READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
How tennis rackets have changed
In 2016, the British professional tennis player Andy Murray was ranked as the world’s number one. It was an
incredible achievement by any standard – made even more remarkable by the fact that he did this during a
period considered to be one of the strongest in the sport’s history, competing against the likes of Rafael Nadal,
Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic, to name just a few. Yet five years previously, he had been regarded as a
talented outsider who entered but never won the major tournaments.
Of the changes that account for this transformation, one was visible and widely publicised: in 2011, Murray
invited former number one player Ivan Lendl onto his coaching team – a valuable addition that had a visible
impact on the player’s playing style. Another change was so subtle as to pass more or less unnoticed. Like
many players, Murray has long preferred a racket that consists of two types of string: one for the mains
(verticals) and another for the crosses (horizontals). While he continued to use natural string in the crosses, in
2012 he switched to a synthetic string for the mains. A small change, perhaps, but its importance should not
be underestimated.
The modification that Murray made is just one of a number of options available to players looking to tweak
their rackets in order to improve their games. ‘Touring professionals have their rackets customised to their
specific needs,’ says Colin Triplow, a UK-based professional racket stringer. ‘It’s a highly important part of
performance maximisation.’ Consequently, the specific rackets used by the world’s elite are not actually
readily available to the public; rather, each racket is individually made to suit the player who uses it. Take the
US professional tennis players Mike and Bob Bryan, for example: ‘We’re very particular with our racket
specifications,’ they say. ‘All our rackets are sent from our manufacturer to Tampa, Florida, where our frames
go through a . . . thorough customisation process.’ They explain how they have adjusted not only racket
length, but even experimented with different kinds of paint. The rackets they use now weigh more than the
average model and also have a denser string pattern (i.e. more crosses and mains).
The primary reason for these modifications is simple: as the line between winning and losing becomes thinner
and thinner, even these slight changes become more and more important. As a result, players and their teams
are becoming increasingly creative with the modifications to their rackets as they look to maximise their
competitive advantage.
Racket modifications mainly date back to the 1970s, when the amateur German tennis player Werner Fischer
started playing with the so-called spaghetti-strung racket. It created a string bed that generated so much
topspin that it was quickly banned by the International Tennis Federation. However, within a decade or two,
racket modification became a regularity. Today it is, in many ways, an aspect of the game that is equal in
significance to nutrition or training.
Modifications can be divided into two categories: those to the string bed and those to the racket frame. The
former is far more common than the latter: the choice of the strings and the tension with which they are
installed is something that nearly all professional players experiment with. They will continually change it
depending on various factors including the court surface, climatic conditions, and game styles. Some will even
change it depending on how they feel at the time.
At one time, all tennis rackets were strung with natural gut made from the outer layer of sheep or cow
intestines. This all changed in the early 1990s with the development of synthetic strings that were cheaper and
more durable. They are made from three materials: nylon (relatively durable and affordable), Kevlar (too stiff
to be used alone) or co-polyester (polyester combined with additives that enhance its performance). Even so,
many professional players continue to use a ‘hybrid set-up’, where a combination of both synthetic and
natural strings are used.
Of the synthetics, co-polyester is by far the most widely used. It’s a perfect fit for the style of tennis now
played, where players tend to battle it out from the back of the court rather than coming to the net. Studies
indicate that the average spin from a co-polyester string is 25% greater than that from natural string or other
synthetics. In a sense, the development of co-polyester strings has revolutionised the game.
However, many players go beyond these basic adjustments to the strings and make changes to the racket
frame itself. For example, much of the serving power of US professional player Pete Sampras was attributed to
the addition of four to five lead weights onto his rackets, and today many professionals have the weight
adjusted during the manufacturing process.
Other changes to the frame involve the handle. Players have individual preferences for the shape of the
handle and some will have the handle of one racket moulded onto the frame of a different racket. Other
players make different changes. The professional Portuguese player Gonçalo Oliveira replaced the original
grips of his rackets with something thinner because they had previously felt uncomfortable to hold.
Racket customisation and modification have pushed the standards of the game to greater levels that few
could have anticipated in the days of natural strings and heavy, wooden frames, and it’s exciting to see what
further developments there will be in the future.
Questions 1–7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1–7 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 People had expected Andy Murray to become the world’s top tennis player for at least five years before
2016.
2 The change that Andy Murray made to his rackets attracted a lot of attention.
3 Most of the world’s top players take a professional racket stringer on tour with them.
4 Mike and Bob Bryan use rackets that are light in comparison to the majority of rackets.
5 Werner Fischer played with a spaghetti-strung racket that he designed himself.
6 The weather can affect how professional players adjust the strings on their rackets.
7 It was believed that the change Pete Sampras made to his rackets contributed to his strong serve.
Questions 8–13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 8–13 on your answer sheet.
The tennis racket and how it has changed
● Mike and Bob Bryan made changes to the types of 8………………… used on their racket frames.
● Players were not allowed to use the spaghetti-strung racket because of the amount of 9………………… it
created.
● Changes to rackets can be regarded as being as important as players’ diets or the 10………………… they do.
● All rackets used to have natural strings made from the 11………………… of animals.
● Pete Sampras had metal 12………………… put into the frames of his rackets.
● Gonçalo Oliveira changed the 13………………… on his racket handles.
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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
The pirates of the ancient Mediterranean
In the first and second millennia BCE, pirates sailed around the Mediterranean, attacking ships and avoiding
pursuers
A
When one mentions pirates, an image springs to most people’s minds of a crew of misfits, daredevils and
adventurers in command of a tall sailing ship in the Caribbean Sea. Yet from the first to the third millennium
BCE, thousands of years before these swashbucklers began spreading fear across the Caribbean, pirates
prowled the Mediterranean, raiding merchant ships and threatening vital trade routes. However, despite all
efforts and the might of various ancient states, piracy could not be stopped. The situation remained
unchanged for thousands of years. Only when the pirates directly threatened the interests of ancient Rome
did the Roman Republic organise a massive fleet to eliminate piracy. Under the command of the Roman
general Pompey, Rome eradicated piracy, transforming the Mediterranean into ‘Mare Nostrum’ (Our Sea).
B
Although piracy in the Mediterranean is first recorded in ancient Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh
Amenhotep III (c 1390–1353 BCE), it is reasonable to assume it predated this powerful civilisation. This is
partly due to the great importance the Mediterranean held at this time, and partly due to its geography. While
the Mediterranean region is predominantly fertile, some parts are rugged and hilly, even mountainous. In the
ancient times, the inhabitants of these areas relied heavily on marine resources, including fish and salt. Most
had their own boats, possessed good seafaring skills, and unsurpassed knowledge of the local coastline and
sailing routes. Thus, it is not surprising that during hardships, these men turned to piracy. Geography itself
further benefited the pirates, with the numerous coves along the coast providing places for them to hide their
boats and strike undetected. Before the invention of ocean-going caravels* in the 15th century, ships could
not easily cross long distances over open water. Thus, in the ancient world most were restricted to a few well-
known navigable routes that followed the coastline. Caught in a trap, a slow merchant ship laden with goods
had no other option but to surrender. In addition, knowledge of the local area helped the pirates to avoid
retaliation once a state fleet arrived.
————————————-
* caravel: a small, highly manoeuvrable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese
C
One should also add that it was not unknown in the first and second millennia BCE for governments to resort
to pirates’ services, especially during wartime, employing their skills and numbers against their opponents. A
pirate fleet would serve in the first wave of attack, preparing the way for the navy. Some of the regions were
known for providing safe harbours to pirates, who, in return, boosted the local economy.
D
The first known record of a named group of Mediterranean pirates, made during the rule of ancient Egyptian
Pharaoh Akhenaten (c 1353–1336 BCE), was in the Amarna Letters. These were extracts of diplomatic
correspondence between the pharaoh and his allies, and covered many pressing issues, including piracy. It
seems the pharaoh was troubled by two distinct pirate groups, the Lukka and the Sherden. Despite the
Egyptian fleet’s best efforts, the pirates continued to cause substantial disruption to regional commerce. In the
letters, the king of Alashiya (modern Cyprus) rejected Akhenaten’s claims of a connection with the Lukka
(based in modern-day Turkey). The king assured Akhenaten he was prepared to punish any of his subjects
involved in piracy.
E
The ancient Greek world’s experience of piracy was different from that of Egyptian rulers. While Egypt’s power
was land-based, the ancient Greeks relied on the Mediterranean in almost all aspects of life, from trade to
warfare. Interestingly, in his works the Iliad and the Odyssey, the ancient Greek writer Homer not only
condones, but praises the lifestyle and actions of pirates. The opinion remained unchanged in the following
centuries. The ancient Greek historian Thucydides, for instance, glorified pirates’ daring attacks on ships or
even cities. For Greeks, piracy was a part of everyday life. Even high-ranking members of the state were not
beyond engaging in such activities. According to the Greek orator Demosthenes, in 355 BCE, Athenian
ambassadors made a detour from their official travel to capture a ship sailing from Egypt, taking the wealth
found onboard for themselves! The Greeks’ liberal approach towards piracy does not mean they always
tolerated it, but attempts to curtail piracy were hampered by the large number of pirates operating in the
Mediterranean.
