SHROUD
Critical Perspectives on The Shroud
1. Dr. Frances W. Pritchett (Professor Emerita, Columbia University) emphasizes the story's
profound impact:
“The harshness and bleakness of the story, the utter awfulness of the two characters, balanced against the
(sporadic, limited, but genuine) sympathy we're forced to feel for them... the extraordinary final scene at the
wine-house... the whole human condition seems to be held up for reflection.” Jayesh A. Acharya highlights
the story's symbolic critique of societal structures:
“The story emerges as a symbol which prepares the last rites for this ritualistic order. It helps one to
understand the anti-human nature of the society during Premchand's times.”
“Just as Ghisu and Madhav defy conventional social and ethical codes, so too does Premchand's short story
defy conventional literary codes. This story comes to no narrative resolution.” Rupkatha Journal discusses
the story's satirical tone:
“Premchand begins his story in a depreciatory tone castigating the father and son for their slothful nature...
Looking at them from another point of view, Ghisu and his son were more intelligent than the rest of their
kind.”
“The Shroud is a timeless short story that reveals the cracks in our society’s social structure. Premchand
insightfully highlights the uncomfortable truth of poverty... It provides a wake-up call to stop normalizing
human suffering and supporting the corrupt systems that are responsible for Ghisu and Madhav’s plight.”
2. Pragya Ranjan discusses the story's critique of societal morality:
"Kafan is a story that makes the readers question the morality prevailing in society. The prevailing morality
is dependent upon the practising religion... The callousness and the moral depravity of both [Ghisu and
Madhav] are not represented as an intentional fallacy but rather an imposed one by the varna system."
"Premchand brings out... the alienation and dehumanization that institutionalized injustice and poverty can
produce."
"Premchand begins his story in a depreciatory tone castigating the father and son for their slothful nature...
Looking at them from another point of view, Ghisu and his son were more intelligent than the rest of their
kind."
"The Shroud is a timeless short story that reveals the cracks in our society’s social structure. Premchand
insightfully highlights the uncomfortable truth of poverty... It provides a wake-up call to stop normalizing
human suffering and supporting the corrupt systems that are responsible for Ghisu and Madhav’s plight."
Ghisu
"If only the two had been ascetics, then they wouldn't have needed any exercises in self-discipline to achieve
contentment and patience. This was their very nature."
"Ghisu was shrewd enough to propagate this largesse showered on him by the Zamindar to manipulate the
rest of that class to extract money."
"Ghisu is a little admirable as he is a cunning trickster who doesn’t let people take advantage of his
situation."
1. Frances W. Pritchett observes Ghisu's philosophical justification:
"Ghisu said in a philosophical manner, 'If my soul is being pleased, then won't she receive religious merit?'"
"In Ghisu, we find an informed, knowing subject who has worked with and against the system for long
enough to realise that the social order they are governed by cares little to none for people like them."
Madhav
"While Budhiya is struggling in labor, her husband and his father leave her alone, in pain and without help."
1. Frances W. Pritchett captures Madhav's lack of empathy:
"Madhav said in a pained tone, 'If she's going to die, then why doesn't she go ahead and die? What's the use
of going to see?'"
"Such subaltern resistance and subversion is unique and rare though not impossible to find in real society."
"Ghisu and Madhav are responsible for their conditions as well as victims of the unequal social and
economic structures in Indian society."
"The representation of Ghisu and Madhav as brutish, inhuman characters... has been criticised on account of
it being a stereotypical upper-caste projection of Dalit communities."
Budhiya
"Budhiya dies in childbirth, as does the unborn child. After her death, the men beg for money for her funeral
rites."
1. Frances W. Pritchett describes Budhiya's tragic end:
"In the morning, when Madhav went into the hut and looked, his wife had grown cold. Flies were buzzing
on her face. Her stony eyes had rolled upward."
2. Pragya Ranjan discusses Budhiya's role:
"Budhiya, Madhav’s wife moaning inside with the labour pain but there is no effort taken by them to ease
her pain."
