Copper

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES IRON

Materials:
Materials
• Copper pyrites
ALUMINIUM • Iron ore (Heamatite)
• Silicon dioxide
Materials • Coke.
• Oil
• Bauxite (the Ore). • Limestone (calcium carbonate).
• Acidified copper(II) sulphate solution.
• Sodium hydroxide. Process of extraction:
Process of extraction
• Cryolite • Iron ore, coke and limestone are fed into the blast furnace
a) Concentration of the ore:
Process of extraction. from the top.
The ore is crushed and ground to fine powder, mixed with oil and water in
•Bauxite is ground into powder and heated in a steel • Hot air is fed into the furnace from the bottom at about
a steel tank to remove impurities.
container to convert any Iron (II) oxide impurity present 1000 0C.
• Compressed air is blown through the mixture in the tank a process known
into Iron (III) oxide and also to remove water of • Carbon (coke) is oxidized by hot air to carbon dioxide gas:
as froth flotation, to agitate the mixture.
crystallization. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
• Oil coated particles of the ore float on top of the tank and are skimmed
•The powder is then boiled with hot concentrated Sodium • Carbon dioxide gas produced is reacted with excess or
off and dried.
hydroxide solution that dissolves the amphoteric Aluminium unreacted coke producing carbon monoxide gas.
b) Reduction or roasting of the ore:
oxide and acidic Silicon dioxide in the Ore forming Sodium CO2(g)+ C(s) → 2CO(g)
• Copper pyrites are roasted in a furnace to form copper(I) suphide, iron(II)
aluminate and Sodium silicate in a container. • The carbon monoxide produced reduces the Haematite to
oxide and Sulphur dioxide gas.
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l) iron.
SiO2(s) + 3NaOH(aq) → Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l) Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) 2CuFeS2(s) + O2(g) → Cu2S(s) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g)
•The undissolved basic Iron (III) oxide is filtered off. • Limestone decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide • Silicon dioxide is added to the furnace. Where it reacts with iron(II) oxide
•Carbon dioxide is bubbled through the filtrate to precipitate gas. to form iron(II) silicate, slag leaving behind the copper(I) sulphide.
Aluminium hydroxide leaving silicate ions in the solution. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) The copper(I) sulphide is heated strongly in a furnace with limited supply of
•Aluminium hydroxide is washed, dried and strongly heated • The Calcium oxide combines with silica (Silicon dioxide) oxygen to form impure copper and Sulphur dioxide gas
to produce Aluminium oxide. impurity to form slag (calcium silicate). c) Purification:
Electrolysis of Aluminium Oxide. • The slag sinks to the bottom and floats on iron, protecting The impure copper is purified by electrolysis using impure copper as anode
• Aluminium oxide is placed in the electrolytic cell and heated the iron from being re-oxidized hot air. and pure copper as cathode in an electrolyte cell containing acidified
with cryolite. • Purification: Pure iron is obtained by passing air through copper(II) sulphate solution as electrolyte.
• Cryolite is used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide for molten iron to remove non-metal impurities. • Impure copper dissolves to form copper(II) ions and pure copper is
two main reasons: to lower the melting point of the • NOTE: Lime stone is used in the removal of impurities. E.g deposited at the cathode.
mixture and to increase its conductivity. silicon dioxide (silica). At the cathode, copper(II) ions are deposited as copper.
• Molten aluminium oxide, Using graphite electrodes in an Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
Iron bath lined with Graphite. At the anode, copper goes into solution as copper(II) ions.
At the cathode; Al3+(l) + 3e- → Al(l) Cu(s) → Cu 2+(aq) + 2e−
At the Anode; 2O2-(l) → O2 (g) + 4e-

