MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

Definition of Mass Media

Concisely, the term mass media simply translates to the

modern means of giving news, opinion, education,
entertainment and agenda-setting to large numbers of
people, especially through radio, television, newspapers,
magazines and films. According to Joseph Dominick
(2009:36), a medium is the channel through which a
message travels from the source to the receiver (medium”
as singular, media” is plural).

When we talk about mass communication, we also need

channels to carry the message. Therefore, mass media are
the channels used for mass communication. The definition
of mass media will not only include the mechanical
devices that transmit and sometimes store the message
(television cameras, radio microphones, printing presses)
but also the institutions that use these machines to
transmit messages. “A Media Vehicle is a single
component of the mass media, such as a newspaper,
radio station, television network, or magazine.

Types of Mass Media

There are basically eight different mass media: radio,

television, film, books, sound recordings, newspapers,
magazines and the internet. Of course, these eight are not
the only mass media that exist. Others are billboards,
comic books, posters, direct mail, matchbooks and
buttons. These eight media listed above have the largest
audiences, employ the most people and have the greatest
impact. People are also most familiar with these media.

Mass Communication Media

For us to understand the mass communication media, it is

important to look at the meaning of mass communication.
It has been viewed as a process in which “professional”
communicators use media to disseminate messages
widely and rapidly in large and diverse audiences in
attempt to influence them in a variety of ways.
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There is need to define which forms of communication

should be considered as vehicles of mass media.

Components of Mass Communication

From the definition, talking on the phone is not a form of

mass communication because the audience is not large
and diverse; usually there is only one person at each end
of the line. Similarly, any situation in which life performers
and audience can see each other directly in a theater or
church, at sports events or parade- is not example of a
mediated communication.

The major mass communication media or agencies of

mass communication therefore are print which comprise
books, magazines, newspapers, fliers, newsletters, diaries,
calendars, brochures, billboards, and posters among other.
It also includes broadcast media (radio and television).

Mass Media and Socialisation

At times, the media consciously attempt to inculcate

values and behaviour in the audience. The radio and
television usually portray in social responsibility adverts or
announcements the dangers of alcohol and over speeding.
Recently, advertisements on cigarettes remind smokers
that they were liable to die.

Mass media can also transmit values by enforcing, social

norms. People who make unguarded or tribalistic
comments over the radio are usually sanctioned,
suspended or even sacked.

Joseph Dominick (2009:36) opined that “of all the mass

media, television probably has the greatest potential for
socialisation. By the time an individual is 18 years he or
she will have spent more time watching television than
any single activity except sleep.”

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The mass media do not exist or operate in isolation. The

modern mass media evolved from the content of the
public traditional communication. These traditional media
of public communication may be conveniently classified
into two groups: the oral communication or informal
transference media and the organised common or formal
transference media. This unit will also examine mass
media symbiosis and adjuncts.

Informal Transference Media

The media in this group operate through informal contact

between individuals and persons and essentially do not go
beyond the circulation or dissemination of rumours and
“un official” information.

In this category, the primary example is family – visit. The

African social organisation characterised by a strong sense
of kingship, community and neighbourliness naturally
increase the scope of news circulated in this way.

It was common then, as now, to visit relations and friends

in their homes, eat from the same pot and exchange the
latest information. On the contrary, it was manifested in a
much wider sphere, in, for example, the attitude to
relatives in other communities and the relatively
harmonious relationship between people in one
community and those in another.

The extent of those activities and connections give some

idea of the scope of news circulation in indigenous society
by informal contact. Exchange of information was also
promoted by means of the organised and spontaneous
gatherings, which are fairly frequent in the African
society.

Death and burial ceremonies always attracted large

congregations, which often included participants from
neighbouring or distant places. These ceremonies
characterised by weeping and wailing had intervening
periods where gossiping, storytelling and general
exchange of information took place.

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Dissemination of unofficial information also characterised

village festivals. Marriage and circumcision feasts, public
meetings, and trials, propitiatory assemblies, open
quarrels and disputes and several other aggregator
events, which characterised the African way of life, are
also avenues for informal information. In this respect,
mention must be made of the popular moonlight
gatherings, which were dominated by folktales.

Although anyone could be a folk teller, some were highly

proficient in the art. They knew what was interesting to
an audience and had an eye for the exciting and the
sensational. They could be seen as perhaps the
prototypes of the modern news reporter.

Another prototype of the modern reporter was the

masquerade. Although it was essentially an
impersonation of ancestors, the masquerade in some
societies, like the Igbo, emerged in the night to gossip
and expose scandals like a modern gossip columnist.

In addition, most communities had markets, which were

not only centres of trade but also principle means or most
convenient forum to meet friends, and kinsmen exchange
news and gossip. Some markets were also the terminal
points of one area with one another and with foreign
lands and civilisations. The caravans, which plied these
routes, helped to distribute information. They gathered
and “relayed” news as they passed from place to place,
communicating with fellow traders and collecting
information on resources and prospects of trade.

Formal Transference Media

This second category is concerned with more

systematised dissemination of information not between
persons but between the government “and the people.”
The tools employed were recognised official and
recognizable sounds, signs and symbols. In the old Oyo
empire, for example, state messengers and intelligence
officers (Illari) carried information between the capital and
the outlaying provinces.

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However, the most common of these indigenous officials

was the town crier or bellman. Part of his functions include
announcing the “promulgation” of laws and regulations,
meetings, arrangements for communal work and generally
–“official” information in the community. The town crier is
an indispensable part of village society. He is often seen in
the autochthonous (aborigine) parts of urban centers
where there is an established indigenous monarchy.

In addition, some news dissemination was achieved

through the booming of gun, to announce deaths of village
personalities and to warn of imminent danger. Most
extensively used were the drums. When some of these
drums are expertly sounded, they are capable of
conveying specific meaning. In other words, they talk. The
Igbo, for instance, have the Ekwe or Ikoro, which were
permanently set in village squares and shrines. Other
state drums are Yoruba Gbedu, the Isekiri Oji, the Edo
Okha, which were used to summon special meetings,
proclaim the arrival to and the departure of VIPs from the
palaces. They are equally used to announce serious acts
of sacrilege and disaster, alert the community against
invasion and in war and advertise the presence of
warriors.

Adjuncts of the Mass Media

The word adjunct originated from a Latin word

“adjungere” which means “to join”. Therefore, adjunct
simply means “something joined” (Uyo 1987:36). In other
words, adjunct means some additions to the main thing
being discussed.

Accordingly, adjuncts can equally be called “auxiliaries

(DeFleur and Dennis) “indirect media” (Whitney),
“paramedia agencies” (Murphy) as recorded by Uyo.

Going by Defleur and Dennis’ views, auxiliaries are

“outside organisations from which the mass media get
important help.” Basically, these windows link the media
to the outside events. In Whitney’s words:“… indirect
media are service media. They have no audience of their
own in the sense that the mass media do.”

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The adjuncts of mass media have a symbiotic relationship

with each other. This is because the media organization
depends on them for additional information on news,
entertainment, features, etc. In return, the adjuncts are
sustained from the money that they get from the media
organizations they service.

There are eight major adjuncts of the mass media and

some less obvious ones. The major adjuncts of the mass
media include the following:

The news agencies or wire service: These are

organisations that gather and process news, which
they disseminate to their various subscribers such as
the mass media, other news agencies, public
institutions and commercial enterprises (Uyo: p 38).
There are some privately owned agencies while
others are government owned. The news agencies
operate locally, nationally, regionally, continentally
and internationally. The major international news
agencies are:

i. Agence France Presse (AFP) in Paris,

France ii. Associated Press (AP) in New
York, USA iii. Reuters in London, UK
iv. The Soviet Telegraph Agency (TASS) in Moscow,
USSR v. United Press, International (UPI) New
York, USA

These first five are usually called the “BIG FIVE”.

Others include Hinshua and the New China News Agency

(NCNA).
There is also the Non-Aligned News Pool and the Inter-
Press Service (IPS). In Africa, we have the Pan-African
News Agency (PANA), which has its headquarters in Dakar,
Senegal. It was specifically established on the 25th of
May, 1983 for the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The
essence was to rectify the one-sided flow or reportage of
news by the Western World, especially in respect of news
coverage about the developing nations, which they regard
as the Third World Nations.
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The developing nations in reaction to this circumstance

have thus, established national and regional news
agencies, which will serve some nearby nations. Examples
of these agencies include:

a) Middle East News Agency(MENA)- Regional

b) News Agency of Nigeria (NAN)- National
c) The Press Trust of India. Though a national
newspaper, it competes with international news
agencies.

2. Syndicates: They are better known as Press

Syndicates and they are very popular in American.
Their function is to package and supply feature and
interpretative materials for the print media in
particular. Similarly, they promote and sell columns,
analyses, comic strips, cartoons and other features
to individual newspapers, magazines and other
media units (Hiebert et al in Uyo
1987:39).Syndicates also supply media organisations
with entertainment programmes.

3) Advertising Agencies: These are popularly called

“ad agencies.” Though “advertising” is an aspect of
mass communication, however, it is the intermediary
between them and the media organisation.
Essentially, ad agencies specialise in promoting
products. Accordingly, Gamble defines advertising
agency as:

i. an independent business organization

comprised of creative ii. and business people,
who develop, prepare and place iii.
advertisement in advertising media; sellers seeking
to find iv. customers for their goods and services

The ad agencies liaise with, and get approval of the

advertising departments of the media organisations to
place ads in their organisations. In fact, majority of ads
placed in the newspapers, magazines, radio and television
are placed by the advertising agencies that are in turn

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paid for these jobs. The money they get is known as

Agency Commission.

Public Relations and Publicity Firms: These

firms specifically concern themselves with the “total
communication problems” of their clients. Their
major function is to counsel their clients on the
outcome of their actions and advice them on how to
achieve public acceptance. The clients of PR firms
include: celebrities, politicians, religious groups,
political parties, educational institutions, the
military, business organisations and the
government. Most profit and non-profit organisations
establish PR/Information departments to handle their
image problems as well as creating favorable image
for them.

4. Government Information
Ministries/Services/Agencies: A majority of
governments entrust their PR and publicity into the
hands of a special ministry or agency created to take
care of governments’ image. This varies with
countries. In the developing countries, the ministries
of information are also responsible for the print and
electronic media, especially those owned by the
government.

Other adjuncts of mass media include:

• Research and Rating Organisation or Services

• Programme and Film Production Companies
• Public Opinion Polling Agencies Organisation

All these equally perform the basic functions of adjuncts of

mass media. That is, providing additional information for
the media organisations to work with.

Mass Media Symbiosis

This term is borrowed from biology where organisms are

found to engage in symbiotic relationships. In biology,
symbiosis is seen as the association of two organisms for
mutual benefit.

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As analogy, in mass media, different media demonstrate

what we might call a form of symbiosis. For example, in
the television and film, producers work for both media.

Films that originally played in the theatre found their way

to television, video cassettes. Film actors and actresses
make television shows; most newspaper editions carry
magazine inserts. Movie scripts are transformed into
novels and vice versa. Some magazines are distributed on
video tapes or newspaper copies, and so on.

Functions of the Mass Media

Lasswell stated that the media perform three major social

functions:

(1) Surveillance of the environment

(2) Correlation of different elements of society
(3) Transmission of culture, from one generation to the
next Charles Wright added the function of
entertainment to functions of the mass media.

Surveillance of the Environment

The media teach us most of what we know about the

world through the process of surveillance. The media
expose us also to other societies. The media reveal to us
about the stock market, impending danger, business
opportunities and risks, travelers guide, weather
conditions great discoveries.

Surveillance is not just for the masses, but also for the
entire nation. For instance, the Government and industry
leaders watch CNN and BBC – world or read the Guardian
or Time magazine to know what other world leaders are
saying and thinking.

Above all, the media also give status to individuals. This is

achieved by exposing the individuals to large audiences
for one good reason or the other, to make them appear
important and esteemed. This process is known as status
conferral.
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Correlation of Different Elements of the Society

This is an important function of the mass media. It

involves selection, evaluation and interpretation of events.
It helps impose structure on the news and it is
accomplished by persuasive communication through
editorialising, commentary, advertising and propaganda. It
categorises news and directs on the importance of each
news item, by deciding whether the news item should
appears on the front page, first headline on the broadcast
or whether it should be accompanied by a teaser on the
magazine cover promoting the story.