F
The rising power of ancient Rome required the Roman Republic to deal with piracy in the Mediterranean.
While piracy was a serious issue for the Republic, Rome profited greatly from its existence. Pirate raids
provided a steady source of slaves, essential for Rome’s agriculture and mining industries. But this
arrangement could work only while the pirates left Roman interests alone. Pirate attacks on grain ships, which
were essential to Roman citizens, led to angry voices in the Senate, demanding punishment of the culprits.
Rome, however, did nothing, further encouraging piracy. By the 1st century BCE, emboldened pirates
kidnapped prominent Roman dignitaries, asking for a large ransom to be paid. Their most famous hostage was
none other than Julius Caesar, captured in 75 BCE.
G
By now, Rome was well aware that pirates had outlived their usefulness. The time had come for concerted
action. In 67 BCE, a new law granted Pompey vast funds to combat the Mediterranean menace. Taking
personal command, Pompey divided the entire Mediterranean into 13 districts, assigning a fleet and
commander to each. After cleansing one district of pirates, the fleet would join another in the next district.
The process continued until the entire Mediterranean was free of pirates. Although thousands of pirates died
at the hands of Pompey’s troops, as a long-term solution to the problem, many more were offered land in
fertile areas located far from the sea. Instead of a maritime menace, Rome got productive farmers that further
boosted its economy.
Questions 14–19
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A–G.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–G, in boxes 14–19 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
14 a reference to a denial of involvement in piracy
15 details of how a campaign to eradicate piracy was carried out
16 a mention of the circumstances in which states in the ancient world would make use of pirates
17 a reference to how people today commonly view pirates
18 an explanation of how some people were encouraged not to return to piracy
19 a mention of the need for many sailing vessels to stay relatively close to land
Questions 20 and 21
Choose TWO letters, A–E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 20 and 21 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO of the following statements does the writer make about inhabitants of the Mediterranean region
in the ancient world?
A They often used stolen vessels to carry out pirate attacks.
B They managed to escape capture by the authorities because they knew the area so well.
C They paid for information about the routes merchant ships would take.
D They depended more on the sea for their livelihood than on farming.
E They stored many of the goods taken in pirate attacks in coves along the coastline.
Questions 22 and 23
Choose TWO letters, A–E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 22 and 23 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO of the following statements does the writer make about piracy and ancient Greece?
A The state estimated that very few people were involved in piracy.
B Attitudes towards piracy changed shortly after the Iliad and the Odyssey were written.
C Important officials were known to occasionally take part in piracy.
D Every citizen regarded pirate attacks on cities as unacceptable.
E A favourable view of piracy is evident in certain ancient Greek texts.
Questions 24–26
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 24–26 on your answer sheet.
Ancient Rome and piracy
Piracy was an issue ancient Rome had to deal with, but it also brought some benefits for Rome. For example,
pirates supplied slaves that were important for Rome’s industries. However, attacks on vessels
transporting 24………………… to Rome resulted in calls for 25…………………for the pirates responsible.
Nevertheless, piracy continued, with some pirates demanding a 26………………… for the return of the Roman
officials they captured.
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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
The persistence and peril of misinformation
Brian Southwell looks at how human brains verify information and discusses some of the challenges of battling
widespread falsehoods
Misinformation – both deliberately promoted and accidentally shared – is perhaps an inevitable part of the
world in which we live, but it is not a new problem. People likely have lied to one another for roughly as long
as verbal communication has existed. Deceiving others can offer an apparent opportunity to gain strategic
advantage, to motivate others to action, or even to protect interpersonal bonds. Moreover, people
inadvertently have been sharing inaccurate information with one another for thousands of years.
However, we currently live in an era in which technology enables information to reach large audiences
distributed across the globe, and thus the potential for immediate and widespread effects from
misinformation now looms larger than in the past. Yet the means to correct misinformation might, over time,
be found in those same patterns of mass communication and of the facilitated spread of information.
The main worry regarding misinformation is its potential to unduly influence attitudes and behavior, leading
people to think and act differently than they would if they were correctly informed, as suggested by the
research teams of Stephan Lewandowsky of the University of Bristol and Elizabeth Marsh of Duke University,
among others. In other words, we worry that misinformation might lead people to hold misperceptions (or
false beliefs) and that these misperceptions, especially when they occur among large groups of people, may
have detrimental, downstream consequences for health, social harmony, and the political climate.
At least three observations related to misinformation in the contemporary mass-media environment warrant
the attention of researchers, policy makers, and really everyone who watches television, listens to the radio,
or reads information online. First of all, people who encounter misinformation tend to believe it, at least
initially. Secondly, electronic and print media often do not block many types of misinformation before it
appears in content available to large audiences. Thirdly, countering misinformation once it has enjoyed wide
exposure can be a resource-intensive effort.
Knowing what happens when people initially encounter misinformation holds tremendous importance for
estimating the potential for subsequent problems. Although it is fairly routine for individuals to come across
information that is false, the question of exactly how – and when – we mentally label information as true or
false has garnered philosophical debate. The dilemma is neatly summarized by a contrast between how the
17th-century philosophers René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza described human information engagement,
with conflicting predictions that only recently have been empirically tested in robust ways. Descartes argued
that a person only accepts or rejects information after considering its truth or falsehood; Spinoza argued that
people accept all encountered information (or misinformation) by default and then subsequently verify or
reject it through a separate cognitive process. In recent decades, empirical evidence from the research teams
of Erik Asp of the University of Chicago and Daniel Gilbert at Harvard University, among others, has supported
Spinoza’s account: people appear to encode all new information as if it were true, even if only momentarily,
and later tag the information as being either true or false, a pattern that seems consistent with the
observation that mental resources for skepticism physically reside in a different part of the brain than the
resources used in perceiving and encoding.
What about our second observation that misinformation often can appear in electronic or print media without
being preemptively blocked? In support of this, one might consider the nature of regulatory structures in the
United States: regulatory agencies here tend to focus on post hoc detection of broadcast information.
Organizations such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) offer considerable monitoring and notification
functions, but these roles typically do not involve preemptive censoring. The FDA oversees direct-to-consumer
prescription drug advertising, for example, and has developed mechanisms such as the ‘Bad Ad’ program,
through which people can report advertising in apparent violation of FDA guidelines on drug risks. Such
programs, although laudable and useful, do not keep false advertising off the airwaves. In addition, even
misinformation that is successfully corrected can continue to affect attitudes.
This leads us to our third observation: a campaign to correct misinformation, even if rhetorically compelling,
requires resources and planning to accomplish necessary reach and frequency. For corrective campaigns to be
persuasive, audiences need to be able to comprehend them, which requires either effort to frame messages in
ways that are accessible or effort to educate and sensitize audiences to the possibility of misinformation. That
some audiences might be unaware of the potential for misinformation also suggests the utility of media
literacy efforts as early as elementary school. Even with journalists and scholars pointing to the phenomenon
of ‘fake news’, people do not distinguish between demonstrably false stories and those based in fact when
scanning and processing written information.
We live at a time when widespread misinformation is common. Yet at this time many people also are
passionately developing potential solutions and remedies. The journey forward undoubtedly will be a long and
arduous one. Future remedies will require not only continued theoretical consideration but also the
development and maintenance of consistent monitoring tools – and a recognition among fellow members of
society that claims which find prominence in the media that are insufficiently based in scientific consensus and
social reality should be countered. Misinformation arises as a result of human fallibility and human
information needs. To overcome the worst effects of the phenomenon, we will need coordinated efforts over
time, rather than any singular one-time panacea we could hope to offer.
Questions 27–30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 27–30 on your answer sheet.
27 What point does the writer make about misinformation in the first paragraph?
A Misinformation is a relatively recent phenomenon.
B Some people find it easy to identify misinformation.
C Misinformation changes as it is passed from one person to another.
D There may be a number of reasons for the spread of misinformation.
28 What does the writer say about the role of technology?
A It may at some point provide us with a solution to misinformation.
B It could fundamentally alter the way in which people regard information.
C It has changed the way in which organisations use misinformation.
D It has made it easier for people to check whether information is accurate.
29 What is the writer doing in the fourth paragraph?
A comparing the different opinions people have of misinformation.
B explaining how the effects of misinformation have changed over time
C outlining which issues connected with misinformation are significant today
D describing the attitude of policy makers towards misinformation in the media
30 What point does the writer make about regulation in the USA?
A The guidelines issued by the FDA need to be simplified.
B Regulation does not affect people’s opinions of new prescription drugs.
C The USA has more regulatory bodies than most other countries.
