Module 1: The Wonderful World Of TEFL

1.1. The English Language: Some Characteristics

Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
We’re going to explore some characteristics of the English language.
Why would you want to know and understand some characteristics of the English
language? Well, we imagine it’s quite helpful and useful to know, but there are other
reasons.
For example, a native-Vietnamese teacher colleague may ask: What is special about
the English language? You need to try and answer this question.
Your colleagues-to-be in some countries may view you as an expert and may think
you know everything about the English language. Again, this type of question may
come up in an advanced class.
We have been in this situation, and it could happen to you. So, absorb this. It will
enhance your knowledge, and it will get you out of a possible tricky situation.
However, there is also another critical reason. There will likely be differences in
language structures in the native/first language of the learners you will be teaching,
compared to your native-English language.
You’ll have grasped the importance of this already if you have studied a foreign
language at school or university. Or if you are a frequent traveller who likes to pick
up a bit of the native language.
1. Fairly Easy To Learn
English is one of the easiest and simplest natural languages in the world.
Of course, it’s all relative. It depends on the learner’s ability and previous language
learning experiences
Nevertheless, it’s fair to say that English is a relatively easy language to learn,
understand and speak when compared to very complex languages such as Arabic,
Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean and Japanese.
2. Latin Alphabet
The English language uses the Latin alphabet. It is the most universal, short, and
straightforward alphabet (only the Greek alphabet is shorter and simpler). Also, in
English, the Latin alphabet presents its cleanest form as a true alphabet with only
26 basic letters.
3. Its Simple Inflexion
Inflexion is the name for the extra letters added to nouns, verbs, and adjectives in
their different grammatical forms, e.g., cat, cats; eat, eats; big, bigger.
English is considered to be a weakly inflected language when compared to, say,
French or Russian. Its nouns have only traces of inflexion (plurals, the pronouns),
and its regular verbs have only four forms, e.g., look, looks, looked, looking.
Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no variation in person (except the 3rd
person singular in the present tense, e.g., I eat, you eat, she eats). The English
language can indicate the relationship of words in a sentence with only the
minimum of change in their structure. There are other languages that do this, but
this is a strong characteristic of English.
4. Receptiveness
A significant feature of the English language is its receptiveness to accepting and
adopting words from other languages. Here are a few examples:
From Spanish:
 Alligator: from el lagarto meaning the lizard
 Cargo: from the verb cargar, meaning to load
From Indian:
 Bungalow: from the Hindi word bangla, a type of cottage built for early
European settlers in Bengal.
 Jungle: from Hindi jangal, a desert, forest, wasteland, uncultivated ground
From Chinese:
 Ketchup: from the Hokkien Chinese term kê-tsiap, a sauce made from
fermented fish. Europeans later added tomato as an ingredient.
 Gung ho: it means to show enthusiasm. From a Chinese word, meaning work
together.
You can find out the derivation of many common English words
at https://www.etymonline.com.
English has accepted and adopted words from Asian, European, African, Indian,
Japanese, Chinese, and other languages. Also, English has accepted words from
classical languages like Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.
5. Its (Generally) Fixed Word Order
Another strong characteristic of the English language is its (typically) fixed word
order. Most English sentences (clauses) conform to the SVO word order. This means
that the Subject comes before the Verb, which comes before the Object. Examples:
I (S) bought (V) a new top (O).
She (S) doesn’t like (V) spiders (O).
Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)?
There are other word orders in English, but the SVO order is by far the most used,
making it easy for learners to grasp.
6. Pronunciation
The pronunciation of English words such as this, thin, clothes, thirteenth,
months inevitably causes problems for learners who do not need to use the tip of
the tongue to produce words in their language.
7. Continuous Tense
Many languages do not have a continuous tense form, so English learners may
make mistakes such as: I had a bath when the phone rang; instead of I was having
a bath when the phone rang.
8. Articles (A, An, The)
The article system is another feature of English grammar that causes some learners
enormous difficulties; mainly, of course, those whose native language does not use
articles.
9. Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another item,
typically either an adverb, as in break down, or a preposition, for example, see to,
or a combination of both, such as look down on. (An item is the word for small self-
contained pieces of language which you can teach or practise in a lesson.)
These phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the English language and can
cause severe difficulties for learners. Sentences such as I put it down to the
weather, or I made it up with my sister, are usually gobbledegook to beginner non-
native-English speakers.