Socialisation and Transmission of Culture

According to Ralph Hansen (2005), socialisation is the

process of integrating people into the society through the
transmission of values, social norms and knowledge to
new members of the group takes place. We actually learn
the values of our society through the media, friends,
clubs, school, church, etc.

Accordingly, the mass media provides socialisation

through the following ways.

(a) Through role models in entertainment in programming

(b) Through goals and desires as presented in media
citizenship values, portrayed in the news.
(c) Through advertisements for products that may be
useful to us in different stages of our lives.

Entertainment

This is communication package, which is intended to

amuse, even if it serves other functions. For instance,
television drama on HIV/AIDS can be considered
entertaining even though it educates people living with
HIV/AIDS on how to cope with the challenges of the
ailment. According to Neil Postman (1985), “the primary
effect of television is that it changes how people see the
world; that is, with television, people start seeing
everything as entertainment.”
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Mass Media Systems

The media system that exists in a country is directly

related to the political system in that country. The political
system determines the exact relationship between the
media and the government.

However, the development of a national mass media

system is predicated on the protection of national interest,
based on national philosophy (social, geographical,
cultural, religious, economic and international
interests) .These are seen in terms of the attitudes of
national leadership towards the people (their rights,
duties, capabilities and potentialities.

There are four orientations, which determine how the

mass media operate with a system.
1. The Authoritarian Attitude

This is obtainable where the controllers of mass

communication lack fate in the ability of the people to
govern themselves. The authoritarian dictates the content
of mass media for the public. The media are usually state
– owned and the state selects, arranges and plays up or
down the media content.

This system can be found in former USSR, Cuba, Mexico

and some one – party states in Africa.

2. Paternalism or Paternalistic Attitude

This system has faith in the basic intelligence of the

masses and the capability deal with ideals. They maintain
a healthy media content. The elites or highly educated,
privileged individuals prescribe the standard for taste.

3. Permissionism or Permissive Attitude

This system stipulates that media organisations must

operate according to government registration and
regulatory requirements, all in the public interest,
convenience and necessity (PICON) media contents are
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bared on audience research. The result is usually

competition and parasitism. However, the negative fall out
is excessive materialism and sometimes, outright
irresponsibility.

4. Pluralism or Pluralistic Attitude

This is combination of what is good of the other three

systems discussed above. The developing nations are
noted for pluralism. The attitude recognises more than
one ultimate substance or principle – dualism. In other
worlds, the attributes of authoritarian, paternalistic and
permissive attitudes are combined in pluralism.

Mass Media Coverage

The coverage of mass media depends on the geographical

area it covers. Therefore, a medium could be local,
national or international coverage.

Local Media

These are those that cover a small portion of the society

during operation and circulation. This can also mean that
the media only have the interest of the people in a defined
local setting. For instance, in Nigeria, local media can be
said to include the state media houses for example BCA,
Umuahia, IBC, Owerri, Ambassador Newspapers,
Statesman, LTV, Lagos, and so on.

National Media

These are those that have the interest of the entire

country at heart. It could be private or public but the
coverage entails what the outlook is like. Examples are the
national dailies – Vanguard, The Guardian etc, and media
houses such as NTA, FRCN, and so on.

International Media

Their interests cut across national boundaries. That is, the

media content are meant for audience within and outside
a particular country. Examples of international media
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include CNN, CFI, BBC, Time Magazine, AIT, NTA

International, VON, and so on.

NOTE: Some media signals overflow to close by

countries. This is not international communication but
referred to as spill over. For instance, when Benin
Republic residents receive signals from NTA Lagos.

Dysfunctions of the Mass Communication

Mass communication has dysfunction, which are the

negative implications or attributes of mass communication
effects. These are discussed below.

Anxiety

Mass communication has been accused of causing anxiety

that emanates from insufficient reporting, misinformation
and outright falsehood. Nigerian newspapers and
magazines are known for misspelling, wrong judgment
and insufficient coverage. In doing so, they mislead,
create unnecessary but avoidable anxiety thereby leaving
many questions unanswered.

Revolution of Rising Expectation

The media sometimes creates awareness of availabilities

that are not within the reach of media consumers.
Through advertising, the media through glamorisation
tend to make the audience believe that possession of
certain products can lead to certain results that at times
are not true - deceptive advertising.
Narcotisation

The media have the ability to narcotise people. They draw

people to media offerings and then constitute them into a
captive audience. People then organise their lives around
such programmes. Take for instance “Super Story,” people
cancel their engagements or refuse to be engaged for the
time of their favourite programmes. Like regular drunks,
they rush to sustain their habit.

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Privatisation

Excessive media consumers may tend to be alienated

from the run of societal life. Media content like in times of
war may lead people to withdraw into their shells.
They may prefer not to be informed about happening.

Human Conflicts

Media content may lead to human and international

conflicts. The Sharia conflict could attribute to the media
because all parties involved would like to be covered,
using propaganda, “favourably” in order to achieve their
objectives.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF HENRY TOWNSEND

The history of the press in Africa, particularly Nigeria

centers on the activities of the colonialists. The British
missionaries contributed immensely to the development
of education and press in Nigeria. In Badagry, an Anglican
priest, Reverend Henry Townsend worked assiduously to
establish a vernacular newspaper entitled “Iwe Irohin.”
Thus, in this unit our discussion will centre on the
contribution of Henry Townsend.

African Press: Pre-Independence Era

The printed word came to Africa with the European. The

Portuguese and the Spaniards came first in search of
treasure and quickly worked up an appetite for an empire.
Not to be outdone, the Belgians, the Dutch, the English,
the French and the Germans moved in to do battle over
real estate. After a series of musical chairs, the situation
stabilised but only to see the entrenchment of the Dutch
in South Africa , the Belgians in Congo , Rwanda and
Burundi , the English in Nigeria , the French in Cameroon ,
Togoland and the Germans in Tanganyika (Tanzania).

The occupation eventually led to racial and political

conflicts between the indigenous populations and the
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white intruders. Out of these conflicts was born African

Nationalism. Sections organised into resistance
movements aimed at raising opposition over unpopular
measures.

One of the instruments of African nationalism was the

press. Its birth and growth in different colonies depended
on such factors as the fear of the nationalism spirit,
commitment to the nationalism course and the state of
the economy. In a number of instances, introducing what
turned out to be the foundations of the “nationalist press”
was a European idea but such a beginning served only as
a catalyst.

In any case, the African press seemed to have

materialised first in the British colonies of West Africa. The
Ghanaians in 1857 had one of their earliest African-owned
newspapers in Charles Bannerman’s organ The West
African Herald, Nigeria posted its first newspaper, Iwe
Irohin in 1859.

Brief Profile of Townsend

It should be noted that in Nigeria, the first printing press

was installed by the Presbyterian mission when they
arrived in Calabar in 1946. Eight years later, Rev. Henry
Townsend fitted up a printing press and inaugurated a
printing school in the mission compound at Abeokuta.

Townsend, an Anglican, came from England. He was asked

to proceed to Abeokuta by the mission authorities in
Calabar to help in ministering the spiritual needs of many
sierra Leonian immigrants who were emancipated from
slave trade. He arrived Badagry and worked with Sierra
Leonian immigrants at his headquarters at a place known
as English Town. It is said that during the publication of
Iwe Irohin, there were at least 300 people in CMS
compound who had learnt to read and write and this
generated the need for English man to set the newspaper.

Establishment of the Iwe Irohin

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In December 1859, Townsend established a printing press

on which Iwe Irohin, Yoruba Africa’s first vernacular
newspaper was printed.

The full name of Townsend’s newspaper was “Iwe Irohin

Fun Awon
Ara Egba Ati Yoruba” translated into English language
means
“Newspaper in Yoruba for the Egba and Yoruba people.”

Reverend Townsend is reported to have said at the

beginning of the maiden edition of Iwe Irohin that ……
“my objective is to Beget the habit of seeking information
by reading ……(newspapers)……

I have set on foot a Yoruba newspaper” Also, note that it

was on Reverend Townsend’s printing press that the first
Bible in Yoruba language was printed in 1862.

Contents, Format and Frequency of Iwe Irohin

Right from the outset, Iwe Irohin was published

fortnightly, in Yoruba language and, later, in both Yoruba
and English languages. It had eight pages with another
four pages in Yoruba languages and another four
complementary pages in English language, translating
the Yoruba version of it. In other words, it was first a
vernacular paper and later became a bilingual paper.

In terms of layout, typography and design, each page of

Iwe Irohin was divided into two columns and measured
approximately 6.5x8 inches deep. It did not carry any
pictures. Its basic philosophical foundation among other
things was to promote Christian literacy among the
Yoruba people of Badagry and the England.

Iwe Irohin featured prominently on the vertical make-up.

It generally lacked typographical pluralism. Items in each
column were set-to- fit. Iwe Irohin did not carry editorial
unit until 1862. Similarly, Iwe Irohin did not carry
advertisements until five years after its first appearance.

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There was lack of typographical harmony, contrast

balance, but unity in the earlier copies of Iwe Irohin was
said to be very credible. It was a political newspaper
exercising great restraint from colonial politics. It was a
great critic of both the slave trade and the 1800. Iwe
Irohin advocated for morality, and continuous humanism.

In January 1866, Iwe Irohin for the first time started

publishing two different editions-one in Yoruba language
and the other entirely in English language. It continued
with the demise of the uprising.”

The “Ifole” uprising was a civil disruption between the

Ibadan and Egba traders. It was alleged by the Egba
people that the Europeans were helping the Ibadan people
in their bid to by-pass Egba commercial middlemen in
trading directly with the Lagos colony. Because of this
allegation, all the Europeans living in Egba land
(Abeokuta) were driven away by the Egba people.

At the outset, the news coverage of Irohin was limited in

scope. For instance, it carried only religious news items.
Later, its news coverage included non-religious items like
trade and commerce, information about schedules of
arrivals and departure of ships, coverage’s from and to
European countries.

Readership and Price

Iwe Irohin was said to have been hard to read and

comprehended during its first few years of existence. In
particular, the teenagers of those days “quarreled” with
Iwe Irohin’s stringent moralistic philosophies. The price of
Iwe Irohin was about 120 cowries equivalent to one penny.

Similarly, in the political spheres, which were secondary to

Iwe Irohin, the paper achieved a considerable influence.
Townsend used it effectively in local politics in Egba land.
The paper might have exerted a wide influence but it
introduced first generation of educated Africans to the
reading culture, which is part and parcel of the
enlightened society. The paper also inspired the Africans
who later made use of news papering of the land.

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Iwe Irohin was a catalyst to the growth of other papers.

The paper helped in revitalising other printing presses,
which were existing and helped to increase the number of
apprentice-printers.

OTHER CONTRIBUTORS TO MEDIA

EVOLUTION IN NIGERIA

The development of the Nigerian press was achieved by

missionaries, colonialists and businessmen. Some of them
were interested in providing a vehicle for education and
literacy. After the publication of Iwe Irohin, Robert
Campbell launched the Anglo-African newspaper to
continue the media tradition in Nigeria.

The Profile of Robert Campbell

Born in Kingston, Jamaica of a mulato mother and a

Scottish father, Campbell worked as an apprentice printer
for five years. In the United
States, he was a victim of racial antagonism and
discrimination. In 1855, he served as a compositor and
two years later, he joined the institute of color youth at
Philadelphia, as a scientific teacher. In 185960, in
response to the philanthropic idealism, which fired the
imagination of many West Indians and Afro- Americans in
their Back- to- Africa movement, Campbell joined Dr
Martin K. Delany on a tour of Yoruba land with the aim of
establishing a Negro colony. A treaty was contracted with
the Alake of Abeokuta who subsequently repudiated it
before Campbell arrived Lagos in 1862, which he thought,
would be his new home. Undaunted, he decided to settle
in Lagos for the next 22 years. He distinguished himself as
a journalist, intellectual manufacturer, merchant and
administrator.

Early in his career in Lagos, Campbell established the

Lagos Academy where he gave lectures on human
physiology. His “literacy achievements” were to earn him
the title of “professor.” This background foreshadows his
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editorial policy as stated earlier. Given Campbell’s

background and outlook, it is not surprising that he
decided on a literacy publication as a paying proposition
and a 63/4 x 8 ½ assortment of stories called from a
variety of sources, books, novels, magazines and overseas
newspapers.

