore, an index selected for
a particular generation and for particular population cannot be valid
subsequently.

(3) Efficiency of the index is reduced unless the genetic parameters are
estimated with good precision from large data.

18
TYPES OF SELECTION INDEX

19
 1. Multi trait-multi source selection index

• It is essential to estimate the total breeding worth of an animal based

on several characters, which is known as multi- trait selection.

• Different traits may not have equal heritability estimates but some
may have low heritability.

• It may not be possible to make improvement in the lowly heritable

traits.

• Accuracy of selection for such traits can be increased by using the

information from other sources (relatives’ records of individual).

• Such a selection index using information from different sources is

known as multi trait – multi source selection index which is
constructed on the principles of selection index theory.

20
 2. Restricted selection index
• It is obvious that due to selection there will be change /
response in each of the trait included in the index and even in
other traits not included in the index.
• If a breeder wants no change or partial change in particular
character, restricted selection index is constructed.
• Generally it is followed for traits which have negative genetic
correlations.
For e.g. in poultry, the situation arises when one wants to
increase the egg production without affecting the egg size, which
is negatively correlated.

21
 3. Multi-stage selection
• Selection involves the identification of the individuals which are
superior in performance.
• It is a complex process to be completed in different stages / ages of the
animal.
• Process of selection conducted in different stages of the animal is
known as multi-stage selection.
• This type of selection is followed (i) When information obtained
sequentially at different ages of the animal, (ii) When the required
economic weights are difficult to define properly and also (iii) To reduce
the cost of selection programme
• There are two stages of selection.
• The selection of the first stage is based on phenotypic performance and
the selection at the second stage is based on the breeding value of the
animals, which is the final selection.
22
 4. Combined Selection
• Selection of individual on the basis of information from two or
more sources i.e. information of the individual phenotype as well as
information from various relatives / family average is called
combined selection.

• This is done by the technique of multiple regression analysis.

• The genetic gain expressed from combined selection is always

higher than those obtained from either individual selection or
family selection alone particularly for low heritable traits.

• Based on the various sources of information available, different

combined selection indices have been constructed (Osborne index,
Abplanalp index)

23
 Osborne Index
• Osborne (1957) developed the index based on combining information of
records of the individual and its family members by giving proper weightage to
sire-family and dam-family averages in poultry for improving egg production.
• The indices were developed for two sexes separately.
Index for pullets: IF = (Pi – P) + w2 (FD – P) + w3 (FS – P)
Index for cockerels: IM = w2 (FD – P) + w3 (FS – P)
where Pi = individual’s own performance; P = flock average; FD = dam family
average; FS = sire family average; w2 = weighing factor for dam family; w3 =
weighing factor for sire family
• The index is worked out for all those pullets whose sire and dam family averages
are more than the flock average and are arranged in descending order.
• Required number of pullets is selected which are having highest index value.
• Index values for cockerels are worked out for those, which belong to the best
4 to 5 sire families as well as best dam families; of these best sires are selected.

24
 Abplanalp Index
Abplanalp (1974) proposed the following combined selection index for
the selection of pullets and cockerels
Index for pullets: IF = b1(Pi - P) + b2 (PDF – P) + b3 (PSF – P)
Index for cockerels: IM = b4 (PDF – P) + b5 (PSF – P)

Where,
Pi = individual performance; P = flock average; PDF = dam family average;
PSF = sire family average; b's = weightage given to the ith source of
information

25
RESPONSE TO SELECTION

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai – 600 007
 Selection

• Effect of selection is to change the gene frequencies in the population.

• Changes of gene frequency are almost hidden from us because we

cannot deal with the individual loci concerned with the metric
characters.

• Effects of selection that can be observed mainly to changes of the

population mean and variance.
 From one generation to the other
Parents

Phenotypic value

Choice of the parents at random

Offspring

Phenotypic value

No genetic change
 Representation of a Artificial Selection
Parents

EBV

Selection of the parents

Offspring
of the selected
animals
EBV

G

Change in Estimated Breeding Value

 SELECTION DIFFERENTIAL
• Selection differential (S) is defined as the difference between mean
phenotypic value of the individuals selected as parents and the mean
of the population before selection.

S = Ps - P

Where , Ps = is the mean phenotypic value of the selected parents

P = is the population mean before selection was made

• Selection differential is sometimes referred as Reach.

• Value of selection differential differs for males and females.

• ‘S’ for pooled over sexes is estimated as S = Sm + Sf / 2

• The selection differential
also depends on the
proportion of the
population selected.
• Smaller the proportion,
larger will be the ‘S’.
• Even for the smaller
proportion selected, the
S will vary, if the
population differs in
their phenotypic
standard deviation.
• The `S’ will be greater in
the population with
larger standard
deviation.
Factors Affecting Selection Differential
Proportion of
• If more animals selected → SD – Smaller
Animals selected • If fewer animals selected → SD – higher
for Breeding

• Larger → smaller will be proportion of

Herd Size animals selected → SD more

• In cattle RR will be less → SD will be less

Reproduction • (Use of AI & ET increases RR → SD higher)
Rate • In pigs RR will be more → SD will be more
 PREDICTION OF SELECTION DIFFERENTIAL

• ‘S’ cannot be estimated without practicing the selection among

individuals in parental generation.

• But, ‘S’ can be predicted in advance provided that two conditions to

be hold:
i) Phenotypic values of the character being selected are normally
distributed
ii) Selection is by truncation
 Truncation selection
Individuals are chosen strictly in order of merit as judged by their
phenotypic values and that no individual being selected below the point of
truncation

Under these conditions, ‘S’ depends only on the

1. Proportion of the population selected and the
2. Phenotypic standard deviation of the character
 Point of truncation

Diagrams to show how the ‘S’ depends on the proportion of the

population selected and the variability of a normally distributed character.
All the individuals in the stippled areas, beyond the point of
truncation, are selected.
In graph
(a) Half the population is selected and the ‘S’ is small.
(b) Only 20% of the population is selected, and the ‘S’ is much larger.
(c) Again 20% is selected, but the character is less variable and consequently ‘S’
is smaller.
The above figure indicates that the ‘S’ increases with the decrease in
proportion selected (p) and increase in σP or variability of the character.

S = i σP •
 Response to Selection
• Change in performance of progeny generation due to artificial selection in
parental generation is known as Response to selection or Genetic gain (R)

• Response to selection (per generation) is defined as a difference of mean

phenotypic value between the offspring of selected parents (O) and the
whole of parental generation before selection (P)

• Response to selection per generation (R) = O - P

Where

O = Mean phenotypic value of the offspring of the selected parents

P = Mean phenotypic value of the population before selection

 PREDICTION OF RESPONSE TO SELECTION

• Response to selection / genetic gain can be predicted by

R (expected) = h2 S
Where, h2 = heritability of the trait and S = selection differential
Whole amount of selection differential is not transmitted to the
progeny; but its proportion equal to h2 is transmitted
• The deviation of the progeny from the population mean is by definition,
the breeding value of the parents and so, the R is equivalent to the
breeding value of the parents.
• h2 is an important concept in relation to Response to selection.
If h2 = 1; then R = S and If h2 = 0; then R = 0
• Response is generally less than or equal to selection differential as
heritability ranges from 0 to 1
 Response to Selection / Genetic Gain
Expected Rate of Genetic gain
(∆ G) = h2 x SD
Or
= 0.2 x 1500
Response to Selection (R)

= 300 kg

∆ G or R per year = ∆ G or R / GI

= 300 / 4

= 75 kg
 Intensity of selection (i)
• Selection intensity for a trait depends on the proportion of animals selected
relative to the total number of animals under selection.
• ‘R’ may be generalized if the ‘S’ is expressed in phenotypic standard deviation
units (σP)
• This standardized selection differential is called intensity of selection
symbolized by i.

‘i’ is the mean deviation of the

selected animals in units of
phenotypic standard deviation (σP ) of
the trait (i.e.) number of σP of the
trait by which the mean of the
selected group is above the
population mean before selection.
i = S / σP
 Intensity of selection (i)
• ‘i’ expresses the ‘S’ in standard deviation units and hence the intensity of
selection is known as standardized selection differential
• ‘i‘ depends on the proportion (p) of the population selected and amount of
variation in the character concerned.
• When `p’ is small, the ‘i' is said to be more intense or rigorous.
• But when ‘p’ is large, the ‘i’ is said to be relaxed.

• Standardized selection differential is used to compare the different

methods of selection
• Then, the ‘S’ is taken in another form as: S = i σP •
Where, i = intensity of selection and
σP = phenotypic standard deviation of the trait
 Intensity of selection (i)
• Expected response in earlier equation (R = h2S) becomes
(‘S’ is taken in another form as: S = i σP)
R = h2 i σP
• Reoriented equation of ‘R’ can also be taken in terms of accuracy of selection as:
R = i σP h2
= i σP h x h
= i σP (σA / σP) h since h = σA / σP
R = i σA h
where, σA - is the square root of the additive genetic variance
i - expresses the ‘S’ in standard deviation units
• This equation is sometimes used in comparisons of different methods of selection.

Generally, decrease in proportion selected, the intensity of selection `i'

increases.
 Generation Interval

• Symbolized by `L’

• Generation interval is defined as the average age of parents at the

time of the birth of their offspring, which became parents in next
generation.

• If parents produce more than one offspring in their life then the
rate of response to selection depends on the average age of
parents when their offspring are born.
 Generation Interval
Generation interval in different species of livestock:

Chicken : 1 - 1½ years
Swine : 1½ - 2½ years
Sheep and Goat : 3 - 4 years
Dairy and Beef Cattle : 4 - 5 years
Horses : 8 -12 years

1 2 2-3 4 -5 8-12 years

 Factors Affecting Generation Interval

(i) Species

(ii) Sex

(iii) Breeding age

(iv) Selection schemes

• Generation interval is specific to species, sex within the species;

• Also influenced by number of offspring raised in any generation and by

the age at which the reproduction starts

• Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer technique would reduce

generation interval
 REALIZED HERITABILITY

• Response to selection can also be used as a means of estimating h2 in

the base population.
R = h2S,
Therefore,
h2 = R / S
• Realized heritability is the ratio of response to selection to selection
differential.
 REALIZED HERITABILITY

Realized heritability does not provide a valid estimate of the

heritability for the following reasons:

(1) Responses of characters with high heritability are expected to be

reduced after the first generation of selection so that realized
heritability after first generation will underestimate heritability in
base population.

(2) Systematic changes due to inbreeding depression, random drift and

environment trend will be included in the response and hence, the
realized heritability is not a valid estimate of heritability.
 Annual Genetic Gain
• Progress per unit of time is more important in practice than progress
per generation.
• Annual genetic gain is the ratio between response per generation and
generation interval (L) in years.

Response per generation h2S

Response per year = ------------------------------------- = ------
(or) Annual genetic gain Generation interval (in years) L

• It is essential to compare the progress for the same trait in different

species like milk yield in zebu / exotic with buffalo etc.
• So, interval between generations is an important factor in calculating
response to selection per unit of time i.e. Response per year or annual
genetic gain.
 Prediction of annual genetic gain
Expected genetic changes by selection are proportional to the intensity of the selection,
the accuracy of the estimated breeding value and the additive genetic standard deviation

Accuracy of selection = Square root of the heritability

Selection Intensity Additive genetic standard deviation

i h A
E(G) =
L

Generation Interval
 Factors Affecting Response to Selection
Change in performance due to artificial selection is known as
response to selection

It depends on the following factors:

1. Additive genetic variability of the trait (VA)

2. Intensity of selection (i)

3. Accuracy of selection (rAP)

4. Population size (N)

5. Generation interval (L)

 1. Additive Genetic Variability (VA)
• Variations in breeding values of the individuals within the
population is the raw material for artificial selection.

• Selection acts on additive genetic variability.

Therefore, if VA = 0, then R = 0

• If there are no genetic differences among animals, selection will not

be effective.

• The magnitude of ‘R’ increases with the increase in differences in

B.V. between animals.
 2. Intensity of Selection (i)

• ‘i’ depends on the proportion (p) of the population selected and

amount of variation in the character concerned.

• When `p’ is small, ‘I’ is said to be more intense.

• When ‘p’ is large, ‘I’ is said to be relaxed.

• `R’ will be more when `p’ will be small.

• If all animals are selected, the `S’ will be zero and no change in
progeny mean will occur.

• Change occurs if some of the best animals are selected.

 3. Accuracy of Selection (rAP)

• Accuracy of selection - the correlation between the true B.V. of

an animal (A) and the source of information (P) which is denoted
as rAP where, ‘A’ is the true B.V. and ‘P’ is the selection criteria.

• Selection is effective only when the animals with highest B.V are
selected.

• The rAP is equal to square root of heritability (rAP= h)

• Thus if heritability estimate is higher, the rAP will also be higher.

 4. Population Size
• Effect of population size on ‘R’ can be viewed in terms of inbreeding
and genetic drift.
• Both will arise in small population.
i) Inbreeding
It reduces the amount of genetic variability (VA), lead to reduction in
performance and decrease in ‘R’.
(ii) Genetic drift
In small population, the genetic drift arises; which causes the random
changes in gene frequency.
It causes the loss of favourable alleles from the population and it
reduces the ‘R’.
 5. Generation Interval

• Generation interval is different in different species.

• Genetic gain per year is higher in the herd (breeds) with

younger animals than the herd (breeds) with later age.
 SELECTION LIMIT
Quantitative traits are controlled by many genes and as a
result of continuous selection,

• Genes will get fixed,

• There will be no genetic variance after few generations,

• h2 will become zero and

• No change or response in population mean for the selected

trait.

• When there is no response to selection, the population is said to be

at a selection plateau (or) selection limit (or) selection ceiling

• Response to selection cannot be expected to continue indefinitely

unless new variation is created.
 SELECTION LIMIT

• Reasons for failure to respond for selection, even when there is

genetic variance present;

(i) Over-dominance
(ii) Negative genetic correlation
(iii) Genotype-environment interaction
(iv) Natural selection
(v) Linkage
 CORRELATED RESPONSE TO SELECTION
• A change in response in an unselected trait (Y) resulting from the selection
of another trait (X), which is genetically correlated with the trait (Y) is
called as correlated response.

• This associated change in the second trait, as a result of change due to

selection in first trait is called as the correlated response to selection.

• Genetic correlation between two traits brings about change in both the
traits when selection is done for either of the trait.

• Magnitude and direction of correlated response depend on the amount

and sign of genetic correlation between these two traits.

• If the genetic correlation is positive then the selection for one trait will
automatically lead to the improvement of the second trait without doing
selection for it.

33
 CORRELATED RESPONSE TO SELECTION

• Expected response of a character `Y’ when selection is applied for

another character `X’ may be deduced in the following way:

• Direct response of character X, Rx = i hX σA(X)

• The response by definition is the mean breeding value of the

selected animals.

34
 CORRELATED RESPONSE TO SELECTION
• Correlated response is the product of the regression of the breeding value of the
correlated character ‘Y’ on the breeding value of ‘X’ and the direct response of
character ‘X’.

CRY = b(A)YX X RX
=
rA σAY
b(A)YX σAX
= i hX rA σAY
or, by putting σAY = hY σPY the correlated response becomes

CRY = i hX hY rA σPY

35
 CORRELATED RESPONSE TO SELECTION
CRY = i hX hY rA σPY
where i = intensity of selection;
hX = √h2 of the trait X; hY = √h2 of the trait Y;
σAX = √VA of the trait X; σAY = √VY of the trait Y;
rA = genetic correlation between traits X and Y

• The term hXhYrA is called as co-heritability (hXY) because it is equivalent to

heritability in the response to direct selection.
• Similar to h2, the co-heritability is “the ratio of additive genetic covariance to the
phenotypic covariance between X and Y traits”
• Correlated response can be predicted
 if the genetic correlation between the traits and
 the heritability of the traits are known

36
 INDIRECT SELECTION

• Practice of improving one trait by selecting another related trait is

called indirect selection.

• To improve trait ‘Y’ (desired trait), select trait ‘X’ (secondary trait) and
achieve progress through correlated response of the trait ‘Y’.

• Basis of indirect selection is the high genetic correlation between the

traits

• It is applicable

1. When the two traits have high genetic correlation

2. Heritability of trait under selection (h2X ) is higher than h2Y , then

correlated response (CRY) will be higher than direct response (RY)

37
 INDIRECT SELECTION

Conditions under which indirect selection would be advantageous are:

(1) If trait ‘Y’ is difficult to measure with precision than trait ‘X’.

(2) When the trait ‘Y’ is costly to measure, then it may be economically
better to select for correlated character ‘X’

(3) When the information on trait ‘X’ is available early in life.

38
MATING SYSTEMS

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
Chennai – 600 007
 MATING SYSTEMS
• Mating is a process that determines which males (selected) are bred to
which females (selected).
• Primarily mating system can be classified as
a) Random mating b) Non-random mating
Random Mating (Panmixia or Panmixis)
• It is defined as the type of mating in which any individual of one sex has
an equal chance of mating with any other individual of the opposite sex
in the population.
• The frequency of mating is dictated by chance.
 Non-Random Mating
• Artificial mating in which the mating is decided or planned or controlled by the
breeder.
Classification of Non-random mating
Based on phenotypic Based on Genetic
resemblance
relationship

Assortative Out breeding

Inbreeding
mating

Negative
Positive assortative assortative mating
mating or or
like to like mating Disassortative or
unlike mating
 I. Based on phenotypic resemblance
Assortative mating
• If mated pairs are of the same phenotype more often
than would occur by chance - assortative mating
• It tends to create more genetic and phenotypic
variation in the offspring generation than randomly
mated population
• Consequence of assortative mating with a single locus
among the progeny are
(i) To increase the frequencies of homozygotes
(ii) To reduce the frequencies of heterozygotes
• It results in subdividing the population into groups and
mating takes place more frequently within than
between the groups.
 a) Positive assortative mating or Like to like mating
• If the mated pairs are phenotypically similar - positive assortative
mating.
• Effect of positive assortative mating is similar to those of inbreeding
but to a lesser extent.

e.g. Large animal x Large animal

Medium animal x Medium animal
Small animal x Small animal
b) Negative assortative or Disassortative or Unlike mating
• If mated pairs are of the same phenotype less often than would occur by chance -
disassortative mating.
• It is mating of individuals of unlike phenotype.
• It tends to decrease variation and increase phenotypic uniformity in the population.
• This is also called as “Corrective mating”
• It leads to increase the heterozygotes and reduce homozygotes in the population

e.g. Large animal x Small animal

Large animal x Medium animal
Small animal x Medium animal
 II. Based on Genetic Relationship
a) Inbreeding
Mating of related animals.
If choice of the mates is based on genetic relationship between them, then the
mating system is said to be consanguineous or inbreeding
b) Outbreeding
Mating of unrelated animals.
When the relationship between individuals which are mated together is less
than the average relationship within the population
 INBREEDING
• Defined as mating between animals which are more closely related to each
other than the average relationship among all individuals of the population
• Inbreeding is mating between animals related by ancestry.
• Two animals are said to be genetically related, when they have one or more
common ancestors in the first 4 to 6 generations of their pedigree.
• Inbreeding may either be occasionally or consistently carried out for several
generations.
• If it is consistently carried out for several generations (recurrent inbreeding), it
can be classified as
1) Close inbreeding
2) Line breeding
3) Strain formation
 INBREEDING
• The intensity of inbreeding depends on the
degree of relationship between the parents.
• The measurement of relationship between
individuals helps to understand the intensity
of inbreeding.
• The degree of relationship varies from 0 to 100
• Two unrelated individuals have a relationship
of zero.
• Two animals with exactly similar genotype
have a relationship of 100 per cent (identical
twins).
 1. Close inbreeding
• Severe form of inbreeding.
• This type of mating is carried out to produce inbred lines with relatively high
degree of homozygosity.
• Mating's are made between sibs or between parents and progeny.
• Most often used method is “full sib” mating.
• Half-sib mating is very much slower in reaching homozygosity and it is less risky.
• Same effect can also be achieved by consistently back crossing the progeny to
the younger parent.
Ex.: Mating between sibs or between parents and progeny i.e. sire x daughter or
dam x son
Close inbreeding is done
A. To develop inbred lines

B. To discover undesirable recessive genes

C. To get phenotypically uniform progeny

 2. Line breeding
• Form of inbreeding in which the relationship of an
individual or individuals is kept as close as possible to an
admired or outstanding ancestor
• Ancestor is usually a male because a male can produce
more number of progenies during its life time than a
female.
Line breeding is carried out in two ways:
1) Half-sib mating or cousins mating - Rate of inbreeding
is less than close inbreeding.
2) The second way is the mating of animals in such a way
that their descendants are mated to outstanding
animal (sire) up to 3 to 4 generations.
In view of the various forms of line breeding
1. It is difficult to classify some mating either close inbreeding or line breeding
eg. sire x daughter mating is taken as close inbreeding; but it effectively
concentrates the inheritance of the sire and logically should be called as line
breeding
2. Half-sib mating is also considered as line breeding
3. Line breeding is a milder form of inbreeding and the relationship is not so close as it
is found in close breeding
4. In this method, an attempt is made to concentrate the inheritance of one admired
ancestor in the offspring's of future generations.
5. Primary purpose is not to increase the homozygosity; but to retain / concentrate on
a good proportion of genes / traits of a particular outstanding ancestor
(sire/dam) among its descendants
How to develop inbred lines
• Select outstanding animals from purebred population and bred by parent x
offspring mating.
• If the selected parents possess recessive lethal genes, they are paired with its
offspring and discard the progeny exposes the lethal effect.
• Similarly if the parent posses superior genes, they will be paired with its
offspring and select the superior offspring.
• If inbreeding coefficient of 0.375 is reached in a line - called inbred line
• After two or more superior lines are developed, propagate the line by half-
bother x half-sister mating to slow the rate of inbreeding.
Danger of line breeding
• Selected ancestor (sire) should not posses any genes for undesirable
characters.
• Since the line breeding tends to make genes to be homozygous, but do
not know whether they are good or bad .
 Merits / When line breeding should be practised?
1. Pure bred population of a high degree of excellence after identifying
outstanding individuals.
2. Most useful when the outstanding sire is dead or not available for
breeding purposes.
3. It builds up homozygosity and prepotency like other kinds of inbreeding.
4. When progress by inbreeding comes to standstill, line breeding makes
additional progress possible.
5. To distinguish a breed into families or lines.
6. It is useful where there is much epistasis i.e. by producing different line
and crossing these lines for combining ability or nicking ability.
 3. Strain Formation
• This is the mildest form of inbreeding.
• When a population of individuals are allowed
to bred without entry of new animals for at
least three to five generations then it is
termed as strain breeding.
• Since the population is closed from the entry
of new animals, homozygosity increases due
to small population size.
• A breed can be sub-divided into different
strains based on specific characteristics /
traits.
 Consequences of inbreeding
1. It does not increase the number of recessive alleles in a population but
merely brings them to light through increasing the frequency of
homozygotes.
2. Inbreeding fixes character in an inbred population through increased
homozygosity whether or not the effects are favourable or unfavourable.
3. Since inbred parents posses more pairs of genes homozygous particularly
for dominant genes and they transmit the same genes to their offspring,
they are more likely to be prepotent than non-inbred parents.
4. Inbreeding accompanied by selection may increase the phenotypic
uniformity among the animals with in the population.
 1. Genetic effects of inbreeding
1. Inbreeding did not change the frequency
of the genes in the population.
2. It makes more pairs of genes in
homozygous regardless of the kind of
gene action (desirable / undesirable) in
the population.
3. Inbreeding brings many recessives to light
as it increases the frequency of both
dominant and recessive homozygotes.
4. All phenotypic effects of inbreeding
result from this effect of increasing
homozygosity.
 2. Phenotypic effects of inbreeding
1. Lethal / harmful recessive genes
causing hereditary abnormalities
remain hidden in outbred herds.

2. Usually these genes being covered by

their dominant alleles in
heterozygous form.

3. When inbreeding occurs, the genes

appears as homozygous form and
express their effects phenotypically.
 Inbreeding Depression
• Reduction in the mean phenotypic value
shown by characters connected with
reproductive capacity, vigour (viability) and
physiological efficiency.
Ex. fertility, number of services per
conception, embryonic death, litter size in
pigs, reduction in milk yield and growth rate.
• The decrease in performance resulting from
inbreeding is called inbreeding depression.
• Inbreeding tends to reduce fitness.
 Inbreeding Depression
• Inbreeding depression is generally greatest for traits associated with natural
fitness such as viability and reproductive ability because there is more
dominance at the loci affecting these traits and heritability of these traits
will be generally low.

• In general, performance of reproductive and viability traits decreases at the

rate of around 1%, for every 1% increase in the inbreeding coefficient.

• Different species vary in the effect of inbreeding, but it is likely that pigs will
show problems at lower levels of inbreeding than would cattle.
 Inbreeding Depression
• One would expect few problems up to 10% F and increasing difficulties in
excess of 20% F (A level of 10% F achieved within 2-4 yrs may be more
series than 10% F in 10 yrs).
Poultry
• Reduction in egg production of 0.43% for each 1% increase of inbreeding
coefficient.
• Inbreeding increase chick mortality.
Pigs
• Inbreeding decrease litter size at birth, viability between birth and
weaning; and post weaning growth rate.
 3. Physiological basis of inbreeding effects
Adverse effects of inbreeding in animals are known to be due to the
action of several pairs of recessive genes.
a) As a general rule, the action of recessive genes is unfavourable to the
well being of the individual. The action of such genes led to failure to
produce required enzymes or proteins and other components.
b) Inbred animals are usually less able to cope with their environment,
when compared to non-inbred animals.
• This is shown by reduction in fertility, viability, growth rate etc.
• It may be due to some physiological insufficiency and perhaps to a
deficiency or lack of hormone from the endocrine system.
 Prepotency
• Prepotency is the ability of an individual to produce stock like itself or stamp its
characteristics on its offspring to such an extent that they resemble their parents
more closely than is usual.
• A high degree of homozygosity and the possession of a high percentage of dominant
genes are the reasons.
• It will increase with inbreeding and increase of homozygosity.
• Property of the characteristics and not the breed or sex.
• It is not transmissible from parents to offspring.
 Genetic homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a term coined by W.B. Cannon

• Continued inbreeding may reduce heterozygosity only to a certain

level beyond which further reduction does not occur.

• The phenomenon of maintenance of genetic variability in a population

in the face of all the forces acting to reduce it.
• Strain
Close the selected flock to prevent for new entrants. Intensive
selection and random breeding is followed for five generation for a
particular trait or traits and a name is given for the strain.

• Line
From a strain-select animals / birds at random – make full sib / half-
sib mating for successive year so that the progeny has inbreeding
coefficient of >50 %.
 Measurement of Inbreeding Coefficient
• There are two types,
I. Computation of inbreeding coefficient from pedigreed population
• It is a direct method of estimating the inbreeding co-efficient of an
individual.
• In this method particulars of the pedigree of the population is required.

II. Computation of inbreeding coefficient from the population size

• It is an indirect method.
• It could estimate only the average inbreeding co-efficient of all
individuals of a generation i.e. the rate of inbreeding in a population and
the individual inbreeding co-efficient cannot be estimated.
• There are four methods available to estimate the inbreeding coefficient of
an individual from pedigreed populations
1) Path coefficient method:
• The method was developed by Wright (1921).
• Inbreeding coefficient is defined as the probability that pair of alleles at a
particular locus are identical by descent.
FX = ∑(½)n1 +n2 + 1 (1+FA)
Where,
n1 is the no. of generations from the CA to one parent / sire
n2 is the no. of generations from the CA to other parent / Dam
FA is the inbreeding coefficient of CA
∑ is summation i.e. add all pathways & for all CAs
Eg. Inbreeding co-efficient of Fullsib: 0.25 and Half-sib: 0.125
2) Probability Method
• This method was introduced by Malecot (1948).
• This method is based on the fundamental measure of consanguinity in
respect of an individual as well as of two individuals.
• The chief uses of this method are to plan the mating to give the least
inbreeding and for calculating the ‘F’ generation by generation in a fully
pedigreed population.

3) Coancestry method
• This method is also referred as the coefficient of Kinship or consanguinity,
• It is based on degree of relationship by descent between the two
parents.
4) Generation matrix method

• Introduced by Bartlett and Haldane (1934) and later elaborated by Fisher

(1949).

• This method makes use of the elementary properties of matrices in which

the expected frequencies of different mating types after a specified
numbers of generations of inbreeding can be obtained besides the
measurement of inbreeding coefficient of individual.
 Uses of inbreeding
1. To develop different inbred lines that can be used for crossing to exploit
heterosis.
2. Used to determine the actual genetic worth of an individual.
3. Inbreeding could be used as a practical way to select against a recessive
gene of economic importance.
4. Inbreeding is also done to produce genetically uniform animals to be used
in laboratory experiments and to promote genetic purity. eg. rats, mice
and rabbits.
5. Inbreeding is used for increasing the prepotency of sire, when the sire is
homozygous for the genes controlling the trait.
 Disadvantages of inbreeding
1. It will make undesirable genes homozygous at rapid rate and some
of the undesirable genes will become ‘fixed’ in the herd.

2. Inbreeding depression.

3. Inbred individuals are more prone to environmental changes.

4. Low resistance to diseases and parasites.

5. Expression of undesired hereditary characters.

6. Inbreeding increased mortality.

 Ways to control Inbreeding
1. Mating plan
• Mating plan should be among the unrelated animals.

• Verify pedigree of cows and bulls - herd book registration is of great significance.

• Making use of computerized mating programmes that check the pedigrees and
avoid inbreeding to a certain level.

2. Population size
• Effective population size, which decides the level of inbreeding.

• Effective population size should ensure the rate of inbreeding is not more than 1%
per generation.
3. Purchase or exchange of sires
• In a single herd, the rate of inbreeding is increased by use of limited
number of males.
• The rate of inbreeding is reduced by introducing new breeding males in the
herd from outside.
Thank You
 MATING SYSTEMS

OUTBREEDING AND CLASSIFICATION

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai – 600 007
 OUTBREEDING
• Mating of unrelated individuals is called as out breeding or genetic
disassortative mating.
• Genetic effects of outbreeding are the opposite of those of inbreeding.
• Reasons for outbreeding are:
(i) To utilize the advantages of hybrid vigour or heterosis
(ii) To introduce new genes in a closed population
(iii) To evolve a new breed
(iv) To produce market / commercial animals

2
 Classification

1. Crossbreeding

2. Out crossing

3. Top crossing

4. Line crossing

5. Strain crossing

6. Grading up

7. Species hybridization or species crossing

 Crossbreeding
• Mating of animals from different established breeds is called
crossbreeding.

• The progeny produced is called crossbred

• It is carried out for the following purposes

1. To exploit hybrid vigor or heterosis

2. Breed complementarity
3. Development of new breeds or synthetics
 Out crossing
• Mating of unrelated animals
within a breed (applies only to
mating within a purebred).
• If two herds within the same
breed are separated for 4 to 6
generations and the sire from
one herd is used in another
herd.
• Out crossing within a herd by
use of selected sires is also
called as SELECTIVE
BREEDING - practiced to
exploit intra-herd variability.
 Top crossing
 Mating of a inbred males of a certain family to females of another family
or non-inbred population of the same breed.

 Top cross usually refers to the best sire in a pedigree.

 It is made when a breeder goes back to the original genetic source of

the breed for some new genetic material for further genetic improvement
of the breed.

Indian Gir population is top crossed with newly imported Frozen Semen Straws of
Gir Bulls from Brazil
 Line crossing
• Crossing of inbred lines within a specific breed.
• It takes advantage of both increased homozygosity within a line and increased
heterozygosity as the difference between lines.
a. Incrossing : Mating between inbred lines within a breed
b. Incross breeding : Mating between inbred lines of different breeds
Pure Lines Line A Line B Line C Line D
A x A B x B C x C D x D

A B C D

Crossing A x B C x D

Hatchery level AB x CD

ABCD
Commercial chicks
Incrossing in Poultry: The commercial layer chickens are called hybrids eg. Babcock, Bovans and Hyline developed from White Leghorn breed
 Strain crossing
 It is the mating between strains within the same breed.

 This method mainly aims at producing commercial animals by crosses between

strains.

Crossing of different White Leghorn (WLH) Strains

WLH strain A (England) x WLH strains B (Australia)

WLH strain AB
 Grading up
• Grading up is the continuous use of sires of one purebred starting with
foundation females which are of non-descript animals or no particular breed
(called Mongrel or Scrub animals).

• Backcrossing to the same breed taking place generation after generation

• In India, grading up is the breeding policy for buffaloes to change non-descript
population to Murrah breed.

• The objective is to change the genetic makeup of a mixed population to a ‘pure

bred’ with each new generation.

• Grading is done to raise quickly the performance level of non-descript to the level
of the purebred.

• Five generations are sufficient to raise the level of pure bred as 96.9% in the non-
descript animal and to become eligible to be registered as purebred

Breed substitution or Breed replacement or Grading

 Advantages
1. It is followed to increase the number of purebred population, if they are
relatively scarce or new to that area.

2. To introduce a new gene or desirable quantitative traits in a population.

3. Can be practised in all species for genetic improvement.

4. For grading-up programme minimum number of bulls / sire is sufficient or

even frozen semen straws are enough.

5. It is not so expensive.

6. It is the most economical way of lifting the non-descript stock rapidly

towards the level of the purebreds.
 Disadvantages
1. This process requires 5-6 generations / several years i.e. In buffaloes, 5 x
5= 25 years are required to achieve the goal.

2. The first cross usually shows marked improvement in productivity over the
original female stock. But, the magnitude of further improvement becomes
progressively less as the process of grading up advances.

3. Due to increase in the level of exotic inheritance, the progeny will be less
disease resistant and poor in adaptation to local environment etc.
 Species Hybridization or Species Crossing
• Widest or extreme form of outbreeding. Haldane’s rule:
In the F1 offspring's of a cross between
• Hybridization between two different species, it
two species, one sex is absent, rare or
leads to a new species, reproductively isolated
sterile and the sex is always the
from the parent species.
heterogametic sex (males).
• Hybridization between different species occur
worldwide either spontaneously or under
captive breeding.

• For a hybrid to be viable, the parental

species must be closely related and
chromosomes will be similar.

• It is less common in animals than plants.

 Species Hybridisation or Species Crossing

• Mare (64) x Jack ass (62) = Mule (63)

• Stallion (64) x Jennet (62) = Hinny (63)

• European cattle x American bison = Cattalo

• Cattle x buffalo = Beefalo

• Cattle x Yak = Pien niu Zorse (Horse x Zebra cross)

• Goat x Sheep = Geep

• Mithun x Cow = Jatsa (F1 male), Jatsamin (F1 female)

• Mithun x Siri cow = Jechha (F1 male), Jessam (F1 female)

• Ass x Zebra = Asbra

• Zebra x Horse = Zebroid

• Horse x Zebra = Zorse Zebriod (Zebra x Horse cross)

 Lion x Tiger = Liger Tiger x Lion = Tigon

• Animal hybrids are rare and sterile than hybrids produced by plants.
• For this reason, hybridization has been considered less important in the evolution
of animals than plants.
 CROSSBREEDING
• Mating of animals from different established breeds is called crossbreeding
• The progeny produced is called crossbred
• Crossbreeding is done for the following purposes:
(1) To exploit hybrid vigour or heterosis for commercial production of market animals
(heterosis is due to non-additive gene action)
(2) Complementarity is the second reason for crossbreeding i.e. to combine good
qualities of two or more breeds (complementarity is due to additive gene action)
(3) Crossbreeding has been used in recent years to establish a broad genetic base
in the development of new breeds or synthetics

16
 HETEROSIS or HYBRID VIGOUR
• Heterosis is the superiority of the outbred animals (F1) over the average of their parents.
• In 1912, G.H. Shull coined the term heterosis to describe the hybrid vigour obtained from
outbreeding.
• It is opposite to the phenomenon of inbreeding depression.
• When inbred lines are crossed, the progeny show an increase in performance of those characters
that previously suffered a reduction from inbreeding.
• Fitness lost on inbreeding tends to be restored on crossbreeding.
• Heterosis is due to non-additive gene action (dominance, overdominance and epistasis)
Heterosis in F1 = Mean of F1 offspring – Mean of parent breeds

Mean of F1 offspring – Mean of parent breeds

Per cent Heterosis = X 100
Mean of parent breeds
17
 CAUSES OF HETEROSIS
(1) Dominance: Possessing more number of dominant genes in F1 individual
Aabb X aaBB AABBCCdd X aaBBCCDD

F1 AaBb F1 AaBBCCDd
(F1 would be superior to both parents for that particular trait)

(2) Overdominance where heterozygote is more superior to the homozygote

A1 A1 B1 B1 X A2 A2 B2 B2
(Mean ADG 1.6 kg)

F1 A1A2B1B2
(ADG 2.2 kg)
(In F2 due to segregation and recombination of genes, heterosis is halved)
18
 CAUSES OF HETEROSIS
(3) Epistasis is the interaction between pairs of genes that are not alleles.
There are many different kinds of epistatic gene action, but their effects on the quantitative
traits are difficult to measure accurately because of their complexity.

(4) Difference in gene frequency between two populations:

In a single locus with two alleles, the frequencies are p and q in one population and p’ and q’
in the other population.
The difference of gene frequency between the two population y = p – p’ = q’ – q
• In general, heterosis = dy2,
where, d = dominance;
y = difference in gene frequency between the two populations

19
 TYPES OF HETEROSIS
On the basis of types of estimation

• Heterosis is also classified as mid-parent heterosis (estimated over mid-parent mean-

Average or Relative), better-parent heterosis (estimated over better parent mean -
heterobeltiosis) and standard heterosis (superiority of F1 over the standard
commercial variety – economic heterosis).

• Individual heterosis: Refers to non-parental performance

• Parental heterosis: Refers to the performance of animals as parents.

There are two types, paternal heterosis and maternal heterosis

20
 EFFECTS OF HETEROSIS
• Heterosis is greatest for traits most closely associated with reproduction and
viability.

• Traits that are highly heritable seem to be affected very little by heterosis,
whereas those that are lowly heritable are affected to a greater degree

• Heterosis leads to increase in yield, adaptability, reproductive ability, disease

resistance, general vigour etc.

• Heterosis can either be positive (increased yield) or negative (reduced age at

maturity)

22
Breed complementarity:

 Combine good qualities of two or more breeds

 Exotic breeds (high milk) x Zebu breeds (Disease resistance) combine these two
good qualities of the two breeds into a single population

 Complementarity is due to additive gene action

 TYPES OF CROSSBREEDING
• Crossing of different breeds can be practised in different ways depending upon the number of breeds used and
the manner of their crossing
• Major types of crossbreeding are Regular crossing or Systematic crossing and Composite crossing
(A) Regular or Systematic crossing
(1) Specific crossing
(i) Two-breed crosses or single cross or two-way cross
(a) Two pure breed crosses
(b) Inter se mating
(c) Back crossing
(d) Criss-crossing
(ii) Three-breed crosses or triple crossing or three-way cross
(iii) Four-breed crosses or double two-breed crosses or four-way cross
(2) Rotational crossing
(i) Rotational criss-crossing
(ii) Three-way rotational crossing
(iii)Four-way rotational crossing
(B) Composite crossing to produce synthetic / composite / new breed
24
 (A) Regular or Systematic crossing
• Mating of the same cross on regular basis to take advantage of heterosis and
complementarity
• Exploits non-additive effects through heterosis and the additive effects through
complementarity when two or more characters complement each other

(i)Two-breed crosses or single cross or two-way cross

• Two pure breeds are crossed together
• This may be restricted with crossing of only the purebreds or may be
extended to crossing the crossbreeds (Inter se mating) or with males of pure
breed (backcrossing or criss-crossing)

25
 (1) Specific crossing
(a) Two pure breed crosses:
• Two different populations (inbred lines, strains or breeds) are crossed with each other to
produce F1 which is used only for production purpose and not for breeding.
• The main aim is to exploit heterosis and to some extent complementarity
(b) Inter se mating:
• Crossing of crossbred progeny having the same level of inheritance of two breeds like crossing
of F1 with F1.
• This is done to create a number of genetic groups
A X B

F1 AB X AB

26
(c) Back crossing: Back crossing is also called as Test Cross. This method is commonly used in genetic
studies. It is done to find out whether the F1 is homozygous or heterozygous
A X B

AB♀ X A♂ or B♂

(AB)A or (AB)B
(d) Criss-crossing: It is similar to back crossing except that both the parental breeds are used
alternately in each generation
A X B

AB X A

(AB)A X B

(AB) (AB) X A
27
(ii) Three breeds crosses or triple crossing or three- way cross
• In this system of crossbreeding, three breeds are used (A, B, C)
• First generation crossbred female (AB) is crossed with male of third breed utilizing the
hybrid vigour of the dam; i.e. maternal heterosis (100%) in addition to individual heterosis
(100%)
• Here, the F1 females are generally retained for further breeding with 3rd breed in order to
improve female reproductive ability (i.e. to utilize maternal heterosis)
• At the end of three breed cross, both males and females are sold as commercial market
animals

28
(iii) Four breed crosses or Double two-breed crosses or Four-way cross
• Four breeds are used (A, D, C, D).
• In this four-way cross, the crossbred progeny from two separate two-way crosses are mated
to produce commercial progeny called ‘double hybrids’ (AB.CD).
• In four-way cross, both paternal and maternal heterosis as well as individual heterosis are
exploited.
• This method is used extensively in poultry breeding using different inbred lines.
A X B C X D

AB X CD

(AB.CD) (25% inheritance from each line)

29
 Rotational crossing
• The males of two or three breeds are used in regular sequence (rotation) in
successive generations on crossbred females of the previous generations.

• Hence, it is called as rotational crossing which may involve two or three

breeds.

• In pig breeding, this method has been used widely with different breeds for
the production of market animals / hybrids.

(i) Rotational criss-crossing

(ii) Three-way rotational crossing
(iii)Four-way rotational crossing
 (2) Rotational crossing
i) Rotational criss-crossing
Breed A and B are crossed to produce an F1 generation (AB), then AB females are
backcrossed to males from breed A. The resulting females are back crossed to males
from breed B and so on to breeds A and B alternatively.

• It has been applied for a number of generations,

at equilibrium, 2/3 of inheritance is from
immediate sire and 1/3 from other sire.
 (2) Rotational crossing
Advantage
(i) Crossbred females can be retained for breeding and only purebred sires have to
be purchased (frozen semen can be used)
(ii) Maternal and individual heterosis is exploited
A X B

Disadvantage AB X A
It does not allow any exploitation of complementarity
{(AB)A} X B
(ii) Three-way rotational crossing
• Three breeds are used in this system
• Females of crosses are used on sire of pure breeds in
rotation
• Here, the crossbred females are retained for breeding in
order to utilize the maternal heterosis and crossbred
males are sold
• Advantage and disadvantages are similar to criss-
crossing.

• At equilibrium, 57% of the genes (4/7) comes from the breed of the last used male, 29%
(2/7) from the previous sire breed and 14% (1/7) from the third sire breed which will be
used for the next back crossing.
• Heterosis is continuously maintained at 6/7 level (85.7%). 33
(iii) Four-way rotational crossing
• Four-way rotation can also be practised by using fourth breed D
on females of the [(AB)C] crossbred.