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 CEMENT SODIUM HYDROXIDE SULPHURIC ACID
OXYGEN
Materials Raw materials Materials
Materials
• Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (brine). • Sulphur. • Air.
• Limestone
• Graphite. • Oxygen. • Silica gel.
• Clay, shale
• Mercury. • Vanadium(v) oxide. • Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
• Silica
Process Of Production • Water. Process of production
• Iron oxide
• Brine is electrolyzed in an electrolytic cell Process of production. • Air is passed through filters to remove smoke
Process Of Production
having graphite anode and mercury cathode. • Sulphur is heated strongly or roasted in a particles and dust particles.
• The raw materials are run through a crusher and milled
• During the electrolysis, Sodium ions and closed cylinder to produce Sulphur dioxide • Air is passed through concentrated sodium
into fine powder.
hydrogen ions migrate to the cathode. gas. hydroxide solution to absorb/ remove carbon
• The powders are blended and pre-heated to around
• Due to high concentration of sodium • S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) dioxide, which is acidic.
900°C in a rotary kiln using hot gases. The pre-heating
hydroxide, sodium ions are discharged in • Sulphur dioxide is further reacted with • 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
burns off impurities.
preference to hydrogen ions by electron gain excess oxygen in presence of vanadium(v) • Air is free from Carbon dioxide is now passed
• The material is burnt in a large rotary kiln at 1500 °C.
to form sodium metal. oxide catalyst at 400 OC- 500 OC and 1-2 through Silicon(IV) oxide (silica gel) to absorb
• The rotary kiln continuously mixes the ingredients and
• Cathode (negative electrode): mercury flowing atmospheres in a closed cylinder to water vapour.
distributes heat uniformly on limestone to decompose it to
along bottom of cell produced sulphur trioxide gas. • Carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed
Calcium oxide so that carbon dioxide is driven off,
Na+(aq) + e- → Na(s) • 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g) from air before it is liquefied because they
forming clinker.
CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) • The sodium metal dissolves (combines with ) solidify and block the apparatus.
in mercury to form sodium amalgam which is • Sulphur trioxide gas is bubbled in a tank • The air is now compressed at 200 atmospheres
• The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine powder in
reacted (dissolved in) with water to form containing concentrated sulphuric acid to and allowed to cool by making it escape into a
a rotating drum filled with steel balls of different sizes -
sodium hydroxide solution, hydrogen and form oleum. large space through a jet.
depending on the desired fineness of the cement, that
mercury. Mercury is fed back into the cell • Oleum is diluted with appropriate volume of • The process of cooling is repeated several
crush and grind the clinker.
for re-use as the cathode. water to produce sulphuric acid which is times to obtain liquid air at about –200oC.
• Gypsum is added during the grinding process to moderate
• The sodium hydroxide solution is evaporated stored in storage tanks. • The liquid air is fractionally distilled using a
or control the 'setting' of the cement.
to dryness to molten sodium hydroxide and 2SO3(g) +H2SO4(aq) → H2S2O7(l) fractionating column.
• The cement is then bagged ready for sale, transportation
cooled to form solid sodium hydroxide. H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l) • Nitrogen boils off first because it has a lower
and use.
• The sulphuric acid is then stored in the boiling point (–196oC) leaving behind oxygen with
storage tanks. a higher boiling point (-183oC).
CHLORINE GAS • Both nitrogen and oxygen collected obtained
Raw material contain traces of noble gases.
Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (brine). LIME • Pure oxygen is then stored under pressure in
Graphite. • Limestone is grounded into fine particles, then steel cylinders.
Mercury. fed into a kiln, heated at about 900oC to form
Process Of Production quick lime.
• Brine is electrolyzed in an electrolytic cell having graphite • CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
anode and mercury cathode. • The quick lime (calcium oxide) formed is then
• During the electrolysis, chloride and hydroxide ions migrate cooled, added to water forming slake lime
to the anode. (Calcium hydroxide) in a sealed reactor tank.
• Chloride ions are preferentially discharged by electron loss • CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
to form chlorine gas due to their high concentration. • The slake lime formed is passed through the
wanyamatitus47@gmail.com purifiers to remove any impurities and water,
• At the Anode: 2Cl- (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
• The chlorine formed is dried, liquefied and stored in tightly concentrated and packed.
closed tanks. +256-758496489
 AMMONIA Fertilizers
Raw materials.
• Nitrogen gas
• Hydrogen gas.
Process of production
• Nitrogen gas from fractional distillation of
liquid air is reacted with hydrogen gas from
natural gas in a ratio of 1:3 respectively.
This is done in a closed cylinder, at AMMONIUM NITRATE AMMONIUM SULPHATE FERTILIZER
temperature (450 – 500 0C), and pressure of UREA FERTILIZER
200 atmospheres, with a finely divided Iron • Ammonium nitrate fertilizer is obtained from nitric acid • Ammonium sulphate fertilizer is obtained from
• Urea fertilizer is obtained from ammonia Sulphuric acid and ammonia gas.
Catalyst. and ammonia gas.
and carbon dioxide gas. • During Haber process:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) • During Haber process:
• During Haber process: nitrogen obtained • Ammonia is produced by reacting nitrogen
Anhydrous ammonia is stored as a liquid under • Nitrogen obtained from air reacts with hydrogen from
from air with hydrogen from natural gas obtained from air with hydrogen from natural
pressure for ease handling in cyliders. natural gas in a sealed container at 450oC and 200
in a sealed container at temperatures of gas in a sealed container at temperatures of
atmospheres to form ammonia gas.
450oC and pressure of 200 atmospheres 450oC and pressure of 200 atmospheres forming
• The gas is then purified, liquefied and refrigerated.
to form ammonia gas. dry ammonia gas.
• N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
• Ammonia gas is then purified, liquefied
Bio Gas • During Catalytic Oxidation of ammonia: ammonia gas is
and refrigerated.
• The gas is then compressed into liquid and
• Biogas can be made from agricultural waste, oxidized to nitric oxide gas in a sealed container in the refrigerated.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
manure, sewage, food scraps, and plant presence of platinum – rhodium catalyst. • Both ammonia gas and carbon dioxide • During Contact process: Sulphuric acid is produced
material. • The nitric oxide gas then reacts with water to form
gas react in a sealed reactor tank to by reacting sulphur in air to form sulphur dioxide
• The waste is crushed and mixed with water Nitric acid.
form Urea as fertilizer, purified, gas; followed by catalytic oxidation of sulphur
to form a slurry. • 3NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
concentrated and packed. dioxide to form sulphur trioxide gas in a sealed
• The slurry is placed in an anaerobic • Both nitric acid and ammonia gas are heated in a
• 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) → H2NCONH2(s) + H2O(l) reactor tank.
digester, a sealed container where bacteria neutralizer reactor tank to form ammonium nitrate as
break down the organic matter.. fertilizer, purified, concentrated and packed. S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
• The bacteria produce methane (CH₄) and • NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(s) SO2(g) + O2(g) → SO3(g)
carbon dioxide (CO₂) as the main gases.Other • The sulphur trioxide gas formed is then reacted in
gases like hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) may also a sealed reactor tank containing concentrated
be present. Sulphuric acid to form Oleum, which is dissolved in
• The biogas is collected in a gas storage water to form pure Sulphuric acid.
chamber. SO3(g) + H2SO4(L) → H2S2O7(L) (Oleum)
• Impurities like water vapor and hydrogen H2S2O7(L) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(aq)
sulfide are removed to improve quality. • Both Sulphuric acid and ammonia gas are
• The purified biogas can be used for cooking, heated in a sealed reactor tank to form
heating, electricity generation, or even as ammonium sulphate as fertilizer, purified,
vehicle fuel.The leftover material (digestate) concentrated and packed.
is used as organic fertilizer. 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(s)