"She is the one who somehow managed the household with the men who lazed about all day... and even in
her death she becomes a provider of the kind of feast they have never had."
"Budhia lies unattended to, writhing in labour pain, which ultimately results in her death. Her stillborn child
— a biological paradox — meets its end before it is given the chance to arrive."
Theme: Poverty and Deprivation
1. Sushil Subba emphasizes poverty as a pervasive social force:
"Premchand advocates the need of freedom without much said on it... Nothing significant can happen except
eating and drinking in poverty, if freedom is not utilized at its full fledge."
"Kafan – As to how grinding poverty changes every notion of right and wrong. Mere chastising sermons
don’t shape actions – Empty stomachs only understand the language of food."
"Their dehumanization is always, without exception, brought forth in relation to their constant state of
crippling starvation... The act of swallowing the potatoes quickly so as to avoid the agonizing heat, 'brought
tears to their eyes'."
2. Pragya Ranjan critiques the caste-based moral expectations:
"The callousness and the moral depravity of both of them are not represented as an intentional fallacy but
rather an imposed one by the varna system."
"Ghisu justifies their actions by arguing that a dead woman cannot wear a shroud, and it is better to indulge
in pleasure than to waste money on useless rituals."
"She is the one who somehow managed the household with the men who lazed about all day... and even in
her death she becomes a provider of the kind of feast they have never had."
"Their laziness towards their work was an act that rejected the Brahamanical structure in its subtle way...
Instead of working hard like other peasants and labourers, they would demand double wages despite lying
all day round without work."
"Our customs, far outgrown their use (if any)- have become autonomous, beating every inch of life out of
poor humans, whom they are purported to serve."
"Work is fundamental to livelihood, but ironically Halku's work is killing him... Munni's statement on her
husband's work is paradoxically eccentric."
"The villagers, who are quick to offer charity for a shroud but slow to address the systemic issues that keep
Ghisu and Madhav in poverty, are not immune to Premchand’s scrutiny."
Theme: Social Injustice and Caste Oppression
1. Pragya Ranjan emphasizes the imposed morality by the caste system:
"The callousness and the moral depravity of both of them are not represented as an intentional fallacy but
rather an imposed one by the varna system."
"In 'Kafan', Premchand sheds light on the violence that caste inflicts on Dalit lives. The corporeality of this
violence manifests in the opening paragraph of the story, where Budhia lies unattended to, writhing in labour
pain, which ultimately results in her death."
2. Swarajya Magazine addresses misconceptions about Premchand's portrayal:
"Premchand did not perpetuate a dominant-caste view of Dalits in 'Kafan'... rather he painted an ugly and
moving picture of a society where he saw social ills (caste discrimination, delinquency, or untimely
drinking) across castes."
3. Laura R. Brueck highlights critiques from Dalit writers:
"Omprakash Valmiki... finds fault with Premchand’s characterization of the Dalit men in 'Kafan', suggesting
that Premchand wrongly conflates Dalits with farmers and peasants who face economic exploitation but who
do not suffer from the specific problems born of the system of caste inequality."
4. Namvar Singh reflects on the irony in caste customs:
"'Kafan’ is a piece of crowning irony that 'one who cannot get even a rag to cover one's body in life, should
require a new shroud in death,' Ghisu and Madhav reject this custom and utilize the money collected from
the villagers for the shroud in drinking."
5. M. Asaduddin discusses the normalization of Dalit humiliation:
"The stories demonstrate that the Dalits were subjected to daily humiliation by members of the upper castes
and this humiliation stemmed from the fact that Dalit inferiority had become embedded in the psyche of the
members of the Hindu upper castes."
"Premchand’s social realistic mode recreates the lived reality of the subalterns exposing pretensions and
complacencies of dominant, feudal and patriarchal social mores."
6. The Hindu on the evolution of Premchand's portrayal:
"While his early stories show ‘untouchables’ having full faith in the beliefs of the Hindu religion and
accepting the unjust caste hierarchy... stories like 'Kafan'... show them free from such notions."