• Thereafter, breeds A, B, C and D are used in succession for each

new generation.

• Frozen semen of the sires (A, B, C & D) can be used without

maintaining purebred populations.

34
 (B) Composite crossing to produce synthetic / new breed

• The terms composite, synthetic and hybrid are used to signify new
breeds.

• A planned mating scheme is designed to combine the desirable traits of

two or more breeds into one “package”.

• A more formal definition of a composite is a breed made up of at least

two component breeds, designed to retain heterosis in future
generations without crossbreeding and maintained as a purebred.

• Many breeds that are considered purebreds are actually composites if

you go back far enough in time.
35
 (B) Composite crossing to produce synthetic / new breed

• Development of a true composite breed of cattle is not easy.

• Composite breeders must make a tremendous effort to maintain large

herd size for each breed used in the composite.

• Inbreeding must be avoided to retain high levels of heterozygosity and

heterosis in composite breeds.

36
 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW BREED
Procedure
• First choose the improver breed (1 or 2) and the native breed to be improved.
• One or few crosses are made between two or more selected breeds in order to produce
a single population of animals containing a mixture of genes from each breed and it is
called synthetic or composite or hybrid.
• After the formation of synthetic with desired exotic blood level, follow selection and
inter se mating within it for several generations to produce a new breed with expected
characteristics.
• Generally, the superior performance found in F1 generation over the average of parents is
reduced in F2 (50% reduction) generation.
• To counteract this reduction and to stabilize the performance, selection is followed
37
Guidelines to be followed in crossing
• Ensure that the animals used in the original crossing have been intensively selected in
terms of relevant characters.
• It is of no use starting development of a synthetic with inferior animals.
• To maximize the variance in breeding values amongst the foundation animals, use
as many unrelated animals as possible from each of the contributing populations.

Major obstacles in the development of new breeds

• Takes more time and highly expensive.
• Large number of animals should be raised to give a broad base of genetic variability for
selection.
• Difficulty in selling the new breed to farmers even if it had real merit.
38
39
 SYNTHETIC BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE
DEVELOPED IN INDIA
(1) Taylor Cattle of Patna
• It is a composite of Shorthorn and Jersey or
Guernsey bulls (introduced in 1856 by Commissioner of
Patna, Mr.Taylor) and local zebu cows of Patna.
• The breed is localized with an average milk yield of 5 to
6 liters / day.
• These animals are humpless and black, grey or red in
colour
(2) Sunandhini
• Evolved by Indo-Swiss Project Mattupatti in Kerala in
1977.
• Crossing Jersey and Brown Swiss (5/8) with local cattle.
• Age at first calving: 30-38 months; Milk yield: 2000 kg in
Sunandhini
305 days
40
(3) Karan Swiss
• It was developed at NDRI, Karnal in 1977 by crossing Brown
Swiss with Sahiwal.
• Brown Swiss inheritance varied between 50–75% and the rest
from Sahiwal.
• Age at first calving: 30-32 months; Milk yield: 2500-3800 kg
per lactation Karan Swiss

(4)Karan Fries
• Developed at NDRI, Karnal by crossing Holstein Friesian bulls
and Tharparkar cows.
• HF inheritance varied from 50 to 62.5% and the rest is
Tharparkar
• Age at first calving: 32-35 months; Milk yield : 3500-4000 kg
Karan Fries
per lactation
41
(5) Frieswal
• Evolved at Project Directorate on Cattle, Meerut from
Holstein Friesian and Sahiwal crosses produced in military
dairy farms.
• It has 5/8 HF and 3/8 Sahiwal inheritance with milk yield
around 3500 kg / lactation Frieswal

(6) Jersind
• This breed was evolved by crossing Jersey bulls with Red
Sindhi at Allahabad Agriculture Institute with 3/8 to 5/8
Jersey inheritance
(7) Jerthar
• This breed was evolved by crossing Jersey bulls with
Tharparkar cows at NDRI, Bangalore.
• It has an inheritance of Jersey 50% and Tharparkar 50% 42
(8) Phule Triveni
• Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Rahuri,
Maharashtra has developed a triple crossbred giving milk
yield of 3000 to 3500 Iitre / lactation with 4% of fat.

• The new breed has been developed by crossing Holstein

Friesian (50 per cent), Jersey (25 per cent) and Gir (25
per cent) breeds

(9) Vrindavani
• Developed at IVRI, Izatnagar.
• It has 50–75% inheritance from Holstein-Friesian,
Jersey and Brown Swiss and 25–50% from
indigenous Hariana breed.
• Milk yield: 3,000 kg in 305 days of lactation with 4–
4.5% fat 43
 SYNTHETIC BREEDS OF CATTLE DEVELOPED IN OTHER
COUNTRIES
(1) Australian Milking Zebu (AMZ)
• Developed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia by crossing
Sahiwal / Red Sindhi (1/3) and Jersey (2/3).
• Milk yield: 2700 kg / lactation with high resistance to heat,
cattle ticks
(2) Australian Friesian Sahiwal (AFS)
• This breed was evolved by crossing Sahiwal and Friesian at
Queensland, Australia.
• Cows produce approximately 3,000 litres of milk per lactation
under tropical pasture conditions with a high resistance to
heat, humidity, ticks and other parasites
44
 SYNTHETIC BREEDS OF CATTLE DEVELOPED IN OTHER
COUNTRIES
(3) Jamaica Hope
• Developed in Hope Agricultural Station at Jamaica to improve milk
production.
• Has a high heat tolerance, high resistance to ticks and tick-borne
diseases.
• Has 80% Jersey, 5% Holstein Friesian and 15% Sahiwal inheritance.
• Milk yield: 2500 kg in 305 days with 5 % fat; Age at first calving: 34
months; Calving interval: 440 days
(3) Santa Gertrudis
• Tropical beef breed of cattle developed in southern Texas.
• First beef breed formed in the United States in 1940.
• Developed by mating Brahman bulls with Shorthorn cows (3/8
Brahman and 5/8 Shorthorn)
45
SYNTHETIC BREEDS OF SHEEP DEVELOPED IN INDIA
(1) Hissardale is a fine wool breed originated at Govt. Livestock Farm, Hisar through crossing
Australian Merino rams with Bikaneri ewes. The exotic inheritance is stabilized at 75%

(2) Avivastra is a synthetic apparel wool strain evolved at CSWRI, Rajasthan from a
crossbred population of 5/8 to 3/4 Rambouillet and 3/8 Chokla and 1/4 Malpura

(3) Avikalin is a synthetic carpet wool strain evolved at CSWRI, Rajasthan from a foundation
population of Rambouillet (1/2 to 5/8) and Malpura (1/2 to 3/8) with exotic inheritance at
50% level

(4) Bharath Merino was evolved at CSWRI, Rajasthan from a crossbred foundation of
Rambouillet or Soviet Merino and Chokla, Malpura or Nali with exotic inheritance 75%

(5) Sandyno (Nilagiri Synthetic) is a fine wool breed evolved in Sheep Breeding Research
Station, Sandynallah, Ooty, Tamil Nadu from inter se mated population of 5/8 Merino and
3/8 Nilagiri

46
(6) Kashmir Merino is a fine wool synthetic evolved in Jammu & Kashmir by crossing 3/4
Tasmanian Merino and 1/4 indigenous (Gaddi, Bhakarwal and Poonchi)

(7) Avimans is a mutton synthetic, developed at CSWRI, Rajasthan by crossing Malpura and
Sonadi with Dorset and Suffolk with exotic inheritance at 50% level

(8) Indian Karakul was evolved by crossing Marwari, Malpura and Sonadi with Karakul at CSWRI,
Rajasthan with exotic inheritance at 75% level

(9) Patanwadi Synthetic was evolved by crossing Ramboulliet and Merino with Patanwadi at
GAU, Dantiwada with exotic inheritance of 50%

(10) Nellore Synthetic was evolved at Livestock Farm, Palamaner, Andhra Pradesh for mutton by
crossing Dorset rams with Nellore ewes. The exotic inheritance is stabilised around 50 %

47
 Synthetic Sheep Breeds of India

Avikalin Avivastra

Sandyno

Bharat Merino Kashmir Merino

48
 SYNTHETIC PIG BREED DEVELOPED IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA
• Developed at the Post Graduate Research Institute in
Animal Science, Kattupakkam. (1)Three-Way Synthetic Pig
• By crossing of three exotic pig breeds viz., Large
White Yorkshire, Landrace and Duroc.
• First, Large White Yorkshire is crossed with Landrace
to produce F1 offspring.
• The F1 females are mated with Duroc boars and
terminal progenies are derived.
• These terminal progenies are called as Three-way
Synthetic.
• The special characteristics are higher body weight (4
to 5 kg more than Large White Yorkshire pigs at 8
months of age), better feed efficiency and less back
fat thickness (2.53 cm).
49
 “TANUVAS KPM Gold”
• The crossbred pig variety was developed
by AICRP on Pig at PGRIAS, Kattupakkam
• The crossbred pig variety was devolved by
crossing Large White Yorkshire with Desi
pig of Tamil Nadu.
• The inheritance level has been stabilized
at 75:25 % for LWY and Desi
• Important economic traits:
Litter size at birth: 8-9 piglets
Weight at 8 months of age: 75-80 kg
 Crossbred Pig Varieties in India
• HD K75 - A cross of Local pigs of Assam with Hampshire

• Lumsniang - A cross of Niang Megha and Hampshire

• Jharsuk - A cross of Local pigs of Jharkhand with Tamworth

• Mannuthy White - A cross of local pig of Kerala and LWY

• SVVU T-17 - A cross of Local pig of Andhra Pradesh and LWY

• Landlly - A cross of Local pig of Uttar Pradesh and LWY

 CROSSBREEDING
Advantages of crossbreeding
(1)Both maternal and individual heterosis are exploited.

(2) It helps to introduce desirable traits into a breed in which they did not exist
formerly.

(3) It helps to evolve a new breed.

(4) Crossbred animals usually exhibit an accelerated growth, vigour and fertility.

(5) It can be used to produce commercial stock to meet market demand.

(6)Once the crossbred females are produced, no need to maintain females of the pure
breeds; males alone can be purchased for breeding or frozen semen can be used.
52
 CROSSBREEDING
Disadvantages
(1) Breeding merit of crossbred animals may be reduced because their genetic
composition is heterozygous in nature.

(2) Crossbreeding requires maintenance of two or more purebreds in order to

produce crossbreds.

(3) Crossbreds lack in the performance of qualitative characters.

53
Thank You
COMBINING ABILITY

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 INTRODUCTION
o Genes carried by an individual for a particular trait act in different ways to
produce their effect
o Gene action may be additive (individual effect of each gene) or non-additive
(interaction effect or combination effect of genes)
o Non-additive gene action may be allelic i.e. dominance and over-dominance
or non-allelic i.e. epistasis
o Genotype is determined by it’s additive value, denoted by A, together with
interaction effect of genes i.e. deviations caused by dominance (D) and
epistasis (I),

Total genotypic value (G) = A+D+I

 Combining ability

◦ Combining ability is defined as the ability of parents to combine

amongst each other during the process of fertilization so that
favourable genes or characters are transmitted to their progenies

◦ COMBINING ABILITY can be determined only in particular

MATING DESIGNS on the PERFORMANCE of the OFFSPRINGS
 Diallele crossing and GCA

Diallele crossing – one of the mating design or breeding system

 To estimate the combining ability of two or more lines “diallel mating system” is followed.

 Crossing of two or more inbred lines derived from the base population in all possible
combinations in order to evaluate their genotype with respect to some quantitative
characters.
 Diallele crossing provides the information on GCA and SCA.
General Combining Ability (GCA)

◦ GCA is an average value of the inbred line based on its performance in

crosses with other lines; it is directly related to the breeding value of a parent
and is associated with additive genetic effects
◦ The diagram below explains the diallel mating system and the combining abilities of four lines, x1,
x2, x3 and x4

◦ The performance of a combination of lines is composed as follows:

G(x1x2) = GCA(x1) + GCA(x2) + SCA(x1x2)
where, G(x1x2) denotes the genotypic value of the cross “x1x2”.

SCA

Line x1 x2 x3 x4 GCA
x1 x1x1 x1x2 x1x3 x1x4 x1
x2 x2x1 x2x2 x2x3 x2x4 x2
x3 x3x1 x3x2 x3x3 x3x4 x3
x4 x4x1 x4x2 x4x3 x4x4 x4
 Features of General Combining Ability

◦ It denotes combining ability of genotype esp. inbred with various

testers.
◦ It is due to additive genetic variance and additive x additive gene
interaction.
◦ Helps in identification and selection of best genotype to use in crosses,
as a parent.
◦ Estimated by half sib mating.
◦ Have relationship with narrow sense heritability.
 Specific Combining Ability

 It is defined as the performance of a particular cross, which may deviate from the
average GCA of the two lines involved and this deviation is known as the specific
combining ability of that cross.

 It is caused by non-additive gene action.

 When the SCA is caused by dominance
 The dominance gene action is exploited by two ways.

 One is producing homozygous dominant individuals for pair of genes which affects the trait.

 But the difficulty in producing the first one is to distinguish the homozygous dominant from
hetrozygotes and if the selected trait is polygenic in nature.

 The second method is production of heterozygous individuals which is achieved by

producing two complementary homozygous lines.

 The production of two complementary homozygous lines is achieved by direct process of

selection during inbreeding, then these lines are crossed to obtain the hybrids.
 Selection for GCA and SCA
 As production of inbred lines, through selection and crossing is expensive and time
consuming, a number of short cut selection methods have been developed
 These methods aim at improving the SCA of particular combination and help in building
considerable genetic variation in the lines used for breeding.
 Combining ability of a cross cannot be measured without making and testing that particular
cross.
 To get SCA, two lines should be developed which differ in gene frequencies.
 They are two selection methods
1. Recurrent Selection (RS)
2. Reciprocal Recurrent Selection (RRS)
 The two selection methods for combining ability results in improved crossbred / hybrid progeny
performance by crossing the selected lines for exploiting the non-additive gene action due to
dominance, over dominance and epistasis.
 This procedure includes inbreeding and cross breeding combined with progeny selection.
 Recurrent selection
◦ Recurrent selection for specific combining ability was proposed by Hull (1945 and 1952)
◦ It is basically a system of progeny testing
◦ It involves (1) a constant tester line and (2) a segregating population (Line)
◦ It includes the crossing of a large number of individuals in a segregating population with
a tester line to evaluate the progeny.
Tester line
◦ Highly inbred line presumably homozygous at most loci, have a good GCA and it is
employed to test the new line(A).
◦ The constant tester might be an inbred line or a single cross of two inbred lines
◦ Those individuals giving the best results are selected and inter-mated.
◦ This process is repeated again and again.
Segregating population

 It can be a breed, strain or line.

 Females from the segregating population are crossed to the constant tester line
males.

 Selection is based on performance of the test-cross progeny.

 Proven females of the segregating population are mated with males of their own line
to reproduce the population.

 Selection may be continued until individuals of the segregating population uniformly

combined well with the tester line.
 Recurrent selection
◦ It is a method of selection for improvement Line – A Tester Line
of SCA
♂♂♂ ♂♂♂
♀♀♀ ♀♀♀ Generation – 0
◦ Large number of females from line A to be
tested is crossed with the tester line males
Selective breeding Test cross
and their progenies are evaluated. Females are selected based on Line A ♀ x Tester Random mating
the performance of test cross line ♂ within tester line
◦ The tested females are selected on the (Test cross progenies)

performance of their testcross progenies.

♂♂♂ ♂♂♂
◦ The selected females of line A are then ♀♀♀ ♀♀♀ Generation – 1
mated with males of their own line to
produce next generation parents of line A. Selective breeding
Females are selected based on Test cross Random mating
the performance of test cross Line A ♀ x Tester within tester line
◦ The cross bred progenies are used for line ♂
(Test cross progenies)
commercial production and not for further
breeding. ♂♂♂ ♂♂♂
♀♀♀ ♀♀♀ Generation – 2
◦ This cycle is repeated until the individuals
of the population combine well with tester
line.
◦ In this method, the frequency of those alleles in heterotic loci (in segregating
population) that are complementary to the alleles of tester line are increased

◦ In other words when tester is ‘aa’, the selected line would become ‘AA’; the tester is
‘BB’, the selected line becomes ‘bb’

◦ By this method GCA of the tester line and SCA of cross is improved

The application of recurrent selection is more difficult in animals than plants because

 Difficulty of producing and maintaining the highly inbred line.

 The overall effects of inbreeding are deleterious.

 The degree of fertility depends on survivability.

 More number of animals are required and it involves longer generation interval.
 Reciprocal Recurrent Selection

 It was proposed by Comstock and co-workers (1949) in plant breeding.

 Introduced into animal breeding by Bell et al. (1950).

 Since then, many RRS experiments have been done in animals, including laboratory
animals (Drosophila and mice) and domestic animals (poultry and pig).

 RRS is a system of selection for improving both GCA and SCA; and nicking
ability of two specific populations /inbred lines.
 Reciprocal Recurrent Selection
 RRS implies progeny testing of each of the two lines by crossing with each other

 The procedures involves two segregating populations/lines (A and B), each serving
as the source material for selection and also serving as tester for the other
population.

 Number of males of ‘A’ line are crossed with females of ‘B’ line and vice versa. i.e.
reciprocal crosses are made between these two lines.

 Males and females of each of the two populations are selected based on the
performance of test cross progeny (AB or BA).
 The rest of the parents are discarded along with the entire test cross progenies, which are used
only to test combining ability of the parents.

 Selected parents of the A and B lines are re-mated to members of their own line (i.e. A with A
and B with B) to produce the next generation of parents to be tested.

 The whole cycle is repeated for each generation until best possible results are obtained by
crossing and the ultimate goal is the production of commercial hybrids by crossing
between the two lines.

 Crossing them and selecting the individuals to reproduce each population on the basis of the
performance of their test cross progeny theoretically directs the two populations more
homozygous in opposite directions. i.e., complementary adjustments of genotypes in two
populations that will exhibit better heterosis by crossing.
 RRS obtains its highest selection response, when over-dominance exist.

 It is suitable for a long-term selection programmes.

 During the initial generations of RRS, selection response is usually low.

 After the "lag" period, RRS gain will be faster

 It is desired to improve the potential performance of their crosses for the low
heritable traits related to fertility and livability e.g. litter size and early growth rate
in swine.
 Usefulness
1. RS and RRS are commonly used in poultry and swine breeding.

2. RS and RRS are effective only if there is a genetic difference between two segregating
populations.

3. RS and RRS would be expected to be more useful only if over-dominance or non-

additive gene actions (intra-allelic and inter-allelic) are present.
Disadvantages
1. This method is difficult to be adopted in case of large animals primarily because of
the difficulty and costly in producing truly inbred lines of high inbreeding coefficient.

2. Since RS and RRS involve progeny testing, it increases generation interval and
hence slower the genetic progress.
 Conclusion
 In farm animals, selection is usually carried out for more than one trait, since one
trait may be affected mostly by non-additive gene action and another by additive
gene action or both.

 Hence, it is (1) to select and improve the best and (2) mating the best to best
followed by (3) crossing the improved lines or breeds to take the advantage of
hybrid vigour due to non-additive gene action
NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai – 600 007
 NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS

• Main aim of the animal breeder is the genetic improvement in productivity per
animal in the shortest possible time with nominal cost.
• Conventional breeding programmes viz., selection and mating systems have
made significant contribution in the genetic improvement of livestock in the
developed countries
• But the rate of genetic improvement had been low in developing countries like
India
Main reasons are
(i) Non-availability of sires with high genetic merit in required numbers
(ii) Poor AI network due to lack of infrastructure
(iii) Small herd size of farmers and high cost of data recording in the field
condition
(iv) Small population size and less intensity of selection for female in organized
herds
2
 NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS
In India, typical breed structure consists of

(i) Organized herds, i.e. animals kept at organized / institutional farms

(ii) Commercial herds / flocks, i.e. animals reared by farmers called as village
herds / flocks which are very small to the extent of 1 to 2 animals per
farmer; but collectively, village herds constitute more population.

• To increase the overall genetic merit of the breed and to overcome the above
constraints, a new concept named as Nucleus Breeding System / Scheme
(NBS) was introduced

• Depending upon the direction of gene flow, the NBS are of two types:

(i) Closed Nucleus Breeding Scheme (CNBS)

(ii) Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS)

3
 NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEM / SCHEME (NBS)

• Under the NBS, the breed

structure consists of three tiers in
the shape of pyramid; they are Nucleus
1. Nucleus
2. Multiplier and
Multiplier
3. Commercial
• Sometime, there are only two
tiers, namely nucleus and
commercial
Commercial
• Area of the tires reflects the
relative number of animals in the
breed

4
 NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEM
Nucleus tier
• Composed of top parental breeding stock (elite males and females).
• Consists of 10-15% of the breed population, selected exclusively on
breeding value.
• It breeds its own male and female for replacement stocks and occasionally
introduces a sire or dam from another nucleus herd.
• Stationed at particular place with all necessary inputs of land, feed, labour
and favourable environment.
• Main objective is to maximize the genetic gain and to produce and supply
superior males to the multiplier / commercial tiers for breeding.

5
 NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEM
Multiplier tier
• This is constituted by 30 to 40% of the breed population.
• Acts as multiplier and tester population.
• Takes the males and sometimes the females from the nucleus herd to produce
sufficient breeding stock to meet the demand of commercial farmers herds.
Commercial tier
• It acts as terminal tier for hierarchical breeding structure.
• It has 40 to 60% of the breed population
• Generates elite germplasm by using males and females produced under
multiplier herds.
• The intention is to increase the population and genetic improvement.
Genetic gain achieved in nucleus herd is passed on from nucleus herd to
multiplier and then to commercial herds

6
 CLOSED NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS (CNBS)
• In CNBS there is one way gene flow with
direction from top to down herds, i.e.
from Nucleus to Multiplier to
Commercial farmers herds

• Because no genes flow into the nucleus

tier from other two tiers, the scheme is
called closed nucleus breeding scheme.

• In this scheme, the genetic improvement

is made only in nucleus herd and passed
on to multiplier and then to the
commercial tiers.

• Generally, CNBS takes time for transfer of

genetic progress from one tier to the
next.
7
 CLOSED NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS (CNBS)
• The resultant difference in performance between any two adjacent tires is
called improvement lag which is usually expressed in terms of the number
of years of genetic improvement which represent the difference in
performance between adjacent tiers.

The improvement lag can be reduced by

• Transferring of males and females of nucleus tier directly to the

commercial tier.

• Keeping males and females in the lower tiers for shorter periods of time
(breeding stock to be replaced at short intervals).

• CNBS is mainly practised in modern pig and poultry breeding programmes

to avoid the risk of introducing diseases in the nucleus herd / flock.

8
CLOSED NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS (CNBS)

9
 OPEN NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS (ONBS)
• This is often called group breeding scheme or co-operative breeding
scheme.
• In this scheme, the gene flow is both ways i.e. downward from nucleus to
other lower tiers and upward from multiplier / commercial to nucleus tier.
• Males born in the nucleus flock are evaluated and the best are chosen and
supplied to the multiplier or village flocks for breeding.
• Similarly, superior females from commercial flock are selected and
introduced into nucleus flock.
• Every year lowest yielding 10% of the ewes in the nucleus flock are replaced
by purchase of the best ewes from village or commercial flock.
• This reduces the rate of inbreeding in the nucleus flock and increases the
genetic progress because the superior animals are also available with
farmers.
• This scheme is mostly followed in sheep and cattle.
10
OPEN NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEMS (ONBS)

11
 ONBS Vs CNBS
Advantages of ONBS over CNBS
(1) ONBS is two-way flow of genes and hence genetic improvement is faster.
(2) Improvement lag is substantially reduced.
(3) Annual response to selection is increased by 10 to 15%.
(4) Rate of inbreeding in the nucleus tier is substantially reduced.

Disadvantages (practical difficulties in ONBS)

(1) Continuous co-operation is required between the co-operating breeders to
run the ONBS
(2) Opening the nucleus population to regular importation from other herds /
flocks belonging to co-operating breeders result in high risk of introducing
diseases to the nucleus herd / flock

12
 NBS Using MOET
• NBS can be run with or
without MOET
(Multiple Ovulation
Embryo Transfer)
• When MOET is used in
NBS, it is called MOET
NBS
• Advantage is reduction
in generation interval
Composite technology and it involves multiple
• Accuracy is less, but processes
outweighed by • Super ovulation
reduction in GI
• Oestrus synchronization of recipient
• AI of the donor
• Embryo recovery from the donor 13
 TYPES OF MOET - NBS
JUVENILE MOET
• Selection of bulls and cows are done at early age before first breeding.
• Selection criteria is based on dams ancestors, sibs of dams and sire records.
• Generation interval is less.
ADULT MOET
• Males are selected on ancestors records and their full and half sisters
records.
• Females are selected on their basis of ancestors plus their own performance.
• Generation interval is longer.
MIXED or HYBRID MOET
• Progeny testing of males is required for nucleus replacement
• It can be Juvenile mixed MOET or adult mixed MOET

14
SIRE EVALUATION

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB
Madras Veterinary College
Chennai – 600 007
 SIRE EVALUATION
• A sire’s transmitting ability for production can be estimated by
mathematical means and expressed as a single figure known as sire index

• In other words, an attempt to express what a sire would have produced, if

he had been a cow is the sire index of the bull.

• It is the operational part of progeny testing called as “sire proof”

• Sire index helps in ranking the bulls in order of their merit to choose the
best.

• Since a number of sires are progeny tested, it requires to rank all sires for
their genetic worth so as to select the best sire.

• Breeding value is estimated for indexing in a single herd as well as for

indexing in many herdṣ.

• Different indices have been developed which provide the estimates of

breeding value of sires to rank them.
 SIRE INDICES
1. Simple Daughters’ Average Index
2. Equi-parent Index (or) Intermediate Index (or) Yapp’s Index
3. Gifford’s Index
4. Mount Hope Index
5. Regression Index (or) Rice Index
6. Tomar Index
7. Corrected Daughter Average Index (or) Krishnan’s Index
8. Contemporary Daughter Average Index
9. Dairy Search Index (or) Sundaresan Index (or) Corrected Contemporary
Daughters Average Index
10. Herd-mate Comparison
11. Contemporary Comparison
12. Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP)
13. Other Methods
 1. Simple Daughters’ Average Index (Edwards, 1932)

I=D
where, D is the average of all daughters of a sire under test

• This is the easy way to evaluate the breeding worth of the bulls from their
daughters’ production performance
• It is carried out in a single herd under same environment and is merely the
arithmetic average of the daughters records.
• If the number of daughters per sire is large and if all the daughters are
included without selection, this provides the sound basis of selection.
• The defect in this method is that, it does not consider the production level
of the dams allotted to the sire.
• Hence it is subjected to the bias when production level of mates allotted to
different sires are different.
 2. Equi-parent Index (or) Intermediate Index (or)
Yapp’s Index (1925)

P = (S + D) / 2
(S + D) = 2P
S = 2P ‒ D
where, P = average of daughters (progenies) of the sire;
D = average of dams of the daughters
• This index is based on the principle that the two parents
contribute equally to the genetic makeup of the progeny.
• This index places the daughter exactly half way between
production level of the dam and genetic worth of the sire
• This index aims at adjusting the daughters average for the varying
production level of the dams
2. Equi-parent Index (or) Intermediate Index (or) Yapp’s Index (1925)

Defect
1. It overcorrects for the differential production levels of dams mated
to different sires i.e. if the set of cows mated to a sire is inferior to
the average, the index over estimates the sire’s breeding worth and
vice versa
• To minimize this defect, dam-daughter pairs should be selected
randomly

2. This index assumes that the heritability of the trait under

consideration is one
 3) GIFFORD’S INDEX

• Gifford (1930) suggested that the bull index can be estimated from the
daughters records ignoring the dams, provided the dams are not a
selected group.
S = 2P-H
Where,
P= Daughters Average
H= Herd Average
 4. Mount Hope Index (Goodale, 1927)

• To get this index, compute the average mature equivalent of milk

production of the dams of these daughters and take the difference between
these averages

Si = D + 3/7 (D – M)

when daughters average (D) exceeds the dams average (M), add 3/7
(0.4826) of the difference to the daughters average to get the sire index.

(or)

Si = D - 7/3 (M – D)

when daughters average (D) is less than the dams average (M), subtract
7/3 (2.333) of the difference to the daughters average to get the sire index.
 5. Regression Index (or) Rice Index (Rice, 1944)
• Regression defines the relationship between parent and offspring when
used as a measure in inheritance.

• This index was proposed based on the fact that the overall regression
of daughters record on those of their dams was approximately 0.5.

I = 0.5 (Intermediate index) + 0.5 (Breed / Herd average)

(or)

I = (Intermediate index + Breed average) / 2

• Regression index is less variable than intermediate index and has the
same accuracy.

• It has advantage of including the breed average as a reference point.

 6. Tomar Index (1965)

• This index depends on dam-daughter comparison and on

simultaneous use of the merits of the dams and the daughters
over their contemporary herd averages.

I = D + (De + Me)
where
D = Daughters average
De = Daughters expected average = √ D x Daughters contemporary herd average
Me = Dams expected average = √ M x Dams contemporary herd average
M = Dams average
 7. Corrected Daughter Average Index (or)
Krishnan’s Index (Krishnan, 1956)

• This index eliminates the disadvantages of simple daughters

average index and equi-parent index

• It corrects the daughters average for the influence of

differential production level of dams

• It is four times as efficient as intermediate index

 7. Corrected Daughter Average Index (or)
Krishnan’s Index (Krishnan, 1956)

I = D – bDM (M – A)
where, D = Average of the daughters of the sire
M = Average of the dams of the daughters
A = Herd (or) Breed average
b = Regression of daughters record on dam record = 0.5 h 2

• The term, bDM (M–A), in the index is the correction for the genetic
superiority or inferiority of the set of dams allotted to a sire, over
the herd average.

• It suffers from the defect that it does not take into consideration of
performance of contemporaries living at the same time.
 8. Contemporary Daughter Average Index
• In this index, the records of the daughters of a sire are compared with the
daughters of all other sires in the same herd born in the same season.

• This herd-mate or contemporary comparison reduces the environment

variations due to herd, year and season.

where
H = Herd average
n = No. of daughters per sire
D = Daughters average
CD = Contemporary daughters average
k = Constant based on sire error variance or ratio of error variance to sire
variance
 9. Dairy Search Index (or) Sundaresan Index (or)
Corrected Contemporary Daughters Average Index

• This index was developed by Sundaresan (1965) at NDRI, Karnal.

• This index is an extension of the contemporary daughters average index.

• This index uses the performance of contemporaries (contemporaries are

those individuals that are in same year, same season along with the
daughters of the bull under test) and the variation in the number of
daughters in the progeny group in estimating the breeding worth of the sire.

• It also corrects for the non-genetic effects like year and season and for the
differences in production level of dams allotted to different sires.

• In this index, only first lactation 305-day milk yield of the daughters are
taken into consideration.
 9. Dairy Search Index (or) Sundaresan’s Index (or)
Corrected Contemporary Daughters Average Index

There are two indices

(1)Formula for sire evaluation at farm level

(2) Formula for sire evaluation for Key Village Schemes

where H = Herd average;

n = No. of daughters per sire;
D = Daughters average;
CD = Contemporary daughters average;
M= Dams average;
CM = Contemporary dams average;
b = Intra-sire regression of daughters on dams=0.5 h2
 10. Herd-mate Comparison
(Henderson and Carter, 1957)

• Herd-mates are all daughters of other sires that complete records in the
same month.
• Herd-mate comparison eliminates the environmental differences like herd,
year, season, feeding and management effects.
I = D – 0.9 (Hm – A) – A
where D = daughters average
A = herd average
Hm = herd-mate average
• When sires’ daughters are distributed in many herds, additional adjustments
can be added to increase the accuracy of comparing the different sires.
• The factor( - 0.9) is used because, about 90 % of the difference of the herd-
mates from the breed average is reflected in the production level of the
daughters of a sire.
 11. Contemporary Comparison

• This method is similar to herd-mate comparison with additional

requirement that a herd-mate be of the same age.

• It was developed by Robertson and his coworkers (1952) for estimating the
breeding worth of the sire having daughters in more than one herd.

• In this method, only the first lactation 305-day milk yield is taken for proving
the sire.

I = 2b (CC) + Hf

where, CC = Contemporary comparison

Hf = avg. of the first calvers in the herds
 12. Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP)
(Henderson, 1973)
• More efficient and powerful method of sire evaluation than the other
conventional methods
• It estimates expected breeding value (EBV) of sire by adjusting the data
for all known non-genetic sources such as for herd, year and season
effects, age of the dam, parity, etc .
• It uses all available information (i.e. the information provided by the
daughters, other relatives) more efficiently and more flexibly in
estimating the breeding values.
• Animals across contemporary groups can also be compared.
• It provides estimates of breeding values of many sires born in different
years and different locations simultaneously.
• Provides the estimate of response to selection.
• It eliminates errors due to complications such as non-random mating,
environmental trend over time, bias due to culling and selection
 12. Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP)
(Henderson, 1973)

Yijk = µ + Hi + Sj + eijk
where,
Yijk = performance of kth progeny of jth sire in ith herd-year-season

µ = overall mean

Hi = effect of ith herd-year-season (fixed effect)

Sj = effect of jth sire (random effect)

eijk = residual error

 13. Other Methods

• In addition to the above methods, the following models

are also developed for sire evaluation

(i) Least-squares Technique

(ii) Maximum Likelihood (ML) method

(iii) Restricted Maximum Likelihood method (REML)

National Livestock Policy

Dr. A. Gopinathan
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
Chennai – 600 007
 NEED FOR A NATIONAL LIVESTOCK POLICY

• Livestock production systems in India are mostly based on traditional

knowledge, low cost agricultural residues and agro-by products leading to
lower productivity.

• Livestock sector is facing newer challenges, like (i) Increased incidence of

emerging and re-emerging animal diseases, (ii) Vulnerability to exotic
diseases, (iii) Shortage of feed and fodder and (iv) Need to increase
production to meet demand.

• Many of these challenges like (i) Animal diseases, (ii) Shortage of feed
and fodder and (iii) Dissemination of technology would require an
appropriate national strategy to address these with support of the State
Governments.
 NEED FOR A NATIONAL LIVESTOCK POLICY
• Livestock species and breeds have ecological distribution and do not
follow the geographic boundaries of the States (Eg. Availability of
Sahiwal in Punjab, Hariyana & Rajasthan)

• The National Livestock Policy would facilitate better inter-state co-

ordination in

1. Regulating the export and import of livestock and livestock products

2. Feed and food safety

3. Bio-security and

4. Conservation of indigenous breeds

which are essential for development of livestock sector.

 MAJOR CHALLENGES
1. Shortage of Feed and Fodder
• It is primarily due to decreasing area under fodder cultivation and reduced availability
of crop residues as fodder.
• There is continuous shrinkage of common property resources leading to overgrazing in
the existing grasslands.
• It is imperative to arrange sufficient good quality feed and fodder for efficient
utilization of genetic potential of the various livestock species and for sustainable
improvement in productivity.
 MAJOR CHALLENGES
2. Livestock Health
• A large number of infectious and metabolic diseases prevalent in Indian livestock
have serious implication for animal productivity, export potential and safety /
quality of livestock products.
• Shortage of veterinary and para-veterinary manpower and facilities including
mechanisms for diagnosis, treatment, tracking and prevention of the diseases.
• Adequate infrastructure for ensuring bio-security, proper quarantine systems
and services to prevent the ingress of diseases across the states and national
borders is not available.
 MAJOR CHALLENGES
3. Low Productivity
• Although India is a major producer of livestock products, the average
productivity of livestock is lower compared to world average.

Major concerns
• Inadequate availability of feed and
fodder,
• Insufficient coverage through AI
• Low conception rates
• Non-availability of quality males for
breeding
• Poor management practices
• Inadequate marketing infrastructure and
• Unorganized marketing
 MAJOR CHALLENGES
4. Livestock and Environment
• Climate change and global warming may have serious implications to the
livestock sector.
• These may be manifested in the form of heat stress, loss of animal habitat,
scarcity of feed and fodder, and changes in epidemiological pattern of vector
borne diseases, etc., ultimately leading to reduction in production and economic
losses.
• Mitigating the impact of climate change, calls for critical appraisal of the
situation on continuous basis and advance planning.
 MAJOR CHALLENGES
5. Knowledge Gap
• Most of the livestock producers being small and marginal farmers, their capacity
to mobilize resources required to absorb the latest technologies developed by
research institutions are limited.
• Absence of an effective extension machinery.
• Lack of access to institutional finance is a major constraint in attracting
investment required for improving productivity by adopting latest technology.
 MAJOR CHALLENGES
6. Inadequate Infrastructure for Marketing, Processing and Value Addition
• Livestock sector is handicapped due to inadequate marketing and processing
infrastructure as a result of which the primary producers do not get
remunerative prices most of the times.
• Dairy co-operatives handle only about 8 % of milk production.
• Still major share of marketable surplus of milk and other livestock products are
not handled by organized processing industry, resulting in reduced price
realization by farmers and post- production losses and wastages.
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL
LIVESTOCK POLICY
1. To improve socio-economic status of a vast majority of our livestock
producers, most of which are women and small farmers.

2. To support research and development initiatives on issues pertaining to

livestock sector for improving production and productivity, bio-security and
profitability.

3. To encourage establishment and growth of self-supporting financially viable,

medium and large commercial livestock production units capable of
adopting latest technology including facility for processing and value
addition.

4. To improve the productivity of livestock and poultry by promoting and

disseminating the technologies developed by the research system.
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL
LIVESTOCK POLICY
5. To promote conservation of animal bio-diversity; conservation and genetic
improvement of important indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry in the
country.

6. To increase availability of feed and fodder resources to meet the

requirement of livestock to attain optimal productivity.

7. To strengthen overall animal health cover through prevention, control and

eradication of various disease conditions.

8. To focus on production of quality livestock products as per the international

standards for food safety.
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL
LIVESTOCK POLICY

9. To encourage value addition of livestock products like milk and milk

products, eggs, wool and meat & meat products etc.

10. To expand capacity of milk handled by organized dairy sector including co-
operatives.

11. To ensure transmission and application of improved technology and

management practices to the doorstep of the farmers and the
entrepreneurs.

12. To create an enabling environment to attract investment for improving

infrastructure support, livestock production, processing, value addition and
marketing in the sector.
 Breeding Policy for Cattle and Buffalo
(As per National Livestock Policy, 2013)
For increasing milk production in cattle and buffaloes and to increase their
life time productivity, a broad framework of policy would include the following:-

1. Selective breeding
 Practiced in indigenous breeds of cattle having
high milk yield, and those with excellent draft
abilities, will be promoted to improve their
production and reproduction potential through
associated herd progeny testing programme.
 This will help their proliferation, conservation and
genetic upgradation.
 Efforts will be made to import semen of these
breeds if necessary, to avoid / reduce inbreeding
(Ongole, Sahiwal and Gir).
 Intrusions of crossbreeding in their defined
breeding tracts will be avoided.
 2. Cross-breeding
• It can be done in non-descript and low
producing cattle with high yielding exotic breeds
suitable for respective agro-climatic conditions,
will be encouraged in selected areas having
adequate facility for feed and fodder and
marketing facilities etc.
The choice of the exotic breed as
Holstein Friesian : Irrigated plains and temperate
areas
Jersey : Hilly terrain and for coastal areas
The optimum level of exotic inheritance should be
50%.

• Upgradation of non-descript and low producing cattle with defined

indigenous breeds in resource deficient areas and the breeding tracts of
defined indigenous breeds would be encouraged.
 Buffalo
• The main aim is to improve the milk production and to hasten growth,
maturity and proliferation.

• Selective breeding of established native buffalo breeds will be

undertaken.

• Grading up of non-descript buffalo population with improved indigenous

breeds will be considered, where appropriate
In general
• Production of breeding bulls having high genetic potential will be an
essential element of the breeding policy for each species and breed.

• Formation of breed associations by involving farmers for improvement of

indigenous breeds of various species.

• Identification / registration of animals having good genetic potential would

be promoted by providing financial, technical and organizational assistance.

• There is a need to focus on the neglected natural mating system and to

produce quality disease free high genetic merit bulls for natural service
through implementation of massive pedigree selection and progeny testing
programmes.

• For the purpose of cross-breeding, semen of progeny tested bulls would be

used as far as possible.
 Breeding Policy for Sheep and Goat
 Aim to improve growth, body weight, reproductive efficiency and wool
quality and quantity, and to reduce mortality.
 An area specific breeding approach would be adopted to improve quality
and quantity of coarse wool and fine wool.
 Main focus will be to produce and distribute good quality rams / bucks of
quality indigenous breeds (selective breeding), which can thrive in
different agro-climatic conditions.
 Artificial insemination would also be encouraged.
 Cross-breeding with high yielding exotic and other native breeds of goats
will also be considered.
 Breeding Policy for Pig
• This will focus on improving growth, prolificacy, quality and quantity of
meat produced, survivability, utilization of low cost locally available
feed and managemental conditions.

• To conserve some of the meritorious indigenous breeds of pigs in their

defined local tracts, selective breeding to be followed

• For non-descript pig population, crossbreeding with high yielding,

disease resistant exotic breeds will be encouraged, with maximum 50%
level of exotic germplasm in crossbreeding.
 BREEDING POLICY FOR LIVESTOCK
Breeding of horses, mules, and donkeys
• Promoted to produce high quality stock
for draft power and sports purposes
• Selective breeding of indigenous breeds
and crossbreeding, where necessary, will
be considered

Breeding of Camels
• It will aim at improving their desert-
specific draft power, milk production,
disease resistance and sports traits
• Breeding of double-humped camel in
high altitude areas would be supported
with import of semen to minimize
otherwise high chances of inbreeding.
 BREEDING POLICY FOR LIVESTOCK
Breeding of Yak and Mithun
• Would be supported in high altitude
agro climatic regions for preservation
and further development through
selection, and where necessary, through
crossbreeding with exotic germplasm.

Breeding Policy for any other useful Livestock can also be developed as per local
need.
 Breeding policy -Tamil Nadu
• In Tamil Nadu, indigenous cattle breeds are draught type viz. Kangayam,
Umblacherry, Burgur, Puliklam and Alambadi.

• In addition, non-descript cattle are also found in sizable number which

exceeds the total population of well-recognised breeds.

• Selective breeding of indigenous cattle breeds in their respective breeding

tract.

• In case of draught breeds of cattle – formation of breeders’ societies,

selective breeding and conservation measures to be taken.

• Crossbreeding / Grading-up of non-descript cattle with exotic dairy cattle

breeds.

• Choice of the exotic sire breeds are Jersey or Holstein Friesian.

• Use of Holstein Friesian (HF) in the Nilgiris, Kodaikanal and Kanyakumari
districts and in the rest of the state Jersey is recommended.