D Regulation fails to prevent misinformation from appearing in the media.
Questions 31–36
Complete the summary using the list of phrases, A–J, below
Write the correct letter, A–J, in boxes 31–36 on your answer sheet.
What happens when people encounter misinformation?
Although people have 31……………… to misinformation, there is debate about precisely how and when we label
something as true or untrue. The philosophers Descartes and Spinoza had 32……………… about how people
engage with information. While Descartes believed that people accept or reject information after considering
whether it is true or not, Spinoza argued that people accepted all information they encountered (and by
default misinformation) and did not verify or reject it until afterwards. Moreover, Spinoza believes that a
distinct 33……………… is involved in these stages. Recent research has provided 34……………… for Spinoza’s
theory and it would appear that people accept all encountered information as if it were true, even if this is for
an extremely 35………………, and do not label the information as true or false until later. This is consistent with
the fact that the resources for scepticism and the resources for perceiving and encoding are in 36……………… in
the brain.

A constant conflict B additional evidence C different locations

D experimental subjects E short period F extreme distrust
G frequent exposure H mental operation I dubious reason
J different ideas

Questions 37–40
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 37–40 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
37 Campaigns designed to correct misinformation will fail to achieve their purpose if people are unable to
understand them.
38 Attempts to teach elementary school students about misinformation have been opposed.
39 It may be possible to overcome the problem of misinformation in a relatively short period.
40 The need to keep up with new information is hugely exaggerated in today’s world.
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
The Industrial Revolution in Britain
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the mid-1700s and by the 1830s and 1840s has spread to many
other parts of the world, including the United States. In Britain, it was a period when a largely rural, agrarian*
society was transformed into an industrialised, urban one. Goods that had once been crafted by hand started
to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the invention of steam power and the
introduction of new machines and manufacturing techniques in textiles, iron-making and other industries.
The foundations of the Industrial Revolution date back to the early 1700s, when the English inventor Thomas
Newcomen designed the first modern steam engine. Called the ‘atmospheric steam engine’, Newcomen’s
invention was originally used to power machines that pumped water out of mines. In the 1760s, the Scottish
engineer James Watt started to adapt one of Newcomen’s models, and succeeded in making it far more
efficient. Watt later worked with the English manufacturer Matthew Boulton to invent a new steam engine
driven by both the forward and backward strokes of the piston, while the gear mechanism it was connected to
produced rotary motion. It was a key innovation that would allow steam power to spread across British
industries.
The demand for coal, which was a relatively cheap energy source, grew rapidly during the Industrial
Revolution, as it was needed to run not only the factories used to produce manufactured goods, but also
steam-powered transportation. In the early 1800s, the English engineer Richard Trevithick built a steam-
powered locomotive, and by 1830 goods and passengers were being transported between the industrial
centres of Manchester and Liverpool. In addition, steam-powered boats and ships were widely used to carry
goods along Britain’s canals as well as across the Atlantic.
Britain had produced textiles like wool, linen and cotton, for hundreds of years, but prior to the Industrial
Revolution, the British textile business was a true ‘cottage industry’, with the work performed in small
workshops or even homes by individual spinners, weavers and dyers. Starting in the mid-1700s, innovations
like the spinning jenny and the power loom made weaving cloth and spinning yarn and thread much easier.
With these machines, relatively little labour was required to produce cloth, and the new, mechanised textile
factories that opened around the country were quickly able to meet customer demand for cloth both at home
and abroad.
The British iron industry also underwent major change as it adopted new innovations. Chief among the new
techniques was the smelting of iron ore with coke (a material made by heating coal) instead of the traditional
charcoal. This method was cheaper and produced metals that were of a higher quality, enabling Britain’s iron
and steel production to expand in response to demand created by the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) and the
expansion of the railways from the 1830s.
The latter part of the Industrial Revolution also saw key advances in communication methods, as people
increasingly saw the need to communicate efficiently over long distances. In 1837, British inventors William
Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented the first commercial telegraphy system. In the 1830s and 1840s,
Samuel Morse and other inventors worked on their own versions in the United States. Cooke and
Wheatstone’s system was soon used for railway signalling in the UK. As the speed of the new locomotives
increased, it was essential to have a fast and effective means of avoiding collisions.
The impact of the Industrial Revolution on people’s lives was immense. Although many people in Britain had
begun moving to the cities from rural areas before the Industrial Revolution, this accelerated dramatically with
industrialisation, as the rise of large factories turned smaller towns into major cities in just a few decades. This
rapid urbanisation brought significant challenges, as overcrowded cities suffered from pollution and
inadequate sanitation.
Although industrialisation increased the country’s economic output overall and improved the standard of
living for the middle and upper classes, many poor people continued to struggle. Factory workers had to work
long hours in dangerous conditions for extremely low wages. These conditions along with the rapid pace of
change fuelled opposition to industrialisation. A group of British workers who became known as ‘Luddites’
were British weavers and textile workers who objected to the increased use of mechanised looms and knitting
frames. Many had spent years learning their craft, and they feared that unskilled machine operators were
robbing them of their livelihood. A few desperate weavers began breaking into factories and smashing textile
machines. They called themselves Luddites after Ned Ludd, a young apprentice who was rumoured to have
wrecked a textile machine in 1779.
The first major instances of machine breaking took place in 1811 in the city of Nottingham, and the practice
soon spread across the country. Machine-breaking Luddites attacked and burned factories, and in some cases
they even exchanged gunfire with company guards and soldiers. The workers wanted employers to stop
installing new machinery, but the British government responded to the uprisings by making machine-breaking
punishable by death. The unrest finally reached its peak in April 1812, when a few Luddites were shot during
an attack on a mill near Huddersfield. In the days that followed, other Luddites were arrested, and dozens
were hanged or transported to Australia. By 1813, the Luddite resistance had all but vanished.
——————————–
* agrarian: relating to the land, especially the use of land for farming
Questions 1–7
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1–7 on your answer sheet.
Britain’s Industrial Revolution
Steam power
● Newcomen’s steam engine was used in mines to remove water.
● In Watt and Boulton’s steam engine, the movement of the 1………………. was linked to a gear system.
● A greater supply of 2………………. was required to power steam engines.
Textile industry
● Before the Industrial Revolution, spinners and weavers worked at home and in 3………………. .
● Not as much 4………………. was needed to produce cloth once the spinning jenny and power loom were
invented.
Iron industry
● Smelting of iron ore with coke resulted in material that was better 5………………. .
● Demand for iron increased with the growth of the 6………………. .
Communications
● Cooke and Wheatstone patented the first telegraphy system.
● The telegraphy system was used to prevent locomotives colliding.
Urbanisation
● Small towns turned into cities very quickly.
● The new cities were dirty, crowded and lacked sufficient 7………………. .
Questions 8–13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 8–13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
8 Britain’s canal network grew rapidly so that more goods could be transported around the country.
9 Costs in the iron industry rose when the technique of smelting iron ore with coke was introduced.
10 Samuel Morse’s communication system was more reliable than that developed by William Cooke and
Charles Wheatstone.
11 The economic benefits of industrialisation were limited to certain sectors of society.
12 Some skilled weavers believed that the introduction of the new textile machines would lead to job losses.
13 There was some sympathy among local people for the Luddites who were arrested near Huddersfield.
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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
Athletes and stress
A
It isn’t easy being a professional athlete. Not only are the physical demands greater than most people could
handle, athletes also face intense psychological pressure during competition. This is something that British
tennis player Emma Raducanu wrote about on social media following her withdrawal from the 2021
Wimbledon tournament. Though the young player had been doing well in the tournament, she began having
difficulty regulating her breathing and heart rate during a match, which she later attributed to ‘the
accumulation of the excitement and the buzz’.
B
For athletes, some level of performance stress is almost unavoidable. But there are many different factors that
dictate just how people’s minds and bodies respond to stressful events. Typically, stress is the result of an
exchange between two factors: demands and resources. An athlete may feel stressed about an event if they
feel the demands on them are greater than they can handle. These demands include the high level of physical
and mental effort required to succeed, and also the athlete’s concerns about the difficulty of the event, their
chance of succeeding, and any potential dangers such as injury. Resources, on the other hand, are a person’s
ability to cope with these demands. These include factors such as the competitor’s degree of confidence, how
much they believe they can control the situation’s outcome, and whether they’re looking forward to the event
or not.
C
Each new demand or change in circumstances affects whether a person responds positively or negatively to
stress. Typically, the more resources a person feels they have in handling the situation, the more positive their
stress response. This positive stress response is called a challenge state. But should the person feel there are
too many demands placed on them, the more likely they are to experience a negative stress response – known
as a threat state. Research shows that the challenge states lead to good performance, while threat states lead
to poorer performance. So, in Emma Raducanu’s case, a much larger audience, higher expectations and facing
a more skilful opponent, may all have led her to feel there were greater demands being placed on her at
Wimbledon – but she didn’t have the resources to tackle them. This led to her experiencing a threat response.