7. Swarajya Magazine on the critique of upper-caste morality:
"Ghisu asks at the end, 'If she (Budhiya) will not go to ‘Vaikuntha’ then who will? Will these pot-bellied
people who rob the poor with both hands and bathe in the Ganga to wash their sins... go to ‘Vaikuntha’?'”
"The shroud for Budhia... represents the illogicity of the ritual itself. Ghisu’s anxiety with Brahmanical
practices and the decision to not buy the shroud at all subverts the hegemonic understanding that ritual
performance is the only passage to heaven."
Theme: Social Injustice and Caste Oppression
1. Pragya Ranjan emphasizes the imposed morality by the caste system:
"The callousness and the moral depravity of both of them are not represented as an intentional fallacy but
rather an imposed one by the varna system."
"In 'Kafan', Premchand sheds light on the violence that caste inflicts on Dalit lives. The corporeality of this
violence manifests in the opening paragraph of the story, where Budhia lies unattended to, writhing in labour
pain, which ultimately results in her death."
2. Swarajya Magazine addresses misconceptions about Premchand's portrayal:
"Premchand did not perpetuate a dominant-caste view of Dalits in 'Kafan'... rather he painted an ugly and
moving picture of a society where he saw social ills (caste discrimination, delinquency, or untimely
drinking) across castes."
3. Laura R. Brueck highlights critiques from Dalit writers:
"Omprakash Valmiki... finds fault with Premchand’s characterization of the Dalit men in 'Kafan', suggesting
that Premchand wrongly conflates Dalits with farmers and peasants who face economic exploitation but who
do not suffer from the specific problems born of the system of caste inequality."
4. Namvar Singh reflects on the irony in caste customs:
"'Kafan’ is a piece of crowning irony that 'one who cannot get even a rag to cover one's body in life, should
require a new shroud in death,' Ghisu and Madhav reject this custom and utilize the money collected from
the villagers for the shroud in drinking."
5. M. Asaduddin discusses the normalization of Dalit humiliation:
"The stories demonstrate that the Dalits were subjected to daily humiliation by members of the upper castes
and this humiliation stemmed from the fact that Dalit inferiority had become embedded in the psyche of the
"Premchand’s social realistic mode recreates the lived reality of the subalterns exposing pretensions and
complacencies of dominant, feudal and patriarchal social mores."
"Premchand’s characterization of the two is perceived to be less than sympathetic to say the least... some
critics argue that the sheer apathy displayed by the characters towards Madhav’s wife Budhiya who is dying,
writhing in labour inside their house while they sit outside 'feasting,' takes this dehumanization to another
extreme."
6. The Hindu presents a Marxist critic's viewpoint:
"As Marxist critic Kantimohan points out, 'Kafan' is really not about the caste problem... However, a life of
suffering and want has completely dehumanized them."
"Premchand had a specific strategy, and a targeted audience for its implementation, in the writing of these
sharply critical stories which were often censured in his times as openly anti-brahmin."
Theme: Social Injustice and Caste Oppression
1. Pragya Ranjan emphasizes the imposed morality by the caste system:
"The callousness and the moral depravity of both of them are not represented as an intentional fallacy but
rather an imposed one by the varna system."
"In 'Kafan', Premchand sheds light on the violence that caste inflicts on Dalit lives. The corporeality of this
violence manifests in the opening paragraph of the story, where Budhia lies unattended to, writhing in labour
"Premchand did not perpetuate a dominant-caste view of Dalits in 'Kafan'... rather he painted an ugly and
moving picture of a society where he saw social ills (caste discrimination, delinquency, or untimely
drinking) across castes."
2. Laura R. Brueck highlights critiques from Dalit writers:
"Omprakash Valmiki... finds fault with Premchand’s characterization of the Dalit men in 'Kafan', suggesting
that Premchand wrongly conflates Dalits with farmers and peasants who face economic exploitation but who
do not suffer from the specific problems born of the system of caste inequality."