• Introduction of HF in the plains has to be discouraged as the crosses have

problems of adaptation, low fat and SNF content and needs for more
green fodder and concentrate feed.

• Level of exotic inheritance is restricted to 50% in order to maintain the

disease resistance capacity in crossbreds.

• If the level of exotic inheritance is 75% or more there are higher calf
mortality, susceptible to many diseases, increased age at first calving and
calving interval etc.

• In respect of breeding of crossbred cows crossing with 50% crossbred

(Jersey or HF) proven bulls is recommended to stabilize the exotic
inheritance around 50% (inter-se mating).
 Buffaloes
• In case of buffaloes, Toda and Bargur are the only recognised breeds.

• Non-descript buffaloes constitute the majority of buffalo population.

• Therefore, upgrading of non-descript buffaloes with Murrah or Surti has

been recommended as improver breed

• Selective breeding in case of recognised buffalo breeds.

In addition to the above, the following have been recommended for further
genetic improvement of cattle,

• Production and use of genetically superior crossbred bulls for AI to improve

milk production in the crossbred cows.

• Initiation and strengthening of milk recording and progeny testing

programme in the crossbred population under field condition.
GERMPLASM CONSERVATION

Dr. A. Gopinathan
Dept. of AGB, MVC
Chennai – 600 007
 DOMESTIC ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY

• India is a mega biodiversity center.

• Rich repository of large and widely distributed populations of indigenous

livestock and poultry species consisting of

 Large number of breeds in each species

 Very large proportion of non-descript native animals with low

productivity levels

 Tremendous potential to improve production and other performance

parameters
 DOMESTIC ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY

• Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) possess unique genes and

combinations of genes which are responsible for

 Disease resistance and stress resistance

 Quality and composition of animal products

 Adaptation to different environments or farming systems

 Ability to utilize coarse roughage and crop residues

 Many more characteristics we are not yet aware of……

 DOMESTIC ANIMAL DIVERSITY AT RISK

• Demand for animal products is increasing.

• Animal genetic resources are disappearing rapidly worldwide.

• Over the past 15 years, 300 out of 6000 breeds identified by FAO have
become extinct, 1350 breeds of farm animals currently face extinction
and 1 to 2 breeds disappear every week.

• Greatest cause for genetic erosion is the growing trend to global

reliance on a very limited number of modern breeds suited for the
high input / output needs.

• Breeds and strains which were highly adapted to specific

environmental and feeding conditions are now threatened or extinct.
 CATEGORIES OF DOMESTIC POPULATION

Based on the number of breeding females the status of the breed may be classified as
below:
• Extinct : No possibility of restoring the population, no purebred males
or females can be found
• Critical : Close to extinction, genetic variability reduced below that of
ancestral population (less than 100 females)
• Endangered : In danger of extinction, because of the number is too small to
prevent genetic loss through inbreeding. Preservation must be
enacted (100 to 1000 females)
• Vulnerable : Some disadvantage effects endanger the existence of the
population (1000 to 5000 females)
• Insecure : Population number is decreasing rapidly (5000 to 10000
females)
• Normal : Population not in danger of extinction (more than 10000
females)
 Conservation
• It is defined as the management of human use of the
biosphere for the greatest sustainable benefit to
present generation while maintaining its potential to
meet the needs and aspirations of future
generations.
• Thus, conservation is positive embracing
preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization,
restoration and enhancement of the natural
environment.

Preservation
Preservation is the part of conservation by which a sample of animal genetic
resource population is designated to an isolated process of maintenance, by
providing an environment free of human forces which might bring about
genetic changes.
 Reasons for Conservation
There are a number of reasons:

• Indigenous breeds are linked intimately with the history and culture of a
certain region or ethnic group.

• Breeds with specific qualities like disease resistance, heat tolerance,

prolificacy etc. may be required under special or low input conditions.

• Genetic variation both within and between breeds is the raw material with
which the animal breeder works to bring about genetic improvement
through selection.

• For exploiting heterosis it is necessary to maintain breeds that differ widely

and combine well.
 Reasons for Conservation
• Future requirements of type and quality of animal produce (meat,
milk, skin, draught power).

• To evaluate magnitude of genetic change due to selection,

maintenance of sample as controlled population is very much
essential.

• Variety of population are an asset for research workers in biological

evaluation, behavioural studies, etc

• Preservation with diverse sizes, colors and other morphological

features, for aesthetic reason.
 INDENTIFICATION OF BREEDS FOR
CONSERVATION
• Though theoretically all breeds need conservation, it is not practically
feasible.

• The breeds selected for conservation should have some unique features.

• The most important consideration is the number of breeding females that

reaches a critical level below which the breed will be at risk.

• It is necessary to select some of the breeds for conservation based on the

biological and economic values, genetic status, and their historical,
ecological and social importance.

• However, when the number of breeding females in a breed is less than

750 in cattle, 1500 in sheep, 500 in goats, 150 in pigs, the breed is
considered as endangered.
 BREED CHARACTERIZATION

• Characterization of a breed includes the study of the origin of the breed,

geographical distribution, similarity with other breeds, morphological
features, production and reproduction potentialities, and utility of the
breed.

• Breed characterization includes (1) General information, (2) Demographic

details, (3) Morphological features, (4) Economic traits, (5) Economic uses
and (6) Management systems.

• Breed characterization is done through (1) Phenotypic characterization

and (2) Molecular characterization.

• Breed characterization procedure is available with the National Bureau of

Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal.
For conservation, the most critical steps are

• To monitor the population of breeds over a time interval

• Identify breed(s) at risk

• Prioritize the breeds for conservation

• Preferably for in-situ and

• Apply proper conservation strategies

 Types of conservation
• There is no single method of conservation, which is optimal for all
situations.

• Optimal conservation strategies depends on the available resources and

capacities, risk of failure and costs of conservation methods.

• Three major strategies are normally followed in conservation of farm

animal genetic resources.

• The first two i.e. in-situ conservation as well as ex-situ in-vivo involves
conservation of living population.

• The third, ex-situ in-vitro encompasses conservation of living ova,

embryo, semen, somatic cell or other animal tissue, DNA etc. stored
cryogenically in Liquid Nitrogen.
 Conservation

Ex-situ In-situ

In-vivo In-vitro
 In-situ conservation
• Also known as "on-site conservation", refers to the conservation of
species in their natural habitats and environment.
• It aims to conserve the natural habitats of the living creatures, maintain
and recover species, especially the endangered species.
Ex.: National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and Biosphere reserve
• This method of conservation allows animals flourish in their natural
habitat and offers more mobility to the animals.
• At present, following methods are presently used for in-situ
conservation of domestic animals
1. In-situ conservation involving farmers or Livestock keepers
2. In-situ conservation involving institutes / NGO’s
Advantage
• Live animals can be evaluated and improved over years.
• Live animals are always available for immediate use.
• Genetic defects, if any, could be eliminated.
• Expenditure of live animal maintenance is compensated from its produce.

Disadvantage
• More number of animals have to be maintained.
• If small population to be maintained considering cost of maintenance,
inbreeding / genetic drift may result.
• Maintenance of live animals in large number exclusively for conservation
is very expensive.
 Ex-situ conservation
• Also known as ‘off-site conservation’, refers to the conservation of
endangered species in the artificial or man-made habitats that
imitate their natural habitats

Ex.: Zoo, Aquarium, Botanical garden etc.

• It offers less mobility to the animals as it is smaller in area than the

area of in-situ conservation.
 Ex-situ in-vivo conservation

• Animals (often a very limited number) may be kept outside their

natural habitat.

• During reconstruction of a population with frozen semen, we can use

the few purebred ex-situ in-vivo conserved females as founders.

• As an alternate, the young males from elite females should be

selected and procured.

• The males should be reared to maturity under intensive management.

• The semen can be utilized in the breeding tract through NGO network
for up-gradation and improvement of the breed.
 Ex-situ in-vitro conservation

• Ex situ conservation consists of preservation in the form of frozen semen,

frozen oocyte, frozen embryos, embryonic stem cells and DNA.
• Semen of at least 25 unrelated males must be preserved to avoid inbreeding
in future generations.
• Embryos can be frozen and stored for longer periods without any genetic
change.
• To maintain variability, embryos from 35 different matings may be obtained.
• The cost of maintenance of frozen embryos will be relatively cheaper
compared to the maintenance of live animals.
1. Haploid forms: Frozen semen and frozen eggs / oocyte
2. Diploid forms: Frozen embryos, Umbilical cord /stem cell
Advantage

• Easily done without any change in the genetic structure - population as

a whole need not be maintained

• Resource requirement for in-situ conservation is quite large as

compared to cryogenic methods.

Limitations

• Ex-situ preservation using frozen semen delays the restoration of a

breed.

• An important danger faced by a breed restored from cryogenic is from

the changes in the environment like germs, climate, etc. that have
taken place over the years.
 STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION

• Best preferred method is in-situ conservation of livestock through

involving livestock keepers in the production system should be
adopted to maintain a breed in a dynamic state

• Ex-situ in-vitro (cryopreservation) should complement in-situ

conservation

• The most important factor for all conservation cum genetic

improvement projects is that selection should be carried out for its
traditionally valued characteristics and in the environment to which it
is adapted
BREEDS OF CATTLE

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB
MVC
 Zoological classification

Phylum - Chordata (those animals having a backbone)

Class - Mammalia
Order - Artiodactyla (even-toed and hooved)
Sub-order - Ruminatia (cud chewing)
Family - Bovidae (hollow horn)
Genus - Bos
Species - Taurus (humpless cattle) or
Indicus (humped cattle)
Sub-species - Bos taurus
Bos indicus
 BREED
A group of domestic animals within a species having
a distinct phenotypic appearance and / or other
characteristics that distinguish it from other animals
of the same species

Breeds are formed through either genetic

isolation and natural adaptation to the environment
or selective breeding or a combination of the two.
 DOMESTICATION
• Domesticated cattle are the descendants of a group of -
Bos primigenius or aurochs.
• The wild cattle Bos primigenius was first domesticated in the region
between the Mediterranean and Iran, called the ‘Fertile Crescent’
• It leads to the evolution of three major types of domestic cattle, either
within the region or at adjacent regions.
• Three types of domestic cattle are the humpless long horn (Bos
taurus), the humpless short horn (Bos taurus), and the humped zebu
(Bos indicus).
• Today, they are the most important domesticated animals as producers
of meat, milk, energy and hides.
• The various characteristics of the aurochs, such as size and shape of
horn, stature and colour are still found in certain domesticated breeds,
but all these characters are not found in one breed.
 Domestication
(10,000 to 15,000 years ago )

Bos taurus

Last cow died in 1627 at Poland

Bos Primigenius (auroch)

(1.5 to 2.0 million years ago
in India)

Bos indicus
Cattle breeds can be classified as follows:

1. Bos indicus
 Characterized by prominent hump, a long face, upright horns,
drooping ears, well-developed dewlap, long and slender legs,
narrow body and sloping rump.
 The colour varies from white to grey, red and black.
 Have better heat tolerance (adapted to tropical climates) and
resistant to diseases.
2. Bos taurus
On the contrary, Bos taurus have no hump, lower heat tolerance,
susceptible to tick infestations and require high plane of nutrition.
 Difference between Bos indicus and Bos taurus

• Genus Bos has 60 chromosomes: 58 autosomes, sex chromosomes X and Y.

• The X-chromosome is sub-metacentric.
• The Y-chromosome is sub-metacentric in bos taurus and acrocentric in bos
indicus
• Differences in the morphology of Y-chromosomes, showed that they had
different ancestors
 2. Classification based on utility:

• Milch breeds
Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir and Tharparkar - 4 breeds

• Dual purpose breeds

Badri, Belahi, Binjharpuri, Dangi, Deoni, Gaolao, Gangatiri, Hariana,
Himachali Pahari, Kankrej, Lakhimi, Ladakhi, Nari, Nimari, Ongole, Purnea,
Rathi, Shweta Kapila, Kathani and Sanchori - 20 breeds

• Draught breeds
Amritmahal, Bachaur, Bargur, Dagri, Ghumusari, Hallikar, Kangayam,
Kenkatha, Khariar, Kherigarh, Khillar, Konkan Kapila, Kosali, Krishna Valley,
Malnad Gidda, Malvi, Masilum, Mewati, Motu, Nagori, Poda Thurpu, Ponwar,
Pullikulum, Punganur, Red Kandhari, Siri, Thutho, Umblachery and Vechur -
29 breeds
 3. Based on description
Oliver (1938) surveyed the breeds of cattle in India and classified
into four to five basic types and a large proportion of these
breeds are the result of interbreeding between two or more
types.

1. Large white cattle of North

2. Distinct Mysore type of cattle in Southern India with

characteristic head and horns - Hallikar, Amritmahal,
Kangayam, Umblachery, etc.

3. Highly peculiar cattle of kathiawar and the Western part of India

 3. Based on description

4. Small black, red or greyish brown cattle in hilly tracts and forests from
North to South and East to West of India. Ex. Ponwar, Siri.

5. Grey-white cattle have two main divisions

• Broad-faced, lyre-horned cattle of Western India – Kankrej

• Narrow-faced, short-horned breeds – Hariana, Rathi, Gaolao &

Ongole

The best Indian dairy, draught and dual purpose breeds are
found mostly in North-Western regions and Some good quality
draught breeds exist in Southern Peninsular region.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE BASED ON HORN PATTERN
(Payne, 1970)

1. Small short-horned zebu with light grey coat and

long coffin shaped skull
- Bachaur, Gaolao, Hariana, Krishna Valley,
Mewati, Nagori, Ongole and Rathi

2. Lateral-horned zebu with curved shape

- Gir, Dangi, Deoni, Nimari, Red Sindhi
and Sahiwal
3. Lyre-horned zebu with grey coat and orbital
arches - Kankrej, Malvi, Tharparkar

4. Long-horned zebu with grey coats

- Amritmahal, Hallikar, Kangayam, Khillari,
Bargur – Mysore Type

5. Short-horned or lyre-horned zebu

- Ponwar, Punganoor
 POULATION DYNAMICS
ALL INDIA LIVESTOCK CENSUS (in millions)
CATEGORY 2012 2019 % Change
Total cattle 190.90 193.47 1.34
Exotic / Crossbred
Male 5.97 3.61 - 39.50
Female 33.76 47.75 41.40
Total 39.73 51.36 29.30
Indigenous / Non-descript
Male 61.95 43.94 -29.10
Female 89.22 98.17 10.00
Total 151.17 142.11 -6.00
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR),
Karnal, Haryana so far, 53 cattle breeds
+ One synthetic cattle breed were registered

Milch Breeds
Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir and Tharparkar
- 4 breeds
 SAHIWAL

• Best dairy breed of zebu cattle in the world.

• It has been utilized widely for genetic improvement of local stock and
for crossbreeding with European breeds.
• Known for its resistance to various tropical infectious and parasitic
diseases
• A new synthetic breed such as “AMZ and Jamaica Hope” has been
evolved with Jersey breed.
Other names : Lola, Lambi Bar, Montgomery, Multani and Teli
Tract : Montgomery Dist. of Punjab (Pakistan) and Ferozpur
and Amritsar districts of Punjab and Sri Ganganagar
district of Rajasthan in India
Body size : Heavy breed with symmetrical body and loose skin
Color : Reddish dun or pale red with some white patches.
In males, color darkens towards the extremities
Body weight : Bulls: 500 - 600 kg Cows: 300 -400 kg
Horns : Short and thick
Milk yield : 2,200 kg; Fat content: 4.5%
Typical characters:
Muzzle is lighter color in contrast to Red Sindhi, which has dark
colored muzzle.
Animals are large, fleshy and lethargic and voluminous dewlap
Age at first calving: 30 - 36 months; Calving interval:15 months
Utility : Good milkers
 RED SINDHI

• One of the best dairy breeds of Indian subcontinent.

• Local names are Red Karachi, Sindhi and Malir.
• Widely used in different parts of the country for upgradation of
non-descript cattle
Tract : Western Sind, Karachi and Hyderabad districts of Pakistan
and Bikaner in India
Body size : Medium sized and compact animal
Color : Deep dark red and darker than Sahiwal, variation from tan
yellow to almost dark brown. Bulls are darker than cows
and their extremities are almost black.
Body weight : Bulls: 450 -500 kg; Cows: 300 - 350 kg
Horns : Thick at the base and emerge laterally and curve upward
Milk yield : 2000 kg; Fat content: 4.5%

Typical characters:
Round dropping quarters, muzzle - dark color, heavy hump and pendulous
udder
Age at first calving : 44 months ; Calving interval:14 - 15 months
Utility: Cows for good milk and bullocks for both road and field work
 GIR

World renowned milch breed known for its tolerance to stress

conditions, capacity to yield more milk with less feeding and resistance to
various tropical diseases.

Other names : Bhodali, Desan, Gujarati, Kathiawari, Sorthi and Surati

Tract : Includes Amreli, Bhavnagar, Junagadh and Rajkot districts

of Gujarat and is named after the Gir forest
Typical characters:
Dome shaped or protruding forehead, pendulous frontward
turned ears, always hanging from the base
Milk yield : 2100 kg; Fat content : 4.4%
Age at first calving : 51 months ; Calving interval : 17 months
Utility: Cows are good milkers, Bullocks can drag heavy loads
on all kinds of soils, be it sandy, black or rocky.
Best beef breed.
 THARPARKAR

Also known as Thari and White Sindhi

Medium sized and compact breed
Tract : Kutch district of Gujarat and Thar desert, Barmer,
Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan.

Color : White or light grey. Bulls - usually white grey.

Cows and bullocks, white grey and becomes white.
Face and extremities are darker than rest of the body.

Body weight : Bulls: 500 to 600 kg Cows: 400 to 450 kg

Horns : Medium size, emerge laterally in straight line from

the poll and curve upwards and inwards

Milk yield : 2000 kg; Fat content : 4.5%

Typical characters:
Short straight and strong limbs, slightly convex fore head, long back

Age at first calving : 41 months; Calving interval : 14 months

Utility : Bullocks for work; Cows for milk

 Dual Purpose

• Cows are average milk yielder and male animals are

very useful for work.

• Milk production per lactation is 500 to 1500 kg.

• Badri, Belahi, Binjharpuri, Dangi, Deoni, Gaolao,

Gangatiri, Hariana, Himachali Pahari, Kankrej, Kathani,
Lakhimi, Ladakhi, Nari, Nimari, Ongole, Purnea, Rathi,
Shweta Kapila, and Sanchori - 20 breeds
 BADRI

Tract : Found in hilly regions of the Almora and Pauri Garhwal

districts of Uttarakhand.
General characters : Small-size with varied body colours – black, brown, red,
white or grey, of which the red colour cows are said to
outnumber the others.
Neck is wide and small, hump is prominent.
Legs are long and straight, hooves and muzzles are black or
brown in colour.
Utility : Red Hill Cattle or Badri is a dual-purpose breed reared
for milking and draught purposes.
 BELAHI

Tract : Also known as Morni.

Breeding tract lies in the foothills of Shivalik, Ambala,
Panchkula, Yamuna nagar districts of Haryana and
Chandigarh.
General Characters : Term ‘Belaha’ is used to describe mixture of colours and most
common colour of the animals are Reddish brown, Grey or
white.
Face and extremities: white in colour and different degrees of
white colour can be seen on ventral part of body.
Horns: Medium, sickle shaped curving upwards and inwards.
Lactation yield ranged from 182 to 2092 kg;
milk fat percentage: 2.37 to 7.89

Utility : Migratory in nature and are maintained on low input system

 BINJHARPURI

Tract : Found in Kendrapara and Bhadrak districts of Odisha

General Characters : • Animals are medium sized and strong

• White in colour and some animals are grey, black or brown.
• In males, the hump, neck and some regions of face and back
are black in colour irrespective of their coat color.
• Horns are medium in size and curved upward and inward.

Utility : The milk yield: 915-1350 kg with milk fat ranging from 4.3-4.4%.
Reared for milk, draught and manure.
 DANGI

Tract :  Also known as “Kandadi”.

 Dangs district of Gujarat and Thane, Nasik, Ahmednagar
districts of Maharashtra.

General Characters :  Distinct white coat colour with red or black spots
distributed unevenly over the body.
 Horns are short and thick with lateral pointing tips.
 Head : small with a slightly protruding forehead.
 Lactation milk yield: 375 to 800 kg with an average milk fat of
4.3%.
Utility : Well known for its excellent working qualities in heavy
rainfall areas, rice fields and hilly tracts (skin exudes an oily
secretion, which protects them from heavy rain).
 DEONI

Tract : North Western and Western Andhra Pradesh

General Characters : Black and white or red and white in irregular patches and
spots distributed over the body
Similar to Gir. Forehead prominent and slightly bulged;
ears are pendulous and hanging massive hump;
heavy dewlap and pendulous sheath

Utility : Milk yield : 900 kg ; Fat content : 4.3%

Age at first calving: 47 months; Calving interval : 15 months
Bullocks good for heavy work. Cows- Average milkers
 GAOLAO

Tract : known as “Arvi” and “Gaulgani”

Wardha district of Maharashtra and Balaghat district of
Madhya Pradesh.
General Characters : Similar to Ongole but more lighter
White or light grey; Eyes: Almond shaped
Long and narrow body with short muscular limbs

Utility : Age at First Calving: 43 months; Calving interval:16 months

Milk yield: 800 kg per lactation. Fat content: 5.5%
Fast trotting type suitable for quick transport in hills
 GANGATIRI

Origin : Includes Varanasi, Ghazipur, Mirzapur and Ballia

districts of Uttar Pradesh and Bhojpur district of Bihar.
It is also known as Eastern Hariana or Shahabadi.

General Characters : Complete white or grey color and horns are

medium in size, prominent forehead which is broad with
shallow groove in the middle.
Color of the hooves, muzzle and eyelids are generally
black.

Utility : Dual purpose animals, raised for both milk production

and for draught purposes.
 HARIANA

Tract : Haryana, Punjab, Delhi and U.P.

General Characters : Compact and well built body, White or light grey with dark
grey head, neck and hump in the bull,
Horns: stumpy, horizontal or slightly curved upwards
Compact graceful appearance body,
Long and narrow face,
Short tail - reaching just below the hocks
Utility : Age at First Calving: 52 months; Calving interval :16 months
Milk Yield : 1500 kg ; Fat content : 4.3 - 5.3%
Dual purpose breed, primarily reared for bullocks
 HIMACHALI PAHARI

Tract : Himachal Pradesh

General Characters : Primarily black and blackish brown

Small to medium sized animal with compact cylindrical
body, short legs, medium hump, horizontally placed ears
and comparatively long tail.
Utility : High adaptation to mountain topography, extremely
cold climate, and fodder scarcity
32
 KANKREJ

Tract : Heaviest of Indian cattle breed

Southeast of Kutch and north Gujarat
General Characters : Silver grey or Iron grey or even steel black
Lyre-shaped horns; forehead dished in the centre;
powerful body, straight back, well developed hump
Black markings on all legs
Utility : Age at First Calving: 36 - 40 months; Calving interval : 15-16
months, Milk Yield: 1700 kg ; Fat content: 4.8%
Good milkers and draught animals
 KATHANI
• Dual purpose cattle.
• It is distributed in mainly Vidarbha region of Western Maharashtra.
• It has good draft ability, suited to marshy land for paddy cultivation.
 LAKHIMI

Tract : Found in all parts of Assam

General Characters : Small sized, Coat colour is variable mainly brown and
grey. Hump: Medium in size
Utility : Dual-purpose breed is reared for milking and draught
purposes.
Excellent draft animals for carting and ploughing
especially in the muddy fields for paddy cultivation.
 LADAKHI

Tract : Native to Union Territory of Ladakh

General Characters : Small sized and short statured black or brown colored
animals well adapted to extreme cold climatic and hypoxic
conditions.
Body: compact with short legs that make more adapted to
mountainous terrains.
Forehead is straight, small and hairy with slightly long face.
Udder is small in size and bowl shaped.
Utility : Milk yield is around 2 to 5 kg/day; Fat percentage : 5%
Reared under extensive system for milk, draft and manure
purposes.
 NARI

Tract : Rajasthan and Gujarat

General Characters : Varies from white or greyish white in colour

Bulls are either white, greyish white or black
Horns of males are mostly forwards in orientation
(59%) whereas, the females has the horns mostly
oriented outwards.
Forehead is broad and slightly concave in majority of
cases
Utility : Dual purpose 37
 NIMARI

Tract : Also known as “Khargaon”, “Khargoni” and “Khurgoni”, is a

prominent draught breed of central India.
Its breeding tract comprises Khargaon (West Nimar) and Badwani
districts of Madhya Pradesh.
General Characters :  Believed to have originated from crossing of Gir and
Khillar breeds
 It is red in colour with large white splashes, massive
body, convex forehead and horns that resembles Gir.
 Hardiness and temper have inherited from Khillar.

Utility : Prized primarily for agricultural operations with occasional use in

transportation.
 ONGOLE

Tract : Nellore and Guntur Districts of Andhra Pradesh

General Characters : White; In males, dark grey markings on the head, neck, hump
and hind legs; Muzzle: black; black eye lashes and black ring
rounds the eyes
Long, heavy and muscular body and short neck
Broad forehead and well developed hump
Horns: short, stumpy, growing outwards and backwards
Utility : Age at first calving: 50 months ; Calving interval : 17 month
Milk yield: 700 kg ; Fat content: 4.2%
Cows are average milkers and bullocks are good draught animals
 PURNEA

Tract : Distributed in Seemanchal region of Bihar

General Characters : Primarily grey followed by red and black

Small sized animals.
Medium hump, small to medium dewlap, small naval flap
and small to medium sized udder.
Head is medium in size.
Utility : Dual 40
 RATHI

Tract : Important milch breed of cattle found in the arid regions of

Rajasthan. Found in Thar desert, Bikaner, Ganganagar and
Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan.
General Characters : Evolved from intermixing of Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and
Tharparkar breeds with a preponderance of Sahiwal blood.
White or grey in color. Usually brown with white patches all
over the body, but complete black or brown also seen.
Large naval flap, medium size with symmetrical body.
Broad and slightly dished, smaller head with flat forehead
Utility : Age at first calving: 47 months ; Calving interval : 17 month
Milk yield: 1800 kg ; Fat content: 3.7%
 SANCHORI
• Dual purpose, Medium sized and white in colour.
• Sanchori and Jalore districts of the Mallani tract and the Nagauri
district of Rajasthan.
• Average daily milk yield is about 9 kg with 2769 kg milk in a
lactation.
 SHWETA KAPILA

Tract : Goa.
Shwet means white, and kapila refers to a cow having
uniform coat colour
General Characters : Complete white coloured cattle.
White colour extends from muzzle to tail switch including
eyelashes and muzzle
Short to medium statured animal with straight face
and small to medium hump.
Utility : Dual purpose
43
 Draught Breeds
• Male animals are good for work and cows are poor
milkers
• Average milk production is less than 500 kg per
lactation
Amritmahal, Bachaur, Bargur, Dagri, Ghumusari,
Hallikar, Kangayam, Kenkatha, Khariar, Kherigarh,
Khillar, Konkan Kapila, Kosali, Krishna Valley, Malnad
Gidda, Malvi, Mewati, Motu, Nagori, Poda Thurpu,
Ponwar, Pullikulum, Punganur, Red Kandhari, Siri,
Thutho, Umblachery, Vechur and Masilum - 29 breeds
 AMRITMAHAL

Tract : Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Hassan, Shimoga, Tumkur and

Davanagere districts of Karnataka.
Developed from a Hallikar breed with an objective to
increase the milk productivity by the ruler of Mysore state

General Characters : Grey in colour but the colour varies from white to almost
black.
White grey markings are present on face and dewlap in some
animals.
Head is long and tapers towards muzzle.
Horns are long and emerge from the top of the poll
Utility : Famous draught breed known for its power, endurance
and especially suited for trotting and quick
transportation.
 BACHAUR

Tract : Found in Sitamarhi, Dharbanga and Madhubani districts of

Bihar. They are also known as “Bhutia”.
Very close similarity to the Hariana breed.

General Characters : Common colours are grey or greyish white.

They are compact with straight backs, well-rounded
barrels, short necks and muscular shoulders.

Utility : Bullocks can work for long periods without any break.
 GHUMUSARI

Tract : Breeding tract includes western part of Ganjam and

Phulbani districts of Odisha.
General Characters : Small size, white in color, but sometimes shades of grey
are also visible
Small head, broad forehead, depressed in between the
eyes.
Horns are medium sized, mostly curved upward and
inward.
Utility : It is chiefly a draught cattle breed, but few animals are
maintained for milk and manure.
 HALLIKAR

Tract : Comprised of Mysore, Mandya, Kolar, Tumkur, Hassan and

Chitradurga districts of Karnataka.
Also known as “Mysore”
General Characters : It is white to light grey in colour. White markings or irregular
patches around the eyes, neck or shoulder region are
found. Young breeding bulls have dark shades on shoulder
and hindquarters.
Horns emerge near each other from top of poll and are
carried straight, upward and backward with pointed tips.

Utility : Considered as best draught breed of Southern India

 KENKATHA

Tract : Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh and Lalitpur,

Hamirpur and Banda districts of Uttar Pradesh.
Also known as “Kenwaria”,

General Characters : Small in size, sturdy, powerful and varying in colour from grey
to dark grey.
Horns emerge from the outer angles of the poll in forward
direction and end in sharp points.
Cows and young stock are maintained only on grazing while
bullocks are usually fed good quality straws.
Utility : Mainly for draught purpose and are very popular for light
draught on road and for cultivation.
 KHARIAR

Tract : Kalahandi and Balangir districts of Odisha

General Characters : Coat colour is mainly brown and sometimes grey.

Small sized, hump, neck and some regions of face and
back are dark in colour
Horns are straight and often emerge upward and inward.

Utility : Used for draught purpose in its native tract, which is

hilly and undulated areas .
 KHERIGARH

Tract : “Kheri” district of Uttar Pradesh.

Also known by various names like “Kheri” and “Khari”.

General Characters : Small but active. White coat colour. Some animals have
grey colour distributed all over the body, especially on
face. Horns are upstanding, curving outward and upward
and thick at the base.
Utility : Very good for draught purposes and can run very fast.
 KHILLAR

Tract : Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad, Gulbarga districts of Karnataka and

Pune, Satara, Sangli, Solapur, Kolhapur, Osmanabad districts of
Maharashtra.
Also known as “Mandeshi” and “Shikari” .
Originated from Hallikar

General Characters : Compact cylinder body with strongly set limbs.

Greyish-white. Males are dark over the fore & hindquarters with
peculiar grey and white mottled marking on face.
Horns are long and smooth bow shape peculiar to this breed
ending in pointing tips.

Utility : Bullocks are highly valued as fast powerful draught animals.

They can travel miles without showing any signs of fatigue.
 KONKAN KAPILA

Tract : Distributed in Konkan region of Maharashtra and Goa.

General Characters : Exists in various coat colours, predominant being

reddish brown / black, however white / grey, mixed and in
few animals brown or fawn coat colour is also available.
Small to medium in size, straight face, small to medium
sized hump and dewlap.
Generally straight and small sized horn with pointed tips.
Utility : Low milk producers and possess good draft ability
suited to hilly terrain, hot and humid climate of
native tract.
 KOSALI

Tract : Raipur, Durg, Bilaspur and Janjgir districts of Chhattisgarh.

General Characters : Most predominant colour is light red, followed by whitish

grey. Few animals having black coat colour or red with
white patches are also seen.
Horns are stump. Muzzle, eyelids, tail switch and hooves
are black.
Head is broad and straight. Hump: small to medium in size.

Utility : Bullocks are very efficient for ploughing and other

operations in the paddy fields.
 KRISHNA VALLEY

Tract : Belgaum, Raichur and Bijapur districts of Karnataka and Satara,

Sangli and Solapur districts of Maharashtra.
It is believed that the Gir and Kankrej breeds of Gujarat, Ongole
breed of Andhra Pradesh and local cattle having Mysore type have
contributed to the origin of this breed.

General Characters : Greyish white. Brown and white, black and white are also seen.
Animals are large with massive body and distinct bulged forehead.
Horns are small and curved slightly upward and inward.
Utility : Draught breed used extensively in the black cotton soil in the
watershed of Krishna River.
 MALNAD GIDDA

Tract : Malnad” means a hilly region and “Gidda” means small or

dwarf. Varshagandhi (gives one calf every year)
Chikmagalur, Dakshin Kannada, Hassan, Kodagu, Shimoga,
Uttar Kannada and Udupi districts of Karnataka.
General Characters : Predominant coat colour is black with light shades of fawn
on thigh and shoulder region.
They are small with compact body frame and adult animals
are around 90 cm tall.
Horns are generally small, straight, upward and inward.
Utility : Reared under low input low output system.
Highly adapted to harsh climate including heavy rainfall.
 MALVI

Tract : Rajgarh, Shajapur, Ratlam and Ujjain districts of

Madhya Pradesh.
It is also known as “Mahadeo puri” & “Manthani”.

General Characters : Strong and well–built. White or white greyish - darker in

males, with neck, shoulders, hump and quarters almost
black.
Cows and bullocks become nearly pure white with age.

Utility : Well known for quick transportation, endurance and

ability to carry heavy load on rough roads.
 MEWATI

Tract : Also known as “Kosi” or “Mehwati”

Alwar and Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan and Kosi in
western Uttar pradesh and Gurgaon district of Hariana
Similar to Hariana but there are influences of Gir,
Kankrej and Malvi breeds.
General Characters : Compact, tight skinned and strongly set limbs.
White color with dark shade found in neck, shoulder and
quarters
Dewlap, though hanging, is not very loose. Tail is long.
Prominent eyes and surrounded by a very dark rim

Utility : Useful for heavy ploughing, carting and drawing water

from deep wells.
 MOTU

Tract : Found in Motu, Kalimela, Podia and Malkangiri areas

of Malkangiri district in Orissa and adjoining area of
Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh.
General Characters : Coat colour is mainly brown (reddish) and sometimes
grey. Few animals are white in colour.
Mostly polled and horns whenever present emerge
straight and upward and end with rounded tip.

Utility : Used for draught purpose in hilly and undulated

terrain
 NAGORI

Tract : Includes Bikaner, Jodhpur and Nagaur district of Rajasthan.

Evolved from Hariana and Kankrej cattle breeds

General Characters : White in colour and are upstanding, very alert and agile
animals with long and narrow face like that of a horse.
They have long, deep and powerful frames, with straight
backs and well-developed quarters.
The face is long and narrow but the forehead is flat and not so
prominent.
Utility : One of the most famous trotting draught breed of India
and are generally appreciated for fast draught activity.
 PONWAR

Tract : Pilibhit district of Uttar Pradesh (foothills of Himalayas)

Believed to be evolved from a mix of hilly cattle (Morang -
Nepalese hill cattle) and plain land cattle.

General Characters : No particular pattern but black and white patches are
intermixed. White markings on fore head and limbs. Medium
sized horns. Behave in semi-wild manner and are tough to
control. Females are generally not milked and calves are
allowed to suckle the milk.

Utility : Bullocks are fast movers and therefore used both for
agricultural operations and transportation.
 PUNGANUR

Tract : Punganur and Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh

General Characters : White, grey or light brown to dark brown or red in

colour.
Sometimes, animals with white colour mixed with red,
brown or black coloured patches are also seen.
Short stature and have a broad forehead and short
horns.
Horns are crescent shaped

Utility : Bullocks are used for agricultural operation in light soil

Used for driving carts for transportation
 RED KANDHARI

Tract : Ahmadnagar, Parbhani, Beed, Nanded and Latur districts

of Maharashtra. Also known as “Lakhalbunda”

General Characters : Colour is uniform deep dark red, but variations from a
dull red to almost brown are also found.
Horns are evenly curved and medium size
Maintained under extensive management system
Utility : The bullocks are used for heavy agricultural work like
ploughing and carting as well as for transportation
 SIRI

Tract : Small sized draught purpose breed of hilly region of

West Bengal and Sikkim. Also known as “Trahbum”.

General Characters : The breed is either black or brown with white patches,
though totally black or brown animals are also available.
The hump is cervico-thoracic type with tuft of hair on it.
Horns are medium sized and curved outward, forward with
sharp and pointed tips.

Utility : Males are mainly reared for draught purpose in the

hilly area and sometimes they are the only source of
draught power.
 VECHUR

Tract : It is known by the name of a place - Vechur - a small place

by the side of Vembanad lake near Vaikam in Kottayam
district of South Kerala.
General Characters : Light red, black or fawn and white in colour. Horns are
small, thin curving forward and downward.
The animals are well adapted to the hot and humid climate of
the area. Maintained for manure and milk.
Utility : Vechur is one of the dwarf cattle breeds of India, with an
average length of 124 cm and height of 87 cm, it is
considered to the smallest cattle breed in the world.
 PODA THURPU

Tract : Majority of this cattle population found in the surrounding

areas of Amrabad forest in Telangana
General Characters : Medium size with compact body.
White coat with brown patches or Red/brown coat with
white patches.
Majority of patches are seen on the lateral sides of the
body.
Horns are broad at base.
Forehead is convex with deep groove at the centre
Utility : Draught and manure 66
 DAGRI

Tract : Gujarat (known as Gujarat Malvi)

General Characters : Predominantly white, sometimes with grey shade

Small sized animal with compact body
Straight forehead
Body length is proportionally more than height
Horn are short, thin, curved upward in a lyre shaped
Utility : Mainly for draught purpose. 67
 THUTHO

Tract : Nagaland
General Characters : Black or brown, sometimes white patches on face
and body
Medium in size, hardy, well-built and docile.
Fore-head is small and straight.
Utility : Mainly meat, and also draught, manure
68
 MASILUM
• It is a small-sized but well-built and sturdy cattle
of Meghalaya.
• It is well adapted to the hill ecosystem.
• The Khasi language has words ‘Masi’ and “Lum”
that means cattle and hills, so it is called as
“Masilum”.
• The predominant body colour varied from black,
brown, and mixture of brown, grey and black.
• Average daily milk yield, lactation milk yield and
lactation length are 2.72±0.45 kg, 456.42±10.53 kg
and 168.56±9.28 days, respectively
• These cattle are reared by the Khasi and Jaintia
communities for sports, manure and socio-
cultural festivals.
•
 BARGUR

Tract : Found in Bargur hills in Bhavani taluk of Erode district

General Characters : Small sized, only breed of cattle with red or brown colour
with white markings
Medium sized light brown colour horns
Semi-wild and hardy to handle.
Generally maintained on very low/zero input system
Utility : A hilly draught breed of Tamil Nadu
Population size falls under endangered category and
declining trend
 KANGAYAM

Tract : Found in Tirupur, Erode, Karur, and Namakkal districts of

Tamil Nadu
General Characters : Medium size, Colour of calf - red, Bulls are grey with dark
colour in hump, fore and hind quarters, face and legs.
Bullocks are grey. Cows are grey or white and grey
Broad forehead with groove at centre, ears horizontal
Horns - curve outward, backward and inward to form
crescent shape
Neck – Short and thick, Hump – Well developed
Utility : Draught and carting purpose
 PULIKULAM

Tract : Found in Sivaganga, Madurai, Virudhunagar and Dindigul

districts of Tamil Nadu

General Characters : Resemble Kangayam but smaller in size, swift and

vigorous, strong and active with compact body and short legs
and hard feet.
Dark grey in males and white or grey in females

Utility : Bullocks used for ploughing and carting work and capable of
trotting continuously 8 – 10 km per hour.
Bulls are used in bull baiting (jallikattu in Tamil).
 UMBLACHERRY

Tract : Found in Nagapattinam, Thanjavur and Thiruvarur districts of

Tamil Nadu
General Characters : Medium size, colour of calves red or brown change of colour
to grey in adult
Head: Straight, moderate in width white star in the forehead
Neck – Short and thick; Chest – Broad
All the legs below hocks have white marks either as
Socks or as Stockings and even a portion of hooves is
white.
Utility : Suitable for work in marshy rice fields and bullocks are
used for ploughing, carting, threshing and puddling
 Synthetic Cattle Breed
• Frieswal Cattle is a synthetic
dairy cattle with Sahiwal (37.5)
and Holstein Friesian (62.5)
inheritance,
• Developed by ICAR-Central
Institute for Research on Cattle,
Meerut.
• It is capable of producing about
7000 kg of milk yield in a
standard lactation with peak yield
of about 41 kg.
• This breed is acclimatized to all
agro-climatic regions of the
country.
LESSER KNOWN CATTLE POPULATION,
SUBMITTED FOR BREED REGISTRATION
IN TAMIL NADU
 Alambadi

 Draught type, name after a village called Alambadi in Dharmapuri Tk.

 More massive and of larger built than those of Mysore breeds.
 Resembles with those of Amrit Mahal and Hallikar.

 Breeding tract :
Hilly forest areas of the Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri and Erode disticts
of Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Karnataka State
 Malai madu cattle
Synonyms Thozu madu, Vidi madu
Background for such a name Derived from the location where it is maintained
(Close to western ghats), Kept in open type of
housing without tethering
Native tract Western Ghats area of Karur, Dindigul, Theni,
Virdhunagar and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu
 Nattukuttai cattle

• A distinct cattle population in north-eastern agro climatic zone of

Villupuram, Kancheepuram and Tiruvallur districts of Tamil Nadu
• Nattukuttai cattle are short-statured, possess a small-sized hump,
predominantly black muzzle, black and tufty switch of the tail.
• Coat coloured is predominantly fawn, whilegrayish white, brown and
black animals are also seen
EXOTIC CATTLE BREEDS
 JERSEY

Tract : Second largest breed of dairy cattle in the world

Originated on the Island of Jersey in the English Channel
Color : Coat colour can range from being almost grey to dull black.
They can also have white patches which may cover much of the
animal. A true Jersey will however always have a black nose
bordered by an almost white muzzle.
Milk yield : 4,500 kg per lactation; Fat content : 4.5%
Age at first calving : 26 - 30 months ; Calving interval : 13 - 14 months
Typical characters : Compact, wedge shaped medium sized body, light dished head,
protruding eyes, straight top line.
 HOLSTEIN FRIESIAN

Tract : Originated from the northern part of Netherlands and West Friesland
Body size : Largest of the dairy breeds
Color : Its chief characteristics are its large size and black and white
spotted markings, sharply defined rather than blended.
Color other than distinct black and white are disqualified.
Body weight : Bull: 800 to 900 kg Cow: 550 to 650 kg
Milk yield : 6000 - 7000 kg. ; Fat content : 3.4%
Age at first calving : 27 to 30 months ; Calving interval : 13 - 14 months
Typical characters : wedge-shaped heavy body, long and narrow head, large chest,
large capacious udder with prominent milk vein
 BROWN SWISS

Tract : Switzerland ; Oldest of all dairy breeds

Body size : Fairly large in size. Medium milk producer
Color : White to gray to light brown in color.
There may some shading in the coat, with the forequarters
often darker than the legs and hind parts
Body weight : Bulls: 700 - 800 kg Cows: 500 - 600 kg
Milk yield : 5000 - 5500 kg; Fat content : 4%
Age at first calving : 28 - 30 months ; Calving interval : 13-14 months
Typical characters : Large, wedge shaped body, broad and dished forehead,
and loose skin. Dual purpose breed for milk and beef
BUFFALO BREEDS
OF INDIA
Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB
MVC
 Zoological classification

Phylum - Chordata
Class - Mammalia
Order - Artiodactyla
Sub-order - Ruminatia
Family - Bovidae
Genus - Bubalus
Species - Bubalis

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS
• All the domestic species had been derived from some wild ancestors.