As a weekly journal, it sold for three pence and was

printed every Saturday evening at Campbell’s printing
school. From the outset, the venture proved a failure and
it would seem that what kept it going was Campbell’s
determination to reject defeat and perhaps the evidently
small proceeds from a few government and other
advertisement which were inserted in the journal. The
literacy matter interested only a few subscribers and sales
did not exceed about 30-50 copies a week. The paper died
at the end of 1865.

According to Omu, judging from feeling of utter

disappointment with which Campbell continually referred
to the apathy of the public, it seems obvious that the
enterprise was far from self-supporting.

The Birth of Anglo-African (1863-1865)

The Anglo-African was the second newspaper in the

country. Strictly speaking, the history of Nigeria’s
indigenous press began in 1863 when Robert Campbell
founded the Anglo-African, which he abandoned two years
later. However, judging by dominant principles upon which
it was conducted, it cannot be said to have formed part of
newspaper movement, which began in 1880’s by
providing cheap and accessible material, which would
educate, inform and entertain its readers. (This formed the
editorial policy of the paper).

The establishment of the Lagos Grammar School in 1859

by the CMS mission was indicative of the future
educational growth and Campbell’s rich experiences as a
printer and teacher embarked on experimental literacy
journalism.

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Role of Anglo-African in the Development of

Nigeria Press

In a large scale, the Anglo-African helped to produce more

printers among whom is Richard Blaize. It set a stage for
the growth and development of printing industry,
especially in Lagos. Most importantly, the newspaper
reinforced growing awareness of the significance of
newspaper as an instrument of public enlightenment.

The paper became one of the major signs of growth and

consolidation from the 1880s of the Lagos press thereby
making Lagos assume the position of the convergent part
for Nigerian press. Till today, most newspapers are still
concentrated in Lagos city and its environs.

The Instinct for Nationalism in Africa

The real founding of Nigerian press was 15 years late

when certain social, political, economic conditions
interacted with local and foreign inspirations to create
conditions, which favoured popular newspaper. The
doctrine of democracy which was practised differently by
the European exponents of “divide and rule” culminated in
the loss of respect for African rulers. The missionaries who
came later applauded the partition and this led to
nationalism in the African minds. These developments
highlighted the need for an indigenous media for the
effective ventilation of social, political and economic
grievances and for the inculcation of nationalism
sentiment in view of the aforementioned. On November
10, 1880, the Lagos Times/Gold Colony Advertiser was
established. The Lagos Times was founded by Richard
Blaize. Blaize was a wealthy businessman of Yoruba and
Sierra Leonian origin. The paper marked the beginning of
indigenous newspaper movement. The name of the
newspaper reflected the joint administration of Nigeria
and Gold Coast.

The editorial policy of the paper was “The press is a

safeguard public right”.

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The paper crusaded for the right of the commonly placed

people. It lived throughout, defending this motto. The
newspaper appeared twice a month and sold for six
pence. The paper was a four-page journal and had three
columns to a page.

Partnership between Blaize and John Payne

Jackson

The Lagos Weekly Times, which came out on 3rd May,

1890 and sold for three pence was the new version of the
defunct Lagos Times and Gold Coast Colony Advertiser
revived by John Payne Jackson, a Liberian born
businessman, in a special arrangement with Blaize. The
agreement between Blaize and Jackson provided that
Jackson should revive the Lagos Times under the new
name, have a free hand in managing sales advertisements
and job-printing business and prepare a statement of
account at the end of three months so that Blaize’s share
of the revenue could be determined.

The three-month period could also serve to reassure Blaize

that Jackson was a different man from what he was eight
years ago when his poor bookkeeping and love of drink in
the office of the Lagos Times led to his dismissal.
Jackson’s editorship of the Weekly Times was excellent
but his financial management showed no signs of
improvement. At the end of three months, he could not
render any account, not even when he was given two
more months.

The relationship became strained; although Jackson

eventually managed to submit an account, it failed to
reassure that he had not made a mistake in yielding to
Jackson’s pressure for a new relationship. On 29th
November, Blaize discontinued the Weekly Times and
arranged to revert to the old name. As from 6th
December, Jackson at first acquiesced in Blaize’s decision
but soon changed his mind and, in handbills, began to
dispute Blaize’s right to discontinue the Weekly Times. A

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court threat made Jackson to back down, announcing that

he would start his own newspaper the following year.

Profile of John Payne Jackson

Born in Gape Palmas (at about 1847) in the small African

colony of
Maryland, which united with Liberia to the north in the late
fifties, Payne inherited his father’s painstaking disposition
and incisive intellect. His father who migrated from
Maryland USA was known as Thomas Jackson.

At the age four, he lost his father. This tragedy is assumed

to have made Payne self-assertive and independent early
in life. Payne attended the training institute on the Cavalla
River and showed great capacity in Liberal subjects and
printing. His love for travels made him go to Gold Coast
and eventually ended up in Lagos in the 1860’s. He
worked with the merchant L.S Leigh and was posted to the
Brass river in the 1870’s. He worked with his employer
and started to trade in palm produce on his own. Payne
suffered business setbacks and described the losses he
incurred as the cruel greed of European commerce on the
lower Niger. He abandoned trade and got employment as
a bookkeeper with the Lagos Times and Gold Coast colony
advertiser in 1887.

The Formation of the Lagos Weekly Record

The relationship between Blaize/Jackson, which was to

poison the relations of the two families for a long time,
had a significant effect upon the history of the record.
Jackson appeared to have resolved not only to outsell the
rival Lagos Times, drive it into a second and final collapse
and force his former boss out of the newspaper trade, but
also to father a newspaper organisation, which would be
commercially successful and possibly overshadow Blaize’s
financial prestige.

It should also be noted that the background of

disagreement and dispute would give a new dimension to
Jackson’s editorial and propagandist competence with

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popular implications. The above circumstances led to the

establishment of the Lagos Weekly Record in1891.

Issues that Attracted the Attention of the

Weekly Record

The activities of the Lagos Weekly Record cut across all

spheres of human endeavour including political, economic
and social. Host of the areas of focus can be outlined as
follows.

a. Colonial administration
b. British attitude to native chiefs in the course of the
system of indirect rule
c. New system of land tenure
d. Policy of discrimination against Africans in some
areas like politics, education and employment
e. Type of education and work ethics summation of
other issues that attracted comments from the
record are as follows.

• Introduction of Water Rate: During this period

the colonial government for undisclosed reasons
decided to introduce water rate. The policy did not
go down well with the record, which saw
it as an imposition. Not only did the paper describe
the policy as exploitation it called on Lagosians to
resist the exploitative device.
• Use of public money to build churches and mosques
for worship to the exclusion of Nigerian was attacked
by the record. The paper disapproved that public
money be used to build places of worship where
Africans are banned from entry.
• The record propagated for the amendment of the
Nigerian Constitution, which at the time did not
provide for any real legislative authority in the
country. The then governor Lord Lugard, appointed
few government officials in legislative council
without authority. Their only duty then was to meet
once a year to listen to the governor’s address and
give him rousing ovation.
• The paper bitterly opposed the flogging of Nigerian
Chiefs and Emirs publicly. In the opinion of the
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paper, this is inhuman and an easy means of

encoding the loyalty of subjects to natural rules.

Summarily, the record by all standards was a radical

Newspaper and advocated for aggressive nationalism. In
the words of Ezra, Jackson “… was uncompromising by
nature and fanatical by conviction!” Jackson died on 1st
August 1915 and the editorial chair moved to his son
Horatio Jackson who maintained the status quo until the
demise of the paper in 1935.

Comments on the Weekly Record

The quality and characteristics of the paper, The Weekly

Record can be deduced from the description given to the
paper by eminent mass communication scholars.

• Dr. Kalu Ezra, a historian of international repute,

described the Record as the first militant nationalist
paper.
• B. Laotan, a journalist, said that the Weekly Record
was so powerful that at one point because of its
uncompromising attitude in the national interest
foreign advertisements were withdrawn. However,
the paper stood its ground.
• Robert Julie, another historian, said of the record
editor, “Jackson was a thoughtful student of current
affairs and an exhaustive commentator of their
significances for almost a quarter of century. His
columns provided influential and instructive help to
contemporaries even as they do to modern
observers.
• Nnamdi Azikwe, in his book “Odyssey,” attributed his
interest in journalism partly to the influence of The
Weekly Record editorials. This reflected in the way
the West African Pilot was edited because the paper
was full of “Jacksonian phrases and expressions.”
The record with the editorial policy “Be just and fear
not” strongly believed in propagation of racial
consciousness.

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The Meaning of Press Freedom

Liberty or freedom of expression and the meaning:

• Laying no previous restraint upon publication.

Liberty of the press means laying no previous or
prior censorship of publication. Every person has the
right to lay what sentiments, facts, information or
publication he has before the public. To forbid this
right is to destroy freedom of expression and the
press; but,
• Where a person publishes what is unlawful, criminal,
defamatory or mischievous, he must face the
consequences of his publication.
• Liberty of the press consists in laying no previous
restrain upon publication and not in freedom from
censorship for criminal matters published. Every
man has the undoubted right to lay what sentiment
he pleases before the public… to forbid that is to
destroy the freedom of the press- but if he publishes
what is illegal or mischievous he must face the
consequences of his own temerity” (Osinbajo and
Fogam, 1991).

Concisely, the liberty of the press is a right with a

responsibility. The freedom of expression which Ray Ekpu
(1998) regarded as the grandmother of all freedom has
been given an important place in virtually all international
and national charters of human rights. For instance, Article
19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Right States
that: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and
expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions
without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media regardless of
frontier. Article 19 (1) of the international Convention on
Civil and Political Right says that “Everyone shall have the
Right to hold opinion without interference.” The African
charter on Human and Peoples’ Right Article 9 says “Every
individual shall have the right to express and disseminate
his opinions within the law. In most countries of the world

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including Nigeria, freedom of expression has always been

given a significant place.

History of Press Freedom

The revolution caused by the invention of printing brought

about literacy, development of modern European
languages and of course, the establishment of
newspapers. This eventually led to the symbolic
relationship between the government and the media, a
relationship that still exists until date. By this relationship,
the government tried to maintain power and control press
over the dissemination of information about government
activities. The public (through the media newspapers)
wanted to know what the governments were doing.
Hence, the conflict between these two forces, which still
continues up until date.

Throughout the history of mankind, people have really

fought for the freedom of speech. Laws have been passed
and wars fought over people’s rights to express ideas
publicly. According to history, the great philosopher,
Socrates, is said to be the first known person to fight for
freedom of speech. When he was accused of corrupting
the morals of the youths of Athens through his teachings,
Socrates confessed that he is ready to die many times if
that is the sacrifice he has to make in the course of
speaking his mind in his search for wisdom. This, clearly,
means fighting for the freedom of speech and expression.

Definition of Press Freedom

Press freedom is actually an extension of the freedom of

expression. The concept of freedom of press has been
something on the lips of many people right from the olden
days. For instance, in Nigeria, if we look back at the
earliest newspapers such as Rev. Henry Townsend’s Iwe
Irohin published in 1859 and the other newspapers that
followed it, we will observe the struggle for press freedom.
It is unfortunate and regrettable that up until date, the
freedom of the press has not been protected despite
pressmen’s involvement in government in many cases.
Prominent Nigerians such as late Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe,

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Ernest Ikoli, Chief Anthony Enahoro, Alhaji Babatunde Jose,

late Dele Giwa, Nosa Igiebor, etc. have fought for freedom
of the press, yet they have not been able to guarantee it.
Robert L. Stevenson in J.C Merrill (1995:63) rightly
observed that:

Everyone is in favour of freedom of the press.

The problem is lack of agreement on what it is and who
has it…….

This simply means that press freedom is still a rare

commodity in the world. Merrill (1995:69). This is why
Nigerian journalists, like their counterparts in some parts
of the world, are still agitating for press freedom today.

The definition of press freedom is relatively obscure.

However, it can generally be said that “press freedom is
the freedom a journalist has to perform his duties without
interference of any kind, while still maintaining ethical
standards.”

Contemporary Freedom

With the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and

Eastern Europe, independent journalism began to thrive
and find foot in Africa since the 1990s. The fact could be
justified from announcement of PANA (Pan Africa News
Agency) towards a change to independent reporting.
Hence, many African countries, media organisations
which, hitherto, had very little powers began to challenge
government authority.