D
Our challenge and threat responses essentially influence how our body responds to stressful situations, as
both affect the production of adrenaline and cortisol – also known as ‘stress hormones’. During a challenge
state, adrenaline increases the amount of blood pumped from the heart and expands the blood vessels, which
allows more energy to be delivered to the muscles and brain. This increase of blood and decrease of pressure
in the blood vessels has been consistently related to superior sport performance in everything from cricket
batting, to golf putting and football penalty taking. But during a threat state, cortisol inhibits the positive effect
of adrenaline, resulting in tighter blood vessels, higher blood pressure, slower psychological responses, and a
faster heart rate. In short, a threat state makes people more anxious – they make worse decisions and
perform more poorly. In tennis players, cortisol has been associated with more unsuccessful serves and
greater anxiety.
E
That said, anxiety is also a common experience for athletes when they’re under pressure. Anxiety can increase
heart rate and perspiration, cause heart palpitations, muscle tremors and shortness of breath, as well as
headaches, nausea, stomach pain, weakness and a desire to escape in more extreme cases. Anxiety can also
reduce concentration and self-control and cause overthinking. The intensity with which a person experiences
anxiety depends on the demands and resources they have. Anxiety may also manifest itself in the form of
excitement or nervousness depending on the stress response. Negative stress responses can be damaging to
both physical and mental health – and repeated episodes of anxiety coupled with negative responses can
increase risk of heart disease and depression.
F
But there are many ways athletes can ensure they respond positively under pressure. Positive stress responses
can be promoted through the language that they and others – such as coaches or parents — use.
Psychologists can also help athletes change how they see their physiological responses – such as helping them
see a higher heart rate as excitement, rather than nerves. Developing psychological skills, such as visualisation,
can also help decrease physiological responses to threat. Visualisation may involve the athlete recreating a
mental picture of a time when they performed well, or picturing themselves doing well in the future. This can
help create a feeling of control over the stressful event. Recreating competitive pressure during training can
also help athletes learn how to deal with stress. An example of this might be scoring athletes against their
peers to create a sense of competition. This would increase the demands which players experience compared
to a normal training session, while still allowing them to practise coping with stress.
Questions 14–18
Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A–F.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–F, in boxes 14–18 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
14 reference to two chemical compounds which impact on performance
15 examples of strategies for minimising the effects of stress
16 how a sportsperson accounted for their own experience of stress
17 study results indicating links between stress responses and performance
18 mention of people who can influence how athletes perceive their stress responses
Questions 19–22
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 19–22 on your answer sheet.
19 Performance stress involves many demands on the athlete, for example, coping with the possible risk of
……………………… .
20 Cortisol can cause tennis players to produce fewer good ……………………… .
21 Psychologists can help athletes to view their physiological responses as the effect of a positive feeling such
as ……………………… .
22 ……………………… is an example of a psychological technique which can reduce an athlete’s stress responses.
Questions 23 and 24
Choose TWO letters, A–E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 23 and 24 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO facts about Emma Raducanu’s withdrawal from the Wimbledon tournament are mentioned in the
text?
A the stage at which she dropped out of the tournament
B symptoms of her performance stress at the tournament
C measures which she had taken to manage her stress levels
D aspects of the Wimbledon tournament which increased her stress levels
E reactions to her social media posts about her experience at Wimbledon
Questions 25 and 26
Choose TWO letters, A–E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO facts about anxiety are mentioned in Paragraph E of the text?
A the factors which determine how severe it may be
B how long it takes for its effects to become apparent
C which of its symptoms is most frequently encountered
D the types of athletes who are most likely to suffer from it
E the harm that can result if athletes experience it too often
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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
An inquiry into the existence of the gifted child
Let us start by looking at a modern ‘genius’, Maryam Mirzakhani, who died at the early age of 40. She was the
only woman to win the Fields Medal – the mathematical equivalent of a Nobel prize. It would be easy to
assume that someone as special as Mirzakhani must have been one of those ‘gifted’ children, those who have
an extraordinary ability in a specific sphere of activity or knowledge. But look closer and a different story
emerges. Mirzakhani was born in Tehran, Iran. She went to a highly selective girls’ school but maths wasn’t her
interest – reading was. She loved novels and would read anything she could lay her hands on. As for maths,
she did rather poorly at it for the first couple of years in her middle school, but became interested when her
elder brother told her about what he’d learned. He shared a famous maths problem from a magazine that
fascinated her – and she was hooked.
In adult life it is clear that she was curious, excited by what she did and also resolute in the face of setbacks.
One of her comments sums it up. ‘Of course, the most rewarding part is the “Aha” moment, the excitement of
discovery and enjoyment of understanding something new … But most of the time, doing mathematics for me
is like being on a long hike with no trail and no end in sight.’ That trail took her to the heights of original
research into mathematics.
Is her background unusual? Apparently not. Most Nobel prize winners were unexceptional in childhood.
Einstein was slow to talk as a baby. He failed the general part of the entry test to Zurich Polytechnic – though
they let him in because of high physics and maths scores. He struggled at work initially, but he kept plugging
away and eventually rewrote the laws of Newtonian mechanics with his theory of relativity.
There has been a considerable amount of research on high performance over the last century that suggests it
goes way beyond tested intelligence. On top of that, research is clear that brains are flexible, new neural
pathways can be created, and IQ isn’t fixed. For example, just because you can read stories with hundreds of
pages at the age of five doesn’t mean you will still be ahead of your contemporaries in your teens.
While the jury is out on giftedness being innate and other factors potentially making the difference, what is
certain is that the behaviours associated with high levels of performance are replicable and most can be
taught – even traits such as curiosity.
According to my colleague Prof Deborah Eyre, with whom I’ve collaborated on the book Great Minds and How
to Grow Them, the latest neuroscience and psychological research suggests most individuals can reach levels
of performance associated in school with the gifted and talented. However, they must be taught the right
attitudes and approaches to their learning and develop the attributes of high performers – curiosity,
persistence and hard work, for example – an approach Eyre calls ‘high performance learning’. Critically, they
need the right support in developing those approaches at home as well as at school.
Prof Anders Ericsson, an eminent education psychologist at Florida State University, US, is the co-author
of Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise. After research going back to 1980 into diverse
achievements, from music to memory to sport, he doesn’t think unique and innate talents are at the heart of
performance. Deliberate practice, that stretches you every step of the way, and around 10,000 hours of it, is
what produces the goods. It’s not a magic number – the highest performers move on to doing a whole lot
more, of course. Ericsson’s memory research is particularly interesting because random students, trained in
memory techniques for the study, went on to outperform others thought to have innately superior memories
– those who you might call gifted.
But it is perhaps the work of Benjamin Bloom, another distinguished American educationist working in the
1980s, that gives the most pause for thought. Bloom’s team looked at a group of extraordinarily high achieving
people in disciplines as varied as ballet, swimming, piano, tennis, maths, sculpture and neurology. He found a
pattern of parents encouraging and supporting their children, often in areas they enjoyed themselves. Bloom’s
outstanding people had worked very hard and consistently at something they had become hooked on when at
a young age, and their parents all emerged as having strong work ethics themselves.
Eyre says we know how high performers learn. From that she has developed a high performing learning
approach. She is working on this with a group of schools, both in Britain and abroad. Some spin-off research,
which looked in detail at 24 of the 3,000 children being studied who were succeeding despite difficult
circumstances, found something remarkable. Half were getting free school meals because of poverty, more
than half were living with a single parent, and four in five were living in disadvantaged areas. Interviews
uncovered strong evidence of an adult or adults in the child’s life who valued and supported education, either
in the immediate or extended family or in the child’s wider community. Children talked about the need to
work hard at school, to listen in class and keep trying.
Let us end with Einstein, the epitome of a genius. He clearly had curiosity, character and determination. He
struggled against rejection in early life but was undeterred. Did he think he was a genius or even gifted? He
once wrote: ‘It’s not that I’m so smart, it’s just that I stay with problems longer. Most people say it is the
intellect which makes a great scientist. They are wrong: it is character.’
Questions 27–32
Complete the summary using the list of phrases, A–K, below.
Write the correct letter, A–K, in boxes 27–32 on your answer sheet.
Maryam Mirzakhani
Maryam Mirzakhani is regarded as 27………………… in the field of mathematics because she was the only female
holder of the prestigious Fields Medal – a record that she retained at the time of her death. However, maths
held little 28………………… for her as a child and in fact her performance was below average until she
was 29………………… by a difficult puzzle that one of her siblings showed her.
Later, as a professional mathematician, she had an inquiring mind and proved herself to be 30…………………
when things did not go smoothly. She said she got the greatest 31………………… from making ground-breaking
discoveries and in fact she was responsible for some extremely 32………………… mathematical studies.