• Based on utility and agro-climatic regions, different breeds in various

species have been evolved.

• From biological point of view, a breed can be defined as a population

or animals (inhabiting a particular area) which differ from those in
other population within same species in respect of certain genetically
determined traits.

• From genetic point of view, a breed is defined as a Mendelian

population, that is differentiated from other breeds by gene
frequencies and consequently by genotype frequencies.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
Twenty Buffalo Breeds were registered by
NBAGR, KARNAL

Central Institute on Research on Buffaloes

HISSAR, HARYANA
 BUFFALO BREEDS
• Two major types: Riverine type (water buffaloes) and Swamp type
• River type buffaloes have affinity towards clean water of rivers,
irrigation canals, ponds, etc. to wallow (50 chromosomes)
• Swamp type of buffaloes inhabit marshy lands to wallow in mud and
feed on coarse marsh grass (48 chromosomes)
• Indian breeds of buffaloes (riverine type) are classified as:
• Murrah group (Murrah and Nili-Ravi)
• Gujarat breeds (Surti, Banni, Mehsana and Jafarabadi)
• UP breeds (Bhadawari and Gojiri)
• Central Indian breeds (Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Manda, Marathawadi
and Kalahandi )
• South Indian breeds (Toda, Barghur and Dharwadi)
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 Registered Buffalo Breeds of India
Home Tract
Breed Accession Number

1. Bhadawari Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh INDIA_BUFFALO_2010_BHADAWARI_01003

2. Jaffarabadi Gujrat INDIA_BUFFALO_0400_JAFFARABADI_01006

3. Marathwadi Maharashtra INDIA_BUFFALO_1100_ MARATHWADI _01009

4. Mehsana Gujarat INDIA_BUFFALO_0400_MEHSANA_01004

5. Murrah Haryana INDIA_BUFFALO_0500_MURRAH_01001
6. Nagpuri Maharashtra INDIA_BUFFALO_1100_NAGPURI_01007
7. Nili Ravi Punjab INDIA_BUFFALO_1600_NILIRAVI_01002

8. Pandharpuri Maharashtra INDIA_BUFFALO_1100_PANDHARPURI_01008

9. Surti Gujarat INDIA_BUFFALO_0400_SURTI_01005

10. Toda Tamil Nadu INDIA_BUFFALO_0018_TODA_01010
11. Banni Gujarat INDIA_BUFFALO_0400_BANNI_01011
12. Chilika Orissa INDIA_BUFFALO_1500_CHILIKA_01012
13. Kalahandi Odisha INDIA_BUFFALO_1500_KALAHANDI_01013
14. Luit (Swamp) Assam and Manipur INDIA_BUFFALO_0212_LUIT_01014
15. Bargur Tamil Nadu INDIA_BUFFALO_1800_BARGUR_01015

16. Chhattisgarhi Chhattisgarh INDIA_BUFFALO_2600_CHHATTISGARHI_01016

17. Gojri Punjab and Himachal Pradesh INDIA_BUFFALO_1606_GOJRI_01017

18. Dharwadi Karnataka INDIA_BUFFALO_0800_DHARWADI_01018
19. Manda Odisha INDIA_BUFFALO_1500_MANDA_01019

20 Purnathandi Maharashtra INDIA_BUFFALO_2000_PURNATHANDI_01020

Back

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 State-wise Buffalo Breeds

State Breeds
Marathwadi, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri,
Maharashtra(4)
Purnathadi
Gujarat (4) Banni, Jaffarabadi, Mehsana, Surti
Odisha (3) Chilika, Kalahandi, Manda
Assam (1) Luit (Swamp)
Punjab (2) Gojri , Nili Ravi
Tamil Nadu (2) Bargur, Toda
Chhattisgarh (1) Chhattisgarhi
Karnataka (1) Dharwadi
Haryana (1) Murrah
Madhya Pradesh (1) Bhadawari
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 Population Dynamics
India

CATEGORY 2007 2012 2019 % Change

Buffalo
Male 19.60 16.10 9.28 -42.40
Female 85.74 92.60 100.57 08.60
Total 105.34 108.70 109.85 01.06

 In Buffalo, the Murrah breed majorly contributes with 42.8% which is

commonly found in UP and Rajasthan.

Tamil Nadu: 0.52 million buffaloes.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 BANNI
(Milk; Gujarat)

• Districts: Kachchh, Sabarkantha, Surendranagar, Kheda, Banaskantha

• Colour: Mainly Black, sometimes Copper colour

• Horn Shape & Size: Curved. Medium to large, heavy with 24 to 30cm diameter in
adult animals

• Visible Characteristic: Horns are vertical and upward in direction with inverted
double/single coiling

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 BARGUR
(Dual; Tamil Nadu)

• These buffaloes are maintained under extensive system

• Reared for manure, milk and meat (male calves are sold for cara-beef).
• Adapted to graze in the hilly terrain due its small size (about 102cm in height).
• Milk yield of the animals ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 liters per day and is mainly
used for household consumption.
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 BHADAWARI
(Dual; Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh)

• Home tract of this breed is Agra and Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh and Gwalior
district of Madhya Pradesh.

• The body is usually light or copper colored is a peculiarity of this breed.

• Two white lines ‘Chevron’ are present at the lower side of the neck similar to
that of Surti buffaloes.

• Average milk yield is 800 to 1000 kgs.

• The bullocks are good draught animal with high heat tolerance.

• The fat content varies from 6 to 12.5 per cent.

• This breed is an efficient converter of coarse feed into butterfat and is known for its
high butterfat content.
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 CHHATTISGARHI
(Dual; Chhattisgarh)

• Raised in North and Central parts of Chhattisgarh.

• Reared under extensive system for providing draught power, milk and
meat.
• Horns are medium to large in size and directed laterally backwards and
then upwards with pointing tips.
• Males have excellent ploughing ability, and preferred over cow bullocks
specifically in rice fields.
• Average milk production in buffaloes was around 4 kg/day
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 CHILIKA
(Dual; Odisha)

• Habitat : Chilka lake

• Colour : Brown or Black

• Horn Shape & Size :Curved Upward, inward.

• Visible Characteristic: Medium sized with compact body, strong legs and small udder.

• It has an exceptional capability of converting the saline biomass of the lake into the most
precious milk and dung.

• After returning to master’s house, buffaloes give milk and move in and around the house
in day time and as the night comes they revert to Chilika, thus it has been given the title
“the night queen of Chilika”.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 JAFFARABADI
(Dual; Gujarat)

• It is the heaviest Indian breed of buffalo.

• It is found in Gir forests, Kutch, and Jamnagar districts of Gujarat.

• The color is usually black with a long body and heavy horns.

• The horns are heavy, inclined to droop at each side of the neck and then turning up at
point (drooping horns).

• The average milk yield is 1000 to 1200 kgs.

• The bullocks are heavy and used for ploughing and carting.

• These animals are mostly maintained by traditional breeders called Maldharis, who are
nomads.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 KALAHANDI
(Dual; Odisha)

• Colour: Coat colour is usually a mix of black and grey, Some times grey

• Horn Shape & Size: Horizontal going backwards, upward, and inward, Curved to
make half circle appearance. About 50 cm long

• Visible Characteristic: Muzzle, eyelids, tail and hoofs are black.

• Long horns. Head convex, udder round and medium in size.

• Tail extends below hock

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 MARATHWADI
(Dual; Maharashtra)

• Colour: Greyish black to jet black.

• Some animals have white Markings on forehead and lower parts of the limbs

• Horn Shape & Size: Horns are parallel to the neck, reaching up to shoulder but
never beyond shoulder blade. Medium in length

• Visible Characteristic: Length of horns differentiates these buffaloes from

Pandharpuri buffaloes.

• Horns reach up to the shoulder unlike in Pandharpuri buffaloes where these may reach
up to pin bones some time

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 MEHSANA
(Milk; Gujarat)

• It evolved out of cross-breeding between Surti and Murrah.

• The breed is docile and reared on stall feeding and under grazing conditions.

• Murrah bulls are used for upgradation of Mehsana buffaloes.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 MURRAH
(Milk; Haryana)

• Its home is Rohtak, Hisar and Sind of Haryana, Nabha and Patiala districts of Punjab and
Southern parts of Delhi.

• Its color is usually jet black with white markings on the tail, face and extremities.

• The average milk yield per lactation is 1,500- 2,500 kg.

• The tightly curved horn is an important character of this breed.

• One of the most efficient milk and butter fat producers in India.

• Average lactation yield is varying from 1500-2500 kgs and the average milk yield is 6.8 kg
/day.

• It is also used for the grading up of inferior local buffaloes.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 NAGPURI
(Dual; Maharashtra)

• The breeding tract is Nagpur, Akola and Amrawati districts of Maharashtra.

• These are black coloured animal with white patches on face, legs and tail.

• This is also called as Elitchpuri or Barari.

• The horns are long, flat and curved, bending backward on each side of the back.
(Sword shaped horns).

• These bullocks can be used for heavy work.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 NILI RAVI
(Milk; Punjab)

• The name Nili is supposed to have been derived from the blue water of river Sutlej.

• Ravi buffaloes are mostly bred in Pakistan around the river Ravi, after which they are
named.

• After 1960, they were classified into one breed as Nili – Ravi

• Color: Usually black with white marking on forehead, face, muzzle, legs and tail.
The most desired character of the buffaloes with such white markings highly desired and
popularly called “Panch Kalyani”.

• Its head is small, elongated, bulging at the top and depressed between eyes.

• The peculiarity of this breed is that it has wall eyes.

• The horns are very small and tightly coiled.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 PANDHARPURI
(Milk; Maharashtra)

• The Pandharpuri buffaloes are medium sized animals.

• Visible Characteristic: Very long horns.

• Nasal bone is very prominent,long and straight

• They are easily identified by their long, sword shaped and sometimes
twisted horns.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 SURTI
(Milk; Gujarat)

• The breeding tract is Kaira and Baroda district of Gujarat

• Its color is either black or brown with a well-shaped and medium-sized body.

• Coat colour varies from rusty brown to silver-grey. Skin is black or brown.

• The horns are sickle shaped, moderately long and flat.

• The peculiarity of the breed is, White coloured double collar marks – one below
the neck at the anterior aspect, and another in front of the brisket region.

• The milk yield ranges from 900 to 1300 kgs.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 TODA
(Draught; Tamil Nadu)

• It is named after its herdsmen, the Toda tribe of the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu.

• It is found in high rainfall and high humid area.

• The predominant coat colors are fawn and ash grey with long horns which are
variable in shape.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 LUIT (Swamp Buffalo)
(Dual; Assam and Manipur)

• Medium sized black coloured buffalo with compact body.

• Forehead is broad with conical face and wide muzzle.
• Eyes are prominent.
• Horns are broad at base, curved upward to form a semi-circle, and
taper to a narrow tip.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 GOJRI
(Dual; Punjab and Himachal Pradesh)

• Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Rupnagar and Mohali districts of Punjab and Kangra and
Chamba districts of Himachal Pradesh.
• These buffaloes have proportionate and medium-built body.
• Mostly brown or black in color.
• Horns are medium-sized; mostly curved to form a big loop.
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 DHARWADI
(Milk; Karnataka)

• It is distributed in Bagalkot, Belgaum, Dahrwad, Gadg, Bellari, Bidar, Vijayapura,

Chitradurga, Kalaburgi, Haveri, Raichur and Yadgit districts of Karnataka.

• Medium-sized buffalo and Coat colour is black.

• Horns are semi-circular and almost touching to wither.

• Average lactation milk yield is 972 litre. Daily milk yield ranges from 1.5 to 8.7 litre.

• The milk is used for preparation of the famous Dharwad Peda with GI tag.

• The animals are well suited for low rainfall areas.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 MANDA
(Dual; Odisha)

• It is distributed in Koraput, Malkangiri and Nawarangapur districts of Odisha.

• It is a sturdy buffalo,body colour is mostly ash grey and grey with copper
coloured hairs.
• Lower part of leg is lighter. Horns are broad, emerging slight laterally,
extending backward and inward and making half circle.
• It is reared for draught, milk and manure.
• Manda buffaloes are reared mostly under extensive system.
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 PURNATHADI
(Dual; Maharashtra)

• It derived from the name of local river Purna which originates in Satpura hills and
passes through Akola and Amaravati districts of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.

• These animals are medium in size, whitish to light brown.

• Patch of white hairs is present on forehead.

• The lower extremities of all four legs and tail switch are white hair in most buffaloes.

• Horns are long and tapering, may go up to the shoulder.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
• Bheem is a 14-foot-long, 6-foot-tall buffalo with an unparalleled physique.
• It is maintained at a cost of Rs 2 lakh monthly.
• This buffalo consumers one kilogram of ghee and 25 litres of milk per day.
• It also enjoys one kilogram of cashew-almonds every day.
• Bheem's value surpasses some other famous and expensive buffaloes in
India like Yuvraj (Rs 9 crore) and Sultan (Rs 21 crore).
• The sperm of this buffalo is much sought-after; calves born from its sperm
weigh 40 to 50 kilogram and make 20 to 30 litres of milk per day as adults.
• The cost of 0.25 ml (comparable to the size of a pen refill) of its semen is
Rs 500.
• Every year, the owner of Bheem sells roughly 10,000 units, each
containing 4 to 5 ml of Bheem’s semen.

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
• Cows overtakes buffaloes as India’s milk supply champions, thanks
to cross-breeding
• India recorded all-time high milk production of 230.58 million tonnes
in 2022-23 & cows accounted for 51%

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
 Genetic Drain in buffaloes
We have lost our top 20% of best genotype

1. Mostly 1st, IInd and IIIrd calver of Hariana origin.

2. Elite animals having more than 15 kg milk yield were moved due to
milk demand pressure from metros.
3. Loss of accompanying calf.
4. Change in microclimate leading to deterioration of milk yield
5. Loss due to slaughter after drying.
6. Drain leads to negative selection.

Source: Rajender Singh, 2004

AGN/AGB/Unit-3/Buffalo breeds
Camel Genetic Resources of INDIA

Dr. A. Gopinathan, Ph.D.

Professor
Dept. of Animal Genetics and Breeding
Madras Veterinary College
 FEATURES OF CAMELS

 Although camels ruminate

they are not true ruminants, as they
lack one of the well-defined
stomachs of the ruminants.
 The upper lip splits in two, with each
part separately mobile in nature
 Long eyelashes and ear hairs,
together with closeable nostrils, form
an effective barrier against sand.
 The red blood cells are elliptical in
shape and capable of expanding up
to 240% of original volume without
rupturing (other animals only 150%)
 FEATURES OF CAMELS

 They do not have hooves; only padded

foot is present
 They also have a unique type of
antibodies lacking the light chain, in
addition to normal antibodies found in
other mammals
 A camels mouth is very sturdy and
they are able to chew thorny desert
plants.
 Camels pace (moving both legs on one
side at the same time) and their
widened feet help them move without
sinking into the sand.
 ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Artiodactyla
Family Camelidae
Genus Camelus
Species Camelus bactrianus (Double humped)
Camelus dromedarius (Single humped)
Camelus ferus

Common name Distribution

Dromedary / Arabian camel Middle east Asia and Africa
Bactrian camel Central Asia and historical region of Bactria
Wild Bactrian camel North west China and mangolia
 DOMESTICATION

• A camel is an even-toed ungulate in the genus Camelus that bears

distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back.

• Humans may have first domesticated dromedaries in Somalia and

southern Arabia around 3,000 BC, and Bactrian camels in central
Asia around 2,500 BC at Iran.

• The one-humped dromedary makes up 94% of the world's camel

population, and the two-humped Bactrian camel makes up 6%.

• Camels have long been domesticated and, as livestock, they provide

food (milk and meat) and textiles (fiber and felt from hair).

• Camels are working animals especially suited to their desert habitat

and are a vital means of transport for passengers and cargo.
Nine Camel Breeds were registered by
NBAGR, KARNAL

NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRE ON CAMELS

BIKANER, RAJASTHAN
 Population Dynamics

ALL INDIA LIVESTOCK CENSUS (in millions)

2012 2019 % Change
0.40 0.25 -37.05

Category Population Population % Change

(In million) 2012 (In million) 2019
Male 0.19 0.08 -56.40
Female 0.21 0.17 -19.46
Major states with respect to Camel population
Rajasthan 3.26 2.13 -34.69
Gujarat 0.30 0.28 -9.19
Haryana 0.19 0.05 -72.65
Uttar Pradesh 0.08 0.02 -69.45
 BIKANERI

Breeding tract : Bikaner, Sikar, Ganaganagar and Nagaur districts of Rajasthan

Main camel breeds in India.
Phenotypic characters : Developed by selective interbreeding of breeds like Sindhi,
Baluchi, Afgan and local camels.
Reddish brown coat colour is predominant. Dome shaped
head and a forehead had a characteristic well marked
depression above the eyes.
Black hair on eyes, ears and throat. Such animals are locally
known as "Jheepras”.
Utility : Used for draught, Milk, Hair and Manure
Adapted to the arid and sandy tract having extreme hot and
cold seasons.
 JAISALMERI

Breeding tract : Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan

Developed from the Tharparkar of the adjoining Sindh area of
Pakistan
Phenotypic characters : Coat colour is light brown. Medium sized with long and thin
legs. Small head and mouth with narrow muzzle. Short hairs on
the body. No hair on eyebrows, eyelids and ears.
Utility : Well known for riding and race potential. Great demand for
camel safari, camel dance, camel polo, camel dandiya dance etc.
Great demand by security forces like BSF for keeping vigilance
on long desert border along Pak. and also to maintain supply
line during emergency.
 JALORI

Breeding tract : Jalore and Sirohi districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : Coat colour is brown. Head is medium sized and thin neck
Eyes are predominant. Muzzle is narrow.
Chest pad is well developed.
Body hairs are coarse in quality and medium in length.
Lower lip is not droopy

Utility : Multipurpose breed of camel

Utilized for milk production, tourism, riding and safari.
 KHARAI

Breeding tract : Found in coastal areas of Kachchh region of Gujarat.

‘Khara’ means salty - graze on mangroves in costal belt.
This breed can tolerate water with high TDS up to 10000
ppm.
Excellent swimming capacity in sea water.
Phenotypic characters : Grey, Dark Brown to Light Brown. Thick neck region and
medium body size. Morphologically, the Kharai is closer to
Kutchi camel; However, these breeds are reared by
different communities with almost no animal exchange.
Utility : Used in draught, transportation, Border security, Police
services and Tourism.
 KUTCHI

Breeding tract : Banas Kantha, Mahesana, Patan and Kutch district of Gujarat

Phenotypic characters : Dark brown or red colour. Heavy built and dull appearance.
Strong hindquarters, heavy legs, hard and thick foot pads
Lower lip is droopy due to which the teeth are visible from a
distance
Utility : Tract is semi-arid and the area is drought prone.
Males are used for draft purposes
 MALVI

Breeding tract : Malva and Mandsaur districts of Madhya Pradesh

Phenotypic characters : Malvi camel is its very light or off-white colour.

Breeding herd show virtually no colour variation.
Small body size and is probably the smallest of all Indian
camel breeds.
Utility : Work - Transport; Food – Milk
Males are used mostly for carrying loads
Females are reared for milk
 MARWARI

Breeding tract : Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan

Available in Marwar region of Rajasthan
Phenotypic characters : Clearly dark brown. Head is small but well set on neck.
Neck is long and thin; Face is long and narrow.
Muzzle is slightly loose and lower lip drops a bit.
Utility : Used for carrying heavy loads and performing heavy
agricultural operations.
 MEWARI

Breeding tract : Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand districts of Rajasthan and

adjoining Madhya Pradesh.
Originated from the hill camel of combined Punjab.
Phenotypic characters : Body colour varies from light brown to dark brown but some
animals are almost white in colour.
They have strong hindquarters, heavy legs, hard and thick foot
pads.
Utility : Classified as milch and baggage type breed.
Milk production is 5 to 7 kg/day (Milk is the main source of
income)
 MEWATI

Breeding tract : Alwar and Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : Hard footed and slightly shorter in stature

Utility : Riding, Baggage and Draught purposes.

 DOUBLE HUMPED CAMEL

Breeding tract : A small population of bactrian camel exists in Nubra valley of

Ladak.

Phenotypic characters : Skull bone is shorter and wider than dromedary camel. Body color
varies from light brown to dark brown. Long hairs grow on the top
of the head, neck, hump and legs. Humps are plump and pliable.
During the late winter when pastures are scanty, the humps
collapse.
Utility : The one-hump camel is found in hot deserts whereas the double-
humps inhabit high-altitude, cold-desert regions (suitable for cold
desert areas)
It can withstand temperatures as low as minus-40 degrees Celsius;
has high disease resistance; and very high feed conversion
efficiency.
Sheep Genetic Resources of INDIA

Dr. A. Gopinathan, Ph.D.

Professor
Dept. of Animal Genetics and Breeding
Madras Veterinary College
 Role as a Livestock
• Indian sheep are not regarded as dairy
sheep.
• Sheep are mostly reared for wool and meat.
• In general, Indian sheep wool is coarse and
considered to be of low quality
(>28 microns), primarily used to manufacture
hand-made carpets.
• Sheep skin and manure constitute important
sources of earning, the latter, particularly in
southern India.
• Agro-climatic condition of India does not favor
higher quality wool production.
 Role as a Livestock
• Sheep are very much compatible for
breeding because of their hardiness and
adaptability to dry conditions.
• The productivity of Indian sheep is lower
than more advanced countries.
• But, considering their nutritional and
physical environment, their productivity
cannot be considered as inefficient.

The major reasons for low productivity are

1. Inadequate grazing resources
2. Diseases causing high mortality, morbidity and consequent reduced production
3. Lack of organized effort for bringing genetic improvement
ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Artiodactyla
Family Bovidae
Sub-family Caprinae
Genus Ovis
Species Ovis Aries

45 sheep breeds were registered

Population Dynamics (in millions)
India
2007 2012 2019 Change
71.56 65.07 74.26 +14.13

Tamil Nadu
2012 2019
4.8 4.5

Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute,

Avikanagar, Rajasthan
 Population Dynamics
Category Population Population % Change
(In million) 2012 (In million) 2019
Exotic / Crossbred 3.78 4.09 +8.12
Exotic / Crossbred Male 1.21 0.83 -31.32
Exotic / Crossbred Female 2.57 3.26 +26.85

Indigenous / Non-Descript 61.29 70.17 +14.50

Indigenous / Non-Descript Male 13.92 12.53 -9.94
Indigenous / Non-Descript Female 47.37 57.64 +21.67

Major states with respect to sheep production

Telangana 12.8 19.1 +48.51
Andhra Pradesh 13.6 17.6 +30.00
Karnataka 9.6 11.1 +15.31
Rajasthan 9.1 7.9 -12.95
Tamil Nadu 4.8 4.5 -5.98
 SHEEP BREEDS
Present day Indian Sheep Breeds are

1. Outcome of thousands of years of deliberate natural selection

2. Field level crossbreeding for adoption to specific agro-climatic

conditions
Based on Agro climatic zones
 (iv) Southern Peninsular
Region
1. Bellary
2. Chevaddu
3. Coimbatore
4. Deccani
5. Hassan
6. Katchaikatty
7. Kenguri
8. Kilakarsal
9. Madras Red
10. Mandya
11. Mecheri
12. Mecherla
• Largest sheep population of the country
13. Nellore • Almost half of these produce no wool; the rest
14. Nilagiri produce very coarse, hairy and coloured fleeces.
15. Ramnad White • Most sheep in this region, except the Nilagiri, are
16. Tiruchy Black maintained primarily for meat.
17. Vembur
 BELLARY

Breeding tract : Bellary, Chitradurga and Haveri districts of Karnataka

Phenotypic characters : Coat colour comprises various combinations of black and white to complete
black. Most of the animals are black with patches of white all over the body
Ears are medium in size
About 89% of rams are horned, Only 9.5% ewes horned, remaining polled.

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

 DECCANI

Breeding tract : Belgaum district of Karnataka (Mixture of wool and hairy type)
Satara, Sangli, Solapur, Pune and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra.

Phenotypic characters : Predominantly black or black with white markings. (Coloured fleece)
White and brown / fawn animals are also seen.
Face is narrow with Roman nose. Head convex.
Ears are medium in size, flat and pendulous.

Utility : Meat
 HASSAN

Breeding tract : Hassan district of Karnataka

Phenotypic characters : White body with light brown or black spots.

Small animals. Ears are medium in size and semi-drooping
Females are usually polled, about 30-40% of the males are horned and
remaining polled.

Utility : Meat
 KENGURI

Breeding tract : Raichur and Koppala districts of Karnataka

Phenotypic characters : Medium in size; Body coat is dark brown or coconut coloured.
Kenguri and Tenguri are derived from the characteristic coat colour of
the breed (Kemp=red; kuri= sheep; Teng=coconut; kuri= sheep).
Horns are present in males only

Utility : Meat
 MANDYA

Breeding tract : Mandya and Mysore districts of Karnataka (known as Bannur and Bandur)

Phenotypic characters : Small animals, white in colour with light brown face and some of the
animals may be completely white. Both sexes are polled.
Compact body and typical ‘U’ shaped conformation from the rear view
Ears are medium to long in size and drooping.

Utility : Meat (Best meat breed in the country and unique in mutton quality)
 NELLORE

Breeding tract : Nellore , Ongole and Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh and part of
Telangana
Phenotypic characters : Tall animal (Tallest among all sheep breeds of India)
Red or white; with or without black colour on the ventral side.
Long face, long ear and body is densely covered with short hair
Found in three distinct colours- white (Palla), white with black spots on the face
(Jodipi) and red-brown (Dora).
Horns are found in males only. Ears are long and drooping.
Utility : Meat
 CHEVADDU

Breeding tract : Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts of Tamil Nadu

Phenotypic characters : Small to medium sized animals.

Light brown in colour with varying intensity i.e. from complete brown
to tan colour with a considerable number giving resemblance to Madras
Red sheep
Horns are present in both sexes.

Utility : Meat, Skin, Manure and cultural use

 COIMBATORE

Breeding tract : Kalangal, Appanaickanpatti, Kurumbapalayam Kannampalayam hamlets in

Coimbatore and Palani taluk in Dindigul district. Also known as Kurumbai
Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals.
Coat colour is white with varying amount of black and tan colour in
head and neck. Head : small and slightly convex. Ears: medium sized.
35 per cent of the males are horned; females are polled.

Utility : Carpet wool and meat

 KATCHAIKATTY BLACK

Breeding tract : Katchakatty, Vadipatti, Kutladampatti and Vaguthumalai villages of Vadipatti

block in Madurai district.
Phenotypic characters : Animals are medium in size, completely black in colour.
Face: moderate length; Tail is short and slender
Ears : rudimentary and smaller tubular
Horns are present in males only

Utility : Ram fighting, meat and manure

 KILAKARAISAL

Breeding tract : Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts. In Tamil, Kila/Adi means bottom,
Karisal / Karuvai means black colour.

Phenotypic characters : Animals are medium in size

Dark tan coat dorsally, black colour ventrally – under belly and inner
side of legs. Black colour noticed above eyelids and either side of the
lower jaw.
Horns are found in males only and well developed flat and twisted horns.

Utility : Meat
 MADRAS RED

Breeding tract : Kancheepuram, Tiruvellore, Villupuram, Cuddalore and Thiruvannamalai

districts of Tamil Nadu
Phenotypic characters : Animals are medium in size
Body colour is predominantly brown, the intensity varying from light
tan to dark brown. Some animals have white markings on the forehead,
inside the thighs and on the lower abdomen. Roman nose
Ears are medium and drooping; Tail is short.
Rams have strong corrugated and twisted horns; the ewes are polled.

Utility : Meat
 MECHERI

Breeding tract : Salem, Erode, Namakkal, Karur and Dharmapuri distrcits.

Also known as Mylambadi, Kannivadi

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals and slightly roman nosed.

Body colour is light brown with darker shade over the neck. White patches are
also seen in many animals.
Both males and females are polled. In 16.3 per cent of males horns were
present. Ears are pendulous.

Utility : Meat (The skin is the finest quality among all the sheep breeds in India and
is highly priced)
 NILGIRI

Breeding tract : Kotagiri, Coonoor and Gudalar talukas of Nilagiri hills.

Phenotypic characters : Evolved from the local sheep with an unknown level of inheritance from
South Down, Cheviot and Tasmanian Merino.
Medium-sized animals; coat colour is white.
About 33 per cent of population showed brown to tan patches black spots on
face and body.
Convex face with a typical Roman nose.
Ears are pendulous and a small proportion of animals had short tubular ears.
Males have horn buds and females are polled.
Utility : Fine wool and meat
 RAMNAD WHITE

Breeding tract : Pudhukottai, Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram Districts

Also known as Kilakathai adu

Phenotypic characters : Medium-sized animals.

Pre-dominantly white with black colour on the ventral aspect of the body,
inner canthi of eyes, angle of mouth, lower lip, chin, throat, brisket, tips
and border of the ears, and fore and hind limbs.
The ears are medium-sized. Males have twisted horns; females are polled.
Utility : Meat
 TRICHY BLACK

Breeding tract : Salem, Dharmapuri, Perambalur and Thiruvannamalai Districts.

Also known as Karungurumbai

Phenotypic characters : Small animals.

Body is completely black.
Males are horned and ewes are polled.
Ears are short (9.59 cm), directed downward and forward.

Utility : Meat
 VEMBUR

Breeding tract : Thoothukudi, Virudhunagar and Tirunelveli districts.

Also known as Karandhai

Phenotypic characters : Tall animals.

Colour is white, with irregular red and fawn patches all over the body.
Ears are medium-sized and drooping
Males are horned and ewes are polled.

Utility : Meat
 MECHERLA

• Distributed in Guntur, Krishna and Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh along with Padra and
Amrabad mandals of Nagar Kurnool districts of Telangana.

• It is medium to large in size with coat color mainly white with large black or brown patches in the body,
face and legs.

• Meat purpose breed with an average adult body weight for male is 43 kg and for female is 35 kg.
 PATTANAM

Breeding tract : • Distributed in the Paramakudi, Mudukulathur and Kamuthi taluks of Ramanathapuram
district and Aruppukottai and Thiruchuli taluks of Virudunagar district of Tamil Nadu
• Sheep farmers are always attracted by the larger size of Nellore rams and usually
opt for crossing with ewes of Ramnad White, resulting in the production of
cross-breds which are sturdier, have long legs and are best for migration (resembling
Jodipi strain of Nellore sheep)
Phenotypic characters : Large-sized breed with compact body
Uniformly creamy white in colour with black colour in the ventral region from the inner
side of the jowl extending up to the inguinal region.
Utility : Meat
 Based on Agro-climatic zones
(i) Northwestern arid and
Semi-arid Region
1. Chokla
2. Jaisalmeri
3. Jalauni
4. Magra
5. Malpura
6. Marwari
7. Muzzafarnagri
8. Nali • Second largest population of sheep and the most
9. Panchali
important for carpet-wool production.
10. Patanwadi • Wool produced is mostly suited for manufacture of
carpets, felts and blankets
11. Pugal
12. Sonadi • Different breeding strategies have been adopted for
improving wool production, quality and body weight in
13. Kajali
sheep
 CHOKLA

Breeding tract : Nagaur and Sikar districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : Coat colour is white.

Face colour is dark brown (Raata Munda) and the colour may extend
up to middle of neck. Both sexes: Polled

Utility : Carpet wool

Unique characteristics of fine carpet quality fleece production and
survival on scarce fodder resources under field conditions during
drought
 JAISALMERI

Breeding tract : Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : Face is black or dark brown, the colour extends up to the neck.
Fairly well built and tall. Legs are long.
Head is big with typical Roman nose. Long drooping ears.
Both sexes: Polled

Utility : Carpet Wool and Meat

 JALAUNI

Breeding tract : Datia and Tikhamgarh districts of Madhya Pradesh

Jhansi and Jalaun distircts of Uttar Pradesh

Phenotypic characters : White body colour with white or black face.

A few animals are completely black.
Both sexes: Polled

Utility : Carpet Wool and Meat

 MAGRA

Breeding tract : Banswara, Udaipur and Dungarpur districts of Rajsathan

Phenotypic characters : White. Face is white with brown patches around the eyes.
Skin colour is pink.
Both sexes: Polled
Ears are stumpy or small and tubular.

Utility : Carpet Wool

 MALPURA

Breeding tract : Ajmer, Jaipur and Tonk districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : Face colour is light brown extending up to the neck. Fleece is white.
Both sexes: Polled
Ears are stumpy or small and tubular.
Utility : Carpet wool and excellent mutton breed of north-western semi-arid
region of India
 MARWARI

Breeding tract : Ajmer, Barmer, Jodhpur and Pali districts of Rajsathan

Phenotypic characters : Face is typically black and the colour extends up to lower part of neck.
Both sexes: Polled

Utility : Carpet wool and meat

Marwari Sheep are quite hardy, adaptable to arid climate and can
walk long distances for grazing.
 MUZZAFARNAGRI

Breeding tract : Muzzafarnagar, Bulandeshahr and Saharanpur districts of Uttar Pradesh

Phenotypic characters : Face and body in white colour with occasional patches of brown or black.
Both sexes: Polled
Face is slightly convex. Ears are long and drooping

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

It is one of the heaviest and largest sheep breeds of India
 NALI

Breeding tract : Ganga nagar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : White. Face is light brown which may extend to the neck.
Both sexes: Polled
Ears are large and leafy.
Utility : Carpet Wool
Densest and heaviest fleeces among the breeds of Rajasthan
 PANCHALI

Breeding tract : Rajkot, Bhavnagar and Kutch districts of Gujarat

Phenotypic characters : White. Head or facial parts are light brown, blackish brown, brown and
black in color which is continued on the ventral part of neck
Both sexes: Polled; Ears are large and leafy.

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

 PATANWADI

Breeding tract : Mehsena, Amerli, Bhavnagar and Kutch districts of Gujarat

Phenotypic characters : Face colour is light to dark brown

Both sexes: Polled
Typically roman nose. Ears are medium to large.

Utility : Carpet wool

 PUGAL

Breeding tract : Bikaner district of Rajsathan

Phenotypic characters : Face is black with small light brown strips on either side above
the eyes. Lower jaw is typically light brown
Both sexes: Polled
Ears are short and tubular
Utility : Carpet wool and Meat
 SONADI

Breeding tract : Banswar, Chittorgarh and Udaipur districts of Rajsathan

Phenotypic characters : Face colour is light brown or white.

Face, belly and legs are devoid of wool.
Both sexes: Polled; Ears are long, flat and drooping.
Utility : Carpet wool and Meat
Sonadi means one with golden fibres. Laapdi means long and flat
eared and Bhagli means the lucky one as it contributes to the
livelihood of the sheep farmers.
 KAJALI

Breeding tract : Sangrur, Barnala, Ludhiana, Moga and adjoining districts in Punjab

Phenotypic characters : Black Kajali have complete black or black-brown or brown body.
White Kajali have complete white coat with black or dark brown
circle/patch around the eyes, and in face and ears.
Roman nose, long and pendulous ears, and long tail touching the
ground (about 55cm).
Utility : Meat
 (ii) Eastern Region
1. Balangir
2. Bonpala
3. Chottanagpuri
4. Ganjam
5. Garole
6. Kendrapada
7. Shahabadi
8. Tibetan

• In the plains most of the flocks are stationary.

• Most of the breeds are primarily maintained for meat and the animals produce
extremely coarse and hairy fleeces.
• In eastern regions, emphasis is on improving quality and quantity of carpet wool
through grading with better indigenous carpet wool breeds and crossing with exotic
fine wool breeds.
 BALANGIR

Breeding tract : Balangir and Sambalpur districts of Odisha

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals.

White or light brown or of mixed colour. Few animals are also black.
Horns are found in males only
Ears are small and stumpy

Utility : Meat and Carpet wool

 BONPALA

Breeding tract : Sikkim State

Phenotypic characters : Completely white to completely black and have generally mixed
colour of black and white.
Horns are found in males only
Tall and well - built animals. Nose is typically roman type

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

 CHOTTANAGPURI

Breeding tract : Bankura and Purulia districts of West Bengal

Ranchi, Hazaribagh and Dhanbad districts of Jharkhand

Phenotypic characters : Mostly brown in colour, some are white, black or black and brown.
Horns are found in males only
Small, light weight animals, Ears are small and parallel to the head.
Utility : Carpet wool and Meat
The name derived from the region, Chhotanagpur plateau
Breed is reared mainly by tribals of Jharkhand.
 GANJAM

Breeding tract : Ganjam, Puri and Koraput districts of Odisha

Phenotypic characters : Coat colour ranges from brown to dark tan and they may
have white spots on body.
Horns are found in males only
Medium sized animals. Ears are medium sized and drooping

Utility : Meat
 GAROLE

Breeding tract : Distributed in the Sundarban region of West Bengal.

Phenotypic characters : Mostly grey in colour. White, Black, and Brown coloured animals or mixture
of these colours are also seen.
Horns are found in males only
Small-sized breed known for its prolificacy and adaptation to the saline
marshy land
Utility : Meat
Contributed the Booroola gene to Merino sheep
Garole with rudimentary or short ears is also popular as Meda- Bengali
word meaning earless.
 KENDRAPADA

Breeding tract : Cuttack, Puri, Kendrapada and Bhadrak districts of Odisha.

Phenotypic characters : Brown; Both sexes polled

Horizontal ears; short, straight and drooping tail
Utility : Popular for good quality skin, manure and low fat mutton.
An excellent medium sized meat animal with high prolificacy.
More than 75% ewes produce multiple births
 SHAHBADI

Breeding tract : Batna, Gaya and Shahbadi districts of Bihar

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized and leggy animals.

Mostly grey, sometimes with black spots.
Both sexes: Polled
Ears are long and drooping.
Utility : Meat
 TIBETAN

Breeding tract : Northern Sikkim and Kameng district of Arunachal Pardesh.

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals. Mostly white with black or brown face.
Brown or white spots are also observed on the body.
Horns are present only in males
The nose line is convex. Ears are small, broad,and pendulous.

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

 (iii) Northern Temperate
Region
1. Bhakarwal
2. Changthangi
3. Gaddi
4. Gurez
5. Karnah
6. Poonchi
7. Rampur Bushair

• Most flocks are small and stationary.

• However, about 20% of the flocks are migratory and comparatively bigger in size.
• Most of the animals in this area have been involved over the last few years in cross-
breeding with exotic fine wool breeds for increasing apparel wool production.
 BHAKARWAL

Breeding tract : Udhampur, Jammu and Rajouri districts of Jammu and Kashmir

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animal, with a typical roman nose

Generally white. Head is black in colour.
Few black coloured animals (about 5%) are also available.
Horns are present only in males

Utility : Carpet wool

 CHANGTHANGI

Breeding tract : Leh district of Jammu and Kashmir

Kept in the highland and never brought down to low hills.

Phenotypic characters : Strongly built animals with good fleece of extraordinarily long
staple length. White coloured coat with brown patches on eyelids,
legs, muzzle, hocks and hooves. Horns are present in both sexes

Utility : Carpet wool

Changthang is derived from a Tibetan word meaning northern plains
(Chang= northern, thang= plains).
 GADDI

Breeding tract : Billaspur, Champa and Kullu districts of Himachal Pradesh

Also known as Kashmiri sheep
Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals. Ears are small.
Usually white, but tan, brown and black and mixtures also seen;
Fleece is relatively fine and dense
Horns are present in ram only
Utility : Used for manufacturing high quality kullu shawls and blankets
and Meat
 GUREZ

Breeding tract : Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir

Phenotypic characters : Heaviest sheep found in Jammu & Kashmir

Ears are medium sized. Predominantly white with brown or black
colour on muzzle and around eyes. Horns are present in both sexes.
Multiple horns detected in some animals of both the sexes

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

Gurez is not a typical dairy type sheep breed, however has good
potential for milk production
 KARNAH

Breeding tract : Kupwara valley of Jammu and Kashmir

Phenotypic characters : Larger with a deep body. Ears are pendulous and medium sized.
Colour is white with a few animals having black or brown spots on
face. Horns are present only in males

Utility : Apparel wool and Meat

It yields white fleece of long wool fibres usable both under hand
spinning and by machine and has unique ability to walk long
distances in hilly tract.
 POONCHI

Breeding tract : Poonch and Rajouri districts of Jammu and Kashmir

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals. Nose and forehead is flat.

Ears are medium in size and drooping
Predominantly white in colour, but spotted animals are also seen.
Horns are present only in males

Utility : Carpet wool and Meat

 RAMPUR BUSHAIR

Breeding tract : Kinnaur, Shimala and Lahul districts of Himachal Pradesh

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals. Ears are flat and drooping. Roman nose.
Predominantly white with brown extremities in face, neck, belly and
legs. About 21% animals are black.
Horns are present in both sexes

Utility : Superior carpet wool and Meat

• Tallest breed of sheep : Nellore
• Coarse carpet wool sheep breed : Deccani
• Fine carpet wool sheep breed : Chokla
• Lustrous carpet quality fleece : Magra
• Fine wool sheep breed : Nilgiri
• Fiber fineness : Changthangi
• High quality skin : Mecheri
• Excellent meat conformation and
palatability : Mandya
• High fecundity : Garole
• Hardy and capable of walking long
distances during migration : Marwari, Deccani, Jaisalmeri
 II. Based on utility
• Apparel wool sheep breeds
• Wool suitable for manufacturing apparel fabrics (10–25 μ)
• Fine wools used for clothing are about 1.5 to 3 inches long.
• Hissardale, Nilagiri, Kashmir merino, Bharart merino and Avivastra.

• Superior carpet wool breeds

• Carpet wool is rougher and usually longer than apparel wool (26–70 μ).
• Extremely coarse fibers may be as much as 14 inches in length.
• Chokla, Nali, Magra, Jaisalmeri, Pugal and Pattanwadi, Tibetian, Ponpala, Gaddi,
Rampur bushair, Poonch, Karnah, Guerz and Changthangi
 II. Based on utility

• Coarse carpet wool breeds

Coarse wool fibres (25–70 μ diameter) are used in carpets.
Malpura, Sonadi, Coimbatore, Bellary, Chottanagpuri, Balangiri, Bhakarwal,
Shahabadi, Jalauni and Muzaffaranagari

• Hairy meat sheep breeds

Very coarse, hairy, coloured and below 36s quality and suitable only for
extremely rough carpets and barrack blankets
 Exotic Sheep Breeds

Mutton type : Dorset, Suffolk and Cheviot

Wool type : Merino and Rambouillet

Dual type : Southdown and Corriedale

Fur type : Karakul

 DORSET

Breeding tract : Originated in England, but polled type originated in US

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animal

Face, ears and legs are white
Free from wool
Both sexes can be horned or polled
Utility : Raised primarily for meat
 SUFFOLK

Breeding tract : Originated in England, very old breed used as a sire in commercial production
Most popular breed in United States today

Phenotypic characters : Larger in size

White in colour with black face and legs
Free of wool on legs and head

Utility : Grow faster and produce lean muscular carcass

 CHEVIOT

Breeding tract : Originated in the Cheviot Hills, on the border of England and
Scotland.
Phenotypic characters : Large sized animals, distinctive white-faced sheep with wool-
free head and legs. Black nostrils and black feet
It is a very alert, active sheep and hornless

Utility : Long-wool and mutton breed

 MERINO

Breeding tract : Fine-wool breed of sheep from Spain

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized animals with very beautiful appearance.