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 Ethanol

From Bananas From Cassava

Raw material: bananas, sorghum, water • Cassava is ground in a mortar and mixed with water to form starch
solution in a steel container.
From Sorghum or Millet
Process of production
• The bananas are covered after harvesting for about a • Malt is added to starch solution, and diastase enzyme in malt • Sorghum is ground in a mortar and mixed with little water
week to ripen. (During Ripening, enzyme diastase hydrolyses starch to maltose. to form a paste.
convert the starch in banana to maltose). Starch + H2O(l) → C12H22O11(aq) • The sorghum paste is buried underground and left for a
Starch + H2O(l) → C12H22O11(aq) • Yeast is then added to the mixture. week to ferment to form yeast,
• The ripe bananas are put in a wooden trough and then • Yeast contains two enzymes, maltase and zymase. • Fermented sorghum is removed from underground and sun
squeezed between spear grass to extract the juice from • Maltase catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose to glucose as below. dried.
them while adding water. C12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) → 2C6H12O6(aq) • And them mixed with ground Germinating sorghum
• The mixture is filtered to obtain juice. • Zymase catalyses the breakdown of glucose into ethanol, carbon (containing maltose) in a plastic drum with warm water.
• Sorghum which has been roasted is added to the dioxide, producing heat in the process. • The plastic drum is covered with air tight lid, and left to
filtered juice and the mixture is stored. C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g) + Heat stand for about 3 to 5 days.
• The mixture is then covered in a warm place to cut off • Maltase enzyme in yeast catalyse the hydrolysis of Maltose
oxygen supply to allow fermentation to occur. to glucose.
• Yeast from fermented sorghum provides maltase Soapy Detergents C12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) → 2C6H12O6(aq)
enzyme which catalyses hydrolysis of maltose to glucose. • Then another enzyme from yeast called Zymase catalyses
C12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) → 2C6H12O6(aq) the hydrolysis of glucose to ethanol which is crude ethanol.
• Zymase enzyme from yeast catalyses the hydrolysis of MATERIALS: C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g) + Heat
glucose to ethanol which is crude ✓Vegetable oil • Pure ethanol can be purified by fractional distillation of
C6H12O6(aq) → 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g) + Heat ✓Sodium hydroxide solution crude ethanol.
• The crude ethanol is purified by fractional distillation to ✓Concentrated sodium chloride solution
obtain pure ethanol. Process of production
• Vegetable oil is first bleached with animal charcoal.
Soapless Detergents • Vegetable oil is boiled with sodium hydroxide solution for sometime until
Benzene is reacted with a long chain alkene in presence of frothing stops.
an acid to form alkylbenzene. • The mixture is left to cool.
The alkylbenzene is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid to (The ester in the vegetable oil breaks down releasing the organic acid and
form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid, which is then neutralised by an alcohol, a process called saponification.
heating it with concentrated sodium hydroxide to form The organic acid is immediately neutralized by sodium hydroxide solution to
Sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate, the soapless detergent. form a sodium salt of the organic acid, which is the soap.)
• The soap is precipitated by addition of concentrated sodium chloride solution,
Alkyl benzene sulphonic acid + NaOH → Sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate + H2𝑂 a process called ‘salting out’.
• Sodium chloride lowers the solubility of soap and causes precipitation of soap
Examples of soapless detergents include; which floats on top of the solution.
• Sodium Lauryl Sulphate, • The solid soap is then removed and compressed into a continuous block which wanyamatitus47@gmail.com
• Sodium Laureth Sulphate, is cut into bars.
• Ammonium Lauryl sulphate,
• Linear alkylbenzene sulphonate.
Examples of soapy detergent. Sodium stearate, Potassium stearate, Sodium +256-758496489
oleate, Potassium oleate, Sodium palmitate, Potassium palmitate