A appeal B determined C intrigued

 D single E achievement
F devoted
G involved H unique
I innovative
J satisfaction K intent

Questions 33–37
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 33–37 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
33 Many people who ended up winning prestigious intellectual prizes only reached an average standard
when young.
34 Einstein’s failures as a young man were due to his lack of confidence.
35 It is difficult to reach agreement on whether some children are actually born gifted.
36 Einstein was upset by the public’s view of his life’s work.
37 Einstein put his success down to the speed at which he dealt with scientific questions.
Questions 38–40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 38–40 on your answer sheet.
38 What does Eyre believe is needed for children to equal ‘gifted’ standards?
A strict discipline from the teaching staff
B assistance from their peers in the classroom
C the development of a spirit of inquiry towards their studies
D the determination to surpass everyone else’s achievements
39 What is the result of Ericsson’s research?
A Very gifted students do not need to work on improving memory skills.
B Being born with a special gift is not the key factor in becoming expert.
C Including time for physical exercise is crucial in raising performance.
D 10,000 hours of relevant and demanding work will create a genius.
40 In the penultimate paragraph, it is stated the key to some deprived children’s success is
A a regular and nourishing diet at home.
B the loving support of more than one parent.
C a community which has well-funded facilities for learning.
D the guidance of someone who recognises the benefits of learning.
Archaeologists discover evidence of prehistoric island settlers
In early April 2019, Dr Ceri Shipton and his colleagues from Australian National University became the first
archaeologists to explore Obi, one of many tropical islands in Indonesia’s Maluku Utara province. The research
team’s discoveries suggest that the prehistoric people who lived on Obi were adept on both land and sea,
hunting in the dense rainforest, foraging on the seashore, and possibly even voyaging between islands.
The excavations were part of a project to learn more about how people first dispersed from mainland Asia,
through the Indonesian archipelago and into the prehistoric continent that once connected Australia and New
Guinea. The team’s earlier research suggested that the northernmost islands in the group, known as the
Wallacean islands, including Obi, would have offered the easiest migration route. It also seemed likely that
these islands were crucial ‘stepping stones’ on humans’ island-hopping voyages through this region millennia
ago. But to support this idea, they needed archaeological evidence for humans living in this remote area in the
ancient past. So, they travelled to Obi to look for sites that might reveal evidence of early occupation.
Just inland from the village of Kelo on Obi’s northern coast, Shipton and his colleagues found two caves
containing prehistoric rock shelters that were suitable for excavation. With the permission and help of the
local people of Kelo, they dug a small test excavation in each shelter. There they found numerous artefacts,
including fragments of axes, some dating to about 14,000 years ago. The earliest axes at Kelo were made using
clam shells. Axes made from clam shells from roughly the same time had also previously been found
elsewhere in this region, including on the nearby island of Gebe to the northeast. As on Gebe, it is highly likely
that Obi’s axes were used in the construction of canoes, thus allowing these early peoples to maintain
connections between communities on neighbouring islands.
The oldest cultural layers from the Kelo site provided the team with the earliest record for human occupation
on Obi, dating back around 18,000 years. At this time the climate was drier and colder than today, and the
island’s dense rainforests would likely have been much less impenetrable than they are now. Sea levels were
about 120 metres lower, meaning Obi was a much larger island, encompassing what is today the separate
island of Bisa, as well as several other small islands nearby.
Roughly 11,700 years ago, as the most recent ice age ended, the climate became significantly warmer and
wetter, no doubt making Obi’s jungle much thicker. According to the researchers, it is no coincidence that
around this time the first axes crafted from stone rather than sea shells appear, likely in response to their
heavy-duty use for clearing and modification of the increasingly dense rainforest. While stone takes about
twice as long to grind into an axe compared to shell, the harder material keeps its sharp edge for longer.
Judging by the bones which the researchers unearthed in the Kelo caves, people living there mainly hunted
the Rothschild’s cuscus, a possum-like creature that still lives on Obi today. As the forest grew more dense,
people probably used axes to clear patches of forest and make hunting easier.
Shipton’s team’s excavation of the shelters at the Kelo site unearthed a volcanic glass substance called
obsidian, which must have been brought over from another island, as there is no known source on Obi. It also
revealed particular types of beads, similar to those previously found on islands in southern Wallacea. These
finds again support the idea that Obi islanders routinely travelled to other islands.
The excavations suggest people successfully lived in the two Kelo shelters for about 10,000 years. But then,
about 8,000 years ago, both were abandoned. Did the residents leave Obi completely, or move elsewhere on
the island? Perhaps the jungle had grown so thick that axes were no longer a match for the dense
undergrowth. Perhaps people simply moved to the coast and turned to fishing rather than hunting as a means
of survival.
Whatever the reason for the departure, there is no evidence for use of the Kelo shelters after this time, until
about 1,000 years ago, when they were re-occupied by people who owned pottery as well as items made out
of gold and silver. It seems likely, in view of Obi’s location, that this final phase of occupation also saw the Kelo
shelters used by people involved in the historic trade in spices between the Maluku islands and the rest of the
world.
Questions 1–7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1–7 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 Archaeological research had taken place on the island of Obi before the arrival of Ceri Shipton and his
colleagues.
2 At the Kelo sites, the researchers found the first clam shell axes ever to be discovered in the region.
3 The size of Obi today is less than it was 18,000 years ago.
4 A change in the climate around 11,700 years ago had a greater impact on Obi than on the surrounding
islands.
5 The researchers believe there is a connection between warmer, wetter weather and a change in the
material used to make axes.
6 Shipton’s team were surprised to find evidence of the Obi islanders’ hunting practices.
7 It is thought that the Kelo shelters were occupied continuously until about 1,000 years ago.
Questions 8–13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 8–13 on your answer sheet.
Archaeological findings on Obi
Excavations of rock shelters inside 8………………… near the village of Kelo revealed:
● axes from around 14,000 years ago, probably used to make canoes
● axes made out of 9…………………, dating from around 11,700 years ago
● 10………………… of an animal: evidence of what ancient islanders ate
● evidence of travel between islands:
– obsidian: a material that is not found naturally on Obi
– 11………………… which resembled ones found on other islands.
It is thought that from 8,000 years ago, Obi islanders:
● may have switched from hunting to fishing
● had 12………………… as well as items made out of metal
● probably took part in the production and sale of 13………………… .
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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
The global importance of wetlands
A
Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil, for all or
part of the year. These are complex ecosystems, rich in unique plant and animal life. But according to the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWFN), half of the world’s wetlands have disappeared since 1990 – converted
or destroyed for commercial development, drainage schemes and the extraction of minerals and peat*. Many
of those that remain have been damaged by agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, industrial pollutants, and
construction works.
—————————
* peat: a brown deposit formed by the partial decomposition of vegetation in wet acidic conditions, often cut
out and dried for use as fuel
B
Throughout history, humans have gathered around wetlands, and their fertile ecosystems have played an
important part in human development. Consequently, they are of considerable religious, historical and
archaeological value to many communities around the world. ‘Wetlands directly support the livelihoods and
well-being of millions of people,’ says Dr Matthew McCartney, principal researcher and hydrologist at the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI). ‘In many developing countries, large numbers of people
are dependent on wetland agriculture for their livelihoods.’
C
They also serve a crucial environmental purpose. ‘Wetlands are one of the key tools in mitigating climate
change across the planet,’ says Pieter van Eijk, head of Climate Adaptation at Wetlands International (WI),
pointing to their use as buffers that protect coastal areas from sea-level rise and extreme weather events such
as hurricanes and flooding. Wetland coastal forests provide food and water, as well as shelter from storms,
and WI and other agencies are working to restore those forests which have been lost. ‘It can be as simple as
planting a few trees per hectare to create shade and substantially change a microclimate,’ he says.
‘Implementing climate change projects isn’t so much about money.’
D
The world’s wetlands are, unfortunately, rich sources for in-demand commodities, such as palm oil and
pulpwood. Peatlands – wetlands with a waterlogged organic soil layer – are particularly targeted. When
peatlands are drained for cultivation, they become net carbon emitters instead of active carbon stores, and,
according to Marcel Silvius, head of Climate-smart Land-use at WI, this practice causes six per cent of all global
carbon emissions. The clearance of peatlands for planting also increases the risk of forest fires, which release
huge amounts of CO₂. ‘We’re seeing huge peatland forests with extremely high biodiversity value being lost
for a few decades of oil palm revenues,’ says Silvius.
E
The damage starts when logging companies arrive to clear the trees. They dig ditches to enter the peat
swamps by boat and then float the logs out the same way. These are then used to drain water out of the
peatlands to allow for the planting of corn, oil palms or pulpwood trees. Once the water has drained away,
bacteria and fungi then break down the carbon in the peat and turn it into CO₂ and methane. Meanwhile, the
remainder of the solid matter in the peat starts to move downwards, in a process known as subsidence. Peat
comprises 90 per cent water, so this is one of the most alarming consequences of peatland clearances. ‘In the
tropics, peat subsides at about four centimetres a year, so within half a century, very large landscapes on
Sumatra and Borneo will become flooded as the peat drops below water level,’ says Silvius. ‘It’s a huge
catastrophe that’s in preparation. Some provinces will lose 40 per cent of their landmass.’