They can be either polled or horned.

Utility : They are raised primarily for wool production.

 RAMBOUILLET

Breeding tract : Also known as Rambouillet Merino or French Merino.

Developed from a few hundreds of the best Merino sheep of Spain in 1786 and
1799 by the French government at Rambouillet, France
Phenotypic characters : White face and white legs. Females are polled and males have horns
The face covering of wool is rather heavy, even to the extent of causing wool
blindness in some animals, but selective mating has alleviated this problem.

Utility : Fine wool sheep breed and produces a long staple, good uniformity and
moderate shrinkage
 SOUTHDOWN

Breeding tract : Dual purpose breed from United Kingdom

oldest of all British sheep breeds

Phenotypic characters : Medium sized with a gray to brown face and lower legs and is polled.
Noted for an early maturing breed with good lambing ability and
average milk production.

Utility : Known for its ability to produce heavy muscled carcasses

 CORRIEDALE

Breeding tract : Developed in Australia and New Zealand by a cross

between Merino and Lincoln sheep.
It is the oldest of all the crossbred sheep breeds.

Phenotypic characters : Medium to larger in size.

They are usually white in color with white face and black points.
They are large framed, plain bodied and have broad body.
Both rams and ewes are generally polled.
Utility : Dual purpose breed, they are used both in the production of wool and meat
 KARAKUL

Breeding tract : Breed of domestic sheep originated in Central Asia.

Phenotypic characters : Fat broad tailed type of sheep.

Medium-sized, distinguished by its colored fleece, which is due to a
dominate black gene.
Head is long and narrow and often have a Roman type nose.
Ears: long and vary from a long U shape to small V shape, or may be entirely
absent.

Utility : Produces a lightweight, strong fiber fleece and lustrous (Known for pelt
production)
 Breeding Policy for Sheep
• The main focus will be to increase the productivity per animal in terms of body
weight for meat.

• In indigenous sheep breeds selective breeding and upgradation will be adopted.

• Non-descript populations will be upgraded with suitable area-specific indigenous

sheep breeds.

• Non-descript males will be castrated to avoid indiscriminate breeding.

• In the migratory flocks, the male of the corresponding indigenous breed will be used
for selective breeding and genetic upgradation.
 Breeding Policy for Sheep
• All possible efforts will be made to avoid inbreeding in the sheep flocks.

• Crossbreeding of native sheep breeds with exotic blood will be totally stopped.

• Crossbreeding with native sheep breeds will be adopted in specific situations like evolving
prolific or synthetic sheep populations.

• No ram will be used for more than two years in the same flock.

• To preserve and propagate well-defined indigenous breeds in their breeding tracts, rams will
be distributed in their own breeding tract only.
Thank You
Pig Genetic Resources of INDIA

Dr. A. Gopinathan, Ph.D.

Professor
Dept. of Animal Genetics and Breeding
Madras Veterinary College
Kingdom Animalia ZOOLOGICAL
Phylum Chordata CLASSIFICATION
Class Mammalia

Order Ariodactyla

Family Suidae

Genus Sus

Species S. scrofa

Subspecies S. s. domestica

Sus scrofa domestica

Linnaeus, 1758
Supremacy of pigs over other domestic animals
 High prolificacy
 Faster growth rate
 Omnivorous feeding habits
 Economic feed conversion efficiency
 Early sexual maturity
 Shorter generation interval
 High dressing percentage
 Pork is most nutritious
 Pig manure - fertilizer
 Pig farming provides quick returns

one of the best meat producing livestock in the world

 POPULATION DYNAMICS
ALL INDIA LIVESTOCK CENSUS (in millions)
2007 2012 2019 % Change
11.13 10.29 9.06 -12.03

Category Population Population % Change

(In million) 2012 (In million) 2019
Exotic / Crossbred 2.46 1.90 -22.76
Indigenous / Non-Descript 7.84 7.16 -8.66
Major states with respect to Pig production
Assam 1.64 2.10 +28.30
Jharkhand 0.96 1.28 +32.69
Meghalaya 0.54 0.71 +29.99
West Bengal 0.65 0.54 -16.63
Chhattisgarh 0.44 0.53 +20.01
Tamil Nadu 1,83,983 66,762 -63.71
 14 Pig breeds were registered

National Research Centre on Pig, Guwahati, Assam

 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Several decades of domestication of wild pigs leads to the present day
indigenous pigs, which are non-descript in nature.
Indigenous pigs are named either by their place of origin or by
language (Desi- Hindi) in North India and by colour (Black pigs) in
Tamilnadu.
• Differing in colour (from black to brown with yellow stripes) in different parts
of India
• Tapering face and thick hair
• Head and shoulders are heavier than hindquarters with the tail nearly
reaching hock with tuft of hair
• Rich in genetic variability and are endowed with many positive aspects
like disease resistance, tolerance to heat and humidity
• Poor in reproductive, economic and carcass traits
 GHOONGROO

• An indigenous strain of pig known for its high prolificacy and ability to sustain in
low input and maintained under scavenging system
• Breeding tract includes from Duars’ valley in eastern sub-himalayan region to the
Darjeeling district of West Bengal and also known as “Nepali” pigs
• Mostly black colour with typical bull dog face appearance and short snout
• Produces high quality pork utilizing agricultural by-products and kitchen wastes
• Average litter size at birth is 11.92 ± 0.06 and litter size up to eighteen is also
common
 NIANG MEGHA

• Breeding tract consists of Khasi, Garo and Jayantia hilly terrains of Meghalaya state.
• Also known as Meghalaya Local or Khasi Local and the breed name was associated
with the name of tribe population
• Black, star shaped white patches at forehead and sometimes hock joint also
• Snout: medium in size and tapering partially with white colour at nostril
• Typical wild look with erect bristles on dorsal midline and small erect ears
 AGONDA GOAN

• Traditionally known as “Gavthi Dukor” i.e. village pig

• Densely populated in Tiswadi, Bardez and Pernem taluks of the North Goa and
Salcete, Canacona and Quepem talukas of South Goa Districts.
• Mostly black coloured and few animals have white patches on legs and face
• Small to medium sized animals, short ears, short snout, pot belly and are wild in
nature with rough bristles black and gray in colour.
• Backyard, scavenging type and well adapted to hot and humid climate of local
coastal environment
 TENYI VO

• Tenyi vo literally translates as “pig from Angami”, the breed is reared only by the Tenyimi tribes.
• Small pig with white hooves (“the pig with white stockings”)
• Native to the districts of Kohima, Peren, Mao, Tuensang and Angami in Nagaland, along the
border with Myanmar.
• Predominantly black in colour with white markings on the forehead, ventral body, flanks
and legs.
• Have strong and long tapering snout, small erect ears and bright alert eyes.
• The tail is long and usually ends with a white switch reaching the hock joint
• Unique for its early sexual maturity, excellent mothering quality and pendulous belly almost
reaching the ground in females.
 NICOBARI

• Indigenous pigs of Nicobar Islands and reared by Nicobari tribes since time immemorial
• Feorcious in nature and considered as a symbol of pride and socio-cultural ceremony of
nicobari tribes
• Mostly black and brown in colour; but many of them are creamy-white, reddish-brown and
black-brown mixed colours
• Sturdy with long body and neck is short with very large jowl
• Medium to short snout and short erect ears
• Marked bristle crest on the back from mid head / shoulder to base of the tail.
• Management system: Extensive
• Nicobari pigs are well adapted to rain forest, mountain forest and plantation area conditions.
 DOOM

• Name derived from a community known as ‘Doom’ rearing these pigs for many
generations in breeding tract
• Present in Dhuburi, Kokarajhar and Bongaigaon districts of Assam
• Black, short concave snout with short erect ears and flat belly type.
• They are mainly reared for meat and bristle under migratory scavenging system with
minimum input from the farmers
• Bristle are having unique characteristics in terms of length and diameter as compared
to other breeds of pigs and they could be used in commercial production of combs,
brushes, brooms etc.
 ZOVAWK

• Literally, Zo means ‘Mizo’ and vawk means ‘pig’

• Also known as Mizo local since, it is reared by Mizo community for pork and manure
purposes
• Aizawl, Lunglei, Champhai, Saiha, Kolasib and Mamit districts of Nagaland and they
well adapted in hilly region
• Black with white spot on the forehead (star), white patches on belly (sometimes)
and white boot.
• Erect ears, concave snout, pot belly, concave top line and long bristles on mid-line.
• They communicate with one another by emitting a specific grunting sound
indicates food, warning to danger, calling the young ones, etc.
 GHURRAH

• Also known as Deshi or Bareilly local and it produces a typical or peculiar sound (Ghur),
hence it is named as Ghurrah
• Native to Bareilly and adjoining pats of Lucknow divisions of Uttar Pradesh.
• Black colored (few are grayish black or brownish), medium sized pigs with flat belly,
angular body and long straight snout.
• Legs below hock joint are white and thick line of hairs is present from neck to shoulders;
head is elongated with triangular face and short leaf shaped, vertically erected ears.
• Mostly reared by poor and weaker sections of the society under traditional management
(scavenging) with low input and under Kutcha house during night only.
 MALI
(Tripura)

• Black colored medium sized pig with pot belly.

• Medium to small bristles are ubiquitously distributed throughout the body.

• Characterized with short erect ears lying perpendicular to body axis and concave snout.

• Adult body weight averages about 68 kg in males and 71 kg in females.

• Average litter size: 5.15 (range 3-7) at birth and 4.46 (range 3-6) at weaning.

• Population size is approximately 45,000 – 50,000.

15
 PURNEA
(Bihar and Jharkhand)

• These pigs have compact body and pot belly.

• Thick line of bristle is present on topline from neck to shoulders giving the animal a wild
look.
• Characterized with round face; short conical and erect ears.
• Adult body weight varies from 41 to 50kg.
• Litter size at birth varies from 4 to 6.
• Population size is approximately 1,00,000 – 1,20,000.
16
 BANDA
(Jharkhand)

• Banda pig is black colour with short and erect ear.

• These animals are having medium to short bristle on neck with a long and concave snout.

• These are potbellied and characterized with small litter size.

• Adult body weight averages 28.0 kg in males and 27.0 kg in females.

• Average litter size is 4.5 (range 4-7) at birth and 4.25(range 4-6) at weaning.
 MANIPURI BLACK
(Manipur)

• Medium in size with flat belly and short legs.

• The head of these pigs is short, slightly concave with short ears, and short to medium snout.

• White patches are sometimes seen in extremities such as legs and snout area.

• Adult body weight averages about 96.0 kg in males and 93.0 kg in females.

• Average litter size is 8.27 (range 6-11) at birth and 6.02 (range 5-9) at weaning.
 WAK CHAMBIL
(Meghalaya)

• Small sized pig with round and medium pendulous belly.

• These pigs have small head and eyes, small erected ears, and short and pointed snout.
• Pork of this breed has unique flavour and taste, thus it is utilized during special religious and
ceremonial occasions.
• Adult body weight averages 32.0 kg in males and 29.0 kg in females.
• Average litter size is 5.8 (range 4-11) at birth and 4.52 (range 3-8) at weaning.
 ANDAMANI

• Native breed of Andaman group of islands.

• They are sturdy and medium in size and black (mostly) or rusty gray in colour.

• They are fast runners and evolved to thrive under low-input management system & mainly
reared for pork purpose.

• Average adult body weight for male is 71 kg and for female is 68 kg.
EXOTIC
PIGS
 BASED ON UTILITY
BACON TYPE

 Known for rapid growth

 Increase in succulent meat
 Smaller proportion of fat accumulation but
not in the muscles, a separate fatty layer
termed as back fat
 Well-developed loin, bacon and hams
Pigs of Large Whites and lop-eared types.
Large White type : Large White Yorkshire
Lop-eared type : Landrace and Tamworth
 LARD TYPE
 Compact and thick, with short legs and deep bodies.
 Fattened quickly and their meat had large amounts of fat in it.
 Fatteners accumulate very thick fat layer in the subcutaneous
connective tissue and around the internal organs
 Used to produce lard, a cooking fat and mechanical lubricant.
Ex. Polland China, Hampshire, Berkshire, Duroc
 LARGE WHITE YORKSHIRE
 Origin: England
 White in color
 Erect ears
 Face slightly dished
 Large litters
 Good mothering ability
 Rapid growth
 High feed efficiency
 Often used in crossbreeding
programs
 LANDRACE

• Origin: Denmark
• White in color
• Long bodied
• Ears lop forward and down
• Strong mothering ability
• Large litter size
 DUROC

• Origin: Eastern United States

• Red in color, light to dark cherry
red
• Ears droop forward
• Good growth rate and feed
conversion
• Popular in United States
 HAMPSHIRE
• Origin: England
• Black with white belt encircling
forepart of body
• Erect ears
• Good foraging ability
• Muscular and lean carcass
• Popular breed in crossbreeding
programs
 TAMWORTH

• Originated in Ireland
• Red in color
• A noted bacon breed
• Well-arched back
• Erect ears
• Very active
BREEDS AT PBU
 LARGE WHITE YORKSHIRE

 Origin : England (a bacon breed)

 Litter size at birth : 12-14
 Live weight at slaughter : 90-100 kg (8-9 months)
 Well suited to climatic conditions of Tamilnadu
 LANDRACE

 Origin : North European countries (a bacon breed)

 Lengthy body (lengthy carcass)

 Good mothering ability

 Better pre-weaning daily gain

 DUROC

 Origin : USA (a lard type, red breed)

 Known for lean meat production

 Used as terminal sire in synthetic pig production

 50% CROSSBRED PIG (LWY X DESI)

 50% Large White Yorkshire + 50% indigenous black pig

 Suitable for poor rural farmers
 Litter size at birth : 6-7
 Live body weight (8 months) : 50-60 kg
 75% CROSSBRED PIG (LWY X DESI)

 75% Large White Yorkshire + 25% indigenous black pig

 Govt. of Tamil Nadu released the crossbred pig variety “TANUVAS KPM Gold”,
developed by AICRP on Pig at PGRIAS, Kattupakkam, on 30th June, 2017.
 Well adapted to local climatic conditions of the state with litter size at birth of
8.1 and average body weight of 72 kg at 8 months.
 Best suited for medium farmers
 FLOW CHART FOR
x PRODUCTION OF THREE-
WAY SYNTHETIC PIGS
Large White Yorkshire (♂) Landrace (♀)

 Genetic composition :
Large White Yorkshire (25%) +
x Landrace (25%) + Duroc (50%)
F1 Generation (♀) Duroc (♂)  Live weight at slaughter
90-100 kg (8 months)
 Better feed efficiency
 Lean meat production
Low back fat thickness
Three-way synthetic
(25% LWY x 25% Landrace x 50% Duroc)
BREEDS OF DOGS

DR. A. GOPINATHAN, Ph.D.

Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Evolution of Dog
According to National History Magazine
(1939), the dogs has evolved from
the now extinct Miacis, to the Gray
Wolf or Canis lupus.

• Miacis – Common ancestor of dog

and bear (40 million years ago)

• Hesperocyon – Grandfather of all

dog family

• Daphoenus – First bear-dog

• Lycaon – Wild African hunting dog

• Tomarctus – Immediate ancestor

of dog family as we know it

• Borophagus – Early North

American hyaena

• Wolf – Father of all dog family that

developed under man’s selective
dog breeding
• Grey Wolf is the one, the one that is the direct ancestor of our dogs, all
of them, from teacup Chihuahuas to Great Danes, from Alaskan
Malamutes to Arabian Salukis.

• Around 33,000 years ago, men domesticated the tamest wolves by

adopting their cubs into human tribes, fed them and bred them
selectively.

• These wolves were raised amongst people, they were given tasks that
would facilitate the tribe’s life such as hunting, guarding, herding, etc.

• While transitioning and adapting to their entirely new environment,

these wolves who are used by humans to be selectively bred start to
genetically change which manipulates all their offsets.

• Over several generations, the original wild grey wolf has changed and a
new species appeared that is genetically different from the founding
stock that was adopted by the humans: the Canis familiaris.
 Classification
Domain : Eukaryota

Kingdom : Animalia

Phylum : Chordata

Class : Mammalia

Order : Carnivora

Family : Canidae

Genus : Canis

Species : C. lupus

Subspecies : C. l. familiaris
 DOG (Canis familiaris)

• As the evolutionary progress of the Canidae family continued, four major

lines of dog, the herd dogs, the hounds and terriers, the Northern and toy
dogs, and the guard dogs were evolved.

• From these four lines, the modern dogs are descended.

• Over the past 200 years, dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change
(shape, size and colours) and were formed into today's modern dog
breeds due to artificial selection by man.

• Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling
loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship and more
recently, aiding disabled people and therapeutic roles.

• The 2n chromosome number of dogs is 78.

6
 DOG (Canis familiaris)
• Dog breeds can vary in size and weight from 0.46 kg (Toy Poodle) to
90 kg (Giant Mastiff).

• Height ranges from 15.2 cm (Chihuahua) to 76 cm (Irish Wolfhound).

• Colour varies from white through grey (blue) to black and brown, from
light (tan) to dark (red or chocolate) in a wide variation of patterns.

• Coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly or

smooth.

• Over 360 dog breeds are known throughout the world.

• The American Kennel Club (https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/)

recognizes 193 breeds

• Each breed’s ideal physical traits, movement, and temperament are set
down in a written document called a “breed standard”
7
 Classification of Dog Breeds
(As per AKC)
Groups Examples of Breeds Uses
Sporting Pointers, Retrievers, Setters and Spaniels Assisting the hunters

Beagles, Foxhounds and Bloodhounds Track their prey by scent

Hound
Greyhound type such as Whippets,
Hunt mainly by sight
Borzois and Salukis
Keep livestock and farm
Herding Collie, Australian Shepherd, Corgi
animals from straying
Used for catching prey
Airedale Terrier, Bull Terrier, Irish Terrier,
Terrier such as foxes, badgers and
Fox Terrier, Jack Russell Terrier
rabbits
 Classification of Dog Breeds
(As per AKC)

Groups Examples of Breeds Uses

Collie, Boxer, Alaskan Malamute, German Guards, guides, and

Working
Shepherd and St. Bernard herders

Non -
Bred principally as pets
sporting Bulldog, Chow, Dalmatian and Poodle
and companions

Toy Pekinese, Pomeranian and Pug Pets and companions

 SPORTING DOGS
Characteristics:
• Probably the first animal domesticated by man
• Active alert dogs
• Very intelligent, great sense of smell and have extraordinary hunting
skills
• Natural athletes; usually make well-rounded companions
• Instincts around water and woods
• Require regular exercise
e.g. Retrievers, Spaniels, Pointers
 POINTER
Name derived from the stance taken in the presence of game

Origin : England

Temperament: Affectionate, Active

Height : Female: 53–66 cm, Male: 56–70 cm

Weight : Male: 18–34 kg, Female: 16–30 kg

Colors : Black, Liver & White, Lemon &

White, Black & White
 LABRADOR RETRIEVER
• Most popular breeds of dog in Canada, UK and USA
• Foundational breed - St. John's water dog or Lesser Newfoundland.
• Active water dog bred to assist the hunter in retrieving downed waterfowl and
readily plunges into the water in almost any weather.
• Named after the geographic area known as "the Labrador" (they were known
as Labrador Retrievers because they "retrieved" in the Labrador Sea)
• Registered in three colours: black (a solid black colour), yellow (from cream to
fox-red), and chocolate (medium to dark brown).
• Dense, hard coat and short, thick hair are water-resistant.
• Head is wide, eyes glimmer with kindliness and the thick, tapering “otter tail”
seems to be forever signaling the breed’s innate eagerness.
• Enthusiastic athlete that requires lots of exercises, like swimming, to keep
physically and mentally fit.
• Established as one of the prime breeds for service as a guide dog for the blind or
for search and rescue operations.
 LABRADOR – Colour Varieties

Retrieving a pigeon shot by hunter

GOLDEN RETRIEVER
Life span: 10 to 12 years
Origin: UK
Symmetrical, powerful and active
dog
Temperament: Intelligent, kind,
reliable, trustworthy, confident,
friendly
Weight: Male: 27 to 40 kg
Female: 27 to 35 kg
Height: Male: 56 to 61 cm
Female: 51 to 56 cm
Colour: Rich, lustrous golden colour
of various shades

14
 COCKER SPANIEL
• America’s most popular breed.
• AKC’s smallest sporting spaniel, standing about 14 to 15 inches.
• Coat comes in enough colors and patterns to please any taste.
• Well-balanced body is sturdy and solid, and these quick, durable
gundogs move with a smooth, easy gait.
• Ears are lobular, set low close to head and extending up to nose
• Proficiency at hunting woodcock
IRISH SETTER

• Originated as gundogs in their native

Ireland
• Beauty of their rich mahogany coat
• Rich red in color – i.e. Irish Setter is a solid
red breed
• Straight fine glossy hair coat long on ears,
chest, tail and back of legs
• Friendly, mischievous, and with a high
energy level.
• Potential to do well in many canine sports
and activities.
 POINTERS

German Shorthaired Pointer German Wirehaired Pointer

Wirehaired Pointing Griffon

17
 RETRIEVERS

Bay Retriever
Curly-Coated Retriever

Flat-Coated Retriever

18
 SPANIELS

Brittany Spaniel Welsh Springer Spaniel

Climber Spaniel

Sussex Spaniel

Springer Spaniel Irish Water Spaniel American Water Spaniel

19
 Breeds of Sporting dogs
1. Pointer 13. Curly-Coated Retriever
2. Labrador Retriever 14. English Cocker Spaniel
3. Irish Setter 15. Flat-Coated Retreiver
4. Americal Cocker Spaniel 16. Golden Retriever
5. German Shorthaired Pointer 17. Gordon Setter
6. German Wirehaired Pointer 18. Irish Water Spaniel
7. English Setter 19. Sussex Spaniel
8. Brittany 20. Vizsla
9. Springer Spaniel 21. Weimaraner
10. American Water Spaniel 22. Welsh Springer Spaniel
11. Cheaspeake Bay Retriever 23. Wirehaired Pointing
12. Clumber Spaniel Griffon
 Hounds
• Most hounds share the common ancestral trait of being used for hunting.
• They are intelligent, alert, friendly and eager to please.
• Great deal of diversity, with respect to behavioral and physical traits.
• In size, they ranged from the tall and lanky Irish wolfhound to the short-
legged dachshund.
• Hound Dogs are found in two categories:
Sight hounds : First observe and hunt by chasing
Scent hounds : To help hunters in tracing the animal being hunted.
• Some of the oldest breeds of domestic dogs are the speedy sight hounds.
• Sight hounds are modest and fast dogs, while scent hounds are stronger and
harsher.
• Scent hounds such as bloodhounds, beagles and foxhounds
 Afghan hound
• Native of Afghanistan
• Very good hunting dog
• Most popular dog breed
- Sight hound
• Body covered by long thick silky
hair
• Ears and all four feet are feathered
• Hunt in packs, pursuing game by sight and followed
by huntsman on horseback
 Basset Hound
Origin: UK and France
Temperament: Friendly, Sweet-Tempered, Affectionate,
Gentle
Colors: Brown & White, Black & White, Tri-color, Red &
White, Black & Brown, Lemon & White
• Hound stands not higher than 14 inches at the
shoulder but, with his remarkably heavy bone,
powerful little legs and massive paws, he possessed
big-dog strength and stamina.
• Famous for a large, domed head that features
extremely long, velvety ears, mournful eyes, and a
wrinkled brow
 Blood hound
• Origin: middle east, excellent scenting dog.
• Large dogs standing 23 to 27 inches at the shoulder.
• Most famous features are a long, wrinkled face with
loose skin; huge, drooping ears; and warm, eyes
deeply sunk in the sockets.
• Coat colors can be black and tan, liver and tan, or
red.
• Powerful legs allow Bloodhounds to scent over miles
of punishing terrain.
• Used for tracking people and finding lost children,
buried minors and earthquake victims.
• Used by police to track the criminals.
 American foxhound

• Native of USA
• Scent hunting dog
• Colour : brown or hazel
• American Foxhounds are sleek, rangy hunters
known for their speed, endurance and work ethic.
• They need lots of exercise or they can get
depressed and destructive.
 Grey hound
• Ancient breed - in the Valley of the Nile (2900
and 2751 BC)
• Native of Egypt
• Fastest breed of dog (66 km per hr)
• Long and slender animals, narrow, aerodynamic
skull to the shock-absorbing pads of the feet.
• Ears are small and fine in texture
• Eyes are dark, bright, intelligent, indicating spirit
• Lean beauty of the Greyhound “inverted S”
shape, created by the deep chest curving gently
into a tightly tucked waist.
• Not recommended as a companion to children
 BEAGLE
• Origin: UK - Noted as a rabbit hound
• Most popular hound dog among American pet
owners.
• Tricolor - lemon, red and white.
• These are curious, clever, and energetic
hounds who require plenty of playtime.
• There are two varieties: those standing under
13 inches and those between 13 and 15
inches at the shoulder
• Both varieties are sturdy and solid.
• Adorable face, with its big brown eyes set off
by long ears on a broad head.
• All qualities that make them excellent family
dogs.
 SALUKI

• The Saluki, royal dog of Egypt.

• World’s oldest domesticated breed of dog.
• King of hunting hound dog.
• Was used by the Arabs principally to track and bring
down gazelle, the fastest of the Antelope.
• Slim and leggy, but very strong and perfectly
balanced, like a great athlete or dancer.
• Large, oval-shaped eyes
• Many colors and patterns
• They are warm, intelligent, make gentle, dignified and
independent but loyal pets
 DACHSHUND
• Origin : Germany
• “Dachshund” is a German word meaning
“badger dog” and as the breed name suggests, it
was evolved to dig its way into a badger den and
dispatch its occupant.
• Long-backed body, little legs and ears long, thick,
large and drooping with rounded tip.
• Standard-sized (usually 16 to 32 pounds) or
miniature (11 pounds or under).
• It appears in one of three coat types: smooth,
wirehaired, or longhaired.
• Smart and vigilant and they make fine watchdogs
 HOUNDS

Black & Tan Coonhound Basenji Harrier

Pharaoh Hound Rhodesian Ridgeback

Ibizan Hound

30
 HOUNDS

Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen

Scottish Deerhound
Whippet

31
 HOUNDS

Borzoi

Otterhound
Irish Wolfhound Norwegian Elkhound

32
 Other breeds of hound type
1. Black and Tan Coon hound 9. Rhodesian Ridgeback

2. American Fox hound 10. Harrier

3. Norwegian Elk hound 11. Saluki

4. Basenji 12. Ibizan Hound

5. Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen 13. Scottish Deer hound

6. Borzoi 14. Irish Wolf hound

7. Pharaoh Hound 15. Whippet

8. English Fox hound 16.Otterhound

 Herding dogs
• Also known as a stock dog, shepherd dog or working dog

• Type of dog that either has been trained in herding or belongs to breeds that
are developed for herding.

• Share an instinctual ability to control the movement of other animals.

• These breeds were developed to gather, herd and protect livestock.

• Commonly used for police and protection work

• These intelligent dogs make excellent companions and respond beautifully to

training exercises.

• Eg. German shepherd, Border Collie, Shetland Shepherd, Collie, Old English
Sheepdog, Welsh Corgi
 German Shepherd
Origin: Germany, Considered the finest all-purpose worker
Temperament: Large, muscular dog of noble character, high
intelligence, loyal, confident and courageous
Colors: Red & Black, Black, Sable, Black &
Silver, White, Liver, Blue, Grey, Black & Tan

• It has a unique stack or pose featuring one rear leg under

the body and one extended as opposed conventional
square stacks.

• Also known as “one-man breed” for its tendency to

display serious loyalty and fidelity especially to its owner
or main care taker.

• Originally used for shepherding and has been used in

war for messaging and as a rescue dog, police dog, guard
dog and guide dog for the blind.
 COLLIE
Origin: Scotland

Varieties:
Rough-coated or long-haired and smooth-coated
varieties, full-coated “rough” Collie is the more familiar
variety, but there is also a sleek “smooth” Collie

Coat colors: both varieties are sable and white, tricolor,

blue merle, or white.

• Elegant wedge-shaped head, whose mobile ears and

almond eyes convey a wide variety of expressions.

• Swift, athletic dogs thrive on companionship and

regular exercise.

• Their loyalty, intelligence and sterling character are

the stuff of this legend.
 HERDING DOGS

Bearded Collie Old English Sheepdog

Briard Bouvier des Flandres

37
 HERDING DOGS

Australian Shepherd Australian Cattle Dog

Shetland Sheepdog Puli 38

 HERDING DOGS

Belgian Malinois Belgian Shepherd Belgian Tervuren

Pembroke Welsh Corgi

Canaan Dog Cardigan Welsh Corgi

39
 Other herding breeds of dogs

8. Belgain Sheep dog

1. Old English Sheep dog
9. Belgian Tervuren
2. Shetland Sheep dog
10.Bouvier des Flanders
3. Welsh Corgi
11.Briard
4. Australian Cattle Dog
12.Canaan Dog
5. Australian Shepherd
13.Puli
6. Bearded Collie
7. Belgian Malinois
 Terriers
• ‘Terrier’ comes from latin word for earth - bred to chase and hunt animals in
burrows, dens etc.
• It is very charming, attractive, friendly and very fond of children.
• Feisty and energetic are two of the primary traits that come to mind for those who
have experience with Terriers.
• Feisty dogs: whose ancestors were bred to kill pests (rodents and mice)
• Sizes ranged from fairly small, as in the Norfolk, Cairn or West Highland White Terrier,
to the larger and grand Airedale Terrier.
• Require regular grooming to maintain their look.
• Two subgroups:
(i) Long-legged, larger breeds - Airedale Terriers
(ii) Short-legged, small breeds - Dandie Dinmont
• Have a reputation for ‘picking’ fights with other dogs
BOSTON TERRIER
Life span: 11 to 13 years
Origin: USA
Small and compact with a short tail
(2 inches) and erect ears; have a short
nose; prominent eyes
Sensible attitude towards barking makes
them excellent choice for apartment
dwellers
One of the most popular breeds
Temperament: Gentle, highly intelligent,
trainable, friendly, very protective of their
owners
Weight: 3 to 11 kg
Height: 23 to 38 cm
Colour: Brindle with White,
Seal with White, Black with White

42
SCOTTISH TERRIER

Life span: 12 to 15 years

Origin: Scotland
One of five breeds of Terriers originated
in Scotland
Small, compact, short-legged, sturdily-built
with a distinctive shape; they can make a
good watchdog due to its tendency to bark
only when necessary
Temperament: Feisty, self-assured, alert,
independent, playful, quick, loyal
Weight: 8 to 10 kg
Height: 25 to 28 cm
Colour: Black, Brindle, Wheaten

43
JACK RUSSELL TERRIER

Life span: 13 to 16 years

Origin: England
Small Terrier principally white-bodied and
smooth, rough or broken-coated; small
V-shaped ears of moderate thickness are
carried forward on the head
Appeared many times in film, television,
and print
Temperament: Stubborn, fearless,
intelligent, energetic, athletic, vocal
Weight: 6 to 8 kg
Height: 25 to 38 cm
Colour: White, black & white, white & tan

44
 TERRIERS

Airedale Terrier Australian Terrier Bedlington Terrier

Dandie Dinmont Terrier Fox Terrier

Cairn Terrier
45
 TERRIERS

Irish Terrier Kerry Blue Terrier Lakeland Terrier

Miniature Schnauzer Miniature Bull Terrier Norfolk Terrier

46
 TERRIERS

Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier Skye Terrier

Norwich Terrier

Welsh Terrier
Sealyham Terrier West Highland White Terrier
47
Airedale Terrier is the Border Terrier American pit bull Terrier
largest of all terrier breeds

Dandie Dinmont Terrier

 Other breeds in the Terrier group
1. Airedale Terrier 12. Cairn Terrier
2. Bedlington Terrier 13. Scottish Terrier
3. Dandie Dinmont Terrier 14. Irish Terrier
4. Fox Terrier 15. Sealyham Terrier
5. Miniature Schnauzer 16. Kerry Blue Terrier
6. Skye Terrier 17. Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier
7. Welsh Terrier 18. Lakeland Terrier
8. American Staffordshire Terrier 19. Staffordshire Bull Terrier
9. Norfolk Terrier 20. Manchester Terrier
10. Australian Terrier 21. West Highland White Terrier
11. Norwich Terrier 22. Miniature Bull Terrier
 Working dogs
• Highly recognized as old breeds
• Great diversity of size and shape.
• They are clean and odorless.
• Considered good-natured, loyal and tolerant.
• Mostly used as a watchdog, bodyguard, guide dog, or just as a
companion.
• Usually good with children.
• Do a variety of jobs- guarding, herding, pulling loads or sleds, law
enforcement, rescue work etc.
Eg. Boxer, Doberman Pinscher, Great Dane, Rottweiler, Saint Bernard
 BOXER
• Germany
• Medium sized sturdy dog with broad head, short nose
and short jaws
• Smooth coat
• Colour - red, fawn or brindle
• Temperament: Intelligent, Energetic, Fearless, Calm
• Short-lived dogs
• Prone for rheumatism, needs regular exercise
• Watchdog, bodyguard, and guide dog for the blind
and is used in police work

Boxer carries Bulldog, Terrier and

Bullenbeisser Mastiff blood
 DOBERMAN
• Origin: Germany
• Developed by crossing among Old short-haired
shepherd dogs combined with Rottweiler,
Black and Tan Terriers and smooth haired
German Pinschers
• Alert dog with compact muscular body
• Small erect ears
• Compact built dogs—muscular, fast, and
powerful.
• Body is sleek and is covered with a glistening
coat of black, blue, red, or fawn, with rust
markings.
• Noble wedge-shaped head and an athletic way
of moving, have earned a reputation as royalty
in the canine kingdom
 Great Dane
• Developed in Germany
• “Apollo of Dogs”
• As tall as 32 inches at the shoulder.
• Powerful giants with elegance and balance.
• Coat comes in different colors and patterns, perhaps
the best-known being the black-and-white
patchwork pattern known as “harlequin”
• Regal appearance, dignity, strength and elegance
with great size and a powerful, well-formed,
smoothly muscled body.
• Just the sight of these gentle giants is usually
enough to make intruders think twice.
• Height male, not less than 30 inches and female not
less than 28 inches.
Used for hunting
wild boar and bear
 Rottweiler
• Native of German
• A male Rottweiler will stand anywhere from 24
to 27 muscular inches at the shoulder; females
run a bit smaller and lighter.
• The glistening, short black coat with smart rust
markings add to the picture of imposing
strength.
• A thickly muscled hindquarters powers the
Rottie’s effortless trotting gait.
• Early training and socialization will harness a
Rottie’s territorial instincts in a positive way.
• Massive, powerful, peaceful, obedient,
courageous and intelligent animal
 St. Bernard
• Native - Switzerland
• “very powerful,” “extraordinarily muscular,” and
“massive.”
• A male stands a minimum 27.5 inches at the
shoulder; females will be smaller and more
delicately built.
• Huge head features a wrinkled brow, a short
muzzle, and dark eyes.
• Colors: Reddish-brown Brindle, Brownish-
yellow, Reddish-brown Splash, Red & White
• Saints are famously watchful and patient “nanny
dogs” for children.
• Excellent pathfinders in drifting snow and the
dogs’ excellent sense of smell made them
invaluable in locating helpless persons overcome
during storms
 ALASKAN MALAMUTE
• Oldest Artic sled dogs and was named for the named
after the native tribe called Mahlemuts (now spelled
Malamute), who settled in Alaska.
• An immensely strong, heavy-duty worker of spitz type
dog.
• Heavy bone, deep chest, powerful shoulders, and
dense, weatherproof coat all scream.
• Males are pack animals.
• Playful, gentle, friendly, and great with kids.
• Clean, odorless, loyal, intelligent and affectionate
toward their owner, although they are fighters among
dogs.
 Working Dog Breeds

Akita Alaskan Malamute Anatolian Shepherd Dog

Tibetan Mastiff Leonberger

Bernese Mountain Dog
57
 Working Dog Breeds

Black Russian Terrier Cane Corso Giant Schnauzer

Newfoundland Siberian Husky Greater Swiss Mountain Dog

58
 Working Dog Breeds

Dogo Argentino Great Pyrenees Komondor

Kuvasz Samoyed Bull Mastiff

59
 Non – sporting dogs
• Non-Sporting dogs are made up of a diverse group of breeds
with varying sizes, coats and overall appearance
• They come from a wide variety of backgrounds so it is hard to
generalize about this group of dogs
• Most are good watchdogs and housedogs
• Noted for their gentle disposition
• Gets along well with children
• Needs lots of attention
• Thrives on human companionship
eg. Bull dog, Boxer, Dalmatian, Lhasa Apso
 BULL DOG
• Origin: UK
• Low statured animal with broad and
compact body
• Head heavy and wrinkled face
• Nose short, wide and black
• jaws broad and square
• Body coat short and smooth
• Colour: red, brindle, fawn, white
• Used for bull-baiting in England
• Due to large head-size, problems occur
during whelping – advised ‘C’ section for
delivery

In 1835, bull baiting and dog fighting was declared illegal in England. Ferocity was
bred out of the dog and today is a good-natured, reserved, dignified, loyal and
aristocratic dog.
Lhasa Apso
• Native of Tibet
• Guard dog
• All colours
• Small breed with a heavy hair
coat
• Noted for its intelligence quick
hearing
• Can be easily trained
 Dalmatian
• Origin: Australia
• Strong and having muscular body
• White colour with black spots or liver spots
• Short dense smooth coat
• Short, fine and straight tail

• Excellent for hunting rats and vermin.

• Breed noted for its intelligence and adaptability
• Follow their master; calm, quiet, sensitive and loyal
• In history used as dogs of war, a draft dog and a herd dog.
• Love children and make natural guardians
 Non-Sporting Dog Breeds

American Eskimo Dog Bichon Frise Coton de Tulear

Schipperke Miniature Poodle Standard Poodle

64
 Non-Sporting Dog Breeds

Chinese Shar-Pie Chow Chow Finnish Spitz

French Bulldog Keeshond Lowchen

65
 Non-Sporting Dog Breeds

Norwegian Lundehund Shiba Inu

Tibetan Spaniel
Xoloitzcuintli
66
 Toy Breeds
• Very diverse group.
• It is noted for being courageous, energetic, and very active.
• They require a lot of attention.
• Suited very well for an apartment dog.
• Small, bred primarily as pet dogs.
• Often treated inappropriately by owners (as real ‘toys’) and
therefore are very prone to behavioral abnormalities.
• Extremely popular pets.
 Toy breeds
• Chihuahua – smallest
• Papillion
breed in the world
• English toy terrier • Pomeranian
• Maltese • Pug
• Yorkshire Terrier • Silky terrier
• Affenpinscher
• Poodle - Toy Poodle
• Brussels Griffon
• Cavalier King Charles Spaniel • English Toy Spaniel
• Chinese Crested • Manchester Terrier
• Japanese Chin • SHIH TZU - dates back to 624
• Miniature Pinscher A.D. Shih Tzu means lion and
• Silky Terrier these small dogs resembled lions
with their long and flowing hair.
 Chihuahua

• Origin - Mexico
• Rounded head
• 1-3kg
• Can be aggressive

Two varieties:
(i) shorthaired variety
(ii) wavy-haired variety
 Toy poodle
• Probably originated in Germany where it was
known as the Pudel (meaning to splash in water
- English poodle).
• For years it has been used as the national dog
of France where it was commonly used as a
retriever and as a circus trick dog.

• Called Canichi in France (duck dog)

• Three sizes: standard, miniature and toy
• No longer used as water dogs or retrievers, but
have gained fame as a show dog and
companion dog
 Pomeranian
Colors: Brown, White, Orange, Grey-shaded, Tan, Black

• The Pomeranian (often known as a Pom) is a

breed of dog that is named for the Pomerania
region in north-west Poland and north-east
Germany in Central Europe.
• Classed as a toy dog breed because of its small
size, the Pomeranian is descended from larger
Spitz-type dogs, specifically the German Spitz.
• Pomeranians are easily trained and make fine
watchdogs and perky pets for families with
children.
• Poms are active but can be exercised with
indoor play and short walks, so they are
content in both the city and suburbs.
 SPITZ
• Spitz is a type of domestic dog characterized by
long, thick, and often white fur, and pointed
ears and muzzles.
• The tail often curls over the dog's back. While all
of the breeds resemble primitive dogs, smaller
breeds resemble foxes, while larger breeds
resemble jackals.
• In the United States the name spitz is often given
to any small, white, long-haired dog.