Unfortunately, the wave of democracy sweeping through

the developing countries is still lacking in some of these
countries. The effect is that many African countries still
have a very long way to go. It is, however, hoped that the
countries involved will learn from one another, while still,
collectively, forging ahead towards the common goal of
achieving press freedom.

Current Trends

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In 1991, a study done on “human rights” in 104 countries

showed that there is an improvement in human rights
conditions. The work noted that there has been an
unparalleled improvement in this direction for five years
ranging from 1986-1991

A similar progress was also reported by Freedom House.

By the Freedom House categorisation of Press Freedom in
1993, it was observed that only 25per cent of the world’s
population operated a free press, 44per cent partly free
press, while 31per cent were not free. Another analysis of
the Freedom House looked at a number of countries rather
than the percentages that fell under these different
categories. It also observed that 67 countries were
regarded as having a free press, 60 partly free and 50, not
free. It also observed that the number of Countries
improving in press freedom out numbered those with
declining freedom.

Prospects

All over the world, press freedom is under one kind of

threat or the other. Since democracy initiates a constant
battle between different forces in the society, most people
are seen demanding freedom for themselves.
Unfortunately, these people do not carry along this
enthusiasm for demanding freedom when they are in
power. This is often because at this stage, they now face
challenges from both political and journalistic oppositions.
These struggles are important because they define the
scope of press freedom in the different countries, which
the rest of the whole may aspire to attain. These were the
views of Stevenson, which he considers responsible for the
challenges facing press freedom. The scope of press
freedom, however, depends on the individual countries of
the world and the extent of the relationship of the media
and the government in each country. In addition, it
borders on what provisions each Country’s constitution
makes for the freedom of speech/expression generally and
for the freedom of the press in particular. For according to
Udoakah, freedom of the press is not an idea that can be
conceptualised in a vacuum. It is rather a factor of other
circumstances. To him, freedom of the press is not just the
right of the journalist to publish news and comments
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without interference. In the views of Udoakah (1994) in J.C

Merrill (1995:223), it also includes:
The right of the people to express themselves in the
media of public communication without being curtailed by
those who wield political, religious, economic and other
powers. It means the availability of the press to people.

The people should be given free and unimpeded access to

news and information….

According to him, freedom of the press is therefore, the

relative absence of governmental, economic and other
controls in the operation of the press. Given this scenario,
it is obvious that the future for press freedom is still bleak
because most African governments are not willing to fully
succumb to the demands of absolute press freedom.

Coverage of Africa by the Western Media

As earlier mentioned, the coverage of Africa by the

western world is not only shabby, but also predominantly
negative. This can be vividly ascertained by the findings of
Gary T. Hunt (1996:189) who examined (investigated) “the
image” of Africa as reflected by the elite American press.
His findings are in line with the observations of Hatchten
and Beil (1985) and Martin (1992) who posited that Africa
is “one of the most underreported regions in the world,
even though Africa is the second largest continent of the
world” (Hachten & Beil1985:626-630).
Some of the findings of G.T Hunt in his study are:

i) The Association Press (AP’s) coverage of Africa

reflects crises and conflicts from troubled spots.
ii) The developing countries have often been scantily
reported by the western media
iii) The interests of the American media audience
dictate the coverage in the media.

The perception of American editors appears to be that

their audience have limited or virtually no interest in Third
World events and news, hence, their scanty coverage of
these areas. Unfortunately, this is the opposite of what
happens in the Third World countries, who rather, have
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American news consistently featuring in their media.

There is, therefore, a lack of reciprocity. When foreign
news does appear in the American media, it tends to focus
on Western Europe, South Asia, the Far East, and the
Middle East (G.T Hunt, in Merrill: 1995:192). These are the
areas which they have business relationships with, apart
from regional proximity with them. These factors
determine their coverage of foreign news. Although
journalists, in the Western world are encouraged to write
chaotic stories about Africa, the Western audience do not
care about these stories on disaster and coups.(Fitzgerald,
1989 in Merrill 1995:247) This is because many media
organisations in the Western world have ‘decided that
Africa is no longer politically fashionable or newsworthy
(Fitzgerald, 1987: 24).

iv) American news has the tendency to produce odd

and strange news about Africa.
v) The coverage of Africa by the Western media lacks
in-depth analysis and highly researched background
material. Suffice it, however, to say that Hunt also
recognised some reasons for this biased coverage of
Third World countries.

Reasons for biased Coverage of Africa

i) Complexity and unnecessary bureaucracy in gaining

entry into Third World countries. Difficult travel conditions
and cost of reporting on such a large continent as Africa.
ii) The size of Africa and the distance between countries of
interest that the Western media may want to cover or
report.
iii) The focus on Western media audience interest, which is
the prime concern of Western editors.

The findings of G.T Hunt actually reflect the need for the
Western media and particularly the American news media
to have a serious rethink, and take a look at the way it
covers Africa. On the other hand, African countries must
work with American reporters to make it easier for them to
cover the continent; for both objective news coverage is
possible only when both the source and the reporter fully
understand each other’s role (G.T Hunt, in Merrill:
1995:208). Therefore, both the American media and the
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African countries have a big role to play in rectifying these

discrepancies in the Western media coverage of Africa.

Constitutional Guarantees

The first amendment to the American Constitution says,

“Congress shall make no law to abrogate the freedom of
the press.” In Nigeria, the concept of the liberty of the
press is embodied in Section 39 (1) of the 1999
Constitution which says “Every person shall be entitled to
freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinion
and to receive and impart ideas and information”.
Osinbajo & Fogam (1991) mentioned some justification for
a free press as follows.

• First, that the institution of a free press- that is a

press is independent and free of censorship is an
essential element of every Free State and modern
democracy.
• Second, it is held that it is the function and indeed,
the duty of the press to keep the citizens of a
country informed of the different opinions which are
being expressed, so that the citizens can make the
political decision which a democracy demands of
them.
• In addition, it has been held that the security of
constitutional government lies in effecting peaceful
change based on the worthiness and appeal of
opposing programmes and ideas presented to the
public by the competitor for political power. Besides,
it is widely considered that freedom of the press is
essential to the individual’s own development nd
realisation.

It must however be pointed out that the freedom of

expression clause as stated in the Nigerian Constitution
does not specifically mention media practitioners. Rather,
it says “every person,” which presupposes that every
member of the society has a right to write and to print as
they will and gather news for any publication without
interference.

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Limits to Freedom of the Press

There is no absolute freedom anywhere, even in the freest

societies of the world. The freedom or right of one person
or the press to publish should not destroy the right of
another man or the right of society to exist and be safe
from the effect of wrongful, harmful, defamatory or
mischievous publications. Therefore, the press has
freedom and equal responsibility that goes with that
freedom. It has a right and a duty. For every right or
freedom that is claimed or enjoyed there is a
corresponding duty. In the words of Denning L. J:

To our way of thinking, it is elementary that each man

should be able to inquire and seek after truth until he has
found it. Every one in the land should be free to think his
own thoughts, have his own opinion and give voice to
them, in public or in private, so long as he does not speak
ill of his neighbour, and free also to criticise the
government or any party or group of people, so long as he
does not incite anyone to violence.

In short, while the press wants absolute and unhindered

freedom, the freedom has to be limited in the overall
interest of everyone in society including the press by:
• The Constitution
• The Legislature
• The Courts; and
• The Government

While guaranteeing freedom of expression and the press,

the constitution is also quick to impose limitations. For
example: The 1999 Constitution makes freedom of
expression subject to any law that is reasonably justifiable
in a democratic society.

Section 39 (3) says:

Nothing in this section shall invalidate any law that is

reasonably justifiable in a democratic society.

a. For the purpose of preventing the disclosure of

information received in confidence, maintaining the
authority and independence of courts or regulating
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telephony, wireless broadcasting, television or the

exhibition of cinematographic films; or
b. Imposing restrictions upon persons holding office
under the Government of the Federal or of a State,
members of the Nigerian Police Force or other
government security services established by law.

Section 45 (1) provides:

“Nothing in Section 37, 38, 40 and 41 of this Constitution

shall invalidate any law that is reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society.

a) In the interest of defense, public safety, public order,

public morality; public health; or
b) For the purpose of protection of the rights and
freedom of other persons.

In pursuance of this constitutional provision, for the

protection of the public and private individuals legislatures
in Nigeria are therefore free and have been able to pass
laws in the following areas:

a) Contempt of court and contempt of parliament

b) Disclosure or publication of official secrets including
defence and security information
c) Publication of obscene and harmful literature and
materials
d) Sedition and seditious publication
e) Defamation; and
f) Regulation of telephony, wireless broadcasting,
television or the exhibition of cinematography films.

The freedom of expression and freedom of the press given

by the constitution are not without limits or warnings. It is
important for every media practitioner to know that there
is a limit to his or her freedom of expression so as not to
run foul of the law.

The freedom of expression and freedom of the press are

so important that virtually all-international and national
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charters of human rights recognise them. Besides, most

countries of the world including Nigeria have enshrined
freedom of expression and freedom of the press in their
constitutions. However, it must be noted that the freedom
is not limited to journalists alone, also the freedom is not
without restriction from the constitution, from
government, courts and legislations.

Establishment of the West African Pilot (1937)

According to Fred Omu, “in November, 1937 Nnamdi

Azikwe started the West African Pilot, which immediately
became the major forum of the increased nationalist
consciousness which had been awaiting a potent outlet
and stimulus.

The Weekly Record had died in 1930, the Daily News had
ceased to attract serious attention by 1934 and the mid-
30s; therefore, no newspaper existed to crystallise and
channelise the-growing nationalist influences of the late
inter-war years.

The West African Pilot stepped into the void and with
Azikwe’s admission to membership of the Nigerian Youth
Movement and his election to the Central Executive
Committee of the Movement, a new era of politics and
nationalism was born. Azikwe as an admirer of Thomas H.
Jackson brought into Nigeria a new idealism, of
nationalism as well as new techniques of political and
journalistic propaganda learned during his training and
experience in the United States. His initial platform was
the African Morning Post, which he edited in Accra for two
and half years until he resigned on 1st April, 1937, a week
after the West African Court of Appeal allowed his appeal
against the judgment of the Supreme Court, which the
previous year had convicted him for sedition.

His influence developed in Lagos with the incorporation of

the Zik Press Limited on 5th August and the launching of
the Pilot on 12 November. The opening address entitled
“The Curtain Rises” described the editorship as “sentinels

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of popular liberty and guardians of civilisation” whose

supreme task was to make assertions in unequivocal
terms.

Editorial Policy of the Pilot

According to Azikwe in My odyssey: “I had christened the

new daily paper West African Pilot, and chose Dante
Alighieri’s immortal lines as its motto: show the light and
the people will find the way”. The duty of a pilot was to
guide the ship entrusted to his care and I thought that, at
the stage in the development of my country, it was not
the duty of any patriot to pontificate. It was incumbent on
me to turn the searchlight of publicity, in the form of
narration or exposition or; description or argumentation,
on the courses of action affecting my country directly or
indirectly, leading people to decide for themselves what
attitude to adopt and what action to take, under such
guidance.

3.3 Pilot and Its Contributions

The West African Pilot made immense contributions to the

growth and development of Nigerian press. The
contribution cut across various areas of life, chief among
which are outlined and discussed below.

1. Business orientations: With the appearance of Zik

and the emergence of Pilot in the newspaper scene,
newspaper publishing quickly turned out to be a
business venture with pilot outlook. Unlike its
predecessors, the Pilot and its group made
newspaper publication as a purely profit-oriented
business. Zik and his paper achieved this singular
feat by appointing agencies all over the place with a
view to ensuring wide circulation. He also
popularised newspaper reading by adding local news
menu to attract more readerships.
2. The advent of newspaper chains: At the time Zik
launched himself into the newspaper venture, there
was no trace of chain in existence, Zik’s arrival in
journalism scene brought a new dimension into the

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profession as he introduced “Newspaper Chains” in

Nigeria. Zik’s Group of Newspapers Nigerian
Limited had the Pilot as the flag bearer, the Eastern
Nigerian
Guardian (1940) published in Port Harcourt,
Nigerian
Spokesman (1943) published in Onitsha, Southern
Nigerian
Defender (1943) first launched in Warri and later
transferred to Ibadan; The Daily Comet (1949); The
Northern Advocate published in Jos and the Sentinel
published in Enugu.