F
And while these industries affect wetlands in ways that can easily be documented, Dr Dave Tickner of the
WWFN believes that more subtle impacts can be even more devastating. ‘Sediment run-off and fertilizers can
be pretty invisible,’ says Tickner. ‘Over-extraction of water is equally invisible. You do get shock stories about
rivers running red, or even catching fire, but there’s seldom one big impact that really hurts a wetland.’
Tickner does not blame anyone for deliberate damage, however. ‘I’ve worked on wetland issues for 20 years
and have never met anybody who wanted to damage a wetland,’ he says. ‘It isn’t something that people
generally set out to do. Quite often, the effects simply come from people trying to make a living.’
G
Silvius also acknowledges the importance of income generation. ‘It’s not that we just want to restore the
biodiversity of wetlands – which we do – but we recognise there’s a need to provide an income for local
people.’ This approach is supported by IWMI. ‘The idea is that people in a developing country will only protect
wetlands if they value and profit from them,’ says McCartney. ‘For sustainability, it’s essential that local
people are involved in wetland planning and decision making and have clear rights to use wetlands.’
H
The fortunes of wetlands would be improved, Silvius suggests, if more governments recognized their long-
term value. ‘Different governments have different attitudes,’ he says, and goes on to explain that some
countries place a high priority on restoring wetlands, while others still deny the issue. McCartney is cautiously
optimistic, however. ‘Awareness of the importance of wetlands is growing,’ he says. ‘It’s true that wetland
degradation still continues at a rapid pace, but my impression is that things are slowly changing.’
Questions 14–17
Reading Passage 2 has eight paragraphs, A–H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–H, in boxes 14–17 on your answer sheet.
14 reference to the need to ensure that inhabitants of wetland regions continue to benefit from them
15 the proportion of wetlands which have already been lost
16 reference to the idea that people are beginning to appreciate the value of wetlands
17 mention of the cultural significance of wetlands
Questions 18–22
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 18–22 on your answer sheet.
18 Peatlands which have been drained begin to release …………………… instead of storing it.
19 Once peatland areas have been cleared, …………………… are more likely to occur.
20 Clearing peatland forests to make way for oil palm plantations destroys the …………………… of the local
environment.
21 Water is drained out of peatlands through the …………………… which are created by logging companies.
22 Draining peatlands leads to …………………… : a serious problem which can eventually result in coastal
flooding and land loss.
Questions 23–26
Look at the following statements (Questions 23–26) and the list of experts below.
Match each statement with the correct expert, A–D.
Write the correct letter, A–D, in boxes 23–26 on your answer sheet.
23 Communities living in wetland regions must be included in discussions about the future of these areas.
24 Official policies towards wetlands vary from one nation to the next.
25 People cause harm to wetlands without having any intention to do so.
26 Initiatives to reserve environmental damage need to be complex.
List of Experts
A Matthew McCartney
B Pieter van Eijk
C Marcel Silvius
D Dave Tickner
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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
Is the era of artificial speech translation upon us?
Once the stuff of science fiction, technology that enables people to talk using different languages is now here.
But how effective is it?
Noise, Alex Waibel tells me, is one of the major challenges that artificial speech translation has to meet. A
device may be able to recognize speech in a laboratory, or a meeting room, but will struggle to cope with the
kind of background noise I can hear in my office surrounding Professor Waibel as he speaks to me from Kyoto
station in Japan. I’m struggling to follow him in English, on a scratchy line that reminds me we are nearly
10,000 kilometers apart – and that distance is still an obstacle to communication even if you’re speaking the
same language, as we are. We haven’t reached the future yet. If we had, Waibel would have been able to
speak more comfortably in his native German and I would have been able to hear his words in English.
At Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, where he is a professor of computer science, Waibel and his colleagues
already give lectures in German that their students can follow in English via an electronic translator. The
system generates text that students can read on their laptops or phones, so the process is somewhat similar
to subtitling. It helps that lecturers speak clearly, don’t have to compete with background chatter, and say
much the same thing each year.
The idea of artificial speech translation has been around for a long time. Douglas Adams’ science fiction
novel, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, published in 1979, featured a life form called the ‘Babel fish’
which, when placed in the ear, enabled a listener to understand any language in the universe. It came to
represent one of those devices that technology enthusiasts dream of long before they become practically
realizable, like TVs flat enough to hang on walls: objects that we once could only dream of having but that are
now commonplace. Now devices that look like prototype Babel fish have started to appear, riding a wave of
advances in artificial translation and voice recognition.
At this stage, however, they seem to be regarded as eye-catching novelties rather than steps towards what
Waibel calls ‘making a language-transparent society.’ They tend to be domestic devices or applications
suitable for hotel check-ins, for example, providing a practical alternative to speaking traveler’s English. The
efficiency of the translator is less important than the social function. However, ‘Professionals are less inclined
to be patient in a conversation,’ founder and CEO at Waverly Labs, Andrew Ochoa, observes. To redress this,
Waverly is now preparing a new model for professional applications, which entails performance
improvements in speech recognition, translation accuracy and the time it takes to deliver the translated
speech.
For a conversation, both speakers need to have devices called Pilots (translator earpieces) in their ears. ‘We
find that there’s a barrier with sharing one of the earphones with a stranger,’ says Ochoa. That can’t have
been totally unexpected. The problem would be solved if earpiece translators became sufficiently prevalent
that strangers would be likely to already have their own in their ears. Whether that happens, and how quickly,
will probably depend not so much on the earpieces themselves, but on the prevalence of voice-controlled
devices and artificial translation in general.
Waibel highlights the significance of certain Asian nations, noting that voice translation has really taken off in
countries such as Japan with a range of systems. There is still a long way to go, though. A translation system
needs to be simultaneous, like the translator’s voice speaking over the foreign politician being interviewed on
the TV, rather than in sections that oblige speakers to pause after every few remarks and wait for the
translation to be delivered. It needs to work offline, for situations where internet access isn’t possible, and to
address apprehensions about the amount of private speech data accumulating in the cloud, having been sent
to servers for processing.
Systems not only need to cope with physical challenges such as noise, they will also need to be socially aware
by addressing people in the right way. Some cultural traditions demand solemn respect for academic status,
for example, and it is only polite to respect this. Etiquette-sensitive artificial translators could relieve people of
the need to know these differing cultural norms. At the same time, they might help to preserve local customs,
slowing the spread of habits associated with international English, such as its readiness to get on first-name
terms.
Professors and other professionals will not outsource language awareness to software, though. If the
technology matures into seamless, ubiquitous artificial speech translation, it will actually add value to
language skills. Whether it will help people conduct their family lives or relationships is open to question—
though one noteworthy possibility is that it could overcome the language barriers that often arise between
generations after migration, leaving children and their grandparents without a shared language.
Whatever uses it is put to, though, it will never be as good as the real thing. Even if voice-morphing technology
simulates the speaker’s voice, their lip movements won’t match, and they will look like they are in a dubbed
movie. The contrast will underline the value of shared languages, and the value of learning them. Sharing a
language can promote a sense of belonging and community, as with the international scientists who use
English as a lingua franca, where their predecessors used Latin. Though the practical need for a common
language will diminish, the social value of sharing one will persist. And software will never be a substitute for
the subtle but vital understanding that comes with knowledge of a language.
Questions 27–30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 27–30 on your answer sheet.
27 What does the reader learn about the conversation in the first paragraph?
A The speakers are communicating in different languages.
B Neither of the speakers is familiar with their environment.
C The topic of the conversation is difficult for both speakers.
D Aspects of the conversation are challenging for both speakers.
28 What assists the electronic translator during lectures at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology?
A the repeated content of lectures
B the students’ reading skills
C the languages used
D the lecturers’ technical ability
29 When referring to The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, the writer suggests that
A the Babel fish was considered undesirable at the time.
B this book was not seriously intending to predict the future.
C artificial speech translation was not a surprising development.
D some speech translation techniques are better than others.
30 What does the writer say about sharing earpieces?
A It is something people will get used to doing.
B The reluctance to do this is understandable.
C The equipment will be unnecessary in the future.
D It is something few people need to worry about.
Questions 31–34
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A–F, below.
Write the correct letter, A–F, in boxes 31–34 on your answer sheet.
31 Speech translation methods are developing fast in Japan
32 TV interviews that use translation voiceover methods are successful
33 Future translation systems should address people appropriately
34 Users may be able to maintain their local customs
A but there are concerns about this.
B as systems do not need to conform to standard practices.
C but they are far from perfect.
D despite the noise issues.
E because translation is immediate.
F and have an awareness of good manners.