• The Pomeranian has a much flatter face than an

Indian Spitz, which has a more conical snout.
• The coat of a Pomeranian is generally denser and
thicker. It is often difficult to see individual hairs.
• However, an Indian Spitz's coat is less dense and it
is easier to see the individual hair follicles.
PEKINGESE
Life span: 12 to 15 years

Origin: China

Favoured by royalty of the Chinese

Imperial court as both a lap dog and
companion dog

Its name refers to the city of Peking

Temperament: Stubborn, opinionated,

affectionate, good-natured, intelligent,
aggressive

Weight: 3.2 to 6.4 kg

Height: 15 to 23 cm

Colour: Black, fawn, black & tan, cream,

fawn brindle, grey
73
PUG

Life span: 12 to 15 years

Origin: China
Distinctive features of a wrinkly, short-muzzled
face and curled tail; fine, glossy coat
Often called "shadows" because they follow
their owners around and like to stay close to
them, craving attention and affection from
their owners
Popular with some famous celebrity owners
Temperament: Docile, charming, clever,
stubborn, sociable, playful, quiet, attentive
Weight: 6.4 to 8.2 kg
Height: 25 to 30 cm
Colour: Black, fawn, silver fawn

74
SHIH TZU
Life span: 10 to 16 years
Origin: China, Tibet
Sturdy little dog with a short muzzle and
large dark brown eyes; have a soft and
long coat
Temperament: Clever, affectionate,
intelligent, lively, spunky, alert
Weight: 4.5 to 7.3 kg
Height: 20 to 28 cm
Colour: Black, white, liver, brindle, liver &
white, light brown, dark brown, black &
white, blue, gold

75
YORKSHIRE TERRIER
Life span: 13 to 16 years
Origin: England
Smallest dog breed of Terrier type, and of
any dog breed
A popular companion dog; Many people
have two, because they often have
separation anxiety when left alone and
"they don’t enjoy being alone
Temperament: Bold, intelligent,
independent, confident, courageous
Weight: 3.2 kg
Height: 18 to 23 cm
Colour: Blue & Tan, black & tan, black &
gold, blue & gold

76
TOY POODLE
Life span: 12 to 15 years
Origin: Germany, England
One of the three Poodle
varieties; smallest of all
Has been present in Europe for
centuries; contributed to many
other dog breeds
Temperament: Intelligent, alert,
faithful, active, trainable,
instinctual
Weight: 4.5 kg
Height: 24 to 28 cm
Colour: Black, white, cream,
sable, black & white, blue, grey,
silver, brown, red

77
 TOY BREEDS

Maltese Affenpinscher Brusseles Griffon

Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Chinese Crested Japanese Chin

78
 TOY BREEDS

English Toy Terrier Miniature Pinscher Manchester Terrier

Silky Terrier Papillon English Toy Spaniel

79
 Other Toy Breeds

1. English toy Terrier 7. Japanese Chin

2. Maltese 8. Miniature Pinscher

3. Affenpinscher 9. Silky Terrier

4. Brussels Griffon 10. Papillon

5. Cavalier King Charles Spaniel 11. English Toy Spaniel

6. Chinese Crested 12. Manchester Terrier

80
 Other non-sporting breeds
(Miscellaneous)
• Bullmastiff • American Eskimo Dog
• Mastiff • Bichon Frise
• Collie • Chinese Shar-Pei
• St. Bernard • Keeshond
• Tibetan mastiff • Schipperke
• German shepherd • Shiba Inu
• Chow-Chow • Tibetan Spaniel
• French Bulldog • Tibetan Terrier
• Boston Terrier
 Breeds of India
• BAKHARWAL
• MUDHOL HOUND • BANJARA HOUND
• RAMPUR HOUND • BHOTIA SHEEP
• BULLI • HIMALAYAN SHEEP
• RAJAPALAYAM DOG
• KOMBAI • INDIAN SPITZ
• CHIPPIPARAI • KANNI
• ALANGU • KAIKADI

Only 3 dog breeds were registered by NBAGR

 Breeds of Tamil Nadu

Rajapalayam – First Registered

Dog breed in India
• Chippiparai
 MUDHOL HOUND
Karnataka

• Also known variously as the Maratha Hound, the

Pashmi Hound, and the Caravan Hound.
• A short-haired, lop‐eared, working sighthound of
Asiatic type; built for running long distances over
difficult terrain in acute heat.
• The body is proportionately long, with good
angulation to propel the body weight to matching
speed.
• Possessing courage, muscular power, speed and great
endurance to catch and kill the fox, jackal, wolf,
Chinkara, Hare.
• Defends his master and his property vigilantly.
• Needs confident and experienced handling.
 Indian Dog Breeds

Bhakarwal Bhotia Sheep Dog Himalayan Sheep Dog

Banjara Hound Kaikadi

Indian Spitz
86
87
• Kanni dog
• Kombai
 Tallest dog in the world
(Great Dane – 44 inches tall at the shoulder and 7 feet, 4
inches on his hind legs died at age 5; at Michigan)
BREEDS OF CATS

DR. A. GOPINATHAN, Ph.D.

Professor and Head
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Characteristics of Cats
• Size
 Weight 4 to 18 pounds
 Readily puts on weight
 Life expectancy 10 to 15 years, some 22 years
• Common traits
 Chromosome number : 38 (19 pairs)
 Retractable claws present in all cat family except cheetah
 30 - adult teeth; Pointed canine teeth
 Whiskers – vibrissae (antennae)
• Catch sound reflections
• Organ of touch
 GENETICS - CAT
• Cats never been bred for economic purposes.
• Inheritance in these animals is not well studied.
• Genetic plasticity is less in cats when compared to dogs.
• Wide range of head shapes and body proportions in
different breeds of dogs never appear among cats.
• Phenotypic differences between one cat breed and another
are largely differences in colour and texture of coats.
 Breed Registries
CAT FANCIERS ASSOCIATION (CFA)
• Founded in 1906, largest cat registry in the world
• Head quarters : USA
• Rigid and conservative
• Recognized 44 cat breeds

The International Cat Association (TICA)

• Established in the USA in 1979
• More progressive and flexible registry
• Recognised 55 cat breeds
 Classification of cat breeds
• Natural standard classification
 Hair type
Hairless, Short-haired, Long-haired, Curly haired
and Hypoallergic types

 Body size
Small, Medium and Large

 Breed
 1. HAIR TYPE
Hairless cat
• They are incredibly popular in recent years

• They offer an exotic look and non-shedding

• Cats without hair are usually the result of a mutation

and breed development requires lot of planning and
care on the part of breeders
Ex. Peterbald, Sphinx and Don-sphinx
• Cat breed of Russian origin
• Resemble Oriental Shorthairs with a
hair-losing gene.
• They born with hair, can lose their hair
over time.
• They come in all colors and markings.
• They have a narrow, long head,
wedge-shaped muzzle and large ears.
• They have a long whip-like tail,
webbed feet and oval paws that allow
them to grasp objects
• Canadian origin- 1960’s
• Hairless and indoor cat
• Very dependent upon people for
survival
• Affectionate, adore body contact
• Needs to eat frequent meals
because of its lack to store body fat
• Body temperature is higher than
normal
• The Don Sphynx or Russian Hairless - cat breed of Russian origin.
• It is not related to the better-known hairless breed of cat, the Sphynx cat,
whose characteristic hairlessness is caused by a recessive mutation in
the keratin 71 gene, whereas the Donsphinx hairlessness is caused by a
dominant mutation.
 2. Short-haired
• If you want a low-maintenance feline, a shorthaired cat may be
the perfect fit.
• Because their coats are short, they don’t require daily
grooming like long-haired cat breeds.

• Instead, periodic brushing is all they need to keep their coats

healthy and to reduce shedding.
• Short hair does not mean less shedding, however, that trait
varies from breed to breed and can also depend on the health,
environment and even the stress level of the individual cat.
• One of the oldest breeds known
• Extremely affectionate, quiet, highly
intelligent, and alert.
• Very active and be taught to retrieve
• Very large cat
• Brought to U.S. from England
• Affectionate, disciplined and
trained
• 34 recognized color patterns
• Multiple colors
• Intelligent, elegant, dependent
upon people and playful
• Medium size, can be mistaken for
Siamese
• Good health, except some
respiratory problems
• Originated in the U.S.-
1930’s by crossing a
Siamese and Burma
• Stubborn, bossy and angry
• Upper respiratory diseases
are common in kittens
especially if inbred
• One-on-one cat, even within
a family
• Loyal, fearless and very
unpredictable
• Medium size and very long
• Very little pigmentation;
mask, ear, foot and tail tips
• Always has blue eyes
• Sensitive to vaccinations and
anesthetics
 • Cross between Burmese
and American Short-
hair
• Graceful, charming, gets
along well with others,
including strangers
• Medium size
• Jet black with gold copper
colored eyes
Bombay is the name given to black cats of
the Asian group
The Bombay cat is also called the Black Mamba,
and nicknamed the "mini-panther”
• Natural Mutation
• Ears are folded
downward and forward
• Excellent family cat,
gets along well with
other cats or dogs
• Medium size
• Result of a genetic
mutation
• Affectionate but leans
towards one-on-one
relationships
• 3 types: no tail (rumpy),
short tail (stumpy), and
long tail (longy)
• Carrier of lethal gene
that makes weak spines
causing paralysis
• Japanese origin sign of good
luck
• Affectionate, sweet tempered
and loves people
• Medium to large size
• Distinctive “short” (bob) tail
is kinked and hair forms a
“pom”
• Care must be taken not to
hurt the sensitive tail area.
 SHORT-HAIRED BREEDS

American Short-haired British Short-haired Cornish Rex Devon Rex

Egyptian Mau Havana Brown Japanese Bobtail Korat

SNS/AGB Unit-3/Cat breeds 20

 SHORT-HAIRED BREEDS

Manx Ocit Pixie Bob Russian Blue Savannah

Schottish Fold Selkirk Rex Singapura Tonkinese Toyger

SNS/AGB Unit-3/Cat breeds

21
 Cat breeds
A. Short-haired-breeds:
1. Abyssinian 1. Korat
2. American Shorthair 2. Malayan
3. American Wirehair 3. Manx
4. Bombay breed
4. Ocicat
5. Burmese
5. Oriental Shorthair
6. British Shorthair
6. Russian Blue
7. Chartreux
8. Colour point shorthair 7. Scottish Fold
9. Cornish Rex 8. Siamese
10. Egytian Mau 9. Singapura
11. Exotic Shorthair 10. Snowshoe Breed
12. Havana Brown 11. Sphynx
13. Japanese Bobtail
12. Tonkinese
 3. Long haired
• These cat breeds are the result of intense selective breeding and need
some special care when it comes to grooming and skin health.
• They have long and luxurious coats that are silky to the touch.
• Despite their softness and beauty, longhaired cats may not be right for
everyone.
• They require daily grooming to keep their coats tangle- and mat-
free, which can be a difficulty for busy individuals or families.
• They may trigger an allergic reaction in people with dander allergies,
which is exacerbated by the frequent shedding.

 Gorgeous long haired - Angora and Himalayan

 Dense Plush Coats - Birman and Rogdoll
 Silky coats - Turkish Van
 Full long outer coat - Persian and Maine coon
• Gorgeous long hairs
• The Turkish Angora is a breed of
a domestic cat
• One of the ancient, natural breeds of
cat, having originated in central Turkey
• The breed is believed to be the origin of
the mutations for both the coloration
white and long hair.
• The breed is also sometimes referred to
as simply the Angora or Ankara cat
• Prefers a clean, almost spotless
environment
• Mostly white in colour, now many
colors are present
• Gorgeous long hairs
• The Himalayan or Colourpoint
Persian - commonly referred to in
Europe
• Breed of long-haired cat similar in type
to the Persian, with the exception of its
blue eyes and its point colouration,
which were derived from crossing the
Persian with the Siamese.
• The bulk of the fur on the body of a
Himalayan is white or cream,
• But the points come in many different
colors - Black, Blue, Lilac, Chocolate,
Red and Cream.
• Gorgeous long haired type
• Developed in Britain and
North America by crossing
Siamese, Persian and Birman
• It produced a Persian type cat
with long, flowing coat and a
siamese pattern
• Intelligent and outgoing
• Sacred cat of Burma
• Dense plush coats
• Very sociable; needs
company, sweet natured,
charming, intelligent
• Medium to large in size
• Genetic defects have been
known to occur: weak hind
legs and nasal obstruction
• Originated in U.S.
• Dense plush coat type
• Large and heavy breed
• Named for its floppy posture
when handled
• Docile, quiet and composed
• Silky coat type
• Semi-long-haired breed of domestic cat,
which was developed in the UK.
• The breed is rare and is distinguished by
the Van pattern (named for the breed),
where the colour is restricted to the head
and the tail, and the rest of the cat is
white; this is due to the expression of
the piebald white spotting gene.
• May have blue or amber eyes, or be odd-
eyed (having one eye of each colour).
• Full long outer coat type
• Oldest and most popular
breed
• Quiet, excellent apartment
cats
• Used for show purposes,
depending on eye and coat
color
• Require daily grooming,
often experience breathing
problems and clogged tear
ducts
• Full long outer coat type
• Largest domesticated cat
breed.
• A good-natured, all-
American mouser.
• His tendency to be
polydactyl (have extra
toes) makes him an
excellent hunter and
climber.
• His heavy coat is smooth,
water-resistant, and almost
maintenance-free.
 Cat breeds
Longhaired-breeds:
1. Balinese and Javanese
2. Birman
3. Cymric
4. Himalayan and Kashmir
5. Maine Coon
6. Norwegian Forest cat
7. Persian Breed
8. Ragdoll
9. Somali
10. Tiffany
11. Turkish Angora
 LONG-HAIRED BREEDS

Cymric Javanese
Balinese

Norwegian Forest cat Somali Maine Coon Tiffany

SNS/AGB Unit-3/Cat breeds 33

 4. Curly haired

Curly-haired cat breeds have become very popular and some of the
most attractive and good natured cats of feline world

Tight short curly with fine silky hair - Cornish Rex and Devon Rex

Loose long curly and dense undercoat - Selkirk Rex and Laperm
• They have dense coats with tight
curls, a curved profile and
arched bodies

• Their wavy fur has been

compared to velvet or silk

• Similar to the LaPerm, they

are extremely people
oriented and love spending time
with their humans.
• Crossed domestic cat with a feral
• Medium size
• Wide based ears are very
characteristic of the breed
• The coat itself comes in a wide
range of colors and patterns, from
solid to bi-color or even tabby
• They also make great cats for those
with allergies as their coats result in
less shedding than other breeds
• Kittens go almost totally bald after
birth and the curly hair grows
within the first four months.
• Can have coats with curls that range
from soft waves to tight ringlets to
long corkscrew curls.
• As far as coloring, the LaPerm come
in almost every recognizable color
and pattern.
• Extremely people-oriented.
• Gentle and loving.
• Cats are large, heavy-boned felines similar in shape to the British
Shorthair with a round head and loose curls.
• Coats come in both long and shorthair, with the curls being more
prominent in longhair cats.
• Perfect family cats and great companions
 5. Non-shedding cats

Naturally hairless and non-shedding go hand and

hand and some curly-haired cat breeds are non- or
very low shedding as well.

Ex. Peterbald, La Perm and Don-Sphinx

 BASED ON SIZE

Sl. No. Types Examples

1 Small cats Abyssinian, Bombay, Burmese,
(1.8 to 4.5 kg) Cornish Rex, Devon Rex, Laperm,
Munchkin
2 Medium cats American bobtail, American
(4.6 to 6.3 kg) shorthair, British shorthair,
Japanese bobtail, Oriental
shorthair, Manx
3 Large cats Bengal, Birman, Himalayan,
(6.4 to 11.5 kg) Ragdoll, Siberian
 BASED ON CAT BREED TYPES
Sl. No. Types Examples
1 Natural cat breeds
• Created by nature then refined and stabilized by
selective breeding
Abyssinian, Birman, American shorthair, Oriental shorthair
Main coon, Persian and Turkish Angora
2 Man-made (hybrid) cat breeds
• Created by crossing 2 or more breeds to create a third
breed
• Crossing a domestic cat with a wild cat (exotics)
Bombay = Burmese x American Shorthair
Bengal = Asian leopard cat x Domestic cat
Himalayan = Persian x Siamese
 BASED ON CAT BREED TYPES
Sl. No. Types Examples
3 Mutation cat breeds
• Created by a spontaneous change in a gene resulting in
an unusual feature
• Breeders then work to develop the feature and create a
new breed
• Some mutations happened so long ago, Now they are
considered as natural breeds
American curl, Devon Rex, Cornish Rex, LaPerm, Scottish
Fold, Manx and Sphynx
 Hypoallergenic cat

• Peoples are allergic to cat

• Actually allergic to a protein found in the saliva and urine
• Deposits saliva invariably on its fur while grooming
• When the saliva dries it turns to dander and becomes airborne
both on loose hairs and on its own
• When breathed in an allergic reaction is triggered
• May take days or weeks of exposure for a reaction to develop
• It varies from breed to breed and depends on the health,
environment and stress level of the individual cat
Ex. Cornish Rex, Devon Rex, Sphinx, Sphinx Don, Oriental shorthair, Laperm
 TABBY CAT OR TIGER CAT
• A tabby is any domestic cat that has a coat featuring distinctive
stripes, dots, lines or swirling patterns, usually together with a mark
resembling an 'M' on its forehead.
• Tabbies are sometimes assumed to be a cat breed
• Tabby pattern is found in many breeds, as well as among the general
mixed-breed population
• Tabby pattern is a naturally occurring feature that may be related to the
coloration of the domestic cat's direct ancestor, the African wildcat,
along with the European wildcat and Asiatic wildcat.
 Calico cats
• Calico cats are domestic cats with a spotted or multicolored coat that is
predominantly white, with patches of two other colors
• Tri-color calico coloration is combined with a tabby patterning - caliby
• Genetic determination of coat colors in calico cats is linked to the X
chromosome. Two X-chromosomes are needed for a cat to have that distinctive
tri-color coat.
• Calicoes are nearly always female, with one color linked to the maternal X
chromosome and a second color linked to the paternal X-chromosome.
• Male calico would have a rare condition where they have three sex
chromosomes (two X-chromosomes and one Y-chromosome) and often sterile.
CAT BREEDS PRESENT IN INDIA

1. Bengal cat
2. Birman
3. Himalayan
4. Maine coon cat
5. Persian cat
6. Siamese
 CAT BREEDS SEEN IN INDIA

Bombay Himalayan Siamese Persian

American Bobtail Maine Coon Spotted Bengal

SNS/AGB Unit-3/Cat breeds 47

Goat Genetic Resources of India

A.GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of Animal Genetics and Breeding
Madras Veterinary College
ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

Kingdom - Animal kingdom

Phylum - Chordata
Class - Mammalia
Order - Artiodactyla
Family - Bovidae
Genus - Capra
Species - hircus
 DOMESTICATION
Goats were one of the first domesticated ungulates
Archaeological evidence traces goat domestication

Place: High Euphrates valleys, in Southeastern Anatolia Zagros mountains ,

Central Iranian Plateau
Southeastern Anatolia Region - geographical region of Turkey.
Zagros Mountains
long mountain range in Iran, Iraq and southeastern Turkey.
 Fertile Crescent
crescent-shaped region in the
Middle East

Modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan

 Wild Ancestor
Goat’s wild ancestor - Capra aegagrus
 Domestication Changes
Morphological traits, such as horn and ear shapes
Which were driven by intentional selection
As well as by genetic drift, isolation and founder effects.

Goats with twisted horns - during the Bronze Age in Egypt and western Asia
Goats with long lop ears - selectively bred in ancient Egypt.

Other phenotypes, such as the

Presence of wattles
Long hair
Extraordinarily diverse repertoire of coat colours
Developed during and after domestication.
 INTRODUCTION
• India occupies – First position - Goat population & milk production

• Goat sector – impact livelihoods - 20 million goat rearers

• Belonging to resource poor & socially backward segments

• About 83.4% goat rearers - landless, small & marginal farmers

• Dominated in ecologically vulnerable & drought prone areas

• Goat rearing in India - traditional backyard activity

• Supplementing household income
• Largely considered - mobile ATM - sold -situation of emergency
• Contributes 10 to 40 % household income
 Goat population (million)

Year Tamil % change

India
Nadu (Tamil Nadu)

1951 47.20 4.04

1956 55.40 3.76 -1.44
1961 60.90 3.43 -1.81
1966 64.60 3.77 1.92
1972 67.50 3.95 0.60
1977 75.60 4.20 2.05
1982 95.25 5.25 4.54
1987 110.21 5.92 1.74
1992 115.28 5.86 -0.19
1997 122.72 6.42 3.04
2003 124.36 8.18 3.53
2007 140.54 9.27 3.20
2012 135.17 8.14 -12.20
2019 148.88 9.89 21.49
 GOAT POPULATION –STATE WISE
• Goat population - 148.89 million ( as of 2019)
• Rural - 142.44 million
• Urban - 6.44 million
About 95 % in rural areas - Contribute greatly
- Rural economy - Sustenance of the rural poor people
 GOAT GENETIC RESOURCES
Rich repository genetic resources
39 recognised breeds
❖ Four breeds - Milch type
Beetal
Surti
Jhakrana
Tellicherry

❖ Ten breeds - dual purpose

Jamunapari, Barbari, Kutchi, Zalawadi,
Sirohi, Marwari, Mehsana ,
Osmanabadi, Karauli, Gujari

❖ Pashmina breed
Central Institute for Research on Goats Chegu Changthangi
(CIRG), Makhdoom, Mathura, U.P.
❖ Twenty Three breeds - Meat type
 GOAT BREEDS OF INDIA
1. Northern temperate region
Gaddi
Chegu 2. North-western arid and semi-
Changthangi arid region
Bhakarwall Anjori Surti
Pantja Jamnapari Beetal
5 breeds Sirohi Marwari
Jhakrana Barbari
Mehsana Gohilwadi
Zalawadi Kutchi
Sojat Karauli
Rohilkhandi Kahmi
Gujari
17 breeds
 GOAT BREEDS OF INDIA
3. Eastern region 4. Southern peninsular region
Black Bengal Malabari
Ganjam Osmanabadi
Assam Hill Sangamneri
Sumie Ne Kanni Adu
4 breeds Kodi Adu
Salem Black
Konkan Kanyal
5. Andaman & Nicobar Islands Nandidurga
Teressa
Bidri
Andamani
Berari
2 breeds
Attapady 11 Breeds
NORTHERN TEMPERATE
REGION
 GADDI
The Gaddi breed, also known as the White Himalayan
Distribution: Chamba, Kangra, Kulu, Bilaspur, Simla,
Kinnaur and Lahaul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and
Dehradun, Nainital, Tehrigarhwal and Chamoli hill districts
in Uttar Pradesh.
Breed characteristics
• Medium-sized animals
• Mostly white, but black and brown and combinations
• Both sexes have large horns, directed upward and
backward
• Ears are medium long and drooping.
• Udder is small and rounded.
• Hair is white, lustrous and long
 Distribution:
CHEGU
Lahaul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh, and
UttarKashi, Chamoli, Pithoragarh districuts of Uttar
Pradesh & Tibet
Breed Characters
•Medium-sized animals
•Coat is usually white, mixed with greyish red
•Both sexes have horns, directed upward, backward
and outward, with one or more twists.
•Pashmina breed

The word pashm means "wool" in Persian, but in Kashmir,

pashm referred to the raw unspun wool of domesticated
Changthangi goats.
 CHANGTHANGI

Distribution: Changthang region of Ladakh,

at altitudes > 4000 MSL
Breed characters
•Medium-sized animals
•Half of the animals are white,
the remainder black, grey or brown
•Both sexes have horns, generally large
(range: 15 to 55 cm), turning outward,
upward and inward to form a semi-circle
•Pashmina Breed
BHAKARWALI

17
PANTJA

18
NORTH WESTERN ARID AND
SEMI-ARID REGION
 JAMNAPARI
Name derived from the location - river Jamna
(Jamna Par) in UP
Distribution: Agra, Mathura and Etawa districts in
Uttar Pradesh and Bhind and Morena districts in
Madhya Pradesh.

Breed characters:
•Great variation in coat colour-
white with small tan patches on head and neck.
•Highly convex nose line with a tuft of hair, yielding a
parrot mouth appearance.
•Ears are very long, flat and drooping
•A thick growth of hair on the buttocks, known as feathers
•Udder is well developed, round, with large conical teats
 BARBARI
Distribution:
Etah, Agra and Aligarh districts of Uttar
Pradesh, and Bharatpur district of Rajasthan.
Breed characters
• Small animals, with a compact body.
• Orbital bone is quite prominent, so that eyes
appear bulging
• White with small light brown patches
is the most typical
• Bucks have a large thick beard
 BEETAL
Distribution:
Throughout the States of Punjab and Haryana.
True-bred found in the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar
and Ferozepur in Punjab

Breed characters
• Predominantly black or brown with white spots of
differing sizes.
• Face line is convex, with typical Roman nose
• Ears are long and flat, curled and drooping
• Both sexes have thick medium-sized horns
• Tail is small and thin
• Udder is large and well developed, with
large conical teats
 SIROHI
Distribution
• Sirohi district of Rajasthan
• Breed also extends to Palanpur in Gujarat.

Breed characters:
• Coat colour predominantly brown, with light or dark
brown patches
• Ears are flat and leaf-like, medium-sized and
drooping
• Tail is medium in length and curved upward
• Udder is small and round, with small teats placed
laterally.
 MARWARI
Distribution:
• Marwar region of Rajasthan, comprising
Jodhpur,Pali, Nagaur, Bikaner, Jalore, Jaisalmer and
Barmer dts.
• Certain areas of Gujarat, especially Mehsana district.

Breed characteristics:
• Predominantly black with long shaggy hair coat.
• Beard is present in both sexes.
• Ears are flat, medium in length and drooping
• Both sexes have short, pointed horns
• Tail is small and thin
• Udder is small and round, with small teats placed
laterally.
 JHAKRANA
Distribution:
Jhakrana and a few surrounding villages near Behror,
in the Alwar district of Rajasthan

Breed characters:
• Coat, predominantly black with white spots on ears
and muzzle
• Face line is straight.
• Forehead is narrow and slightly bulging.
• Quite similar to Beetal - Jhakrana is longer
• Udder is large, with large conical teats
• Good indigenous dairy breed
 MEHSANA
Distribution:
Banaskantha, Mehsana, Gandhi Nagar and Ahmedabad district
of Gujarat
Breed characters:
• Coat is black, with white spots at the base of the ear.
• Nose line is straight.
• Hair coat is long and shaggy.
• Ears are white, leaf-like and drooping
• Both sexes have slightly twisted horns, curved upward and
backward
• Udder is well developed; the teats are large and conical.
 GOHILWADI
Distribution:
Bhavnagar, Amreli and Junagarh districts of Gujarat

Breed Characters:
• Coat is black and covered with coarse long hairs
• Nose line is slightly convex
• Ears are tubular and drooping
• Both sexes have slightly twisted horns
 ZALAWADI
Distribution:
Surendranagar and Rajkot districts in Gujarat

Breed Characters:
• Large animals
• Coat - black and contains long coarse hair.
• Ears - long, wide, leaf-like and drooping
• Both sexes have long twisted horns, pointed upward
• Udder is well developed with large conical teats
 KUTCHI
Distribution:
Kutch district in Gujarat
Breed characters
• Coat is predominantly black, but a few white, brown
and spotted animals are also found.
• Hair - coarse and long
• Nose - slightly Roman
• Ears - long, broad and drooping
• Both sexes have short, thick horns, pointed upward
• Udder is reasonably well developed; teats are conical.
 SURTI
Distribution:
Surat and Baroda of Gujarat
Breed characteristics
•Medium-sized animals
•White in body colour
•Udder well developed
•Large conical teats; Ears are medium-sized
•Both sexes have small horns directed backward

Performance:
Generally good milkers
Avg. daily M/Y: 2.50 kg; suitable for maintenance under stall feeding conditions.
 SOJAT

• It is large sized, dual purpose goat, distributed in Pali, Jodhpur, Nagaur and Jaisalmer
districts of Rajasthan.
• The coat colour of these animals is white with brown spots on head, neck, ear and
legs, however, pure white animals are also available in the field.
• The horns are curved and downward oriented, twisted in females while males are
completely polled.
 KARAULI
• Karauli goats are medium to large in size and dual
purpose breed,
• Distributed in Sawai Madhopur, Kota, Bundi, and
Baran districts of Rajasthan.
• The coat colour pattern is black with brown strips on
face, ears, abdomen, legs and near pin bones.
• Ears are long, pendulous with folded and brown lines
on border of ears.
• The animals have roman nose.
• The horns are medium sized corkscrew in shape which
are pointed upwards are the most typical feature of
Karauli goat.
• Karuali bucks have prominent hanging dewlap.
 GUJARI
• Gujari goat is large sized dual-purpose breed,
• Distributed mainly in Jaipur and Sikar districts
of Rajasthan.
• The animals are brown and white mixed coat
colour, while white coloured face, leg and
abdomen is typical features of the breed.
• Ears are long, pendulous and folded, and horns
are small, backward and twisted.
• Males have beard while, it is completely
absent in adult females.
 ANJORI
• Anjori Goat is a medium sized, meat purpose
breed.
• It is distributed in Raipur, Durg, Rajnandgaon,
Kanker, Dhamtari, Mahasamund districts of
Chhattisgarh state.
• Majority of animals are brown in colour.
• It is hardy and well adapted to the local
ecosystem.
• Average adult body weight for male is 35 kg
and for female is 28 kg. Accession No.: INDIA_GOAT_2600_ ANJORI
_06038
• Average milk production per lactation is 26
kg.
KAHMI

35
ROHILKHANDI

36
EASTERN REGION
 BLACK BENGAL
Distribution: Distributed throughout all eastern and
northeastern India, from Bihar through northern Orissa to all
West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya

Breed characteristics – 2 types

• Small animals;
• Predominant coat colour is black; Also called as brown, grey
and white Bengal
• Hair coat is short and lustrous.
• Both sexes have small to medium horns
• Beard is observed in both sexes
• Ears are short, flat and carried horizontally
Litter size: Highly prolific breed
Prolificacy rate –71.3 % of multiple birth (58 % of twins)
 GANJAM
Distribution:
Southern districts of Orissa - Ganjam and Koraput.

Breed Characters:
• Tall, leggy animals
• Coat may be black, white, brown or spotted, but black
predominates.
• Hairs are short and lustrous
• Ears are medium sized
• Both sexes have long, straight horns, directed upward
ASSAM HILL

40
SUMI-NE

41
SOUTHERN PENINSULAR
REGION
 MALABARI (Tellicherry)
Distribution:
Calicut, Cannannore and Malapuram districts of Kerala.

Breed Characters
• Medium-sized animals.
• Coat colour - from completely white to completely
black
• Males and a small percentage of females (13%) are
bearded
• Both sexes have small, slightly twisted horns
• Ears are medium-sized, directed outward and
downward
• Udder - small and round, with medium-sized teats.
 OSMANABADI
Distribution:
Latur, Tuljapur and Udgir taluks of Osmanabad district of
Maharashtra.

Breed characteristics
• Tall animals.
• 73% were black and the rest were white, brown or
spotted.
• Ears are medium long
• Udder is small and round with small teats placed
laterally.
 SANGAMNERI
Distribution
• Puna & Ahmednagar districts of
Maharashtra.

Breed characters
• Medium-sized animals
• White, black or brown, with spots of the other
colours.
• Ears are medium-sized and drooping
• Both sexes have horns, directed backward and
upward
 KONKAN KANYAL
Kudal, Dodamargi, Malvan, Verungla and Sawantwari
tehsils of Sindhudurg district of Konkan region of
Maharashtra
Colour : Black, white marking on collar & lower jaw,
ventral surface white.
Ears: Black with white margin, flat open, long drooping
Horns :Backward, straight, pointed
Forehead: flat & broad, black in colour.
 KANNI ADU
Home tract:
Sattur and Sivakasi taluks of Virudunagar district, Kovilpatti
and Vilattikulam taluks of Thoothukudi district and
Sankaran Kovil taluk of Tirunelveli.

Breed characters :
•Tall animals
•Predominantly black in colour
• Pal-Kanni and Cheng Kanni
• Black colour with two white stripes on either side of
the face and complete white colour in the underbelly
or inner side of the legs
 Kodi Adu
Home tract : Parts of Thoothukudi and
Ramanathapuram dts. of southern Tamil Nadu

Breed characters :
• Tall, long, lean and leggy animals with compact body.
• Grouped into two colour varieties - Chem-Porai and
Karum-Porai.
• Karum-Porai goats – white in colour with varying
extent of splashes of black colour
• Chem-Porai goats - white in colour with varying
extent of reddish brown colour and intensity
 Salem Black
Home tract : Salem and Dharmapuri districts of Tamil Nadu
Breed characters :
• Tall animals with a lean body
• Completely black in colour
• Profile of the head is straight
• Ears are medium-long, leaf like and semi-pendulous
• Both males and females have horns
• Long, lean and straight legs squarely set under the body
• Tail is thin, medium in length and curled upwards
• Udder is not well developed
ATTAPADY BLACK

51
NANDIDURGA

52
BERARI

53
BIDRI

54
ANDAMAN
AND
NICOBAR
ISLANDS
TERESSA

56
 ANDAMANI
• Andamani Goat is a medium sized, meat
purpose breed, mainly distributed in the
Middle and North Andaman island.
• It is well adapted to the tropical humid climate
of the island & are preferred for the excellent
chevon quality.
• Average adult body weight for male is 29 kg
and for female is 26 kg.
• Average milk production per lactation is 29
kg.
 STATE WISE GOAT MILK PRODUCTION
•Goat milk production - concentrated in only few states

•Top three goat milk (000 tonns) producing states

Rajasthan - 35.95 %

Uttar pradesh - 23.79 %

Madhya Pradesh - 11.32 %

Accounted - 71.06 %
MILCH TYPE BREEDS

SURTI BEETAL

MALABARI
JHAKRANA
 DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS
JAMUNAPARI MEHSANA SIROHI
ZALAWADI

KUTCHI

MARWARI
OSMANABADI

BARBARI
EXOTIC BREEDS OF GOAT
1. Saanen - Milch
2. Toggenburg - Milch
3. Alpine - Milch
4. Nubian - Dual
5. Boer - Meat
6. Angora - Mohair
 Saanen
Origin:
Saanen valley in Switzerland.
Colour and Conformation:
White coat with short hair. Face straight,
ears short and erect. Horns – sabre
shaped, pointing backward. Wattles are
common.
Milk yield – 2 to 5 kg/day.
 Toggenburg

Origin: Switzerland.
Colour and Conformation:
Brown with white colour on legs.
Generally, long haired.
 Boer
Origin : South Africa.
Colour and Conformation:
Large size
White animals with red head & neck and a white blaze.
Head - straight or slightly convex
Ears – long and lop
Horns – Scimitar shaped bending backward

Body weight at slaughter (248 days) : 42 kg

Adult body weight: Buck : 75 – 90 kg; Doe : 50 – 60 kg
 Angora
Origin : Turkey
Colour and Conformation:

• Pure white, with long silky curly hair

• Slightly concave nose line

• Medium to long lop ears

• Males – cork screw shaped horn, curving back and out

• Females - sickle shaped horn and considerably shorter

• Adult body weight: Buck: 40-55 kg; Doe : 30-40 kg
 Sheep Vs Goat
❖ Goat’s tail is raised up while a sheep’s hangs down

❖ Goat -typical browser - Feeding on leaves, shrubs, twigs and

vines
❖ Sheep on the other hand loves to graze on grass

Browsing Vs grazing
 Sheep Vs Goat (contd…)
❖ Goats are curious by nature and are
quite independent
❖ A sheep on the other hand prefers to stay as
a flock

❖ Goat has hair; Sheep have fleece

❖Goat has a beard & sheep has a mane

Sheep Vs Goat (contd…) Chromosomes
Sheep – 54 & goats -60
Goat (2n = 60) 3 pairs of sheep
metacentric
autosomes
Centric fusion of 1
&3, 2 & 7 and 5 & 10
of bovidae family

Robertsonian translocation
Centric fusion of two
acrocentric chro.

Formation one large

metacentric chromosome
and one small fragment.

Sheep (2n = 54)

 Points to be remembered
• Improver breed of goat - Jamnapari
• Name of goat as well as buffalo – Surti, Mehsana
• Name of sheep as well as goat – Marwari, Changthangi (Changthangi sheep
& Ladakh Pashmina goats), Ganjam, Gaddi
• Highly prolific goat – Black Bengal
• Goat breed with high milk yield – Jhakrana & Surti
• Larger indigenous goat breed - Jamnapari
 Points to be remembered
Important breeds: Jamnapari, Barbari, Bengal, Tellicherry & TN
breeds (Kanni, Kodi and Salem Black)

Pashmina breeds: Chegu and Changthangi

Mohair production: Angora

A state with highest no. of goat breeds: Rajasthan (7) and Gujarat (6)
 GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES
(1) All India Coordinated Research Projects (AICRP) On Goats

❖ Date of establishment : 1971

❖ Two places
❖ National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana
❖ Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Kerala

❖ Genetic improvement – for milk yield of native animals through

Crossbreeding with exotic breeds - Alpine and Saanen
Thank you for your attention
CLASSIFICATION OF PET BIRDS

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN, Ph.D.

Dept. of Animal Genetics and Breeding
MADRAS VETERINARY COLLEGE
 BIRDS
• Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents,
even in Antarctica.
• Highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions
• Many species migrate annually over great distances and across oceans.
• Most birds are diurnal, but some birds, such as many species
of owls and nightjars, are nocturnal.
• Birds communicate using primarily visual and auditory signals; the signals are
inter-specific (between species) and intra-specific (within species).
• Some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups, other birds
may form large flocks.
• Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions. While some birds are
generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements.

2
 BIRDS
• Act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis, salmonellosis, avian
influenza (bird flu), campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis
(avian tuberculosis), etc
• Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted to humans
• Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical
purposes; colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in captivity or
kept as pets
• Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology; they may
also serve as religious symbols
• Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they
were represented in early cave paintings
• Birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways; they
incorporated recordings of birds into their works
• Songbirds, parrots and other species are popular as pets
3
 BIRDS
• Modern birds are classified into 28 orders containing 170
families and approximately 9100 species
Order : Psittaciformes
Parrots, Cockatoos, Macaws, Lories, Amazon parrots
and Parakeets (Budgies)

Order: Piciformes
Woodpeckers and related species(toucans)

Order: Passeriformes (Perching birds)

Largest order of birds contain almost 60% of bird
species
 Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Aves
Order : Psittaciformes
Family : Psittacidae (The parrot family)

• Contains some of the smartest birds

• Many species can be taught to talk, are affectionate and make
excellent pets
• Members of the parrot family are known for their large beaks,
especially the Macaws
 Parrot family
• 393 species and 19 genera
• Mostly found in South America and Australasia
• Live in tropical and sub-tropical climates, but they are
actually temperature sensitive species
• Many species are successfully bred in captivity
• Includes Budgies(Parakeets), Cockatoos, Cockatiels, Conures,
Macaws, Parrots, Lovebirds, Hanging Parakeets, Rosellas and
Amazons
 Distinctive Features
• They have a sharply curved upper beak
that fits over their lower bill and the
degree curvature depends on the species
and reflection of its function
• In some instances, the fleshy tongue within
a parrot’s beak is also modified to assist
with feeding habits, as in Lories and
lorikeets
• Perching arrangements of parrots are also
unusual, zygodactyl grip, with two toes
pointing forwards and two behind the
perch, but parrots also use their feet to
hold food up to their beaks.
• Another well-known characteristic of
parrots is their potentially long lifespan,
although it varies according to the species
concerned.
 Cockatoos
• Most popular, intelligent birds, excellent pets
and tame easily
• Found in Australia, Indonesia and smaller islands
in south-eastern Asia
• ‘Cuddlers’ of the bird world
• High maintenance type, curious birds, needs lot
of social interactions to stay healthy and to
prevent boredom
• Plumage is generally less colourful than that of
other parrots, being mainly white, grey or black
• Known for crest or tuft of feathers on the top of
the head and its ability to mimic words and
sounds
• Frequently eat clay to compensate mineral
deficiency
 Cockatiels
• Smallest cockatoo species in Australia
• One of the most popular pet birds
• Possess many desirable attributes of large
birds despite their small size
• Cockatiels are ideal birds for beginners and
youngsters, easy to raise and affectionate
pets
• Female are notorious for egg laying
behaviour, stimulated by the owners or a
favorite toy / object without the presence of
male birds (develops egg binding syndrome)
• Live more than 20 years
 Lories / Lorikeet
• Medium-sized and exceptionally colourful parrots of
Australia and New Guinea
• ‘lorikeet’ is usually have long and pointed tails,
contrasting with the short and squared tailed lories
• Entertaining, playful birds, quite noisy, with high-
pitched and far-carrying calls.
• Males and females look identical, and surgical
sexing or DNA analysis of a feather is used to
determine the sex
• Feed largely on nectar and pollen gathered from
flowers and their tongues are tipped with brush like
protrusions known as papillae that serve to gather
their food efficiently (Brush tongued parrots)
• Dietary habits tend to render them unsuitable for
close confinement in the domestic environment.
 Rainbow lories Red lory Black lory

Black-winged lory Dusky lory Purple-bellied lory

Collared lory Yellow-streaked lory Blue-streaked lory

13
 Ornate lorikeet Leaf lorikeet Marigold lorikeet Blue-crowned lorikeet

Coconut lorikeet
Musk lorikeet
Sunset lorikeet Rainbow lorikeet Chattering lorikeet

Olive-headed lorikeet Iris lorikeet Blue lorikeet Yellow-billed lorikeet

14
 Budgerigar
(Parakeets)

• Budgie- Most popular pet bird in the world

• Found in wild throughout the drier parts of Australia
• Small to medium sized parrot species, intelligent, bond easily
• Excellent pet, easy to care and fairly inexpensive
• Generally smaller parrots with long tail feathers are more often
referred as parakeets
• If trained correctly, they can be taught to talk large vocabularies
with the ability to speak in sentences
• It eats feed from the floor of its cage
• Unfortunate characteristic is development of neoplasia and suffer
an early demise
• Colour of the area containing the nostrils is differs between
the sexes, being royal blue in males, pale brown to white (non-
breeding) or brown (breeding) in females and pink in immature
birds of both sexes.
• All captive budgerigars are divided into two basic series of colours;
namely, white-based (blue, grey and white) and yellow-based
(green, grey-green and yellow).
• Presently, at least 32 primary colour mutations (including violet)
Budgerigar
 Macaw
• Present in both Central and South America
• Birds are very curious, intelligent and mischievous
• Characteristic feature of the common macaws is
the large area of essentially bare facial skin on
either side of the head and in most instances, this
is white yellowish.
• In contrast to their fearsome beaks, macaws can
prove very gentle.
• They are not usually talented mimics
• Macaws show a strong tendency to become one
person pets and this can present a great problem
when purchasing a tame adult bird.
• They have a long potential life span and mature
slowly, rarely bred before four years of age.
 Blue and Gold Macaw

Macaws are known as the giants of the parrot

world
Macaws are long-tailed, often colorful, New
World parrots.
Macaws are beautiful, brilliantly colored
members of the parrot family.
Adaptations for the Rain Forest,
many macaws have vibrant plumage.

• With a length (from the top of its head to the tip

of its long pointed tail) of about one meter
(3.3 ft), it is longer than any other species of
parrot.