Pilot: Awakening Political Consciousness

Zik (supported by Zik’s Group) embarked on publishing

and employing the newspaper chain at his disposal to
propagate his political ideals and beliefs. Though the
papers were independent administratively, they often
closed ranks on controversial issues and took the same
stand with the Pilot. In this way, the Zik’s family had their
influence felt nationwide.

Use of wire service: Another important feature of the

Pilot was that it made use of foreign press association
starting from 1945. It consequently became the first post
war newspaper to make use of the wire services provided
by Reuters. This important foresight has turned out to be a
common feature with the present day newspaper houses
that rely heavily on international wire service for their
foreign news.

Features of General Interests

• The Pilot became the first newspaper in Nigeria to

introduce columns of general interest such as
women’s column; book review, and so on. These
columns were meant to lighten the heavy burden
imposed on people by politics of the day.
• Introduction of banner headlines: The paper adopted
use of banner headlines across the entire pages
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especially the lead story at the front and “back

pages. It also introduced headlines with a verb, for
example, “Zik goes to Court.” There were other
innovations like proper newspaper planning, pictorial
or photo- journalism and other forms of illustrations
that metamorphosed into today’s precision
journalism.
• Purely indigenous newspapers: Pilot is the first
newspaper in the country to be run entirely by
Nigerians contrary to its predecessors, which were
run wholly or partially by foreigners. Pilot and its
founder are by all standards devoid of any foreign
interest and influence.

The West African Pilot inculcated in the people the virtues

of reading and seeking knowledge through the addition of
local, news columns. The objective of the publisher was
achieved through wider circulation strategies. This may
explain why the paper though it has long disappeared
from newsstand has remained indelible in the minds of
those who read it.
From the foregoing, we have been able to trace the history
of the West African Pilot, its editorial policy, contributions,
general features and enhancement of political awareness
in the country.

Awolowo and the Nigerian Tribune

This newspaper belonged to the Action Group party of

Chief Obafemi Awolowo. He was also the proprietor of the
newspaper. He launched the newspaper on November
1949, through its publisher, the African Press Limited. The
vernacular associate of the paper, Iwe Irohin Yoruba had
been earlier set up in 1945 through the efforts of
Awolowo’s deputy in the Action Group party founded in
1951.

The Role of the Nigerian Tribune

The Nigerian Tribune aimed at adopting the stance of Dr

Nnamdi
Azikiwe’s West African Pilot, which served the NNDP, NYM
and Zik’s NCNC. In 1962, the crisis in the Action Group

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Party resulted in the party’s fractionalisation into two.

Akintola, then premier of Western Nigeria whose faction
was in power set up a pro-government newspaper, Daily
sketch in 1964.

The Nigerian Tribune saw itself as rival to Dr. Azikiwe’s

West African
Pilot and its chain of newspapers, thereby polarizing the
rivalry between the two Journalist leaders. The Tribune, as
it is now called, is still a strong Ibadan-based national
daily.

Most of the newspapers available during the colonial era

were not published daily. There was a need to publish a
newspaper that would inform the people of the daily
events happening in the colonial era. The Daily Times was
the answer to that challenge.

The Birth of the Daily Times

The greater popularisation of the newspaper as a result of

the political ferment of the early 20s and the significant
expansion in advertisement patronage stimulated by post-
war economy (that is after 1918) increased the attraction
of the daily newspaper as a sound, commercial
proposition. Some enthusiasm for daily newspapers was
also provoked by Governor Clifford’s lament of the
absence of such publications, in the country in his famous
address to the Nigerian council in 1920. The absence of a
daily press prevented the wide dissemination of news
throughout the country which is customary in the West
Indies, and which for example, is affected in Ceylon by the
publication in Colombo of two morning and two evening
newspapers on every weekday.

This statement contributed to public appetite for daily

newspapers. The above scenario gave rise to the
launching of the Nigerian Daily Times on 1st June, 1926,
established as a company on June 6, 1925. The first 2,000
copies of Nigerian Daily Times, as it was then called, hit
the streets of Lagos a year later.

First edited by Ernest Ikoli, the paper’s editorial policy was

liberal, espousing in part, “hearty support for Nigerian
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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

progress and advancement” and “a strong sense of sane

nationalism.” The paper was the brain child of four
gentlemen: V. Ronald Osborne, Adeyemo Alakija, Leonard
Archer and Richard Barrow. Its incorporated company was
the Nigerian Printing and Publishing Company (NPPC).A
copy of the newspaper sold for a penny.

Government Ownership

In 1975, the Federal Government acquired forcefully 60

percent shares of the Daily Times of Nigeria (DTN) from
their original 17,000 owners. The acquisition of the DTN
was done through the National Insurance Corporation of
Nigeria (NICON).

This change of ownership was the third time ownership of

the organisation would be changing hands. The first time
was in the 1930s when H.B. Paul, a Liverpool publisher,
bought its controlling shares. Paul later sold it to Guy
Bartholomew, publisher of the Daily Mirror, 20 December,
1947- this was when the name, The Nigerian Daily Times
was dropped for Daily Times.

X-ray of Major Highlights of Daily Times

The Daily Times assembled and worked the first privately

owned rotary printing machine in Nigeria.

• It became the first non-government owned

newspaper in the country, to set up its photo-
engraving type setting and typecasting plant.
• It employed skilled foreign journalists who brought
professionalism into the newspaper. It also filled
greater portion of the newspaper with materials from
paid writers as well as views from its readers.
• If pursued a deliberate policy of Africanisation by
training journalists, printers and machine operators
whose skills enriched Nigerian journalism.

Chain Ownership of the Paper

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 MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

We mentioned earlier that Daily Times was involved in

chain ownership.
They are Sunday Times, Spear (magazine) Home Studies,
Evening Times, Women’s World, Business Times,
Headlines, Times International and the Lagos Weekend.
Due to factors we may not discuss here, some of these
publications are out of circulation now.

History of Radio Broadcasting in Nigeria

The history of radio broadcasting in Nigeria dates back to

the year 1932 when the British colonial administration in
Lagos relayed the first British Empire service to Nigerians
from Daventry, England. The establishment of radio
broadcasting in Nigeria was sequel to the decision of the
British government in London to link its West African
colonies with the “mother country”, Britain.

Such a link, according to Ikime (1979) “was expected to

serve the dual purpose of providing powerful propaganda
machinery for the colonial master as well as providing a
source of information about Britain and the wider world.”
To achieve this, programmes from the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) were relayed to other parts of the world
under British Colonial administration.

The need for such a radio service had been felt for some
time in Nigeria to the point that the colonial office in
London resolved to take positive steps to actualise this
need. To this end, the colonial secretary in London at the
time decided to set up a committee to consider and
recommend what steps could be taken to accelerate the
provision of broadcasting service in the colonial empire, to
coordinate such services with the work of the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and to make them
effective instrument for promoting both local and imperial
interests (Ikime, 1979).

This committee recommended the introduction of radio

broadcasting in Nigeria and other British non-settler
colonies. It also envisaged that the programmes to be

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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

broadcast in the colonies would consist of mixture of

selected BBC materials and “local (colonial) government
programmes
piped into homes through “wired wireless.”

The committee naturally noted the need to control such

programmes to ensure that the people were not fed with
objectionable and subversive information.

Broadcasting in Nigeria (1932-1950)

Broadcasting which was first introduced by colonial

masters came to Nigeria in stages. To give a more lucid
explanation and for better understanding of the journey of
radio broadcasting in Nigeria, the history will be given in
significant stages. The first stage began from 1932 when
the first radio signal was received in Nigeria from England.

The Era of Radio Distribution Service or Wired

Wireless

Radio broadcasting in Nigeria began in 1932 with the

introduction of wired broadcasting popularly known as
Radio Distribution Service, (RDS). Under this form of
broadcasting, programmes were relayed or distributed
using wires connected to loud speakers installed in the
homes of subscribers who had paid a small subscription
fee for this system and were also provided with a make
shift and home apparatus (Uche,1989). The Lagos studio
distributed programmes originating from the British
Empire Service from Daventry, England as part of the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) external service.
The increasing popularity of the Radio Distribution Service
in Nigeria made it to expand to other stations outside
Lagos. This method of broadcasting known as “wired
broadcasting” by “wired wireless” differed from the
“wireless broadcasting” which is the transmission of
programmes through radio waves (Electro-magnetic
waves).

The need for radio stations in the colonial countries was

necessitated by the desire of Britain to expand the
services of the BBC, which coordinated the activities of

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 MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

radio broadcasting in the British empire. The British

government had given approval for the establishment of
broadcasting services in the colonial countries with the
objective of making them a more effective instrument for
promoting both local and imperial interests Ikime, 1979).

The circumstance in which broadcasting was introduced in

Nigeria was not surprising. At the beginning, the
broadcasting service consisted simply of re-transmission
of BBC programmes on a relay system similar to the radio
relay exchange system, which had been operating in
Britain since the 1920s. Because of the nature of its
services, it was termed Radio Distribution Service (RDS).

The RDS was introduced into Nigeria by the colonial office

in London through the initiative of the engineers of the
Posts and Telegraphs (P&T) Department, which, by then
had established 13 stations in Nigeria, viz:
Lagos, Kastina, Jos, Zaria, Sokoto, Ilorin, Maiduguri, Port
Harcourt, Calabar, Onitsha, Warri, Abeokuta and Ijebu-
Ode. The P&T engineers had incidentally been involved in
the monitoring of test transmissions of the BBC on short
wave.

The wired broadcasting, which came to Nigeria in 1932,

did not originate any programmes but simply relayed
programmes from England using presenters on ground.
Each subscriber was required to pay a monthly
subscription fee of fifty pence after an initial payment of
three months rental in advance.
By 1939, the RDS had less than 1000 subscribers and over
2000 licensed receivers. By 1944, distribution stations had
been opened in Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Enugu, Calabar
and Port-Harcourt. Five years later (1949), a total of 9000
subscribers wired to 10 stations in the country had
emerged. By that year, there were 4,562 licensed radio
sets in Nigeria.

There was only a little change in the programme content

of the RDS as most of its broadcasts were still part of the
BBC external service. The colonial government’s
information department produced only a few programmes,
which were relayed through the service. The relay services
began at 5.00am every morning and went on until 12.00
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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

midnight with break at mid-morning for an hour or two. In

1936, the Plymouth committee set up to work out
modalities for the introduction of a wireless broadcasting
in Nigeria and empowered or mandated by the colonial
office to come up with a plan which was endorsed to the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).

In 1945, the establishment of a wireless broadcasting in

Nigeria received mention during the preparation of the 10-
year development and welfare plan. Unfortunately, the
colonial authorities did not implement this immediately,
despite the fact that it was favourably considered. The
colonial authorities had blamed this on what they termed
“lack of resources.”

In 1948, the colonial office directed the BBC to undertake

a survey of broadcasting in Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone
and Gambia and to make recommendation for a fast
establishment of effective broadcasting services. Two
British engineers, L.W Turners of the BBC and F.A.W Bryon
of the Telecommunications Department were appointed to
carry out this assignment.

By this time, a short-wave transmitting station was

already installed in
Lagos to relay the Lagos RDS programme under the call
sign, “Radio Nigeria”. The main function of the RDS as
earlier mentioned was to relay BBC programmes while in
the evenings, one hour was set aside for the broadcasting
of local programmes featuring news, entertainment, and
local government.

The two British engineers who were saddled with the task
of working out the technical details for effective
broadcasting in Nigeria were asked, among other things,
to determine.

• Training of technical staff.

• Using local language for broadcasting to the people
and
• Servicing limited revenue from carefully articulated
use of sponsored programmes.
In their report, they recommended the establishment and
expansion of a wireless broadcasting service in Nigeria
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and other West African Countries under British Colonial

administration.

The Beginning of Effective Radio Broadcasting

in
Nigeria

The role played by radio during the Second World War also
influenced the British government’s decision to set up
broadcasting services that are effective in its colony. Up to
the end of the 1940’s, the programme content of Radio
Distribution service had very little change as most of its
broadcasts were part of BBC external service.