Questions 35–40
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 35–40 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
35 Language translation systems will be seen as very useful throughout the academic and professional
worlds.
36 The overall value of automated translation to family life is yet to be shown.
37 Automated translation could make life more difficult for immigrant families.
38 Visual aspects of language translation are being considered by scientists.
39 International scientists have found English easier to translate into other languages than Latin.
40 As far as language is concerned, there is a difference between people’s social and practical needs.
low.
The impact of climate change on butterflies in Britain
According to conservationists, populations of around two thirds of butterfly species have declined in Britain
over the past 40 years. If this trend continues, it might have unpredictable knock-on effects for other species
in the ecosystem. Butterfly eggs develop into caterpillars and these insects, which are the second stage in a
new butterfly’s lifecycle, consume vast quantities of plant material, and in turn act as prey for birds as well as
bats and other small mammals. Only by arming themselves with an understanding of why butterfly numbers
are down can conservationists hope to halt or reverse the decline.
Butterflies prefer outdoor conditions to be ‘just right’, which means neither too hot nor too cold. Under the
conditions of climate change, the temperature at any given time in summer is generally getting warmer,
leaving butterflies with the challenge of how to deal with this. One of the main ways in which species are
ensuring conditions suit them is by changing the time of year at which they are active and reproduce.
Scientists refer to the timing of such lifecycle events as ‘phenology’, so when an animal or plant starts to do
something earlier in the year than it usually does, it is said to be ‘advancing its phenology’.
These advances have been observed already in a wide range of butterflies – indeed, most species are
advancing their phenology to some extent. In Britain, as the average spring temperature has increased by
roughly 0.5°C over the past 20 years, species have advanced by between three days and a week on average, to
keep in line with cooler temperatures. Is this a sign that butterflies are well equipped to cope with climate
change, and readily adjust to new temperatures? Or are these populations under stress, being dragged along
unwillingly by unnaturally fast changes? The answer is still unknown, but a new study is seeking to answer
these questions.
First, the researchers pulled together data from millions of records that had been submitted by butterfly
enthusiasts – people who spend their free time observing the activities of different species. This provided
information on 130 species of butterflies in Great Britain every year for a 20-year period. They then estimated
the abundance and distribution of each species across this time, along with how far north in the country they
had moved. The data also, crucially, allowed researchers to estimate subtle changes in what time of the year
each species was changing into an adult butterfly.
Analyzing the trends in each variable, the researchers discovered that species with more flexible lifecycles
were more likely to be able to benefit from an earlier emergence driven by climate change. Some species are
able to go from caterpillar to butterfly twice or more per year, so that the individual butterflies you see flying
in the spring are the grandchildren or great-grandchildren of the individuals seen a year previously.
Among these species, researchers observed that those which have been advancing their phenology the most
over the 20-year study period also had the most positive trends in abundance, distribution and northwards
extent. For these species, such as Britain’s tiniest butterfly, the dainty Small Blue, whose colonies are up to a
hundred strong, some develop into butterflies early in spring, allowing their summer generations to complete
another reproductive cycle by autumn so that more population growth occurs.
Other species, however, are less flexible and restricted to a single reproductive cycle per year. For these
species, there was no evidence of any benefit to emerging earlier. Indeed, worryingly, it was found that the
species in this group that specialize in very specific habitat types, often related to the caterpillar’s preferred
diet, actually tended to be most at harm from advancing phenology. The beautiful High Brown Fritillary, often
described as Britain’s most endangered butterfly, is in this group. It is found only in coppiced woodland and
limestone pavement habitats. It is also a single-generation butterfly that has advanced its phenology. This
suggests that climate change, while undoubtedly not the sole cause, might have played a part in the downfall
of this species.
All is not lost, however. Many of Britain’s single-generation species show the capacity, in continental Europe,
to add a second generation in years that are sufficiently warm. Therefore, as the climate continues to warm,
species like the Silver-studded Blue might be able to switch to multiple generations in the UK as well, and so
begin to extract benefits from the additional warmth, potentially leading to population increases.
More immediately, conservationists can arm themselves with all this knowledge to spot the warning signs of
species that may be at risk. The White Admiral of southern England, a much sought-after butterfly,
experienced a significant increase in numbers from the 1920s but has shown a considerable decline in the past
20 years. This may be because the caterpillar exists solely on a diet of a plant called honeysuckle. But it is also
likely to be due to climate change.
Questions 1–6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1–6 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 Forty years ago, there were fewer butterflies in Britain than at present.
2 Caterpillars are eaten by a number of different predators.
3 ‘Phenology’ is a term used to describe a creature’s ability to alter the location of a lifecycle event.
4 Some species of butterfly have a reduced lifespan due to spring temperature increases.
5 There is a clear reason for the adaptations that butterflies are making to climate change.
6 The data used in the study was taken from the work of amateur butterfly watchers.
Questions 7–13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 7–13 on your answer sheet.
Butterflies in the UK
The Small Blue
● lives in large 7……………….
● first appears at the start of 8……………….
● completes more than one reproductive cycle per year
The High Brown Fritillary
● has one reproductive cycle
● is considered to be more 9………………. than other species
● its caterpillars occupy a limited range of 10……………….
The Silver-studded Blue
● is already able to reproduce twice a year in warm areas of 11……………….
The White Admiral
● is found in 12………………. areas of England
● both climate change and the 13………………. of the caterpillar are possible reasons for decline
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READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14–26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
Deep-sea mining
Bacteria from the ocean floor can beat superbugs and cancer. But habitats are at risk from the hunger for
marine minerals
A
When Professor Mat Upton found that a microbe from a deep-sea sponge was killing pathogenic bugs in his
laboratory, he realised it could be a breakthrough in the light against antibiotic-resistant superbugs, which are
responsible for thousands of deaths a year in the UK alone. Further tests confirmed that an antibiotic from the
sponge bacteria, found living more than 700 metres under the sea at the Rockall trough in the north-east
Atlantic, was previously unknown to science, boosting its potential as a life-saving medicine. But Upton, and
other scientists who view the deep ocean and its wealth of unique and undocumented species as a
prospecting ground for new medicines, fear such potential will be lost in the rush to exploit the deep sea’s
equally rich metal and mineral resources.
B
‘We’re looking at the bioactive potential of marine resources, to see if there are any more medicines or drugs
down there before we destroy it for ever,’ says Upton, a medical microbiologist at the University of Plymouth.
He is among many scientists urging a halt to deep-sea mining, asking for time to weigh up the pros and cons.
‘In sustainability terms, this could be a better way of exploiting the economic potential of the deep sea,’ he
argues. Oceanographers using remotely operated vehicles have spotted many new species. Among them have
been sea cucumbers with tails allowing them to sail along the ocean floor, and a rare ‘Dumbo’octopus, found
3,000 metres under the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of California. Any one of these could offer lifesaving
potential. Upton estimates it could take up to a decade for a newly discovered antibiotic to become a
medicine – but the race towards commercial mining in the ocean abyss has already begun.
C
The deep sea contains more nickel, cobalt and rare earth metals than all land reserves combined, according to
the US Geological Survey. Mining corporations argue that deep-sea exploration could help diversify the supply
of metals and point to the fact that demand for resources such as copper, aluminum, cobalt for electric car
batteries and other metals to power technology and smartphones, is soaring. They say that deep-sea mining
could yield far superior ore to land mining with little, if any, waste. Different methods of extraction exist, but
most involve employing some form of converted machinery previously used in terrestrial mining to excavate
materials from the sea floor, at depths of up to 6,000 meters, then drawing a seawater slurry, containing rock
and other solid particles, from the sea floor to ships on the surface. The slurry is then ‘de-watered ’ and
transferred to another vessel for shipping. Extracted seawater is pumped back down and discharged close to
the sea floor.
D
But environmental and legal groups have urged caution, arguing there are potentially massive and unknown
ramifications for the environment and for nearby communities, and that the global regulatory framework is
not yet drafted. ‘Despite arising in the last half century, the “new global gold rush” of deep-sea mining shares
many features with past resource scrambles – including a general disregard for environmental and social
impacts, and the marginalisation of indigenous peoples and their rights,’ a paper, written by Julie Hunter and
Julian Aguon, from Blue Ocean Law, and Pradeep Singh, from the Center for Marine Environmental Sciences,
Bremen, argues. The authors say that knowledge of the deep seabed remains extremely limited. ‘The surface
of the Moon, Mars and even Venus have all been mapped and studied in much greater detail, leading marine
scientists to commonly remark that, with respect to the deep sea, “We don’t yet know what we need to
know”.’
E
Scientific research – including a recent paper in Marine Policy journal has suggested the deep seabed, and
hydrothermal vents, which are created when seawater meets volcanic magma, have crucial impacts upon
biodiversity and the global climate. The mineral-rich vents and their surrounds are also home to many well-
known animals including crustaceans, tubeworms, clams, slugs, anemones and fish. ‘It is becoming
increasingly clear that deep-sea mining poses a grave threat to these vital seabed functions,’ the paper says.