• It is the largest macaw and the largest flying

parrot species

Hyacinth Macaw
 Lovebirds
• Native of Africa
• Name comes from the parrots'
strong, monogamous pair bonding and the long
periods, paired birds spend sitting together
• They are among the smallest parrots,
characterised by a stocky build, a short blunt tail
and a relatively large, sharp beak.
• Wild type lovebirds are mostly green with a
variety of colours on their upper body, depending
on the species.
• Many colour mutant varieties have been
produced by selective breeding of the species
that are popular in aviculture.
• Hardy and long-lived birds that make excellent
pets if they obtained in very young
 Lovebirds

• Lovebirds are a favorite among pet birds, often called “Pocket

parrots"
• Lovebirds sometimes have a harsh voice
• Most common species is the Rosy-faced Lovebird
• In spite of their name, however lovebirds can prove extremely
aggressive, especially when breeding and for this reason it is safer
to keep pairs on their own.
22
23
 Amazon Parrots
• Medium-sized parrots
• Native from South America to Mexico and
the Caribbean
• Predominantly green coloration in their plumage
(Green Parrots)
• Most colorful and beautiful birds in the world.
• These birds have been taken all over the world by
explorers who were simply fascinated by the variety
in coloration of these gorgeous birds.
• Male Amazons have a reputation for exhibiting
“macho” behavior — they might flare their tail
feathers, pin their eyes and “strut” across the floor
or table top.
• Amazon parrots are prone to becoming obese,
which is why owners should pay attention to the
amount and types of food offered daily.
25
 Indian Ringneck Parakeet
• Bird is a pastel green color that makes an excellent pet and a good
talker
• The beak is red. An orange ring surrounds the eyes with tapering tail
making up about half its length.
• Adult male sports a red and black neck ring; and the hen and
immature birds of both sexes either show no neck rings, or display
shadow-like pale to dark grey neck rings.
• Both sexes have a distinctive green colour in the wild, and captive bred
ringnecks have multiple colour mutations including blue, violet and
yellow.
27
 Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Aves
Order : Piciformes

 It includes the woodpeckers and close relatives

 Mostly insectivorous, although the barbets and toucans mostly
eat fruit and the honeyguides are being able to
digest beeswax.
 Nearly all Piciformes have parrot-like zygodactyl feet— that
has obvious advantages for birds that spend much of their
time on tree trunks.
 Toucans (Woodpecker Family)
• Fairly rare as pets
• Resident breeders and do not migrate.
• Very noisy birds & about the size of a
Macaw
• Known for their extremely large bill, which
can be almost as long as the bird’s body
• Bills are brightly marked and have large,
often-colorful
• They are arboreal and typically lay 2–21
white eggs in their nests.
• Usually found in pairs or small flocks.
• Researchers have discovered that the large bill of the toucan is a
highly efficient thermoregulation system, though its size may still
be advantageous in other ways.
• It does aid in their feeding behavior and allows the bird to reach
deep into tree-holes to access food unavailable to other birds, and
also to ransack suspended nests built by smaller birds.
31
 Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class : Aves
Order : Passeriformes (Synonymous as "perching birds”)

• Largest, most diverse commonly recognized birds and almost 60%

of all birds (5,100 of 9,000 bird species)
• The heaviest and largest are the Thick-billed Raven weighing 1.5 kg
and measures 70 cm
• The Superb Lyrebird and some Birds-of-Paradise, measures around
110 cm due to very long tails
• The smallest perching bird is the Short-tailed Pygmy-
Tyrant, measuring 6.5 cm and weighing 4.2 grams
 Perching Birds
• Perching birds or songbirds, are
distinguished from other orders of birds
by the arrangement of their three toes
directed forward and one toe directed
backward, called anisodactyl arrangement.
• This arrangement enables passerine birds to
easily perch upright on branches

• The chicks of passerines are altricial; blind, featherless and

helpless when hatched from their eggs.
• This requires that the chicks receive a lot of parental care.
• Most perching birds lay coloured eggs.
• Different varieties with beautiful coloration
 Finches
• They have a worldwide distribution except
for Australia and the polar regions
• Smallest pet bird in avian species; do not
talk, but quite vocal
• Occupy a great range of habitats where
they are usually resident and do not
migrate
• Primarily brown with very dark, almost
black head and breast; rump and underside
are white
• Finches have stout conical bills adapted for
eating seeds and often have colourful
plumage
• Many different varieties with beautiful
coloration
• Usually sexually dimorphic
 Finches
• Zebra Finch is the most widely bred
in captivity
• Bengalese Finch is the most social of
all birds (Social Finch)
• White backed munia is found in India
and Ceylon (House Finch)
• Life span : 8 to 10 years

Zebra Finch Bengalese Finch White backed munia

36
 CANARY
• Most popular variety of pet bird; desirable for their
beautiful song
• Beautiful, independent, not meant to be handled
and relatively solitary bird—it will not get lonely if
housed alone in a cage.
• If two male canaries together in a single cage; they
will likely fight.
• Wild canaries are a yellowish-green colour
• Domestic canaries have been selectively bred for a
wide variety of colours such as yellow, orange,
brown, black, white, and red
• Male canaries noted for their beautiful song to
attract a mate; Female canaries do not sing
• Highly nervous and sensitivity to hand-tame
• Canaries are well known for their delicate
respiratory systems
 Canary
Canaries are generally divided into three varieties:
• Bred for their many color mutations – Coloured canary
• Bred for their unique and specific song patterns – Song canary
• Bred for their shape and conformation – Type canary
• Canaries were used as sentinel species for use in detecting
carbon monoxide in coal mining and they were regularly used in
coal mining as an early warning system (was phased out in 1986)
39
 Starlings
• Small to medium-sized birds and requires lots of care
• Talking Mynah bird
• Black bird with an orange bill that has the ability to mimic the human
voice and other sounds
• Cages must be cleaned daily because Mynah birds have a diet of fruit
• Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations
• Birds can recognize particular individuals by their calls and are
currently the subject of research into the evolution of human
language
41
Application of Reproductive Tools for
Genetic Improvement of Livestock

DR. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Introduction
• The traditional breeding programmes based on performance recording
and cross breeding have made genetic improvement in livestock
production.

• During the last two decades, newer technological breakthrough in the

field of Reproduction, Genetics and related aspects have opened the new
area of livestock improvement.

• These reproductive techniques may assist with either increasing the rate
of genetic gain or decreasing the time it takes to deliver genetically
improved animals from genetically superior herds to genetically inferior
herds (reduced genetic lag).
 Approaches
• The challenge in front of animal scientists is to provide society with food
products that meet their evolving nutritional requirements of the
population with specific economic and environmental constraints.

P=G+E
G = selection and breeding, genome editing
E = nutrition, management, disease, treatment and prophylaxis.

Two pronged approach

1. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Allowed to continuously improve the genetic makeup of domestic
species
2. ENVIRONMENT
Improving management, nutritional practices, disease prophylaxis,
treatment
 Fusion of Biology and Technology
• BIOTECHNOLOGY aimed at improving both NURTURE (environment) as
well as NATURE (genetic component) of the equation.

• Used to improve genetic makeup of livestock species by – Reproductive

technologies, Livestock genomics, Marker assisted selection and Livestock
transgenesis.

• G = selection and breeding, genome editing

Selection  Phenotypic and Genomic / MAS (Marker-assisted selection)

Genome editing  inserting a gene of interest (Genetically modified

organisms or transgenic organisms)
 Response to selection increases with
• Increase in accuracy of selection
• Increase in variability of the population
• Reduction in generation interval
• Increase in selection intensity

**Our main aim is to do any of the above**

Different reproductive and biotechnological tools

to increase the response to selection
 Artificial Insemination (AI)
• AI has been accepted as widely
applied reproductive technique
around the world and high
conception rates can be achieved.

• In this process, the semen is

inseminated into the female by
placing a portion of it either in a
collected or diluted form into the
cervix or uterus by mechanical
methods at the proper time and
under most hygienic conditions.

• AI has played a valuable role to

bring genetic changes in animal
populations.
Specific advantages of AI are,
• Dissemination of superior germplasm by widespread use of outstanding
sires.

• Introduction of new genetic material by importing semen instead of live

animals.

• Progeny testing under different environments so as to increase the

efficiency of selection.

• Use of frozen semen in future even after the death of sire.

• It makes breeding easy and is cost-effective.

• It allows for genetic preservation.

 Embryo Transfer (ET)
• Embryo transfer is the female equivalent of AI,
whereby many offspring can be obtained from
one cow.
• The magnitude of increase is much less for ET
(tens of offspring) than AI (hundreds of
thousands of offspring).
• Embryo transfer typically requires the use of
several technologies, such as the
1. Application of reproductive hormones to
stimulate the release of many eggs
(multiple ovulation)
2. Followed by AI (or natural mating)
3. Embryo recovery and embryo transfer into
surrogate dams who have undergone
oestrous synchronisation
• Typically known by the acronym Multiple
Ovulation Embryo Transfer (MOET).
• A variation of MOET is to use ovum pickup directly from the ovary, which
is followed by incubation, in-vitro fertilization and embryo transfer into
surrogate dams.
• Another alternative is to recover ovaries from slaughterhouses and to
fertilize them under in-vitro conditions before transfer into surrogate
dams. With this approach, the genetic merit of the donating female may
be unknown.
 Many of the benefits or potential applications
of AI which also apply to ET includes

• Multiplication of genetically superior females.

• Long‐distance / international transport / Long‐term storage of embryos.
• Increased twinning rates, thereby reducing the numbers of animals
required for research.
• To control the sex of a calf (by sexing the embryo prior to transfer).
• Conservation of endangered species.
• Maximising the number of calves per semen dose when used with
superovulated donors.
• Minimising the risk of transmission of infectious agents compared with
natural service.
 In-vitro production of embryos
• Allows the repeated collection of oocytes for production of high quality
embryos from livestock of high economic value or unique / endangered
genotype.
• Genetic propagation will be at faster rate
 Embryo cryopreservation
• First successful cryopreservation of mouse embryos in 1972.
• It is essential for long-term preservation of valuable genetic resources from
livestock animals.
• Exchange of germplasm with reduced transportation cost, to avoid animal
welfare problems and minimal risk of disease transmission.
• At present, millions of offspring have been born from cryopreserved embryos of
more than 40 mammalian species.
 Embryo splitting
• Embryo splitting refers to the formation of twins or multiples through artificial
microsurgical splitting of an embryo at the blastocyst stage.
• At cleavage stage, the single cells of the embryo (blastomeres) are still
totipotent.

• Aim is to get more number of

offsprings from a given donor.
• Identical twins can be produced
• Facilitates in
1. Sire testing
2. Reduced cost
3. To study G-E interactions
4. Study of carcass traits by
sacrificing one twin.
 Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
• Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a strategy for creating a viable embryo from a
body cell and an egg cell.
• The technique consists of taking an enucleated oocyte (egg cell) and implanting a
donor nucleus from a somatic (body) cell.
 Cloning
• Cloning is the creation of genetically
identical copies of the same individual.
• It has been successfully achieved using early
embryonic cells, embryonic cultured cell
lines and somatic cells of adult animals.
• The genetic material of the donor cell
(embryonic or somatic) is transferred to the
enucleated recipient cell (oocyte).
• In oocytes, enucleation (removal of genetic
material) is accomplished either by splitting
or removing the chromosomes by aspiration.
• The recipient cell is usually a secondary
oocyte which can be obtained by in-vivo
ovulation or by in-vitro maturation of
oocytes.
 Cloning
The cloning technology has certain promises viz.
• Cloning of a proven valuable animal.
• Creation of thousands of precise duplicates of genetically engineered
animals in a single generation.
• It is much simple and effective means for conservation of breeds and to
increase the population size.
• It may use the cells of high performing F1 individuals to retain heterosis.
 Marker Assisted Breeding
1. Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)
• It is a form of indirect selection, for a
trait of interest by molecular markers.
• Molecular marker is a DNA segment
segregates in a predictable fashion and
helps to tagging of genes or small
chromosome segment influencing the
trait of interest.
• MAS use molecular markers known to be
associated with trait of interest or
phenotypes to select animals with
desirable allele effecting target trait.
• Molecular markers can be of
microsatellite, SNP, RFLP, AFLP etc.
 Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)

MAS has certain advantages;

1. It can be used in early age and reduces the generation interval.

2. It increases the rate of genetic gain by increasing the accuracy of

selection and selection intensity.

3. It is more efficient for traits of low heritability.

4. Selection for traits which cannot be improved by conventional

methods viz. resistance to disease.
 2. Genomic selection
• GS develops the prediction model
based on the genotypic and phenotypic
data of reference population (RP),
which is used to derive estimated
genomic breeding values (EGBVs) for all
the individuals of breeding population
(BP) from their genomic profile.

• Is a form of MAS, GS estimates the

genetic worth of the individual based
on large set of marker information
distributed across the whole genome,
and is not based on few markers as in
MAS.
Advantages
• Select animals before they reach productive and reproductive age.
• Eliminate the need for progeny testing.
• Increased genetic gain by increasing accuracy of selection and reducing the
generation interval.
• Selection possible on novel traits, which otherwise require high cost.
 Transgenesis
• Transgenesis is the process of introducing a gene (transgene) from one
organism into the genome of another organism.

• The aim is to produce transgenic organism, it will express the gene and
exhibit some new property or characteristic.

• This technique was applied first on mice and afterwards in rats, rabbits,
sheep, pigs and birds.

• Transgenic animals are produced by three methods viz.

1. DNA micro injection

2. Embryonic stem cell mediated gene transfer

3. Retro virus mediated gene transfer

Transgenesis – uses
This technology produced the animals of
specific characteristics.
• In dairy animals, the purpose is to
change the composition of milk with
respect to lactose and milk protein.
• To increase the growth of animals by
introducing genes responsible for
growth hormone secretion.
• To produce large amount of human
proteins of pharmaceutical value.
• Production of animals resistant to
diseases, ex. Mastitis.
• To improve the quality of animal
products like wool in sheep and meat
in pigs.
 Sexed Semen
• Sex sorting technology was developed
by the researchers in Beltsville,
Maryland, USA.

• Semen having X-or Y-bearing sperms

to produce progenies of a desired sex
either female or male (with about 80-
90% accuracy) is known as sexed
semen.

• The X-chromosome (female) contains

about 3.8 per cent of more DNA than
the Y-chromosome (male) in cattle.

• This difference in DNA content is used

to sort the X- from the Y- bearing
sperm.
 Sexed semen
Advantages
• Production of more female calves - increase the supply of replacement
heifers.
• Rapid genetic improvement.
• To increase the efficiency of PT, ET and IVF programmes.
• An economic way to increase herd strength with no risk of introducing
diseases by purchasing heifers from outside (improves bio-security).

Limitations
• High cost and low sorting efficiency.
• Require highly skilled person to operate sex sorting machines.
• Damage to the sperm cells due to shear force and electrostatic charge leads
to wastage of sperm (approx. to 50 per cent).
• Reduced freezing potential of the sorted sperm.
 Advantages of Reproductive
Biotechniques
• Increased reproductive efficiency
• Global transport
• Multiplication of genetic material
• Conservation of unique genetic material for future use

Challenges

• Trained manpower
• Cost effectiveness
• Ethical concerns / Welfare issues
 Breeding Strategies for the
Improvement of Dairy Cattle and
Buffalo

Dr. A. Gopinathan
Dept. of AGB, MVC
Chennai – 600 007
 Introduction
 India has been top position in milk production of the world, producing about 230.58 million tones (2022-23)
of milk with annual growth rate of 5.8% in past nine years. .
 However , based on population and production statistics there is a gap between the milk requirement and
per capita availability and there is scope for increasing the milk production ability of our cattle and buffalo
population.


 As per 20th Livestock census 35.94% of the livestock
population belong to cattle. Exotic and Crossbred
animals contributes nearly 26.20% of the total cattle
population and rest 73.80% of the cattle population
14%
are indigenous / Non-descript.

 Out of this 73.80% of indigenous / non-descript cattle 11%

population, 71% of the population is Non-Descript
animals and rest 29% were of pure breed registered
indigenous cattle

 Out of total buffaloes, 17.05% are pure breeds,

39.58% are graded and remaining 43.37% are in non-
descript buffalos

 But the milk contribution from non-descript cattle and

buffalo were only 11% and 14%, respectively to the
total milk production.
74.9%
 So…
 It is not feasible to have a uniform cattle and buffalo breeding policy in view of large
number of cattle and buffalo breeds in India with more than 71% (out of indigenous
population) and 43.37% of population being non-descript cattle and buffalo
respectively.

 Given with other factors like types of utilities (milch, dual and draft), different agro-
ecological regions, different socio-economical level of farmers (small, marginal and
landless).

 Keeping these in mind, there is need to formulate various breeding strategies for
different types of animals distributed in different agro-ecological regions.
 Breeding strategies for cattle
 The improvement of non-descript cattle which are very low milk producing can be made by
infusion of superior germplasm from well recognized breeds of Bos indicus and Bos taurus.

 The non-descript population should be the target population for improvement through
crossbreeding or Grading up.

 Well recognized registered indigenous breed should be improved by selective breeding.

 Economic traits focused to improve milk production in dairy cattle were age at first calving,
lactation length, dry period, life time milk production, longevity, number of lactations completed,
service period, number of services required for conception, birth weight and body weight gain at
different ages.
 In case of males, the sexual libido, semen production, semen quality and freezability.
 Crossbreeding of non-descript cattle with exotic breeds

 The choice of exotic breed to be used for crossbreeding of

non-descript cows depends on the availability of the quality 7.95 Kg/day
feed and fodder resources in adequate quantity and the
market facilities.
 In general, HF breed should be used in the irrigated plains
and Jersey breed in hills and coastal areas
 The level of exotic inheritance should be limited between 50-
75%.
 The crossbred cows produced should be mated with
crossbred bulls of high breeding value by inter-se mating.

This crossbreeding programme has certain requirements viz. facilities

and Infrastructure for A.I., supply of quality semen from superior
sires, semen banks, trained manpower, in addition to animal
health care and marketing facilities < 2 Kg/day
Crossbreeding of non-descript cattle with exotic breeds

 Crossbreeding in dairy cattle has relatively shown good results mainly under
semi-intensive and intensive production systems.

 Under semi-intensive production system, it is advisable to restrict exotic

inheritance between 50 and 62.5% through inter-se mating in crossbred cattle

 Under intensive production system, higher levels of exotic inheritance between

62.5 and 75% can be sustained.

 Progeny tested crossbred males having exotic inheritance between 50 and 75%
produced through inter-se mating can be used to sustain the exotic level
between 50 and 75%.
 Grading up of non-descript cattle with Zebu breeds
 Grading up of non-descript cattle with well recognized breeds is the recommended
breeding policy.
 The bulls to be used for grading up should be the progeny of superior dams having
lactation yield of more than 2000 kg for milch breeds (Sahiwal, Red Sindhi,
Tharparkar and Gir) and more than 1500 kg for dual purpose breeds (Hariana,
Ongole and Kankrej)
 Different recognised zebu breeds are recommended for different states
Sahiwal and Tharparkar – local cattle of Punjab, hariana, M.P., U.P. and west Bengal
Red Sindhi- local cattle of H.P., J&K., U.P., Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala, Goa and Manipur.
Tharparkar – local cattle of Kerala, Tripura, Delhi, A.P., Bihar and Rajasthan
Gir – local cattle of Gujarat, Rajasthan and M.P.
Hariana- local cattle of all states except South Indian states
Ongole - local cattle of M.P. and A.P.
Kangayam - local cattle of T.N.
Kankrej - local cattle of Gujarat
 Proper monitoring of grading up programme of non-descript cattle on regular and long
term basis can improve the milk yield by 500 to 800 kg in the first generation.

 So far the impact of breed improvement programmes initiated earlier through grading up
of the non-descript cattle with improved indigenous breeds has not been very
encouraging.
 This may be due to
1. Non-availability of adequate number of high genetic merit pedigreed or
progeny tested bulls of indigenous breed.

2. Low production levels of indigenous breeds.

3. Irregular and short term breeding plan which could not wean away the
farmers/breeders from using scrub bulls breeding their herds.
 Selective breeding within Indigenous breeds

 The indigenous breeds of cattle need to be improved by selective

breeding in their breeding tract
 The milch breeds (Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar and Gir) and
dual purpose breeds (Hariana, Ongole and Kankrej) need to be
improved genetically by selective breeding through progeny
testing programme or ONBS with or without MOET
 This programme can be more effectively run under herd progeny
testing programme by associating at least of 2-3 herd of each
breed such as organized farms, gaushalas and farmer’s herd.
 The selective breeding is expected to yield around 1% genetic
gain per year in organized herd whereas the genetic
improvement in farmers herd is expected to be around 10 %
 Selective breeding within Indigenous breeds

 These programmes resulted insignificant amount of genetic progress over the

years in most of the herds of indigenous cattle breeds due to
1. Smaller herd size

2. Absence of rigorous selection of males and females

3. Poor replacement rate

4. More involuntary culling of cows on the basis of traits other than low milk
production, unplanned breeding programme and poor monitoring
 Therefore, it is suggested that the breed specific networking of organized farms
and farmer's/breeder's herds should be developed to form a large associated test
population for undertaking large scale progeny testing of breeding bulls.
 Breeding strategies for Buffalo

 As per 20th Livestock census, 20.50% of the livestock population are buffaloes.

 Out of total buffaloes, 17.05% are pure breeds, 39.58% are graded and remaining 43.37%
are in non-descript population.

 Two breeding strategies are recommended for improvement of buffaloes.

 One is for the non-descript population : Grading up

 Second is for recognized or defined breeds : Selective breeding

 Grading up for non-descript buffaloes 6.0 Kg/day

 The non-descript buffaloes of the different part of the country

should be upgraded by mating them with superior bulls of high
genetic merit belonging to Murrah, Nili Ravi, Mehsana and Surti
breeds.

 This will increase the milk production to about 1200 kg in the first
generation of upgraded buffaloes

 With continuous upgrading with superior high genetic merit bulls for
4-5 generations will replace the non-descript buffaloes by
comparatively high producing upgraded buffaloes which may be
nearer to the well defined breeds.
< 2.0 Kg/day
 Grading up for non-descript buffaloes

 It may be explored to collect semen from 50 % graded buffalo bull and distribute for
field Artificial Insemination in the places with inadequate management and feed /
fodder resources for sustaining the improvement achieved in the first generation of
grading up programme

 Murrah – local buffalo of Assam, Bihar, W.B., U.P., Orissa, A.P., Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan,
Haryana, Goa and Delhi

 Surti - local buffalo of Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat

 Nili Ravi - local buffalo of Punjab

 Selective breeding for well defined Buffalo breeds
 It can be improved through selective breeding within breeds by net-
working approach of progeny-testing of bulls associating multiple
organized herds as well as farmer's herds under field condition

 For effective implementation of selective breeding particularly on large

scale, existing organized farms of Murrah, Surti, Mehsana, Nili Ravi,
Nagpuri, Bhadawari and Jaffarabadi buffalo breeds should be
strengthened for production of high genetic merit breeding bulls.

 It is expected that genetic improvement of 1 to 1.5% per annum in milk

production will be achieved at organized farms by selective breeding,
through networking of multi-herds of a particular breed and 8 - 10% per
annum in farmers' herds through introducing the germplasm of high
yielding buffalo bulls
 Following strategies are recommended for genetic
improvement of cattle and buffalos
 Establishment and strengthening of breeding services organizations (Centre/State level)
for overall monitoring and implementation of breeding programmes.
 Networking of breed-specific organized government/private cattle and buffalo farms
and large progressive farmer's herds for testing of large number of breeding bulls and
linking with performance recording and progeny testing of bulls under farmer's herds in
village conditions.
 Infrastructure facilities such as establishment of AI centers, animal health centers, milk
procurement and extension centers fully equipped with trained man power can be
provided for covering large number of breedable bovine animals in the operational
area.
 Establishment and strengthening of breed nucleus herds / bull mother farms, young bull
rearing centers, semen collection and cryo-storage banks
 Integration of in-situ and ex-situ conservation programmes with breed improvement
development programmes

 Establishment of data bank to carry out activities on animal identification and performance
recording linked progeny testing programme for selection of large number of high genetic
merit bulls

 Formation of the milk producer's co-operative unions/breed societies/NGOs for

participation of farmers/ breeders, non-governmental, voluntary and private sector
organizations for delivery of animal breeding, health, marketing and extension services at
the doorstep of farmers

 Molecular genetic studies for identification of genes of interest (milk quality and quantity
traits, fertility, draft, disease resistance, adaptive traits) and marker assisted selection
(MAS) as new breeding tools need to be explored for identifying superior animals and
commercial exploitation of genetic potential of indigenous breeds.
Thank
you
 Breeding Strategies for Genetic
Improvement of Sheep, Goat and Swine

Dr. A. Gopinathan
Dept. of AGB, MVC
Chennai – 600 007
 Breeding strategies in Sheep
a) Fine wool
• Selective breeding for improving fine wool in breeds like Nali,
Chokla, Patanwadi and Nilgiri should be considered

• Crossbreeding of Nali and Chokla of Rajasthan, Patanwadi of Gujarat

and Nilgiri of Tamil Nadu with Rambouillet and Merino rams has
been recommended for fine wool breeding keeping 50-75 per cent
exotic inheritance.

Strains of sheep for fine wool developed through crossbreeding of

indigenous with exotic rams are

Kashmir merino : Gaddi, Bhakarwal and Poonchi ewes with Merino

and Rambouillet rams

Bharat merino and Avivastra : Chokla and Nali ewes with Merino
and Rambouillet rams

Nilgiri synthetic : Niligiri ewes with Rambouillet rams

 Breeding strategies in Sheep

b) Carpet wool

• Selective breeding for improving carpet wool in breeds like

Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra and Pugal should be considered.

• The inferior carpet wool breeds like Malpura, Sonadi,

Muzzaffarnagri may be improved for better carpet wool
quality by crossing them with exotic fine wool breeds
stabilizing exotic inheritance around 50%.

Avikalin – Carpet wool crossbred developed by crossing

Malpura ewes with Rambouillet rams at CSWRI, Avikanagar
 Breeding strategies in Sheep
c) Mutton
• Selective breeding in their breeding tract

• Breeds like Malpura, Sonadi, Muzaffarnagri, Mandya and Nellore

should be crossed with exotic breeds like Dorset and Suffolk.

Avimans: crossbred sheep developed by crossing Malpura and

Sonadi ewes with Dorset and Suffolk rams at CSWRI,
Avikanagar

d) Pelt production
• Crossbreeding of coarse carpet wool breeds with Karakul has
good potential for pelt production.

Indian Karakul: crossbred strain developed by crossing

Marwari, Malpura and Sonadi ewes with rams of Karakul breed
 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Potential mutton type breeds such as Malpura, Sonadi,

Muzzaffarnagari, Madras Red, Mandya, Nellore, Deccani, Ganjam
etc., may be restricted to selective breeding.

• Ram rearing centers for indigenous breeds need to be

strengthened for production of superior breeding rams.

• Open nucleus breeding system should be followed involving

farmers’ flocks.

• There is an urgent need to increase the lambing rate in

indigenous stock by introducing prolific sheep like Garole.
 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Sheep breeding farms may be established in the home tracts

and evaluation of breeds of the region should be carried out

• Artificial insemination technique would be increasingly

adopted

• Suitable field recording systems for performance

evaluation of sheep should be developed on priority basis.

• It will be desirable that the crossbreds are evaluated not only

in terms of their performance but also in terms of their
adaptation especially to the physical environmental conditions
in which they are going to perform.
 Breeding strategies in Goat

• Non-descript population should be upgraded by mating with

bucks of high genetic merit of recognized breeds for
improvement of milk and meat

• Selective breeding within recognized breed is recommended

• Crossbreeding for meat with Boer breed of South Africa has

been undertaken

• Crossbreeding for pashmina fiber production in Changthangi

breed with exotic breeds of Orenburg breed (best quality
Pashmina breed) of Russia
 Breeding for improving Meat
Production
• Meat production traits include reproduction rate, kid survival,
efficiency of feed conversion, body weight at slaughter and
dressing percentage.

• Therefore, breeding strategies should be directed towards

improving growth rate, body weight, reproductive
efficiency, dressing percentage and to reduce mortality
and morbidity.

• The optimum body weight for slaughter is an important factor

for consideration, while developing a breeding strategy for
improving the meat production.
 Breeding Systems

 Crossing of indigenous breeds with exotic breeds like

Boer / Anglo-Nubian may be encouraged for improving
growth rate and chevon production in areas where there is
availability of good quality feed resources or where intensive
feeding is possible.

 Both intra-population and crossbreeding can be adopted

based on the need of the locality, demand for the market and
traits under consideration
 Breeding for improving Milk
Production
• Among indigenous breeds Jamunapari, Beetal, Barbari,
Jhakrana, Sirohi and Surti can be considered as important milch
breeds.

• Both selective breeding within important milch breeds and the

crossbreeding with superior indigenous breeds / exotic dairy
breeds like Alpine and Sannen has been undertaken to improve
their milk production.

• Jamunapari, Beetal, Jakhrana and Surti can also be used as

improved breeds in other regions for increasing both milk and
meat production.
 Breeding for improving Milk
Production
• Crossing of low producing indigenous breeds and non-
descript may be practiced with exotic breeds like Sannen

• However, the crossbreeding with Sannen should be taken up only in

areas where feed resources are better and there is possibility of
making available cultivated fodder/concentrate.

• Performance recording and progeny testing programs should

be encouraged to select and propagate elite bucks.

• Nucleus flocks can be established with best performing

females and their male progenies can be linked with farmers flock.

• Artificial insemination with liquid and preferably frozen

semen may be adopted to make the progeny testing programme
more effective.
 Recommendations

• Availability of reliable data on goat breeds population at

different areas and trends over time is one of the chief
criterion for formulating appropriate breeding policies and
strategies

• Animal identification and field performance recording of

indigenous goat breeds needs to be started

• Participation of livestock keepers in the genetic

improvement programme should be encouraged

• Selected elite animals are used for breeding and their

progenies are used for further breeding
 Recommendations

• By addressing disease / health, nutrition and management

will bring more success

• The period of a genetic improvement programme should be

minimum 10 years and requires strong institutional /
organizational support

• Encouraging semen freezing and artificial insemination

(AI) technology can effectively overcome the problem of
unavailability of good quality breeding bucks and the small
holder farmers’ difficulty and economic non-feasibility of
maintaining a buck.
 Breeding strategies in Swine

• Pig breeding policy will focus on improving growth,

prolificacy, quality and quantity of meat and survivability.

• Conservation of the meritorious indigenous breeds of pigs in

their defined local tracts.

• Crossbreeding with high yielding, disease resistant exotic

breeds with maximum 50% of exotic germplasm to be
achieved.
 Breeding Strategies

1. Genetic improvement of local pigs through selective

breeding
2. Conserve / maintain nucleus hard of well developed
indigenous pig germplasm
3. Genetic improvement of local / non-descript pigs by
crossbreeding and gradually replacing the non-descript
pigs with crossbred germplasm of desired level of exotic
inheritance
4. Maintenance of well-developed planned crossbred pigs
(inter-se mating) at farmers’ field.
5. Expansion and strengthening of breeding infrastructure and
support mechanism to propagate elite germplasm through
Artificial Insemination (AI)
 Crossbreeding to be propagated in
different regions

1. Northern India:
Large White Yorkshire
Landrace

2. North-eastern India:
Hampshire
Large white Yorkshire (Mizoram and Tripura)
Triple cross with Duroc as terminal sire

3. Eastern India:
Hampshire
Tamworth (specifically Jharkhand)
 Crossbreeding to be propagated in
different regions

4. Central India:
Landrace
Large white Yorkshire

5. Southern India:
Large white Yorkshire
Triple cross with Duroc as terminal sire

6. Western India:
Large white Yorkshire
Breeding for Disease
Resistance
 Introduction
• The term “disease” literally describes a state of “dis-ease” or
“lack of ease”.
• It describes an abnormal condition of body structure and
function, which is usually indicated by symptoms.
• Disease is usually a complex interaction of several factors.
• Resistance is the ability of the host to disturb the lifecycle of
pathogen or parasite and resist the consequences of the
disease.
• Tolerance describes the host ability to perform while being
infected.
• In animal breeding main emphasis has been given to selection
for production traits.
• Even, there are genetic differences among individuals for
developing diseases.
• The difference can be between populations and within
populations.
• There is a genetic basis for some individuals to be susceptible
and for some to be resistant.
• Identification / selection & multiplication of resistant
individuals to produce resistant strain.
• Hence, there is a potential for selection.
• But, this field had been neglected, recently, there are attempts
to exploit it.
 Threshold characters
• A threshold character is one for which the phenotypic values are
discontinuous but the mode of inheritance is like that of a continuously
varying character.
• The characters whose inheritance is quantitative and expression is
qualitative.
Eg. Disease resistance
 Polygenic – many genes are responsible for one trait.
 But only two groups – affected and resistant.

Liability
• Liability is a term used to collectively describe all the genetic and
environmental factors that contribute to the development of a multi-
factorial disorder.

• Although it is impossible to directly measure the liability of a certain

individual, the liability for a group of people can be estimated based on
the number of affected individuals within a group.
 Types of Genetic Resistance
1. Qualitative Resistance
 Controlled by one or a few genes.

 This type of resistance is relatively easy to breed because the major

genes are easy to identify and are readily transferred from one
genotype to another.

 This reaction is said to occur when a pathogen produces disease

symptoms on host but fails to do so on others.

 Distinct classes of resistance and susceptible animals.

 Also called “Vertical” resistance.

 Qualitative Resistance
Advantages
 Easy to identify or screen the animals

 Easier transfer of genes

Disadvantages
 Vulnerability to new races

 Continuous selection on particular host may lead to development

of new race or shift in pathogen population
 Types of Genetic Resistance
2. Quantitative Resistance
• Controlled by polygenes (Polygenic Resistance)

• Each of the genes that contributes toward the level of resistance

(Minor Gene Resistance)

• The many minor genes cannot be individually identified and cannot

be transferred through crossing in a predictable fashion.
• Continuous variation among genotypes.
• Resistance is effective against all genotypes of the particular species.

• Breeding polygenic resistance is more challenging.

• Also known as “Horizontal” Resistance.

 General mechanisms of genetic resistance

• Resistance due to impenetrable barriers

• Absence of appropriate receptors for binding and penetration of

cellular membranes

• Failure to survive after entering the host

• Inability to replicate in the host

• Killing and elimination by host defence mechanisms especially by

phagocytes

8
 GENETIC INVESTIGATIONS ON RESISTANCE TO INFECTIONS

• Pathogens of varying etiologies can be determined at three genetic levels

Species level

• Studies of differences in genetic resistance among species to the infective

agents.

For e.g., goats display a greater resistance / tolerance to foot rot than sheep

Breed level

• Locally adapted breeds display a far greater level of genetic resistance and
adaptation in tropical regions, as compared to temperate breeds

Individual animal genetic variation

• Individual variability and the identification of those individuals by the use of

genetic markers will represent the first step in the formation of genetic
resistance within a population
9
Methods of identification of resistant individuals

1. Occurrence of the disease under normal environmental

conditions.
2. Inoculation of animals with pathogen causing disease.
3. Use of indicators for resistance.

• 1st method is not so effective. Because, under the changed

environmental conditions the resistant become susceptible.

• 2nd method is objectionable ethically.

• 3rd method is better but involves lot of efforts to find

markers.
 Markers / Indicators
• They can be direct or indirect.
• Sebum-like material from udder – differed in susceptibility to
Str. agalactiae - because of presence of different fatty acids.
– Resistant: Myristic, Linolenic, lauric
– Susceptible: significantly more palmitic acid
• Marek’s : Resistant chicken–B21 antigen on RBC, Susceptible–B19 Ag.
• Eye cancer in Hereford cattle : Pigmented eyelids – less cancer, white
faced non-pigmented eyelids – more occurrence of cancer.
• Embryos lacking Ag R1-resistant to viruses causing avian leucosis,
carrying dominant allele R1 are susceptible.
* They all have genetic basis.
• Markers / indicators

i. Candidate genes for resistance to disease – both cell

mediated immunity and humoral immunity and some
genes have specific receptors for antigens.

ii. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs)

iii. Markers – SNP, microsatellites, AFLP, RFLP etc.

Efficiency of selection for disease resistance
• Generally, effectiveness of selection depends on selection
differential (S).
• ‘S’ in turn depends on the proportion selected, and lesser
proportion gives larger ‘S’.
• But, in traits like disease resistance, ‘S’ depends on incidence than
proportion.
• Maximum ‘S’ is achieved, when proportion selected is equal to
proportion of resistant individuals (incidence).
• Individual selection is less effective if resistant individuals are very
less, family selection is more suitable.
 Factors affecting resistance

• Genetic variations at loci involved in the immune response

(Between and within population)
• Environmental factors (infection pressure, stress, etc.)
• Age of an animal
• Sexual maturity
• Castration or hormone treatment…
 Problems in Breeding for
Disease Resistance
 Resistance breakdown

 Horizontal resistance being durable but difficult to relate an

accurate & reliable assessment of the level of resistance.

 Sometimes there is negative correlation between yield & disease

resistance.

 For introgression of multiple resistance in species against several

diseases requires meticulous planning and far greater effort than
that required for single resistance.
APPROACHES TO GENETIC MANAGEMENT
OF DISEASE
• Choosing the appropriate breed for the environment.

• Selection of individuals with high levels of disease resistance for

breeding purposes.

• Crossbreeding to introduce genes into breeds that are otherwise well

adapted to the required purposes.

• Transgenic strategies such as direct transfer of 'resistance' genes into farm

animals to increase disease resistance in livestock.

• Genotyping will allow selection on the basis of molecular markers for

disease resistance.

• MAS-QTL could effectively be utilized for selection for disease resistance

at younger age.

16
 Concerns about Breeding for Improved
Resistance
Continuous evolution of pathogens
• Identification and characterisation of disease resistance genes is
extremely laborious and difficult to handle in conventional breeding
programmes.
• Pathogens will evolve faster than genetic gain in the host for
resistance, thereby making any breeding programme unsustainable.
• Heritability of disease resistance is low (0.1 to 0.2)

Impact of selection for a given trait on the genetic resistance

to diseases
• Increased milk production in Holstein cattle is associated with increased
susceptibility to bovine leukaemia virus infection.
Methods of breeding for
disease resistance
 Selection

 Breeding techniques

• Pedigree method

• Backcross method

 Marker assisted selection

 Genetic engineering
Thank You
Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
 A population is a group of interbreeding individuals that occupy a
certain area at a certain time.
 The area or habitat, a population occupies is not always the same.
 Total number of individual’s changes frequently in the population
(age and sex composition).
 It is ALWAYS dynamic.
 Therefore, wildlife population dynamics are the study of factors
and their interactions that control or influence the growth and
decline of wildlife.
  Population size or density per unit area
 Age and sex structure
 Productivity
These three ELEMENTS are controlled by (i) Reproduction,
(ii) Movement and (iii) Mortality.

 Every habitat sets limits on the total population it can support, by

virtue of its capability to provide food, shelter, nesting places, drinking
water or other essentials for that animal species.
 For some species, the limiting factor is space between one individual
and another.
 So, we may think of a given habitat as a box of definite dimensions
(which probably change seasonally).
The structure and dynamics of a given population are strongly
influenced by the

1. Sex ratio
2. Age distribution among the sexually mature females
3. Nutritional status
4. Effects of crowding
5. Stresses of weather and disease, etc.

Two extreme situations which could influence the variations in the

patterns of population dynamics are:
1. No cropping by humans (hunting or trapping)
2. Heavy cropping
 When there is no cropping by man (in a park or sanctuary), the
population quickly fills its box and the competition between individuals,
either for space or for some other habitat will arise.

 In such a competitive situation, the strong (i.e. healthy prime adults) will
have the advantage over the weak (i.e. young, sick and aged).
 This is reflected in the pattern of mortality, since the heavy losses are
among the very young and very old population.

 The annual removal of a substantial proportion of the population

reduces competition among individuals.

 This improves the chances of survival among the weaker / young

members of the population.
 Within this box, the population lives
and through reproduction, it tends to
become more crowded.
 Since the box always has definite
capacity, every addition (birth) over
that capacity means that there is a
corresponding death or departure
from the box (mortality or movement).
 In spring, the box becomes larger and
the young ones are brought forth in
this expanded box through birth.
 Then, as the box shrinks with the
coming of winter, the losses occur.
 Movement outside the box
(migration) is often the same as
mortality, if the young individuals
are lucky, they will find suitable
habitat not already occupied.

 To manage this situation, we can

remove the individuals from the box
and reduce the amount of natural
mortality or movement.
 Number of individuals which can be
supported (i.e. carried) on a given area
for a significant period of time.

 In seasons of environmental adversity,

such as cold, snow winters or hot dry
summers, then the carrying capacity
will drop.

 Then as the favorable season is reached

again, the carrying capacity rises.

 Wild animals are quite attuned to this

annual fluctuation of carrying capacity,
bringing forth their young close to the
beginning of the season of high carrying
capacity.
 Carrying capacity may
fluctuate, rising above it in
some years and dropping
below it in others.
 Habitat elements are very
often changes from year to
year, carrying capacity reflects
their trend.
Short-term : caused by
periodic events such as
flooding, drought and fire.
Long-term : caused by plant
succession and by changes in
land-use.
 It refers to the growth of a
population in an unrestricted
manner due to abundant resources
in the habitat and when resources
suffer due to increased population
size there is environmental
resistance that controls the biotic
potential as a feedback
mechanism.
 If a biotic potential of a population
overshoots the carrying capacity of
a habitat then it may result in
complete depletion of the
population leading to crash.
 Therefore, the wildlife
manager must make his
managerial decisions on
the basis of information
concerning population
levels, structure and
dynamics.
 It is the production of new
individuals in a population
through birth.
 Natality is influenced by breeding
age, mating habits and
population density.
 While mortality deals with the
level of death within a
population.
 The factors of mortality include
predation, disease, parasites,
weather, starvation, pollution,
hunting and accidents.
 Wildlife population dynamics
are affected by factors such
as births, deaths,
immigration and emigration.

 The balance of births and

immigrations with deaths
and emigrations will result in
zero population growth.
 Genetic drift are chance events that cause allele frequencies to
fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next in small
population.

 It tends to reduce the genetic variation through loss of alleles.

 It has two types in evolution of species

 Population bottle neck or genetic bottle neck

 Founder effect
 It is a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events
(such as earthquakes, floods, fires, disease, or droughts) or human activities.
 Such events can reduce the variation in the gene pool of a population;
thereafter, a smaller population (low genetic diversity), remains to pass on
genes to future generations of offspring through sexual reproduction.
 Due to the smaller population size
after a bottleneck event, the
chances of inbreeding and genetic
homozygosity increases, leading to
the potential for inbreeding
depression to occur.
 Smaller population size can also
cause deleterious mutations to
accumulate
 Genetic diversity remains lower,
increased only when gene flow
from other population occurs or
very slowly increased with time as
random mutations occur
 Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic
variation probably because of a population
bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the
1890s.
 Hunting reduced their population size to as
few as 20 individuals at the end of the 19th
century.
 Their population has since rebounded to over
30,000, but their genes still carry the marks of
this bottleneck.
 They have much less genetic variation than a
population of southern elephant seals that was
not so intensely hunted.
1.European bison also called wisent (Bison
bonasus), faced extinction in the early
20th century.
The animals living today are all
descended from 12 individuals and they
have extremely low genetic variation,
which may be beginning to affect the
reproductive ability of bulls

2. The population of American bison

(Bison bison) fell due to overhunting,
nearly leading to extinction around the
year 1890, though it has since begun to
recover
 Founder effect is another extreme
example of genetic drift, one that occurs
when a small group of individuals breaks
off from a larger population to establish a
colony.
 The new colony is isolated from the
original population, and the founding
individuals may not represent the full
genetic diversity of the original
population.
 That means, alleles in the founding Founder effect is similar in
population may be present at different concept to the bottleneck effect,
frequencies than in the original but it occurs via a different
population, and some alleles may be mechanism (colonization rather
missing altogether. than catastrophe).
 Genetic constitution of new population will depends on
Genetics of its founders

This small population size means that the colony may have:
1. Reduced genetic variation from the original population.
2. Non-random sample of the genes in the original population.
3. Responsible for speciation
 EFFECTIVE POPULATION SIZE (Ne)
 EPS is required to predict the rate of inbreeding and loss of genetic
variation in wildlife species.
 One of the most discussed, yet least measured, genetic parameters of
wildlife populations is the effective population size (Ne; Wright 1931)
 Knowledge of Ne is critical in managing threatened species, as well as
captive populations, because it provides information on how fast a
population is losing genetic variation
 Population fragmentation and isolation, harvest strategies and
translocations are thought to have considerable impact on Ne
 Impact of various factors on EPS is the ratio of the effective population
size to breeding (or sometimes census) population size—that is, Ne/N
 This ratio is important because in many natural populations only
estimates of N are known, and it is often useful to have at least a relative
estimate of Ne.
 Ne of a population is the number of individuals in an ideal population that
would lose genetic variation at the same rate as the actual population

 Ideal population is generally considered to be temporally stable and free of

mutation, natural selection and migration

 In an ideal population, all individuals have an equal chance of being the

parents of any progeny making in the next generation
 No wildlife population perfectly fits this description of ideal population

For ex. if actual population of 50 animals showed the effects of drift at

the same rate as an ideal population with effective size of 20.
 Commonly estimated measures of Ne

Variance effective size (NeV) is the size of an ideal population experiencing

genetic drift (random changes in allele frequencies) at the same rate as
the actual population.