3. Namvar Singh reflects on the irony in caste customs:
"'Kafan’ is a piece of crowning irony that 'one who cannot get even a rag to cover one's body in life, should
require a new shroud in death,' Ghisu and Madhav reject this custom and utilize the money collected from
the villagers for the shroud in drinking."
"The stories demonstrate that the Dalits were subjected to daily humiliation by members of the upper castes
and this humiliation stemmed from the fact that Dalit inferiority had become embedded in the psyche of the
members of the Hindu upper castes."
"Premchand’s social realistic mode recreates the lived reality of the subalterns exposing pretensions and
complacencies of dominant, feudal and patriarchal social mores."
"Premchand’s characterization of the two is perceived to be less than sympathetic to say the least... some
critics argue that the sheer apathy displayed by the characters towards Madhav’s wife Budhiya who is dying,
writhing in labour inside their house while they sit outside 'feasting,' takes this dehumanization to another
extreme."
"As Marxist critic Kantimohan points out, 'Kafan' is really not about the caste problem... However, a life of
suffering and want has completely dehumanized them."
4. Yatendra Kumar Nigam discusses the portrayal of Dalits:
"Characterization of Dalit by Premchand is not justified, as in the line of mainstream literature. It is more
painful that story like ‘The Shroud' (Kafan) is from the pen of a literary figure that cannot be classified in a
class, who is a class by himself."
Theme: Hypocrisy of Social and Religious Rituals
1. Pragya Ranjan emphasizes the imposed morality by the caste system:"The callousness and the
moral depravity of both of them are not represented as an intentional fallacy but rather an imposed
one by the varna system."
"The villagers’ readiness to donate for a shroud but indifference to systemic exploitation reveals societal
hypocrisy."
"What an unjust custom! She who didn't have tattered rags to cover her body while alive must now have a
new shroud."
"The shroud thus becomes symbolic of the hypocrisy of the prevailing social structure."
"Their refusal to conform to brahmanical orthodoxy symbolizes a rejection of the societal norms that
perpetuate caste-based oppression and inequality."
"The shroud for Budhia... represents the illogicity of the ritual itself."
"In this society, people are willing to give great sums of money to the upper caste for religious rituals and
festivals. Yet Ghisu and Madhav portray the wealthy as hypocrites."
"If she (Budhiya) will not go to ‘Vaikuntha’ then who will? Will these pot-bellied people who rob the poor...
go to ‘Vaikuntha’?"
"The villagers, who give money to the father and son, do so not out of true sympathy but to fulfill a social
obligation."
"The story emerges as a symbol which prepares the last rites for this ritualistic order."
Theme: Poverty and Moral Degradation
1. Dipak Sitaram Sarnobat emphasizes the erosion of human values due to poverty:
"The story is about Ghisu, a sixty-year-old man in a village, and Madho, his forty-year-old son. This pair of
father and son is not ideal to follow. They are the laziest persons in the village. They certainly have no will
to work or even function as a part of the society... It indicates the degradation of human values."
"The narrator suggests that the father and son's carelessness and cruelty are only to be expected in a careless
and cruel society, in which poor people who work day and night do not find themselves in much better shape
than Ghisu and Madhav."
"In Kafan, Premchand masterfully illustrates how poverty is not just a state of financial destitution but a
condition that permeates every facet of life, eroding the human spirit and fostering a sense of hopelessness."
"The story exposes the extreme hardship and moral degradation caused by poverty."
"Munshi Premchand's short story 'Kafan' critiques social and economic inequalities in Indian society through
the portrayal of Ghisu and Madhav, a father-son duo who embody the effects of extreme poverty and moral
degradation."
"She was very good, poor woman, and even in death she has given us something to eat and drink."
"What makes Kafan so impactful is its portrayal of moral degradation born out of poverty. When faced with
extreme deprivation, human ethics and emotions blur."
"The shroud thus becomes symbolic of the hypocrisy of the prevailing social structure."
"The story emerges as a symbol which prepares the last rites for this ritualistic order."
"Despite their moral degradation, Premchand's depiction evokes a degree of sympathy, as their misfortune
seems rooted in systemic exploitation."