‘Extraction methods would produce large sediment plumes and involve the discharge of waste back into the
ocean, significantly disturbing seafloor environments,’ the paper continues. ‘On deep sea vents, scientists are
clear,’ says Dr Jon Copley of the National Oceanography Centre, Southampton: ‘We don’t want mining on
them.’
F
The oceans occupy around 70% of the planet and are relatively unexplored, says Mike Johnston, chief
executive of Nautilus, a Canadian underwater exploration company: ‘It makes sense to explore this untapped
potential in an environmentally sustainable way, instead of continually looking at the fast depleting land
resources of the planet to meet society’s rising needs.’ Those leading the global rush to place giant mining
machines thousands of metres below the sea surface say the environmental impacts will be far lower than on
land. But critics say exotic and little-known ecosystems in the deep oceans could be destroyed and must be
protected. ‘Mining will be the greatest assault on deep-sea ecosystems ever inflicted by humans,’ according to
hydrothermal vent expert Verena Tunnicliffe, at the University of Victoria in Canada. She argues that active
vents must be off-limits for mining to protect the new knowledge and biotechnology spin-offs they can deliver,
and that strict controls must be in place elsewhere.
Questions 14–17
Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A–F.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A–F, in boxes 14–17 on your answer sheet.
14 reference to the rapidly increasing need for one raw material in the transport industry
15 a rough estimate of the area of the Earth covered by the oceans
16 how a particular underwater habitat, where minerals and organisms co-exist, is formed
17 reference to the fact that the countries of the world have yet to agree on rules for the exploration of the
seabed
Questions 18–23
Look at the following statements (Questions 18–23) and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person or people, A-E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 18–23 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
18 A move away from the exploration of heavily mined reserves on land is a good idea.
19 The negative effects of undersea exploration on local areas and their inhabitants are being ignored.
20 There are more worthwhile things to extract from the sea than minerals.
21 No other form of human exploration will have such a destructive impact on marine life as deep-sea
mining.
22 More is known about outer space than about what lies beneath the oceans.
23 There is one marine life habitat where experts agree mining should not take place.
List of People
A Professor Mat Upton
B Julie Hunter, Julian Aguon and Pradeep Singh
C Dr Jon Copley
D Mike Johnston
E Verena Tunnicliffe
Questions 24–26
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 24–26 on your answer sheet.
Mining the sea floor
Mining corporations believe that the mineral resources lying under the sea may be superior to those found in
the earth. They also say that these can be removed without producing much 24………………… .
The extraction is often done by adapting the 25………………… that has already been used to work on land. The
method of excavation involves removing the seawater from the slurry that is brought up to ships and
returning it to the seabed. However, concerned groups strongly believe that 26………………… is necessary due to
the possible number of unidentified consequences.
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READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27–40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.
The Unselfish Gene
A psychologist gives his view on how humans became self-centred
There has long been a general assumption that human beings are essentially selfish. We’re apparently
ruthless, with strong impulses to compete against each other for resources and to accumulate power and
possessions. If we are kind to one another, it’s usually because we have ulterior motives. If we are good, it’s
only because we have managed to control and transcend our innate selfishness and brutality.
This bleak view of human nature is closely associated with the science writer Richard Dawkins, whose 1976
book The Selfish Gene became popular because it fitted so well with – and helped to justify – the competitive
and individualistic ethos that was so prevalent in late 20th-century societies. Like many others, Dawkins
justifies his views with reference to the field of evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology theorises
that present-day human traits developed in prehistoric times, during what is termed the ‘environment of
evolutionary adaptedness’.
Prehistory is usually seen as a period of intense competition, when life was such a brutal battle that only those
with traits such as selfishness, aggression and ruthlessness survived. And because survival depended on access
to resources – such as rivers, forests and animals – there was bound to be conflict between rival groups, which
led to the development of traits such as racism and warfare. This seems logical. But, in fact, the assumption on
which this all rests – that prehistoric life was a desperate struggle for survival – is false.
It’s important to remember that in the prehistoric era, the world was very sparsely populated. According to
some estimates, around 15,000 years ago, the population of Europe was only 29,000, and the population of
the whole world was less than half a million. Humans at that time were hunter-gatherers: people who lived by
hunting wild animals and collecting wild plants. With such small population densities, it seems unlikely that
prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups had to compete against each other for resources or had any need to
develop ruthlessness and competitiveness, or to go to war.
There is significant evidence to back this notion from contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, who live in the
same way as prehistoric humans did. As the anthropologist Bruce Knauft has remarked, hunter-gatherers are
characterized by ‘extreme political and sexual egalitarianism’. Knauft has observed that individuals in such
groups don’t accumulate property or possessions and have an ethical obligation to share everything. They also
have methods of preserving egalitarianism by ensuring that disparities of status don’t arise.
The !Kung people of southern Africa, for example, swap arrows before going hunting and when an animal is
killed, the acclaim does not go to the person who fired the arrow, but to the person the arrow belongs to. And
if a person becomes too domineering, the other members of the group ostracise them, exiling the offender
from society. Typically in such groups, men do not dictate what women do. Women in hunter-gatherer groups
worldwide often benefit from a high level of autonomy, being able to select their own marriage partners,
decide what work they do and work whenever they choose to. And if a marriage breaks down, they have
custody rights over their children.
Many anthropologists believe that societies such as the !Kung were normal until a few thousand years ago,
when population growth led to the development of agriculture and a settled lifestyle. In view of the above,
there seems little reason to assume that traits such as racism, warfare and male domination should have been
selected by evolution – as they would have been of little benefit in the prehistoric era. Individuals who
behaved selfishly and ruthlessly would be less likely to survive, since they would have been ostracised from
their groups.
It makes more sense, then, to see traits such as cooperation, egalitarianism, altruism and peacefulness as
innate characteristics of human beings. These were the traits that were prevalent in human life for tens of
thousands of years. So presumably these traits are still strong in us now.
But if prehistoric life wasn’t really as brutal as has often been assumed, why do modern humans behave so
selfishly and ruthlessly? Perhaps these negative traits should be seen as a later development, the result of
environmental and psychological factors. Research has shown repeatedly that when the natural habitats of
primates such as apes and gorillas are disrupted, they tend to become more violent and hierarchical.
So, it could well be that the same thing has happened to us. I believe that the end of the hunter-gatherer
lifestyle and the advent of farming was connected to a psychological change that occurred in some groups of
people. There was a new sense of individuality and separateness, which led to a new selfishness, and
ultimately to hierarchical societies, patriarchy and warfare. At any rate, these negative traits appear to have
developed so recently that it doesn’t seem feasible to explain them in adaptive or evolutionary terms.
Questions 27–30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 27–30 on your answer sheet.
27 What is the writer doing in the first paragraph?
A setting out two opposing views about human nature
B justifying his opinion about our tendency to be greedy
C describing a commonly held belief about people’s behaviour
D explaining why he thinks that humans act in a selfish manner
28 What point is made about Richard Dawkins’ book The Selfish Gene?
A Its appeal lay in the radical nature of its ideas.
B Its success was due to the scientific support it offered.
C It presented a view that was in line with the attitudes of its time.
D It took an innovative approach to the analysis of human psychology.
29 What does the writer suggest about the prehistoric era in the fourth paragraph?
A Societies were more complex than many people believe.
B Supplies of natural resources were probably relatively plentiful.
C Most estimates about population sizes are likely to be inaccurate.
D Humans moved across continents more than was previously thought.
30 The writer refers to Bruce Knauft’s work as support for the idea that
A selfishness is a relatively recent development in human societies.
B only people in isolated communities can live in an unselfish manner.
C very few lifestyles have survived unchanged since prehistoric times.
D hunter-gatherer cultures worldwide are declining in number.
Questions 31–35
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 31–35 on your answer sheet.
Contemporary hunter-gatherer societies
Bruce Kauft’s research shows that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies tend to exhibit a high level
of 31………………… in all areas of life. In these cultures, distributing resources fairly among all members is a
moral obligation. These societies also employ strategies to prevent differences in 32………………… occurring: for
example, the !Kung follow a custom whereby the credit for one person’s success at 33………………… is given to
another member of the group. Individuals who behave in a 34………………… manner are punished by being
excluded from the group, and women have a considerable amount of 35………………… in choices regarding work
and marriage.
Questions 36–40
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
In boxes 36–40 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
36 Some anthropologists are mistaken about the point when the number of societies such as the !
Kung began to decline.
37 Humans who developed warlike traits in prehistory would have had an advantage over those who did not.
38 Being peaceful and cooperative is a natural way for people to behave.
39 Negative traits are more apparent in some modern cultures than in others.
40 Animal research has failed to reveal a link between changes in the environment and the emergence of
aggressive tendencies.