However, as the need for effective radio broadcasting in

Nigeria became very imperative as earlier mentioned, two
British engineers from the BBC, Mr. F.A.W Byron and L.W
Turners were charged with the task of working out the
technical requirements for a more effective radio system
in British West Africa. Their report provided the technical
pattern for the broadcasting services that were
established in Nigeria and other British West African
colonies in the 1950s.

Another BBC top shot, Mr. Tom W. Chalmers was seconded

to Lagos along with his counterpart; John W. Murray to
prepare the ground for the setting up of a proper
broadcasting service. NBS was born after the Nigerian
(colonial) government decided to convert the major
existing Rediffusion stations into effective broadcasting
stations in accordance with the Turner-Byron’s report.

Mr. Chalmers, after completing his assignment in Nigeria

was appointed the first director of broadcasting in Nigeria
while his counterpart, Mr. Murray was appointed the first
chief engineer. By 1952, all the existing
Rediffussion stations in the country had formed the
nucleus of the new NBS. The BBC assisted much by
training staff for the NBS and provided the technical
equipment needed for effective broadcasting.

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Regional Broadcasting

The Action Group government in Western Nigeria

capitalised on the NBC Ordinance or Act to translate its
dream of owning a radio station into reality by setting up
the Western Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (WNBC).
All the three regions of the country set up their own
regional broadcasting stations. The Western regional
government of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, which was under
the control of Action Group, started it all. Chief Awolowo as
the regional premier had strongly criticised the 1954
Macpherson Constitution introduced into the country.
However, the last British Governor-General of Nigeria, Sir
James Robertson defended that constitution, using the
NBS, and accusing Chief Awolowo of being unfaithful.

When Awolowo requested for an equal airtime for the NBS

to refute the Governor General’s accusation, he was not
obliged. This led to increased campaign for converting the
NBS to a corporation. However, its greatest effect was the
establishment of regional broadcasting as evidence in the
setting up of the WNBC, which had a twin product - The
Western Nigerian Television (WNTV) in 1959 and the
Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service (WNBS) in 1960.

The WNBC had immediately gone into alliance with

Overseas Rediffussion Limited which was to offer both
radio and television services. Its television, WNTV already
mentioned was commissioned on 31st October, 1959. It
was the first television station in black Africa.
The radio-broadcasting arm of the Western Nigerian Radio-
Vision Service which controlled both television and radio
broadcasting was commissioned in May, 1960.

The Eastern regional government of Dr. Michael Okpara

simultaneously engaged the same overseas Rediffusion
Company that set up the WNBS for the Western region to
build for it the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service
(ENBS) and Eastern Nigerian Television (ENTV) in Enugu.
Both stations went on air on the day of Nigeria’s
Independence, October 1, 1960. Shortly after, both the
Eastern and Western governments paid off the foreign
companies that were stakeholders in their broadcasting

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 MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

systems, and consequently assumed full control of their

broadcasting system.

Broadcasting did not come to the Northern region until

1962 when the Northern regional government of Sir
Ahmadu Bello engaged the services of Grand Group
Limited which set up radio and television broadcasting
systems, Radio Television Kaduna (RTVK) for the region.
The RTVK operated under the Broadcasting Company of
Northern Nigeria (BCNN). The broadcasting systems in the
then three regions were fully autonomous and free of
Federal Government control or interference. The situation
was the same until the beginning of the Nigerian Civil War
in 1967 when additional states were created by the
wartime Military Head of State, Yakubu Gowon.

History of Television Broadcasting

The Nigerian Broadcasting Service (NBS) had no initial

plans to introduce television broadcasting into the
country, and indeed, it never contemplated doing so. The
reason was that its resources then could not justify the
establishment of television in the country. It was the high
rate of illiteracy at that time and the lack of suitable
communication infrastructure, which made the authorities
prefer radio broadcasting which offered a quick and
reliable means of reaching the amorphous population of
the country.

Television was seen in the early 1950s as a luxury the

government could not afford. However, its development in
other countries and the possibilities it offered gradually
became attractive and irresistible.

In 1950, two years before Nigeria’s Independence, there

were series of discussions in favour of television service.
However, the regional governments cashed in on the
constitutional provision, which made broadcasting a
concurrent subject to commence plans to introduce
commercial television broadcasting in their regions. The
Western Region in December 1958 took the lead by first
indicating its intention to establish four television stations
and consequently applied for four frequencies in band
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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

one. The proposed stations were to be located in Ibadan,

Ikeja, Abeokuta and Ijebu-Ode.

The programmes would originate from Ibadan with other

three stations transmitting stations. However, before the
frequencies were allocated to the Western regional
government, the Federal Ministry of Communication got
the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) to submit its
own frequency requirements first before the Western
region since it was also by law to provide radio and
television services for general reception within the
country.

As the Federal Government had no immediate plans for

television broadcasting, it decided to allocate two
frequencies in band: one to the Western regional
government with some limitations in power and height of
the aerials (Ladle et al, 1979).

The Birth of WNTV (1959)

With the background given, television broadcasting

eventually began in Nigeria and, indeed, the whole Africa
on October, 31, 1959 at Ibadan. It was the Western
Nigerian Television (WNTV) established by the Western
regional government of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, then
Premier of Western Nigeria.

The history of television broadcasting in Nigeria shows

that it followed the same pattern with that of radio
broadcasting but the exception is in the area of the
initiators. While it was the Federal Government that
started the first indigenous radio broadcasting in the
country, it was the regional government that first ventured
into television broadcasting (Uche, 1989).

The WNTV with the call signal, “WNTV, First in Africa” was
established by an Act of the Western Regional House of
Assembly, which empowered the government of Chief
Awolowo to forge ahead in the venture. The WNTV now
(NTA, Ibadan) was run as an arm of the then Western
Nigeria Government Broadcasting Corporation initially
under the trade name, Western Nigerian Radio Vision

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Services Limited which worked in partnership with

overseas Rediffusion Limited of the United Kingdom. Two
years after its inception, the government of Western
Nigerian bought over the shares of the foreign partners
and became the sole proprietor. WNTV Ibadan was soon to
become the richest commercial television in the whole
federation, even though commercialisation was not the
main reason for its establishment, but formal informal
education.

The proponents of its establishment had argued in the

Regional House of Assembly that television broadcasting
was needed as an additional means of improving the
regional school systems that were handicapped to the
shortage of qualified teachers in certain subject areas.
Their second argument was that television would act as a
“surrogate” teacher in the under-staffed schools of the
Western region.

Regardless of the fact, the WNTV grew to become a big

commercial television, the potential ability of television to
educational objectives at both primary and secondary
school levels, as well as adult education became, and
remained the overriding factor for its establishment.

Television Broadcasting in Other Parts of the

Country

One year after, the WNTV was set up as Africa’s first visual
communication outfit by the government of Eastern
Nigeria headed by Dr. Michael Okpara. The premier
followed the pace set by Ibadan and established Nigeria’s
second television station in Enugu known as the “East
Nigerian Television (ENTV).” The station had the slogan,
“ENTV, Second to None.”

ENTV began full transmission precisely on October 1,

1960, Nigeria,s Independent day, and like WNTV, it has
foreign partners at the top management- the same
overseas Rediffussion that built WNTV, Ibadan like WNTV
and ENTV Enugu later took full control and management
of the station when the foreign companies that were
engaged initially to manage it were disengaged. The need

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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

for formal and informal education also was the overriding

aim in the ENTV’s establishment, although it soon
abandoned this objective and went into commercial
television broadcasting.

ENTV was an arm of the Eastern Nigerian/Broadcasting

Corporation (ENBC), which also operated ENBC Radio in
Enugu following the establishment of WNTV in Ibadan
(1959) and ENTV Enugu (1960).

The Northern regional government of Sir Ahmadu Bello on

March 15, 1962 established the Radio Television Kaduna
(RTVK) as the service arm of the Broadcasting Corporation
of Northern Nigeria (BCNN). RTVK was owned jointly by the
Northern Region and two British firmsGranada Television
and Pye Limited, although the Northern Region was the
major shareholder.

The Nigerian Television Service (NTS)

As mentioned earlier, the authorities in the Federal

Government did not initially see the establishment of a
television station as a priority. It was for this purpose that
it conceded the allocation of two standard frequencies on
Band One to the WBTV, Ibadan.

The same Federal Government was however embarrassed

at the speed with which WNTV and ENTV were set up by
the Western and Eastern regional governments. This not
withstanding, some of its key officials were dissuading it
from venturing into television broadcasting on the ground
that television was a luxury and that it was more
advantageous to maximise the development of radio.

After much political rancour and arguments, the Federal

Executive Council finally approved the establishment of a
Federal Governmentowned television station to be located
in Lagos. The project became realistic in April, 1962 with
the take off of the Nigerian Television Service (NTS),
Channel 10 at Victoria Island, Lagos. NTS was set up under
agreement by management with an American network-
owned NBC-International, which built the station. It was
jointly owned by the Federal Government and NBC

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 MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

International, which signed a five-year management

contract with the provision that Nigerians would take over
full management of NTS at the expiration of the contract
during which the American company would also sell all its
shares to the Federal Government. At the expiration of this
agreement in 1962, the NTS became a full-fledged
Nigerian station under the Nigerian Broadcasting
Corporation (NBC). It was initially known as NBC-TV, Lagos
and its services were confined to the then federal capital,
Lagos, The NBCTelevision was specifically designed to
provide adequate services in education, social and
economic development as well as transmit Nigerian and
African cultures, tradition, politics, drama, literature and
entertainment, of course these were the overriding aims
of modern television broadcasting in Nigeria.

The advent of television brought in its wake a new

dimension in broadcasting in Africa. For instance, within
the first decade of its arrival, no fewer than 22 African
countries established their own television stations. The
journey started from WNTV, Ibadan (1959), and ENTV,
Enugu (1960).

Internally, the creation of an additional region in 1963- the

Mid West Region also led to the establishment of the fifth
television station in the country, the Mid West Television
(MTV) in Benin in 1973. BenuePlateau Television (BPTV)
followed in 1974 but with a difference. The station
established by the then Benue-Plateau state government
had emerged transmitting in colour. It is therefore a
historical fact that BPTV, Jos was the first television station
in Nigeria to transmit in colour.

The Era of Private Television Stations (1992-

2004)

This fourth phase in the development of television

broadcasting in Nigeria started with the 1992
promulgation of Decree No. 38, which authorised that
National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) should issue
licences for private radio and television broadcasting in
Nigeria that saw the establishment of NTA stations in each

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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

of the 36 states of the federation. More will be said on this

later in this unit.

Private television broadcasting started in Nigeria in 1993

and there are at present nearly a score of private
television stations in different parts of the country. With
Decree No. 38 of 1992, the National Broadcasting
Commission, which was empowered to regulate all kinds
of broadcasting in the country, removed the exclusive
right to own and run a television station from the
government. Among the private television stations that
emerged earlier from 1993 were Minaj Systems Television
(MST) Obosi, Anambra State, African Independent
Television (AIT)
Lagos owned by Raymond Dokpesi, Channels Television,
Clapper Board Television, Murhi International Television,
Galaxy Television, DBN Television, Independent Television,
and so on.

The government controls and regulates television

broadcasting in Nigeria to ensure orderliness in the
allocation of airwaves to the various interest groups in
radio and television transmission. The NBC, which is the
vehicle for this control, also has the right to withdraw
licence from any of the private and public radio and
television stations found guilty of flouting the law that
brought it into existence.

The further phase in the history of television broadcasting

in Nigeria also falls within the Fourth Republic, which took
off on May 29, 1999 when General Olusegun Obasanjo
(rtd) became Nigeria’s third civilian president. During this
Fourth Republic, the Federal Government decided to open
NTA stations in all the 36 states of the federation.

Consequently, many NTA stations were built all over the

country. Most of all the states have two NTA stations each.
The commissioning of the new stations began towards the
end of 2002. One of the new NTA stations built in Owerri,
the Imo State capital was commissioned by the then
Minister of Aviation, Mrs Kema Chikwe in March 2003.
Before then, many other stations had been commissioned
in many other parts of the federation. In his valedictory
address as the Minister of Information and National
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 MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

Orientation, Professor Jerry Gana noted that a total of 67

new NTA stations and 32 FRCN stations were established
in different parts of Nigeria during Obasanjo’s first tenure
of four years (NTA network news, 25th May 2003).