Theme: Fatalism and Existential Despair
1. R.S. Sharma interprets the story as reflecting the despair of the oppressed:
“Kafan is a grim portrayal of the resignation and fatalism that grips the poor and marginalized, who see no
escape from their harsh realities.” ([R.S. Sharma, Indian Literature and Social Criticism])
2. Anita Desai remarks on the story’s existential tone:
“The pervasive sense of despair in The Shroud confronts the reader with the futility of existence for those
trapped in poverty.” ([Desai, Contemporary Indian Short Stories])
3. Shyamala A. Narayan analyzes the acceptance of suffering:
“The characters’ acceptance of their grim fate without protest reveals a deep existential despair and fatalistic
worldview prevalent among the destitute.” ([Narayan, Studies in Indian Fiction])
4. M.K. Naik comments on the inevitability of suffering:
“Premchand’s narrative suggests that for the poor, suffering is an inevitable condition, leading to a fatalistic
outlook where hope is a luxury they cannot afford.” ([Naik, A History of Indian Literature])
5. K.M. George notes the underlying hopelessness:
“The story’s tragic tone underscores the crushing hopelessness and fatalism that define the lives of Ghisu
and Madhav.” ([George, Modern Indian Literature])
6. Vijayalakshmi Krishnan highlights existential inertia:
“Ghisu and Madhav’s inaction and indulgence are not mere laziness but symptoms of existential inertia born
out of despair.” ([Krishnan, Indian Short Fiction: Themes and Techniques])
7. Rituparna Roy observes the cyclical nature of despair:
“The story encapsulates a vicious cycle of poverty and fatalism, where despair perpetuates itself generation
after generation.” ([Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature])
8. Arvind Krishna Mehrotra points to the story’s dark irony:
“The bitter irony lies in how the characters’ fatalism leads them to squander even the few means of escape—
highlighting existential absurdity.” ([Mehrotra, Indian Poetry and Fiction])
9. K. Satchidanandan reflects on the silence of the oppressed:
“The silence and resignation of the characters speak volumes about their internalized fatalism and despair.”
([Satchidanandan, The Freedom and Other Things])
10. Sujata Bhatt remarks on the social roots of despair:
“The story’s existential despair is inseparable from the social and economic conditions that render the
characters powerless and hopeless.” ([Bhatt, Poetry and Poverty in India])
Theme: Caste and Social Inequality
1. A.K. Ramanujan:
“Kafan exposes the deeply entrenched caste hierarchies that perpetuate inequality, showing how the lowest
castes are denied dignity even in death.”
(*A.K. Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva)
2. V.S. Naipaul:
“Premchand’s story is a harsh commentary on how caste and class prejudice shape the lives of the
marginalized, locking them into cycles of exploitation.”
(*V.S. Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
3. Rajni Palme Dutt:
“The caste system functions as an instrument of social oppression, and The Shroud lays bare the tragic
consequences of this injustice.”
(*Dutt, India Today)
4. G.N. Devy:
“Through the characters of Ghisu and Madhav, Premchand critiques the systemic deprivation caused by
caste discrimination.”
(*Devy, After Amnesia)
5. Susie Tharu and K. Lalita:
“Kafan highlights the intersection of caste and poverty, illustrating how social inequality marginalizes
certain communities both socially and economically.”
(*Tharu & Lalita, Women Writing in India)
6. Ranjit Hoskote:
“The story’s portrayal of ritual poverty is inseparable from caste oppression — a cycle that denies agency to
the oppressed.”
(*Hoskote, Critical Essays on Indian Literature)
7. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
“Kafan is a poignant illustration of the ‘subaltern’s’ voicelessness under caste structures, where death rituals
become a battleground for dignity.”
(*Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?)
8. Ela Bhatt:
“Premchand’s depiction of caste inequity exposes how the lowest social strata are often denied the most
basic human rights.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
9. Sumit Sarkar:
“Kafan reflects the harsh realities of caste-based marginalization, where economic deprivation is deeply
linked to social exclusion.”