Inbreeding effective size (NeI) is the size of an ideal population losing

heterozygosity, due to increased relatedness, at the same rate as the
actual population
 One of the earliest attempts to define a minimum lower threshold that
would prevent the loss of genetic variability in a species was made in 1980
by Australian Geneticist Ian Franklin and American Biologist Michael
Soulé.

 They created the “50/500” rule, which suggested that a minimum

population size of 50 was necessary to combat inbreeding and a
minimum of 500 individuals was needed to reduce genetic drift.
 It is the smallest isolated population (of a given species in a given habitat)
having 99 per cent chance of remaining in existence for 1000 years despite
the foreseeable effects of demographic stochasticity, genetic drift,
environmental stochasticity (random changes in the environment) and
natural catastrophes.
 Environmental stochasticity due to random variation in
Catastrophes : Occur randomly
habitat quality
AND Discrete events
 Climate and water
 Killing a proportion of the
population outright,  Species interactions
rather than continuously
effecting birth/death
rates

Demographic stochasticity due to

random variation in
reproduction and survival.
 Small populations
 Skewed sex ratios & Allele
effects
 Population size, sex ratio,
age structure, birth and death
rates for sexes

Genetic stochasticity due to random variation in

gene frequencies (Genetic drift, population
bottleneck and inbreeding)
CONCLUSION:
Demographic, environmental, catastrophic and genetic stochasticity's are interactive
and one may multiply the effects of the other, which leads to slow, incremental
losses can lead to global extinction.
PLANNED BREEDING IN WILD ANIMALS
Captive Breeding

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
 It is the process of breeding animals in
human controlled environments with
restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves,
zoos and other conservation facilities.

 Captive breeding programs facilitate

biodiversity and may save species from
extinction.

 However, such programs may also reduce

genetic diversity and species fitness.

 Sometimes the process is construed to

include release of individual animals to the
wild, when there is sufficient natural habitat
to support new individuals or when the
threat to the species in the wild is lessened.
 Important feature to be taken care during the mating of wild animals under
captive conditions to know the reproduction rhythms of species concerned.

Animal Age of Estrus related Gestation

puberty feature period
Elephant 10 – 12 years 16 weeks estrus cycle 22 months
Tiger 3.5 – 5 years Polyestrus 98 – 114 days
Leopard 2 – 3 years Polyestrus 98 – 105 days
Lion 3-6 years Polyestrus 98 – 114 days
Cheetah 14-16 months Seasonally Polyestrus 90 – 95 days
Jungle cat 9 10 months Probably Polyestrus 66 days
Spotted deer 16-18 months -- 210 – 225 days

To have a planned breeding of wild animals, one should

understand the reproductive biology of the concerned wild
animal species.
 For captive breeding, maintaining genetic
diversity is essential.
 But, genetic diversity cannot be achieved
by increasing the numbers alone, because
many species it can vary in terms of sex
ratio, breeding pattern, population
fluctuations etc.
 Habitat degradation and fragmentation
are also issues that need to be addressed.
 There is no point in breeding an
endangered species in zoos for introduction
or reintroduction if the habitat is not
available for the species.
 Captive breeding will not be successful if
habitat conservation measures for the
species are not in place.
 Wildlife biologists must understand how
an endangered species uses its habitat and how
they interact with each other in the wild.

 Successful captive breeding programs need to be

matched with successful introduction and / or
reintroduction strategies.

 The reintroduction of these captive populations

into natural habitats is not always successful.

 Due the small founder (initial) populations, many

individuals in these populations become inbred
and therefore their level of fitness is reduced.

 This means that they are less likely to survive in

the wild.
The main goal is to establish captive populations that are large enough to
be demographically stable and genetically healthy.

These programs are usually undertaken with the following goals:

 Maintain a healthy age structure within the population.

 Preserve the gene pool to avoid problems of inbreeding.

 Ensure that reproduction is successful.

 Protect the population against diseases.

 Provide animals to re-establish or restock in wild populations

when needed.
Conservation of threatened species
• To restore wild populations.
• To supplement wild populations that have declined or threatened.

Captive maintenance of threatened species

• Habitat is completely lost.
• Threats to extinction cannot be overcome.
• Duration of captivity has irrevocably altered species.
 Decline of wild population and genetic consequences

 Choice of founder population for captivity

 Growing under captivity

 Maintaining under captivity

 Reintroduce captive animals into wild populations

 Managing reintroduced population

1. Founder population - minimize genetic and phenotypic change
• Collect random sample of founders
• Collect data on locality and habitat of origin
• Collect genetic data from founders

2. Maintaining the population

 Maximize N and Ne (maximize sex ratio)
 Maintain equal family sizes

3. Minimize loss of genetic variation

• Maximize N and Ne (maximize sex ratio)
• Maintain equal family sizes
• Periodically check variability and compare with wild populations
4. Minimize behavioral changes
• Minimize duration of captivity

5. Minimize inbreeding
• Conduct pedigree analysis/management
• Outcross population with new individuals

6. Manage demographics
• Maintain representation of age classes
• Determine reasonable carrying capacity
• Achieve carrying capacity rapidly
• Stabilize population at carrying capacity
 Source of founder population(s)

 Space requirements/ availability in captivity

 Courtship/mating behaviors

 Isolation of sub-populations

 Availability of wild populations as sources of new variation

 Establishing a self-sufficient captive populations - genetic diversity is
likely to be low.
 Poor success in reintroductions - longer it is in captivity, the less likely
it is to survive in the wild.
 High costs.
 Domestication - some species are very difficult to bred in captivity
due to their natural mating behaviours.
 Disease outbreaks.
 Captive breeding programs tend to have species bias - many animal
species are endangered worldwide, mammal species are being
favoured.
• Maximize the number of founders (unrelated animals).
• Genetic contribution should be equal between the founders.
• Avoid selection.
• Avoid inbreeding (maximize Ne).
• Do not mix populations of different genetic origin.
• Maximize generation time.
• Founder population should reach the largest population size
as soon as possible.
1. Problems with linkage of undesirable traits
 Strabismus (crossed eyes)

 Weakened immune system

 Shortened tendons of the forelegs, club foot, kidney problems,

arched or crooked backbone and twisted neck, reduced fertility
and miscarriages

2. Deliberate (artificial) selection

 For increased productivity – fecundity, growth, or both
 For ‘better’ type or traits (color, size)
1. Lower fitness in wild
• Domestication – genetic and/or behavioral
• Loss of variation
2. Increased fitness in wild
• Loss of wild populations through competition for mates and
habitat – captivebred may be healthier.

3. Captive individuals may hybridize with wild individuals

• Pollution of wild genome.
• Loss of variation if low variance in captive stock.
Breeding threatened species under captive environment, they may
undergo evolutionary changes and genetic problems that
compromise their fitness under wild conditions.

These can include:

1. Higher level of inbreeding due to small founder population.

2. Favouring of harmful mutations through genetic drift.

3. Loss of genetic diversity.
4. Genetic adaptations to captive conditions rather than natural
conditions.
1. Hunting
2. Destruction of habitats
 Establishment of new human settlements, croplands, grazing
grounds, quarry, mining sites, etc.
 Deforestation caused by felling of trees for timber / firewood,
fire, over-grazing, etc.
 Damages of the forest / grassland by acid rain.
 Pollution of water bodies, killing aquatic plants and animals.
 Building of roads and rails through ecologically fragile areas.
 Construction of dams and reservoirs destroying habitats of
wildlife and migration of certain fishes.
3. Low fecundity
4. Change on practices
Vultures and kites feed on carcasses. Since the carcasses are buried or
burnt now, the population of larges flying bird has started declining.
5. Migratory routes
Changes in settling areas and routes of migratory animals results in
perishing.
6. Exotic species
Introduction of exotic species produce ecological imbalance to native
species such as:
Eg. Goats and rabbits introduced in Pacific and Indian Ocean islands have
destroyed habitats of reptiles, birds and plants.
7. Industrial and environmental pollution
8. Economic considerations
 EXTINCT:
No possibility of restoring the population, no pure bred males or
females can be found, even the last individual has died.
 CRITICAL:
Close to extinction, genetic variability reduced below that of ancestral
population.
 ENDANGERED:
In danger of extinction, because of the number is too small to prevent
genetic loss through inbreeding. Preservation must be enacted.
 VULNERABLE:
Some disadvantageous effects endanger the existence of the
population.
 RARE:
Species with small populations in the world, not endangered and
vulnerable, but are at risk.
 THREATENED:
Species in any one of the above three categories - endangered,
vulnerable or rare.
 INSECURE:
Population no. is decreasing rapidly .
 NORMAL:
Population not in danger of extinction.
 Conservation

Ex-situ In-situ

In-vivo In-vitro
WildLIFE Conservation
EFFORTS in India
 It is the state animal of Jammu &
Kashmir.
 In Kashmir, it’s found in Dachigam
National Park at elevations of 3,035
meters.
 Unfortunately, they were threatened,
due to habitat destruction, over-
grazing by domestic livestock and
poaching.
 This dwindled to as low as 150
animals by 1970.
 However, the state of Jammu &
Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the
WWF prepared a project for the
protection of these animals.
 Project Tiger was initiated as a Central Sector Scheme in 1973

 The breeding of tigers was facilitated by improvement of tiger

habitat by identifying and reducing the limiting factors of the
habitat

 Emphasis was given on protection of tigers, fire-protection,

disease control, shifting of villages inside the tiger reserve areas,
grazing control, development of water resources, enhancement
of research, population estimation etc.
1. Shivalik-terai conservation unit
2. North-East conservation unit
3. Sunderbans conservation unit
4. Western ghats conservation unit
5. Eastern ghats conservation unit
6. Central India conservation unit
7. Sariska conservation unit
 The project was started officially in 1991-92; but launched in
1993 by the central Government to afford protection to elephants
and it had following objectives:-

1. To identify the limiting factors of the habitat and to remove it

by the management.
2. To adapt systematic management plans.
3. To eliminate human exploitation and disturbances.
4. To build up the elephant habitat to reduce limiting factors.
5. To develop the elephant by planning and propagating the
favourite food plants of the elephant.
 The main objectives of the MIKE are:

1. To measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants

2. To determine changes in these trends over time

3. To determine the factors causing or associated with such changes, and

to try and assess in particular to what extent observed trends are a
result of any decisions taken by the Conference of the Parties.
MIKE Sites in India
 Chirang Ripu, Dhang Patki (Assam)
 Eastern Dooars (WB)

 Deomali (Arun. Pradesh)

 Garo Hills (Meghalaya)

 Mayurbhanj (Orissa)

 Mysore (Karnataka)

 Nilgiri (T.N)

 Shivalik (Uttarakhand)

 Wayanad (Kerala)
  Due to the large scale hunting for their skin, three species
of crocodiles –
1. Mugger or Fresh water
2. Gharial or Salt water

From 1st April, 1975,

the actual project was
started
1. To continue the task of locating best crocodile areas within the
country
2. To collect eggs as soon as possible after laying and transport
them to central protection area for incubation, hatchery and to
rear the young one until it assumes size for release back into the
wild.
3. To promote captive breeding.
4. To take up research to improve management.
 'BAULA' PROJECT AT DANGAMAL
 ‘Baula’ is the Oriya term for Saltwater Crocodile.
 Salt-water crocodile eggs have been collected locally; and young crocodiles
have been released in the creeks and the estuaries

MUGGER PROJECT AT RAMATIRTHA

 The Ramatirtha center, meant for Mugger crocodiles
 Initially started with eggs and juveniles of Mugger procured from
Tamilnadu.

GHARIAL PROJECT AT TIKARPADA

 Gharial eggs were obtained at different points of time from Narayani and
Kali rivers in Nepal and Chambal sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh.
 The eggs collected from Mahanadi were infertile.
 Lion is the top
carnivore in the food
chain of the
ecosystem
 In 1972, this project
was initiated in India
 Threats posed due to

1. Human interference,

2. Competition with livestock – people kill them to save

their livestock,

3. Retreating deeper into mountains due to global

warming

4. Poaching.
 A significant proportion of world’s Olive Ridley Turtle
population migrates every winter to Indian coastal waters for
nesting mainly at eastern coast.
 Conservation of olive ridley turtles, MoEF initiated the Sea
Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration of UNDP in 1999
with Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun as the
Implementing Agency
 The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of the
country with special emphasis in State of Orissa
 The State of Orissa on India’s eastern coast witnesses a
spectacular natural phenomenon – the mass nesting of
hundreds of thousands of Olive Ridley sea turtles.

 The turtles first congregate off shore to mate.

 On a few moonlit nights during December to March,

thousands of females land on the beach to lay eggs and then
return to the sea
Objectives are
To reduce turtle mortality and try to safeguard the future of the
species by concentrating on three main activities
 To improve patrolling of non-fishing zones and the protection of
nesting sites
 To support legal action on turtle conservation and fishing law
violations
 To build public support and awareness of sea turtle conservation
issues
 The Tamil Nadu government has
launched the Nilgiri Tahr
conservation project to protect
the state animal.
 The project aims to develop a
better understanding of the Tahr
population, reintroduce them to
their historic habitats, address
threats, and increase awareness.
LIVESTOCK BREEDING PROGRAMMES
– AN OVERVIEW

Dr. A. GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Livestock Breeding Programmes
• Cattle rearing is mainly centered around production of bullock
power for agricultural operations and transportation.
• Hardly any emphasis was laid on production of milk from these
cows.
• Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928)
Most suitable cow would be the one capable of producing
strong calf and yielding about 450 to 750 kg of milk.
Since, the quantity of milk would not be sufficient for
meeting the requirements of urban population, the RCA
anticipated the commercial dairy farms were likely to start
crossbreeding for supplying milk to the urban population.
• Oliver (1936) noted that systematic genetic improvement of
indigenous breeds by selective breeding, better feeding and
improved management appeared to be a better alternative as
compared to introduction of European breeds for improving milk
production.

• Wright (1937) and Peppevalt (1945) also strongly opposed

adoption of large-scale cross breeding and suggested that steps
should be taken to improve milk production potential of
indigenous cattle.

• Singh (1949), advised GoI that the ultimate aim in the

development of cattle should be the production of dual purpose
animals and the buffalo might also be treated as a dual purpose
animal in those areas where buffaloes were used for cultivation
purposes.
 Key Village Scheme (KVS)
 After Independence the first organized attempt was initiated in 1950
during first five year plan by GoI for development of cattle population.
 A key village is defined as an area or part of village or whole village or
group of villages.
 Initially the aim was to cover 5000 breedable cows and buffaloes & later on
increase up to 10,000.
The important features of key village scheme are
1. Initially natural service was practiced, but later on artificial
insemination was introduced.
2. Establishment of goshalas was encouraged.
3. Developing dual purpose breed was emphasized.
4. Propagation of cross breeding programme.
5. Protecting the animals against contagious diseases was carried out.
Central Committee of Gosamvardhana (1961)

1. CB programme should be taken up in an intensive manner

using two or more exotic breeds in three selected areas,
each in the plateau, the plains and the hills.

2. While taking up CB on a large scale in new areas, CB might not

conflict with the needs and preferences of the local farmers.

3. Crossbreeding should be started in areas where the holdings

are small, agriculture is intensive, cattle are stall fed and
farmers are interested in cows for milk production.
 Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP)

• When KVS did not yield the expected results the GoI introduced another
comprehensive project, during Third Five Year Plan (1963).

It was envisaged to

1. Each ICDP was expected to cover one lakh breedable female bovine
population and to provide necessary inputs and technical services.

2. Locate the projects in the breeding tracts of indigenous breeds of cattle

and buffaloes; and in the milk sheds of large dairy projects.

3. Establishment of ICDPs was linked with the dairy plants so as to enable

the dairy plants to collect and process milk to their full capacities.
 Scientific panel on Animal Husbandry (1965)
1. All breeding programmes should be taken in an intensive and
co-ordinated manner along with simultaneous provision of
favourable environment.

2. Fourth five year plan (1969-74): Crossbreeding was adopted

the major breeding policy

3. Success of CB would depend upon the quality of crossbred

bulls and inter se mating.
Goshala Schemes

• By 1970-71, 424 Goshalas had been developed.

• This scheme served as cattle breeding cum milk production

centres.

Gosadan Schemes

• The scheme discovered the problem of surplus and uneconomic

cattle, this scheme was mooted to segregate unreproductive
cattle.

• Gosadans were organized in the interior forests and other

wastelands, because of these, 79 gosadans and 18 district gosadans
had been established.
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)

• Inspired by the growth of dairy industry in Gujarat, our Late

Prime Minister Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri wished that similar
type of growth in the other states of India.

• Main purpose of establishing NDDB was to replicate the

'Anand Pattern' model (cooperative dairy organizations) in
rest of the country - WHITE REVOLUTION

• Due to his vision, NDDB was established with its headquarter

at Anand & under the chairmanship of Dr. V. Kurien in 1965.
 OPERATION FLOOD (1970-81), (1981-85) and (1986-96)

Objectives were
• To improve the productivity of animals.

• Resettlement of city cattle in rural areas.

• To assure the rural milk producers of a year round stable milk market.

• To increase the capacity of dairy processing facilities.

• To establish a National Milk Grid which will link the rural milk sheds to
the major demand centres with urban population.

• To establish 14 milch animal centres.

 Integrated Dairy Development Project (IDDP)
• Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme for Hilly and Backward Areas was launched
in 1993-94 on 100% grant-in-aid basis.
• The main objective of the scheme is as under:
1. Developing milch cattle.
2. Increasing milk production by providing technical input services.
3. Creating infrastructure to improve procurement, processing and marketing
of milk in a cost effective manner.
4. Ensuring remunerative prices to the milk producers, by strengthening dairy
cooperative societies at village level.
5. Generate additional employment opportunities.
6. Improving social, nutritional and economic status of residents of
comparatively disadvantaged areas.
• The scheme was modified during March 2005 and has been named as
‘Intensive Dairy Development Programme’
National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding
• GoI initiated a major programme NPCBB in October, 2000 for a period of
ten years, in two phases, with an allocation of Rs.402 crore for Phase-I.
• Provides 100% grant-in-aid to the State Implementing Agencies.
Objectives:
1. To arrange delivery of vastly improved artificial insemination (AI) service at
the farmers’ doorstep.
2. Bring all breedable females among cattle and buffalo under organized
breeding through artificial insemination or natural service by high quality
bulls within a period of 10 years.
3. Undertake breed improvement programme for indigenous cattle and
buffaloes so as to improve the genetic makeup as well as their availability.

• A major new component of Phase-II is bull production programme.

• In order to develop buffalo population, Murrah bull production programme

with an allocation of Rs 128.28 crore has been taken up in Phase-II.
 National Programme for Bovine Breeding and
Dairy Development
• NPBBDD was launched by the GoI in February, 2014 after merging
four erstwhile schemes viz.
1. National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB)
2. Integrated Dairy Development Programme (IDDP)
3. Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk
Production and
4. Assistance to cooperatives.
• This scheme with Rs. 1800 crore outlay in 12th plan period aims to
integrate the milk production and dairying activities in a scientific
and holistic manner for attaining higher levels of milk production
and productivity, to meet the increasing demand for milk in the
country.
 Components
There are two components of this scheme:
• National Programme for Bovine Breeding (NPBB)
1. Focus on Field Artificial Insemination (Al) Net work.
2. Conservation of indigenous breeds and establishment of breeders’
associations to encourage conservation and development of
recognized indigenous breeds.
3. For artificial insemination, this component focuses on establishment of
some 5000 MAITRI (Multi-purpose AI Technician in Rural India).
• National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD)
Focuses on developing infrastructure at the grassroots by providing
financial and technical assistance for production, procurement,
processing and marketing by milk unions / federations and also
extension activities including training of farmers.
 Rashtriya Gokul Mission
RGM has been launched in December 2014 with an outlay of Rs. 2025
crore
Objectives
➢ Development and conservation of indigenous breeds.
➢ Breed improvement programme for indigenous breeds so as to
improve the genetic makeup and increase the stock.
➢ Enhancing milk production and productivity of bovine population by
increasing disease free high genetic merit female population and check
on spread of diseases.
 Upgrading non-descript cattle using elite indigenous breeds like Gir,
Sahiwal, Rathi, Deoni, Tharparkar and Red Sindhi.
 Distribution of disease free high genetic merit bulls for natural service.
Implementing Agency:

• RGM is being implemented through “State Implementing Agencies

viz Livestock Development Boards.

• All agencies having a role in indigenous cattle development are

“Participating Agencies” like ICAR, Universities, Colleges, NGO‟s and
Cooperative Societies.
Funding Pattern:
Scheme is implemented on 100% grant-in-aid basis
Area of Operation:
Through out the country
Target /Beneficiaries:
Rural cattle and buffalo keepers irrespective of caste, class and
gender.
• E-PashuHaat: the e-market portal for bovine germplasm which provides
availability of high quality germplasm along with identification and
traceability of germplasm, connecting breeders, state agencies and stake
holders.
• Further, an initiative has been taken up for establishment of a National
Bovine Genomics Centre for Indigenous Breeds (NBGC-IB)
• The NBGC-IB will pave way for systematic and fast pace improvement of
the precious indigenous animal resources using highly precise gene based
technology.
• Sex- sorted semen technology will be standardized for indigenous breeds
like Sahiwal, Hariana, Red Sindhi, Rathi and Gir during initial phases in the
near future.
• All these programmes and steps promise to give a long term sustainable
solution to both livelihood and security of about 70 million farming
community as well as provide nutritional security to the country.
 Network Project on Sheep Improvement
• The Network Project on Sheep Improvement (NWPSI) came into existence
on 01.04.1990.
• Emphasis has been given on evaluation and improvement of indigenous
sheep genetic resources by selective breeding.

Technical programme
• Genetic improvement of indigenous sheep breeds by selection.
• Under farm conditions, the ram lambs are first ranked using selection index
and selected rams are used for mating by the age of 18 months.
• Subsequently these rams are again evaluated based on their progeny
performance and best 2 to 3 rams are selected.
• Breeding rams of high breeding value are produced from farm based unit
every year for germplasm distribution
A. Farm based Cooperating units
1. Bikaner Marwari sheep Carpet Wool
2. Makhdoom Muzaffarnagri sheep Dual purpose
3. MPKV, Rahuri Deccani sheep Dual purpose
4. Palamner Nellore sheep Mutton
B. Field-based Cooperating units
1. Kattupakkam Madras Red sheep Mutton
2. Bikaner Magra Sheep Carpet Wool

Farm based units with annual target of 50 rams sale/distribution while two of
them are field based units with annual target of 100 rams sale/distribution to
cover maximum ewes in the field.
 Mega Sheep Seed Project
• Mega Sheep Seed Project was started on 1st April, 2009.
Objective
Production of 80 breeding rams of each breed of sheep annually
and to cover about 8000 breeding ewes.
• The project was sanctioned with four cooperating units namely,
1. Ranchi for Chottanagpuri Sheep
2. Bidar for Mandya Sheep
3. Chennai for Mecheri Sheep
4. Udaipur for Sonadi Sheep
• Artificial insemination was adopted in all the units of MSSP for faster
multiplication of superior germplasm.
 All India Coordinated Research Project on
Goat Improvement
• AICRP scheme on Goat Improvement was initiated during IXth Five
year plan.

• Implemented for Jamunapari, Marwari, Sirohi, Sangamneri, Surti, Black

Bengal, Osmanabadi, Gaddi, Assam Hill, Changthangi, Malabari and
Ganjam breeds.

• The programme was based on the flocks maintained at the

Institutional farms (nucleus herd) and village flocks maintained by
the farmers.

• The Institutional flocks maintained under organized farm conditions.

• Field units are maintained under village management system in the

native home tracts.
Farm based units :
Objectives:
1. To estimate genetic variance of economic traits in goats.
2. To estimate breeding value of males and females.
3. In-situ/ex-situ conservation of elite germplasm and its effective utilization.
4. To estimate production economics of goats under farm conditions.
5. To validate farm based goat production technologies under field conditions.

Field based units:

Objectives:

1. To assess the production performance of goat breeds in farmer’s flocks under

village management system and improve the germplasm through selection.

2. To evaluate the socio-economic status of goat breeders and the economics of goat
production in farmers flock.

3. To disseminate the pro-poor goat based technologies under field conditions and
assessment of their impact on goat production.
 AICRP on Pig
• AICRP on pig started its journey during IVth five year plan (1970-1971)
with the main objective of studying the performance of purebred
exotic pigs under existing managemental conditions at the following
research centers:
1. Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.
2. Guwahati, Assam.
3. Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.
4. Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh
5. Kattupakam, Tamilnadu
6. Mannuthy, Kerala
7. ICAR Research Complex, Goa
8. BAU, Ranchi Recently
9. CAU at Aizawl, Mizoram Included

10. Nagaland University, Medziphema.

 Objectives
1. To study the performance of indigenous pigs under optimal
managemental conditions.

2. To produce crossbreds by crossing indigenous gilts with exotic boars

and to assess their performance in respect of their efficiency of feed
conversion, production and reproduction.

3. To evolve economic pig ration with locally available feed ingredients

(conventional and unconventional).

4. To select animals from within half breeds with faster growth on

economic ration(s) to produce superior strain of improved pigs.

5. To study the incidences of various diseases in pigs, so as to suggest

areas for undertaking research to provide optimum health care.
 Mega Seed Project on Pigs
• Mega seed project was launched on 14th August, 2008 at National Research Center
on Pig, Guwahati.

The project is having eight centers as follows:

• Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara
• Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi
• ICAR for NEH, Nagaland
• State Veterinary Department, Aizawl, Mizoram
• State Veterinary Department, Arunachal Pradesh
• Pookode, Kerala
• Agartala, Tripura
• Durg, Chhattisgarh
Objectives:
1. Production of 900 piglets in each state to target production of quality pig
covering 300 farm families per annum.

2. Capacity building in institutes to produce above number of quality piglets.

3. Initiating gender friendly pro-poor growth through improved pig

husbandry.
BREEDS OF HORSES AND DONKEYS

A.GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of Animal Genetics and Breeding
Madras Veterinary College
 BREEDS OF HORSES
ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Perissodactyla
Family Equidae
Genus Equus
Species Equus ferus

Sub-species Equus ferus Caballus

 DOMESTICATION
 Horses were first domesticated by the Botai Culture of Kazakhstan around 6000-5500
BC and suggests that domestic horses may have been kept for food and milk as analysis
of organic residues in broken pots found traces of horse milk.

 Domestic horses bred with local wild horses and spread throughout Europe and Asia; and
throughout their history, horses have been interbred, traded between populations of
people and moved across continents.

 The earliest evidence that horses may have been used for riding dates to around 3500-
3000 BC.

 Drawings of horses pulling chariots were found in Mesopotamia, dated about 2000 BC.

 The domestication of the horse has had a significant impact on transport, agriculture,
communication and warfare throughout human history.
 POPULATION DYNAMICS
ALL INDIA LIVESTOCK CENSUS (in millions)
2012 2019 % Change
0.62 0.34 -45.58

Major states with respect to Horse population (in lakh)

Category Population Population %

2012 2019 Change
Uttar Pradesh 1.52 0.76 -50.14
Jammu and Kashmir 1.44 0.63 -56.17
Rajasthan 0.38 0.34 -10.85
Bihar 0.49 0.32 -34.13
 BHUTIA

Breeding tract : West Bengal and Sikkim States

Phenotypic characters : Resembles Tibetan pony and is a larger version of Spiti.

Predominant body colours are gray and bay.
Strong legs and long hairs on neck and tail.
Height at withers is from 130 to 132 cm and body weight 275 to 360 kg.

Utility : Mainly used as pack and riding animal on hilly terrains.

 KACHCHHI-SINDHI

Breeding tract : Surat, Kachchh and Navsari districts of Gujarat (Desert Horse)
Barmer and Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan

Phenotypic characters : Mainly bay in colour, Roman nose appearance of face, ears curved at tips,
short back and docile temperament.
Short pastern bone length and broader hoof for better grip (possibly saves
from limb problems)

Utility : Used for long distance riding and horse safaris.

Excellent drought & heat tolerance capacity in arid & semi arid region.
 KATHIAWARI

Breeding tract : Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Closely related to the Marwari horses
of Rajasthan; both breeds have been influenced by imported Arab and
mangolian horses
Phenotypic characters : Chestnut in colour with star and strips on face and stocking.
Broad forehead buldging above the eyes,
Kathiawari and the Marwari are phenotypically similar; they have the same
unusual in-curved ears.
The Kathiawari is most commonly chestnut, while the Marwari is usually
black. Rewal gait is special feature of this breed.

Utility : Religious ceremonies and riding. Now used as a police horse, by the Indian Army
and war horse in India.
 MARWARI

Breeding tract : Ajmer, Barmer, Sikar and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan (Known as Malani).
Descended from native Indian ponies crossed with Arabian horses, possibly with
some Mongolian influence.

Phenotypic characters : Head is long. Forehead is flat and broad.

Known for its inward-turning ear tips, But, piebald and skewbald patterns
tend to be the most popular with buyers and breeders. Square frame and a
thin coat gives the ability to cope with heat and cold without excessive
dehydration.

Utility : Primarily maintained for show, horse safaris, sport, ceremonial & religious
purposes, and during earlier days in war.
 MANIPURI

Breeding tract : Manipur and Assam states

Descent is from Asiatic wild horse and Arabian horses.

Phenotypic characters : Common body colours are bay, dark bay, brown, reddish brown, grey,
chestnut and roan.
Ears are alert and almond shaped.
Head is light and Neck well formed with a full mane.
Muzzle is slightly wider and nose is a bit convex.

Utility : Famous for polo and riding purposes.

 SPITI

Breeding tract : Himachal Pradesh. Descendants of wild horses which used to inhabit the
alpine region of Spiti and Ladakh .
Thrive well in the range of 5000 to 15000 ft above MSL.

Phenotypic characters : Highly variable ranging from chestnut to black.

Grey colour is most predominant followed by brown and black.
Limbs and muzzle are of the same colour as that of main body

Utility : Used as transport carrier and for riding purpose.

Helps to walk and carry load in steep mountains.
 ZANSKARI

Breeding tract : Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir. Adapted to cold arid region
Small mountain horse or pony from Ladakh.
It is named after Zanskar valley or region in Kargil district

Phenotypic characters : Common body colours are grey, black and copper.
Medium in size, have wide face, uniform gait and predominant eyes.
Tail is long and heavy almost touching the ground.
Body hairs are fine, glossy and long.

Utility : Work - draught, transport and riding

Known for their hardiness and ability to work at high altitude
 BHIMTHADI

 Bhimthadi or Deccani horse is an almost extinct

breed of Indian horses.
 It was developed in Pune district in 17th and 18th
centuries during the Maratha rule by crossing
Arabian and Turkic breeds with local horse breed.
 Distributed in Pune, Solapur, Satara and
Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra.
 The predominant coat colour is liver chestnut.
 They are used for transportation of household
material during migration of pastoral communities
in the region.
DONKEY BREEDS
 SPITI
• Distributed in the Spiti subdivision of Spiti
district and Puh subdivision of Kinnaur
district of Himachal Pradesh.

• They can survive well in scarcity of feed and

fodder during harsh winter months when
this area is completely snow bound.

14
 HALARI
• Primarily found in the Gujarat's Jamnagar, Dwarika,
and Rajkot districts of India.
• Donkeys are white in colour.
• Muzzle and hooves are black.
• Forehead is mostly convex.
• Halari donkey has a strong built and large size.
• Very docile in temperament, and are used as pack
animals during pastoralist migration and for
transportation as donkey cart.
• Can walk approx. 30-40 km in a day during
15 migration.
 KACHCHHI • These donkeys are found in Kachchh District of
Gujarat.
• Coat colour is mainly grey (dorsal surface grey
& ventral surface white) followed by white,
brown and black.
• Forehead is convex and Nasal bone is straight.
• Docile in temperament.
• Only donkey used for agricultural purpose like
Inter cultivation for weed removing.
• Also utilized for transportation as donkey cart,
as pack animal during pastoralist migration,
etc.
16
 ARUNACHALI YAK BREED
(Arunachal Pradesh)

• Found mainly in West Kameng and Tawang

districts of Arunachal Pradesh

• Arunachali yaks are characterized by their

predominantly black body colour and high
fat content in milk (7.45%).

17
Breeding Management of Dogs

Dr. A . GOPINATHAN
Professor
Dept. of AGB, MVC
 Detection of oestrus in dogs
• Age at sexual maturity in dogs is influenced by

 Plane of nutrition

 Climate

 Body size or breed

• Small breeds tend to mature faster than large breeds.

• Small & Medium breeds: Exhibits heat symptoms once in six months.

• Heavy breeds : Once in 9 to 12 months

• Duration of heat cycle : 21 days

• Onset of estrum is dictated by Gonadotrophic hormone (pituitary), FSH

& LH (ovary).
• The first thing, when choosing a mating pair is to ensure that both
the stud and bitch are registered by Kennel Club.

• If both are registered, then the litter is eligible to be registered.

• When selecting a breeding pair, mate animals that complement

one another.

• Choose a stud whose bloodlines will strengthen your bitch’s

weaknesses and emphasize her good qualities.

For ex. if your bitch’s coat is not as good as it might be, then
find a partner with a good coat, from a line of dogs with good coats.
• Two vital factors to keep in mind as you make your selection are
temperament and health.

• Temperament is a hereditary trait in dogs, although it can be

influenced by other external factors.

• The inheritance factors of temperament are complex.

• Selection over many generations eventually produced breeds with the

correct temperament.

• To produce dogs that are not affected by the major known

hereditary diseases.

• Potential breeding animals should be evaluated both historically

(atopic), physically (severe brachycephalic syndrome,
entropion, cryptorchidism) and mentally (fearful, aggressive).
• Bitches should not be overweight and should have good muscle
tone before breeding.

• One month before mating, the bitch should have a thorough pre-
breeding physical examination by a veterinarian, who is well-
versed in canine reproduction.

• Screen the breeding pair for brucellosis, an infectious bacterial

disease that can cause sterility or spontaneous abortion in affected
dogs.
• Stud

 On average, males become fertile after six months of age and

reach full sexual maturity by 12 to 15 months.

 Healthy stud dogs may remain sexually active and fertile to old
age.

 Adult males are able to mate at any time.

• Bitches

 First estrus after six months of age, although it can occur as late
as 18 months to two years of age.

 Estrus recurs at intervals of approximately six months.

 During estrus, the female is fertile and will accept a male.

 The bitch should not be bred during her first season.

 Natural Breeding
• Responsible dog breeders generally do not breed a bitch at the first heat
to avoid imposing the stress of pregnancy and lactation on a young,
growing animal.

• It is also customary to avoid breeding a bitch on consecutive heats to

allow sufficient time for recuperation between pregnancies.

• Most dogs are first bred between the 10th and 14th day after the onset of
proestrus.

• As long as the bitch will accept the male, mating every other day for a
total of two or three mating is generally considered sufficient.

• However, signs of proestrus are not obvious in some bitches.

• To catch the peak fertile period, a veterinarian may need to perform
hormone tests or examine vaginal smears under a microscope.

• Bitches are usually less inhibited by new environments so they are usually
taken to the stud.

• Some breeds are more prone to needing assistance than others because of
anatomical considerations.

• Sometimes human handlers must step in with assistance or guidance

during breeding.

• A diagnosis of pregnancy may be made by abdominal palpation 28 to 30

days after the last breeding.
 Copulatory Tie
• A dog's mode of reproduction and reproduction anatomy is comparatively unique to
other animals and humans, which is why dogs possess a different physiology as well.
• In the normal act of breeding, tying is a normal phenomenon, in which the bulbis
glandis or “knot” at the ventral side of penis swells in the vagina due to the high
blood supply it contains.
• At the same time, the muscular band of the vagina, “Constrictor Vestibuli Muscles”
constricts and during thrusting both get tied together.
• This physiological character of dogs is thought to happen in order to allow for the
complete ejaculation of sperm into the reproductive tract of the female.
• A dog knot tying is a normal procedure and may persist for 2 – 30 minutes.
• If the dog knot is tied for a longer period of time it is referred to as the dog knot
being stuck.
• In such cases, both partners may experience severe injuries and bruises, which may
leave a dog with secondary complications.
 Artificial Insemination

• Artificial insemination is a relatively simple procedure that can be

used when natural breeding is impractical.

• Breed registry accepts registration of a litter mated by artificial

insemination using fresh semen, fresh extended semen, and
frozen semen, provided the proper procedures are followed.

• Registration of these litters requires DNA certification.

Sl. No. Average Values Bitch

1 Age at puberty 6-12 months

2 Age at breeding 12-18 months
Monoestrus (but usually 2 oestrous cycles
3 Type of oestrous cycle
per year)
4 Length of oestrus (heat) 6-13 days
5 Gestation period 55-75 days (63 days)
6 Time of ovulation 48-60 hours after the receptive phase
Biannual: August to September, February
7 Breeding season
to March
8 Return of heat after parturition 16-20 weeks
9 Age of weaning 4-6 weeks
10 Average no. of pups born 4-8 pups
11 Birth weight 165-500g
12 Breeding span 7-8 years
13 Life span 10-15 years
 Basically two types of registration are available for dogs bred in India:
Litter Registration:
1. As the name suggests this process is available for pup(s) born to
registered dogs and bitches.
2. Both the Stud and Bitch must be registered with the KCI and bear a KCI
approved microchip.
3. Litter registration form duly completed, along with a registration fee of
Rs 337/- per pup + Rs 158/- per pup for microchip (Total cost would be
Rs. 495/- per pup);
4. Photocopies of the registration certificate of the Stud and Bitch and an
application for subscription to the monthly Kennel Gazette should be
sent to KCI.
5. The registration certificates along with a microchip would be received
in about a month.
Single Dog Registration:

1. This process is available for dogs not registered with the KCI under the
above process.

2. The form, duly completed, along with a registration fee of Rs 337/- per
dog + Rs 158/- per dog (Total cost would be Rs. 495/- per dog) for
microchip along with the following may be sent to KCI.

3. Dogs can only be registered under this process after the age of 12
months and shown to have unknown parentage.

4. Even if you are aware of the actual parentage of the dog it cannot be
reflected in the certificate, as the breeder failed to register the pup
under the process of litter registration.
 What is the difference between pedigree and
purebred dogs?
• For many people, there is no difference between pedigree and purebred dogs and the
terms are often used interchangeably.
• However, this is not universal.
• Pedigree dog
It is a purebred dog that is registered with a relevant breed club or kennel club
and these dogs have several generations of their family tree recorded, and they are all
within the same breed.
• However, since most clubs have crossbreed registers, pedigree could just mean any
registered dog that has a recorded family history (their lineage).
• Purebred dog
It is born to parents of the same breed and they do not necessarily have to be
registered with any club.
• When most people talk about purebred dogs, they just mean that their dog’s
ancestors are all the same breed and there has been no cross-breeding in the
bloodline.
BREEDING MANAGEMENT OF CATS
 OESTRUS CYCLE IN CATS
• The time of the first estrus is influenced by breed (shorthair breeds reach
puberty earlier than longhair breeds), the time of year (which determines the
length of daylight), and the body condition of the queen.

• Queens normally have their first estrous cycle between 6 and 12 months,
with the average age of around 6 months.

• They have 2 to 4 estrous periods every year, lasting 15 to 22 days.

• If the cat is bred, estrus seldom lasts more than 4 days.

• If successful mating does not occur, a heat cycle may last for 7 to 10 days.

• Cats also have an estrous period 1-6 weeks after giving birth, so a female
may be nursing one litter while pregnant with another.

• Traditionally, queens are described as induced ovulators.

 What are the signs of estrus?
• The most notable signs of estrus in cats are behavioral.

• Behavior changes often become annoying to owners, and owners think their
cat has some unusual illness.

• They roll on the floor more often and also become very vocal.

• They will urinate more frequently when they are in heat.

• The urine contains both pheromones and hormones, both of which act as
signals of her reproductive status to other cats.

• Tomcats that have never been seen before in your yard or neighborhood will
appear.

• They may spray urine on the house to mark the territory (and female) as
theirs or may even attempt to enter the house to mate with the female.
 At what stage of the estrous cycle is the cat
able to get pregnant?
• The queen can be bred at any time while in heat.

• Cats are induced ovulators, which means that the act of breeding
stimulates the release of eggs from the ovaries.

• Most females require three to four mating within a 24-hour period for
ovulation to occur.

• It only takes a minute or two for cats to mate, and cats may mate
multiple times in a short period of time.

• Queens may mate with several different tomcats during this time, so it
is possible that a litter of kittens may have several different fathers.

• Once ovulation has occurred, the queen will go out of heat within a day
or two.
 Breeding Management of Cats
• Before breeding, it is best to have your cat examined by a veterinarian to
assess any health, genetic, or reproductive concerns.

• Cats should be tested for infectious diseases they could pass to their
kittens, such as feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus.

• Before breeding, female cats should be in good health and in optimal

body condition.

• Routine blood and urine tests can evaluate general health, especially in
cats older than 5 years of age.

• Female cats (queens) are usually taken to the home of the male cat (tom)
for breeding when they show signs of heat (estrus).

• The courtship should not be interrupted unless there is a concern for the
safety of either cat.
 Breeding Management of Cats
• Because cats are what is known as induced ovulators, multiple breeding over 2
to 3 days are recommended.
• Queens are typically bred during each sequential estrus period and then spayed
when no further breeding are planned.
• Evaluation for pregnancy can be done by your veterinarian by physically
examining (palpating) the abdomen or by ultrasonography.
• Pregnancy lasts 60 to 65 days and can be detected by day 21 to 30.
• Unlike in other domestic species, manipulation of the estrous cycle is not easy
in cats.
• Prevention of estrus is typically accomplished by spaying, although short-term
suppression of estrus can also be achieved by medication.
• Unplanned and unwanted mating of cats is a common concern.
• Pregnancy can be completely prevented or ended by spaying or neutering or by
giving the hormone prostaglandin.
Signs of a healthy dog