Origin of NAN

A new development in the history of the mass media in

Nigeria took place in 1976 with the establishment of an
independent wire service-the NAN by the Federal
Government.

NAN came into existence through the News Agency of

Nigeria Decree No. 19 of 1976, which made NAN’s
function straight and plain. Before the birth of NAN, the
Nigerian mass media - print and electronic, were heavily
subscribing to foreign news agencies based in the
developed world. Without exception, all Nigerian
newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations
depended on these foreign wire services for their
international news, including news on events taking place
in sister African countries.

They were subscribing to the British News Agency, Reuters

based in London, United Press International (UPI) and the
Associated Press (AP) based in New York and Washington
in the United States of America , Agency France Press
(AFP), the French News Agency based in PARIS, AND TASS,
the Russian News Agency based in Moscow.

Reuters of London had played a key role in the

dissemination of international news in Nigeria for many
years and trained some Nigerian journalist in the art of
world newsgathering even after Nigeria had attained
sovereign nationhood. Reuters was loved for its in-depth
news reporting and analysis before the emergence of
NAN. Reuters ran into trouble in Nigeria in the wake of
military and counter military coups, especially the July 29,
1975 coup d’état which brought General Murtala
Mohammed to power and the February 13, 1973 abortive
coup which led to his death.

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MAC113 HISTORY OF NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA

Reuters was accused of biased reporting of events in

Nigeria to the world. The Nigerian authorities openly
accused it of mischief and prejudiced journalism against
Nigeria, which was unpleasant to the country and its
image at home and abroad. It was therefore sacked from
Nigeria; it therefore ceased its operation in Nigeria.

Because of this incident, the Federal Military Government

set up its own indigenous news agency to avoid the
temptation of the Nigeria media seeking the services of
Reuters again.

Functions of NAN

Like its counterparts in London and Paris (Reuters and

AFP), NAN was set up for the pre-press of gathering
international, regional, local and other news, news
material and material and features, and distributing same
to its subscribers.

NAN’s subscribers include radio and stations in Nigeria,

private and government-owned newspapers, magazines
and journals. It also sells news to foreign news agencies.

The decree, which set up the agency, vests the monopoly

of collecting news in Nigeria for sale to NAN.

The Federal Military Government headed by Lt General

Olusegun Obasanjo having decreed the setting up of NAN
gave October, 1978 as the time for its commencement of
full operations.
Although the establishment of NAN has been attributed to
Federal Military Government at the time in question, this
was because it piloted the machinery that gave it a
practical face. The idea to set up a News Agency of
Nigeria similar to Ghana News Agency was conceived
earlier before the military came to power in Nigeria.

Services Rendered by NAN

The News Agency of Nigeria categorised its services into

10 at that time. They are news services, bulletins, press
review, news-in-depth, impact service, cultural service and

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daily news digest. It is necessary here to analyze these 10

services of NAN in details.

1) News service: This refers to home and foreign news

reports supplied by NAN.
2) Bulletins: They include profiles, fillers, interviews,
features and updates.
3) Press review: This involves, among other major
news items in the press and on Radio and Television.
4) News-in-depth: This is designed to present
subscribers with what is called news behind the
news; that is, an in-depth information on events.
5) Impact services: This, designed to be of
tremendous service to foreign writers and critics of
the political and socio economic development in
Nigeria enlightens them on the true position of
things in Nigeria. Its main focus will be on reactions
at home and abroad to the policies, programmes and
projects of the Federal Government.
6) Economic service: This service of NAN focuses
attention on stock market reports, foreign exchange
reports, commodity prices trading volume,
investment notes and briefs on financial, economic
and business interests.
7) Sports services: This covers sports news.
8) Football service: This focuses attention on football
news as well as pools forecasts and results.
9) Cultural service: This focuses attention on reports
on cultural events and the projection of the cultural
heritage of the various peoples of Nigeria.
10) Daily news digest: This deals with summary of the
major national and international news of the day,
including diary of coming events.

3.4 Management of NAN

The News Agency of Nigeria has correspondents and

offices in all the states of the federation from where it
distributes its news to subscribers based in those states.

The agency has a Board of Directors made up of

experienced people in Mass Communication. NAN’s chief

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executive is its General Manager who is assisted by the

editor-in-chief and other top officials.

At present, NAN has spread its functions and services to

most of the media houses in Nigeria and can be found in
all the 36 states of Nigeria, including Abuja, the new
federal capital. It also has offices and correspondents in
many parts of the world. NAN’s head offices at Iganmu in
Lagos shares compound with the National Theatre.

DEREGULATION OF BROADCASTING IN
NIGERIA

Deregulation involves a complete shift from government

ownership of the broadcasting media to private
ownership. The public participation in the broadcasting
industry opens a chapter in the emancipation of the media
in Nigeria. Since the 1990s, many privately owned
electronic media have sprung in all parts of Nigeria,
adding flavour to what the Nigerian audience received as
programme content for governmentowned radio and
television.

History of Deregulation of Broadcasting in

Nigeria

The clamour for deregulation of the broadcasting media in

Nigeria began during the colonial era when the
nationalists pressured the British government to allow the
indigenous participation in the affairs of statecontrolled
broadcasting stations in the country. The
FederalGovernment was soon to find out why the colonial
masters held on tight to broadcasting, there is still the
reluctance to allow a full-blown deregulation.

The Government’s response in 1992 to the demand for

private participation in the ownership and management of
the broadcast media was a great relief. However, five
years after the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC)
Decree came into force; the government was not as open
as expected in the issuance of licences to applicants.
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Issuance of Licences by NBC

The NBC has screened over 321 applications but only 33

stations have commenced radio, television and satellite
transmission nationwide. Satellite television re-distribution
takes the highest number with 21 approved licences; the
television transmission stations have risen to 10 while the
radio licences remain at two.

Establishing The First Independent

Broadcasting

In the early 1990s, because of the historic National

Broadcasting Commission Decree, according to Muyiwa
Oyinlola (2004), Nigerian media was dominated by the
government only. Information was only disseminated from
government-owned broadcasting firm. However, the Head
of State then, General Ibrahim Babangida issued another
decree which allowed private broadcasting in Nigeria.

After this decree came the first private television network,

Africa Independent Television (AIT). AIT was pioneered by
Dr. Raymond Dokpesi.AIT was also Africa’s first satellite TV
station. Today, Dokpesi is regarded as the “media guru of
Nigeria.” This is because he not only pioneered the first
satellite TV but also the first privately owned radio station
in Nigeria. In addition, he set the standard for salary
structure in the media industry, which was imitated by
Nigeria Television Authority.

Challenges of Deregulation in Nigeria

The NBC has screened over 321 applications but only 33

stations have commenced radio, television and satellite
transmissions nationwide.
Satellite television re-distribution takes the highest
number with 21 approved licences, the television
transmission stations have risen to 10 while the radio
licenses multiply.
The greatest problem NBC has is that the applications it is
receiving are mostly coming from one part of the country.

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Deregulation has introduced competition in the Nigeria

broadcasting industry. It has created more jobs for the
teeming population of youths in the country. Today,
government owned electronic media are striving to keep
the pace set by the privately owned stations.

Media Ownership

Types of media ownership and examples

Media ownership patterns in Nigeria have evolved in close

correlation with general developments in the political,
economic and social domains. The history of Nigerian mass
media began with the private ownership of newspapers
from 1859 (when Iweh Irohin was established by Rev.
Henry Townsend) to early 20th century when government
owned newspapers began to trickle into the landscape. On
the other hand, the history of indigenous broadcasting
began from the government circles in 1959, with the
establishment of Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service
(WNBS) by the Western Nigeria government and
subsequent entry into the landscape by other regions
(Eastern Nigeria in 1960 with Eastern Nigeria Television,
ENTV, and Northern Nigeria in 1962 with the establishment
of Broadcasting Corporation of Northern Nigeria, BCNN, in
1962). It was not until 1992 that broadcast media industry
opened up for private ownership to come in, with Decree
38, later Act 55, that deregulated broadcasting in Nigeria.

Since then, the media industry has continued to evolve

with various kinds of ownership patterns making the
industry more competitive and interesting. The country’s
media industry has experienced tremendous development
with the establishment of several print and broadcast
media with audience members across the globe. It is
fiercely competitive with very vibrant privately owned
organizations giving government owned establishments a
run for their money. With the entry of private media
owners into radio and television business in the country
after the broadcasting industry was liberalized in 1992,
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Nigeria began to witness amazing new entries that started

lifting the status of the industry across the globe in terms
of innovations and quality programming. Some business
entrepreneurs came into the industry with chains of media
businesses which they founded and nurtured to become
some of the best in Africa.

The media landscape in Nigeria reflects different patterns

of ownership. The media owner could be individuals,
government, group of individuals, corporate organizations,
among others. The ownership structure could come in
different forms. It could be joint or individual ownership. An
individual or corporate body could own a medium or
chains of media. This article focuses on patterns of media
ownership in Nigeria. First, let’s understand the concept of
media ownership.

What is media ownership?

Media ownership refers to the possession and control of a

medium of communication. Ownership of the media deals
with how a specific medium of communication (such as
radio, television, newspaper, etc.) is funded or financed,
managed, who calls the shots especially in terms of
control, among other issues. The ownership of a medium
may evolve based on partial or total financing of the
medium either by an individual, an organization or a
government. An example is the Cable News Network (CNN)
which ownership has evolved over the years, shifting in
terms of ownership structure from Ted Turner the initial
owner, to Time Warner, and to AT & T.

Also, there are different reasons for media ownership. It

could be to use the medium to achieve political goals. It
could also be to achieve economic goals. In Nigeria, many
newspapers are owned by politicians. An example is The
Nation newspaper in Nigeria owned by Ahmed Bola Tinubu,
a Chieftain of the All Progressives Congress (APC). There
are several other politicians who own media organizations
across different media sectors. The media could be used
as agents of propaganda that will not publish contents
against the owners. Online media ownership has also
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emerged as a strong aspect of the country’s media

landscape. Among the leading online newspapers in
Nigeria are Premium Times (owned by Dapo Olorunyomi)
and The Cable (owned by Simon Kolawole). Ownership
characteristic is a major factor in understanding the nature
of media ownership in any society. This explains the sector
in which the owners reside – government, private or co-
operative.

Types of media ownership in Nigeria

The media ownership pattern in Nigeria is very interesting.

Here are different types of media ownership in Nigeria.

Government ownership

This refers to ownership structure where the government

is in charge of the funding of the media organization or has
greater control of the shares. Funding of the media could
be direct funding, loans and overdrafts from
banks. Oftentimes, the editorial contents of government
owned media are influenced by the government. This
affects the quality of content and ability of such
organizations to compete with privately owned
media. Government in one way or the other determines
what may or may not be published or aired by such
organizations making them an extension of the
government in power.

There are several examples of government owned media

in Nigeria. Every state in the country owns radio and
television stations, including newspapers. Whether these
organizations measure up to the competition in the
nation’s media landscape in terms of quality of content or
regular appearance on the newsstands (for the print
media) is another issue. Currently, there is no Federal
government owned newspaper in Nigeria. Daily Times
used to be owned by the federal government but
ownership has since shifted to Folio Communications
(owned by two brothers – Fidelis and Noel Anosike) which
officially assumed ownership of the newspaper on
September 3, 2004. The New Nigerian Newspaper is
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owned by Gaskiya Corporation, an establishment jointly

owned by 19 Northern states in Nigeria.

Private ownership

This is the most dominant media ownership pattern in

Nigeria. Private individuals and corporate organizations
own top leading media establishments in Nigeria and enjoy
dominance of the media market in the country. Private
ownership could come in different forms among which are
cross media, chain or corporate ownership. It’s either the
individual or corporate body involved has a larger share in
the funding of the media establishment or it is fully owned
by the individual or body concerned.

Private ownership of the print media has existed right from

the first day in the history of the Nigerian mass media with
the establishment of Iweh Irohin by Rev. Henry Townsend
in 1859. The early press in Nigeria were dominated by
newspapers owned by private individuals, mostly
nationalists interested in using the publications in the
struggle for independence. The history of indigenous
broadcasting in Nigeria began with government ownership
of radio and television stations, when Western Nigeria
Broadcasting Service, WNBS, was established in 1959.
Private ownership came into the broadcast sector in 1992
with the deregulation of the industry through Decree No.
38 (later Act 55 of 1999). For the electronic media, the
National Broadcasting Commission was set up under an
Act of the National Assembly No. 38 of 1992 to give
licenses to private individuals to own the electronic media.
One major advantage private ownership of the media has
over government ownership is the opportunity or freedom
to criticize the ills noticed in the government.