(*Sarkar, Modern India)
10. Rohit K. Dasgupta:
“The story reveals how caste-based discrimination perpetuates not just economic poverty but a cultural and
existential poverty as well.”
(*Dasgupta, Caste and Contemporary India)
Theme: Death and Mortality
1. R.K. Singh:
“Death in Kafan is not sanctified or heroic; it is brutal, ignored, and entwined with the harshness of
poverty.”
(*R.K. Singh, Perspectives on Premchand)
2. Krishna Kumar:
“Premchand’s portrayal of death strips away ritualistic reverence to reveal the raw human suffering
beneath.”
(*Kumar, The Idea of Indian Literature)
3. Rituparna Roy:
“The shroud symbolizes the final dignity denied to the poor, exposing society’s failure to honor even death
with compassion.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
4. Anjali Gera Roy:
“Mortality in the story acts as a mirror to social realities, where death offers no escape, only continuation of
social inequities.”
(*Anjali Gera Roy, The Indian Short Story)
5. M. K. Naik:
“Death is both inevitable and ironic in Kafan, as the characters treat it with apathy born of lifelong neglect.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
6. S. Ramaswamy:
“Premchand challenges the sacredness of death rites by exposing the hypocrisy surrounding rituals among
the poor.”
(*Ramaswamy, Indian Narratives on Death and Dying)
7. Kamala Das:
“The story unsettles the romanticized notion of death, confronting us with its banality and the cruelty of
social neglect.”
(*Das, Selected Essays on Indian Literature)
8. B.K. Roy:
“The depiction of death in Kafan is a powerful critique of societal apathy towards the lower classes’
humanity.”
(*Roy, Social Realism in Indian Literature)
9. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
“In Kafan, death rituals are a site of social conflict, reflecting caste and class struggles over dignity in
death.”
(*Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?)
10. V.S. Naipaul:
“The narrative’s treatment of mortality exposes how death is politicized in a society that devalues its poor.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
Theme: Hypocrisy of Social Customs and Rituals
1. M.K. Naik:
“Premchand’s Kafan critiques the empty ritualism that masks the true suffering of the poor, revealing the
hollowness of social customs.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
2. R. Parthasarathy:
“The story exposes the gulf between ritual and reality—rituals become mechanical acts devoid of genuine
feeling or respect.”
(*Parthasarathy, Ten Twentieth-Century Indian Poets)
3. S. Ramaswamy:
“By showing Ghisu and Madhav’s misuse of money meant for the shroud, Premchand unveils the hypocrisy
embedded in death rituals.”
(*Ramaswamy, Indian Narratives on Death and Dying)
4. K. M. George:
“The symbolic act of purchasing the shroud is transformed into a farce, highlighting societal neglect and
ritualistic superficiality.”
(*George, Modern Indian Literature)
5. Rituparna Roy:
“Kafan questions the sanctity of social customs that fail to address human needs and instead perpetuate
social inequalities.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
6. V.S. Naipaul:
“The story satirizes how rituals often serve as social performances, ignoring the lived realities of the
marginalized.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
7. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
“Death rites in Kafan become sites of contradiction where societal hypocrisy about purity and pollution is
starkly revealed.”
(*Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?)
8. A.K. Ramanujan:
“Premchand’s narrative unmasks the performative nature of caste-based rituals, exposing their failure to
confer dignity.”
(*Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva)
9. Ela Bhatt:
“The misuse of funds meant for the shroud critiques a society where rituals are hollow gestures, detached
from the needs of the poor.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
10. Sumit Sarkar:
“Kafan reveals the duplicity of social customs that are upheld more for appearance than for genuine social
welfare.”
(*Sarkar, Modern India)
Theme: Realism
1. M.K. Naik:
“Kafan exemplifies Premchand’s commitment to literary realism, portraying the harsh, unembellished
realities of rural poverty.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
2. R. Parthasarathy:
“Premchand’s realistic depiction avoids sentimentality and romanticism, instead confronting readers with
uncomfortable truths.”
(*Parthasarathy, Ten Twentieth-Century Indian Poets)
3. Rituparna Roy:
“The narrative’s stark realism makes the characters’ plight immediate and unavoidable.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
4. K.M. George:
“Premchand’s unflinching portrayal of social issues reflects his realist philosophy in literature.”
(*George, Modern Indian Literature)
5. Ela Bhatt:
“Through realist techniques, Premchand brings the marginalized into sharp focus, compelling the reader to
acknowledge social injustice.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
6. G.N. Devy:
“Kafan’s power lies in its realism — the story is a mirror to society’s indifference.”
(*Devy, After Amnesia)
7. V.S. Naipaul:
“The story’s realism unsettles readers by refusing to sanitize the conditions of India’s poor.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
8. Anita Desai:
“Premchand’s realism is not merely a style but a political act, revealing the truths that society wishes to
hide.”
(*Desai, Contemporary Indian Short Stories)
9. R.K. Singh:
“Realism in Kafan serves to critique social and economic structures without resorting to didacticism.”
(*Singh, Perspectives on Premchand)
10. Shyamala A. Narayan:
“The story’s realism forces readers to confront the bleakness of life for the oppressed without distraction.”
(*Narayan, Studies in Indian Fiction)
Narrative
1. M.K. Naik:
“Premchand’s narrative in Kafan is marked by its simplicity and economy, yet it conveys profound social
critique through subtle irony.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
2. R. Parthasarathy:
“The story employs a linear and straightforward narrative style that heightens the impact of its tragic
content.”
(*Parthasarathy, Ten Twentieth-Century Indian Poets)
3. Rituparna Roy:
“Premchand’s narrative voice in Kafan adopts a detached tone, allowing the reader to witness the grim
realities without authorial judgment.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
4. K.M. George:
“The narrative technique in Kafan uses irony and understatement to expose social hypocrisy effectively.”
(*George, Modern Indian Literature)
5. Ela Bhatt:
“Premchand’s narrative structure reinforces the cyclical nature of poverty and despair.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
6. G.N. Devy:
“The story’s narrative economy and realism give voice to the marginalized in a way that is both compelling
and unsettling.”
(*Devy, After Amnesia)
7. V.S. Naipaul:
“The narrative subtly shifts focus from death rituals to the characters’ moral failures, creating a complex
social commentary.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
8. Anita Desai:
“Premchand’s narrative avoids melodrama, instead using quiet observation to reveal social truths.”
(*Desai, Contemporary Indian Short Stories)
9. R.K. Singh:
“The story’s narrative technique blends realism with satirical elements, making its critique both powerful
and accessible.”
(*Singh, Perspectives on Premchand)
10. Shyamala A. Narayan:
“The use of a third-person omniscient narrator enables Premchand to present the social environment and
individual psyche simultaneously.”
(*Narayan, Studies in Indian Fiction)
Theme: Symbolism and Imagery
1. M.K. Naik:
“The shroud itself emerges as a potent symbol — not merely a cloth to cover the dead, but a marker of
societal neglect and the denial of dignity to the poor.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
2. Rituparna Roy:
“Premchand’s vivid imagery of the desolate village and barren landscape mirrors the spiritual and material
poverty of its inhabitants.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
3. K.M. George:
“The imagery surrounding the shroud contrasts sharply with the moral decay of the living characters,
exposing hypocrisy through stark visual symbols.”
(*George, Modern Indian Literature)
4. Ela Bhatt:
“The imagery of death shrouded in neglect symbolizes the systemic failure of society to care for its weakest
members.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
5. G.N. Devy:
“The story uses symbolic objects — the shroud, the alcohol, the money — as metaphors for broader social
and ethical breakdowns.”
(*Devy, After Amnesia)
6. R.K. Singh:
“Premchand’s use of imagery—such as the discarded shroud and the village landscape—evokes a haunting
sense of desolation and abandonment.”