Several examples of private media organizations exist in

Nigeria. From Punch, This Day, Vanguard, Daily Trust, The
Nation, Daily Sun, and The Guardian (for newspapers) to
Africa Independent Television (AIT), Channels TV, TVC,
Arise News Channel, and Silverbird (for television), Nigeria
Info FM, Ray Power FM, Cool FM, Beat FM (among many
others for radio); private ownership of media in Nigeria has
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made the industry very competitive with so many stations

offering quality content to audience members in Nigeria
and beyond. With the popularity of the Internet, many
private media houses have online presence that has
expanded their audience base to every corner of the
world. Online newspapers such as Premium Times and The
Cable are among the leading media establishments in
Nigeria, with many internet radio and television stations
also making impressive impact in the industry.

Chain ownership

This is a type of ownership where an individual or

organization owns more than one outfit within the same
media category. Here a person or group owns chains of
radio stations. Another person could own chains of
newspapers, may be two or three newspapers. The chain
ownership pattern focuses on ownership of a number of
organizations within the same line (may be newspapers,
magazines, or electronic media). Chain ownership refers to
the same media company having numerous outlets in a
single medium, a chain of newspapers, a series of radio
stations, a string of television stations or several book
publishing companies.

Chain ownership in Nigeria applies mostly to newspapers

and radio stations. There are a number of publishing
groups and communication establishments in Nigeria
which fall within this category. One very prominent
example of chain ownership of the media in Nigeria is
Nigeria Info FM, Cool FM, and Wazobia FM, all owned by
Amin Moussalli, Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Aims
Groups. Though chain ownership has more examples in the
private sector, government can also engage in this form of
media ownership. A typical example is Gaskiya
Corporation (owned by 19 states of Northern Nigeria)
which currently has four newspapers in its stable: New
Nigerian, (daily) Gaskiya Tafi Kwabo (Hausa publication,
published every Monday and Thursday) New Nigerian On
Sunday and New Nigerian Weekly (published on
Saturdays). Orji Uzor Kalu’s Daily Sun and New Telegraph

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newspapers constitute another example of chain

ownership pattern in Nigeria.

Cross media ownership

This is another common ownership structure in Nigeria’s

media landscape. It refers to the ownership of a
combination of media establishments in different
segments of the industry. Under this ownership pattern, an
individual or corporate body owns broadcast and print
media at the same time. This could also include cinema
houses, book publishing company and other entertainment
establishments. A good description of this pattern of
ownership would be for an organization to own
newspapers and television at the same time or newspaper
and radio or the combination of the three. Cross media
ownership is when one company or individual owns several
media establishments such as newspaper, magazines,
musical labels, publishing company and so on.

There are several examples of this form of media

ownership both in the private and government ownership
sectors in Nigeria. Among the biggest of them all is Ben
Murray-Bruce’s Silverbird Group which is one of the leading
media and entertainment companies in the African
entertainment industry. The company has hundreds of
staff, and has become a huge empire that owns Rhythm
FM (radio), Silverbird television, Silverbird Cinema,
Silverbird Entertainment and Silverbird Galleria.

Another example is ThisDay Media Group owned by Nduka

Obaigbena. The establishment owns ThisDay newspapers,
Arise News Channel (TV) and ARISE Magazine. Bola Ahmed
Tinubu is another giant media owner in Nigeria who
operates cross media ownership pattern. He is the founder
of TVC Communications, an establishment that operates
TVC Entertainment, TVC News (television channel), Adaba
88.9 FM (in Akure, Ondo State), and Max 102.3 FM
(formerly Radio Continental) based in Lagos. He is also the
owner of The Nation newspaper. Raymond Dokpesi’s DAAR
Communications company oversees media organizations
that are among the best in the continent. They are Ray
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Power 100.5 FM and Africa Independent Television (AIT).

Kabiru Yusuf’s Media Trust Limited is another example of
cross media ownership in Nigeria. Media Trust is a
company based in Abuja that publishes the English-
language Daily Trust, Weekly Trust, Sunday Trust and the
Hausa-language Aminiya newspapers, as well as a new
pan-African magazine, Kilimanjaro. Amin Moussalli, Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) of Aims Groups, which was given
as a example under chain ownership, also serves as a
good example here. He also owns Cool TV and Wazobia TV,
together with Nigeria Info FM, Cool FM, and Wazobia FM.

Conglomerate

This is another media ownership pattern common in

Nigeria’s media landscape. This is a situation whereby an
owner of a media organization runs other types of
businesses which are not necessarily media or
entertainment businesses. Conglomerate ownership
means the ownership of several businesses one of which is
a media business. For example, the owner could have a
newspaper along with private school, chemical, fertilizer,
cement rubber or plastics factories, or a liquor brewery.
The owner could have controlling shares in a number of
media related businesses while running other businesses.
This is what a conglomerate is. In this kind of ownership,
there could be interlocking of directorships, which means
the same persons will be director of a media company as
well as of manufacturing industries or financial
corporations.

Some business owners who are for instance, transport or

lorry company directors are directing affairs in newspaper,
television or film production companies. It could be that
their main business is a high profit industry, but they run a
media company for prestige or to exercise social and
political influence on decision makers in the private or
public sector and in the government of the day. Such a
conglomeration may not always support an unbiased or
dispassionate presentation of events, issues and
personalities. There are giant business moguls who are in
the news business as well as in entertainment, media
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distribution and network business. They own newspapers,

magazines, radio, cable TV and television channels, among
others.

Many politicians in Nigeria enjoy this kind of ownership.

For example, Senator Ifeanyi Uba (Authority newspaper)
and Sir Emeka Offor (Blaze FM) are among many Nigerians
that own other businesses, including media houses.
Ahmed Bola Tinubu who was mentioned as example under
chain ownership is also a good example here as he has
other businesses apart from media outfits.

Joint ownership

This is an ownership structure where the government and

individuals jointly own a media establishment. It could also
be an ownership structure by a group of individuals who
have shares in the establishment, running it as co-owners.
This could also be ownership of a media house between a
community and a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO),
charity organization or even group of individuals. Under
this arrangement there is equal partnership between the
owners. The two parties finance the media organization
together.

Joint media ownership structure is not very common in

Nigeria. There are a few examples. One typical example is
the ownership of New Nigerian newspapers by the 19
States in Northern Nigeria. The newspaper was first
established by the 1966 by the Northern Nigeria
government. It was fully taken over by the Federal
Government in August 1975 and placed under the
supervision of the Federal Ministry of Information. It was
handed back to the Northern states in 2006 and they
presently own and control it under a joint ownership. It is
believed that the joint ownership pattern led to the
eventually death of the newspaper as most of the states
failed to give the publication the attention it required in
terms of funding. The newspaper now operates only its
online version.

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Another example of joint ownership is Radio Sapientia 95.3

FM Onitsha, a private commercial radio station situated in
Onitsha, Anambra State. It is owned by and registered in
Nigeria under Sapientia International Media Centre.
Reports have it that the company is jointly owned by a
group of successful entrepreneurs who came together to
establish it under a joint ownership pattern. The station
was handed over to the Catholic Church to manage, but
the company is still jointly owned by private individuals.

At a point, Daily Times newspaper used to operate a joint

ownership pattern with private individuals who owned
minority shares in the company, before it was bought over
by Folio Communications Limited. The federal government
of Nigeria had majority shares in the company while
private individuals had minority shares. But the federal
government sold its majority shares to Folio
Communications which eventually acquired the media
house.

Party ownership

This is the ownership of a media house by a political

party. The party funds the establishment and therefore
controls it. The parties’ interests influence the content of
their publication. Party ownership pattern is very rare in
Nigeria. What exists is ownership of media establishments
by persons with political affiliations. For instance, Ahmed
Bola Tinubu, leader of APC owns The Nation newspaper,
TVC (a television station), Adaba 88.9 FM and Max 102.3
FM (radio stations). Orji Uzor Kalu who is a member of APC
owns Daily Sun and New Telegraph newspapers. Raymond
Dokpesi who is a stalwart of Peoples Democratic Party
(PDP) owns AIT and Ray Power FM. There are so many
other examples of politicians in Nigeria who own media
houses. Either they are elected political office holders or
they have sympathy for a specific party. Though these
media organizations might claim they are objective
irrespective of who owns the establishment, the fact is
there is always the underlying need to protect the owners’
interest. This could affect freedom to report all kinds of
stories without fear or favour.
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Another scenario that could be likened to party ownership

in Nigeria is government ownership of media
organizations. By extension, the party in power controls
the state owned media house to an extent. For instance,
The Nigeria Television Authority (NTA) or Radio Nigeria will
not air stories deemed to be negative to the President or
damaging to the image of the government the way private
stations such as AIT and Channels would do. Same applies
to the relationship between state owned broadcast and
print media, and the state government or their allies.

Conclusion

The mass media landscape in Nigeria is dominated by

privately owned organizations in terms of spread, audience
control and market leadership. Different kinds of
ownership exist. There are single owners who operate just
one station and have recorded huge success (such as John
Momoh’s Channels Television, Sam Amuka’s Vanguard
newspaper and Lady Maiden Ibru’s The Guardian
newspaper). But most of the media houses with huge
successes are operated under chain ownership (Orji Uzor
Kalu’s Daily Sun and New Telegraph newspapers, Amin
Mousalli’s radio stations, among others). Under cross
media ownership there are very successful organizations
such as Kabiru Yusuf’s Media Trust Limited that has
newspapers and a magazine, Bola Tinubu’s newspaper and
broadcast media, Ben Murray-Bruce’s radio and television
stations, and Nduka Obaigbena’s Arise Media group which
has newspaper, magazine and television houses. The
industry also has conglomerates which exercise
considerable influence on what is read, heard, and
watched among the audience in Nigeria and across the
world.

Online media ownership is also growing in Nigeria. Dapo

Olorunyomi’s Premium Times, Simon Kolawole’s The Cable
newspaper, and Philip Isakpa’s Business A.M. are typical
examples of impressively successful online newspapers
that have commanding share of the audience in Nigeria
and beyond
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Government Media Ownership Versus Private

Ownership

Government Ownership

Which is also known as state owned media. As what the

title suggested, it is ultimately controlled and funded by
the state.

Advantages:

Censorship (Censor content which it deems immoral,

illegal or sensitive)

To act as a voice of the voiceless

In a developing society, it can be less biased, more

accurate and thorough

Lesser pressure to attract high ratings. Hence, in a sense it

is more reliable, credible and accurate

Have to fulfill its responsibility towards the people and its

nation as they are not purely the sole consumers of its
products

Minimize ideological disagreements

Disadvantages:

Censorship (Realize how I placed censorship in both pros

and cons? I feel that censorship is necessary to some
extend especially for younger audiences. However, is too
much of it actually a good thing? Such as having the
possibility of censoring contents that are unfavorable to
government.)

Limited freedom of speech

Too conservative as compared to other countries for

example LGBT
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Private Media Ownership

Advantages:

More freedom of speech

Exposure to a variety of websites and information

Disadvantages:

Guided by a commercial viewpoint (profits, profits and

more profits!!!)

Sensitive (unfiltered) issues being raised which might

caused conflict and disputes. (I can comprehend the fear
of evoking conflicts among citizens yet I feel it is still
important to raise awareness regardless of how sensitive
the topic might be. We or rather they just have to find the
right words to say.)

(Bad) influence on the younger audiences

Media ownership is a very debatable topic. I am sure we

can agree to disagree on whether government owned
media or privately owned media is better. Personally, I
would prefer to have Government media as they are more
controlled despite of its disadvantages. I do believe that
both sides have biased-ness to a certain extend. As I have
mentioned above, numbers are especially important to
privately owned media company for them to sustain their
businesses (ratings, profits etc). Hence, they most likely
would not care about the welfare of users as we are merely
the sole consumers. Government ownership, though has a
responsibility towards its nation, may have a particular
interest in mobilizing citizens to take actions that further
some political intention that are not necessarily in citizens’
best interest. (After all, we all have our own interests at
heart)

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