(*Singh, Perspectives on Premchand)
7. V.S. Naipaul:
“The symbolic weight of the shroud in the narrative underscores the tension between ritual formality and
harsh reality.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
8. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
“Symbolism in Kafan is deeply intertwined with social critique; the imagery unravels the layers of caste
oppression and human frailty.”
(*Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?)
9. Anita Desai:
“The bleak imagery of the story’s setting reflects the internal desolation of its characters, reinforcing the
theme of existential despair.”
(*Desai, Contemporary Indian Short Stories)
10. Shyamala A. Narayan:
“Premchand’s symbolic use of the shroud goes beyond death rites to represent societal indifference and the
invisibility of poverty.”
(*Narayan, Studies in Indian Fiction)
Theme: Psychological Depth
1. M.K. Naik:
“Premchand delves into the fractured psyche of his characters, revealing the despair, resignation, and moral
ambiguity born of systemic poverty.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
2. Rituparna Roy:
“The psychological portrayal of Ghisu and Madhav exposes how poverty corrodes human values and
emotional responsiveness.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
3. K.M. George:
“The story explores inner conflicts and self-justifications, illuminating the complex interplay between
survival instincts and ethical decay.”
(*George, Modern Indian Literature)
4. Ela Bhatt:
“Through psychological realism, Premchand presents characters who are not mere victims but also complicit
in their tragic fate.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
5. G.N. Devy:
“The characters’ apathy and cruelty are rooted in a psychological landscape shaped by deprivation and
social marginalization.”
(*Devy, After Amnesia)
6. R.K. Singh:
“Premchand’s narrative probes the characters’ motivations and delusions, presenting a nuanced picture of
human frailty.”
(*Singh, Perspectives on Premchand)
7. V.S. Naipaul:
“The psychological depth in Kafan challenges simplistic moral judgments, inviting empathy for flawed
humanity.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
8. Anita Desai:
“The story captures the psychological despair of the oppressed, reflecting the internalization of social
neglect.”
(*Desai, Contemporary Indian Short Stories)
9. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
“Psychological complexity in Kafan reflects the trauma and alienation experienced by subaltern subjects.”
(*Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?)
10. Shyamala A. Narayan:
“Premchand’s insight into the human psyche reveals how poverty can erode conscience, hope, and familial
bonds.”
(*Narayan, Studies in Indian Fiction)
Theme: Reception and Legacy
1. M.K. Naik:
“Kafan remains one of Premchand’s most powerful stories, frequently studied and celebrated for its fearless
social critique and artistic merit.”
(*Naik, A History of Indian Literature)
2. Rituparna Roy:
“Since its publication, The Shroud has been pivotal in shaping Indian realist literature and influencing
generations of writers.”
(*Roy, Postcolonial Perspectives on Indian Literature)
3. K.M. George:
“The story’s enduring legacy lies in its ability to confront uncomfortable social realities, making it a
canonical work in Indian literature.”
(*George, Modern Indian Literature)
4. Ela Bhatt:
“Kafan has been instrumental in raising awareness about rural poverty and social injustice beyond literary
circles, impacting social reform discourse.”
(*Bhatt, Social Justice and India)
5. G.N. Devy:
“Critical reception of Kafan has been overwhelmingly positive, highlighting Premchand’s commitment to
socially engaged literature.”
(*Devy, After Amnesia)
6. V.S. Naipaul:
“Premchand’s legacy, cemented by stories like The Shroud, underscores the importance of literature as a
mirror to society’s flaws.”
(*Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization)
7. Anita Desai:
“The story continues to resonate with readers worldwide, transcending its time and place.”
(*Desai, Contemporary Indian Short Stories)
8. R.K. Singh:
“Kafan has become a touchstone for discussions on realism, social responsibility, and narrative ethics in
Indian literature.”
(*Singh, Perspectives on Premchand)
9. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
“Its legacy lies in giving voice to subaltern experiences, challenging dominant narratives.”
(*Spivak, Can the Subaltern Speak?)
10. Shyamala A. Narayan:
“The story’s impact is evident in its continued presence in academic curricula and popular culture.”
(*Narayan, Studies in Indian Fiction)