Unfortunately for the English language learner, phrasal verbs are extremely
common in colloquial (informal, everyday, conversational) English language. We’ll
explore these later in the course.
10. Non-Tonal
English is a non-tonal language.
In tone languages, e.g., Chinese and Vietnamese, pitch (the degree of highness or
lowness of a tone) is used to distinguish word meaning. So, a word said with a high
pitch may have a different meaning from the same word said with a low pitch.
In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasise or express emotion, not to give a
different word meaning to the sound. It is not surprising that native speakers of tone
languages often have strong accents when speaking English.
11. Sound And Spelling
A final feature of English that causes problems for non-native learners (and some
native-English speakers) is the lack of a connection between word sound and word
spelling.
It is difficult for non-native learners of English to predict the pronunciation of English
words they first come across in writing or the spelling of many English words they
first hear.
The critical point is that this happens with some of the most common words in the
language:
 Words containing ough: thought, although, rough,
 Words which have different spellings but they sound the same: ate, eight;
hear, here; their, there
 Words with silent letters, not pronounced: know, could, hour
 Words that look the same but must be pronounced differently: read (present
tense), read (past tense); present (a gift), present (to give
to); close (near); close (to shut)
1.2. Frequently Used Acronyms In The TEFL Environment
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
The TEFL environment is full of acronyms. We have listed some of the frequently
used acronyms. Try and get to grips with these through time.
ELT (English Language Teaching) has quite recently come into use as an umbrella
term which aims to include everything in the Teaching English field.
TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign
Language) are perhaps the most common terms.
TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is another umbrella term,
similar to ELT. In the USA, Canada and Australia, the term TESOL (Teaching English
to Speakers of Other Languages) is much more widely used than TEFL, but the
concept is much the same.
TEYL (Teaching English to Young Learners) is encompassed within TEFL and is
geared, as you would imagine, to teaching young learners of English.
TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) is teaching immigrants in English-
speaking countries, though this area is also, confusingly, referred to as TESL. The
learners are studying an ESL (English as a Second Language) course.
CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) is an umbrella term for learner-centred,
authentic, and meaningful language acquisition principles that inform the most
widely practiced language teaching approach used in second language learning
classrooms today. It is also referred to as the Communicative Approach. Our course
will follow this approach.
L1 is the term used for a learner’s first language (the learner’s native language). If
someone asks you if you allow L1 in the classroom, they are asking if you allow your
learners to use their native language in class.
L2 stands for the second language a learner is learning. Your learners’ L2 will be
English.
PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) is a widely used model of classroom
teaching for lesson planning and lesson delivery. Some learning Providers call this
the I do, We do, You do model of teaching. However, we will adhere to our 5 Step
Lesson Plan model, which will keep you firmly on track all of the time.
STT (Student Talking Time) is the amount of time that learners spend talking in
class (ideally as much as possible).
TTT (Teacher Talking Time) is the amount of time you spend talking during a class
(ideally as little as possible and much less than STT).
There are more acronyms, but these will do us fine for the moment!
Later, we’ll look at another small group of acronyms, representing different types of
EFL courses that learners may be taking and the specific examinations that some
learners may be preparing for.
This course will prepare you to help learners to enhance their English Language
level per se.
But it will also prepare you to help those learners who are aiming for a specific EFL
qualification, often for entry to university studies, for migration purposes or work
reasons. All you will need to do is familiarise yourself with the specific syllabus
relating to the examination.
1.3. A Very Brief History Of Some ELT Methods
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Down through the years, there has been a wide range of approaches used to teach
EFL. We will summarise some of these ‘traditional’ approaches. We’ll leave it to you
to decide if you want to explore these in greater depth.
The Grammar-Translation Approach
 Developed in the 19th century to teach Latin and Greek.
 The main aim of studying a foreign language is to be able to read its
literature.
 The emphasis in class is on reading/writing, not on listening/speaking.
 The foreign language is explained and discussed in the learners’ native
language.
 Most lesson time is spent translating written sentences/texts, which have
little resemblance to spoken communication, from/into the foreign language.
 Despite having little to no theoretical basis underpinning it, this method is
still used in some institutions today.
The Direct Approach
 Emerged in the late 19th century.
 It is based on the principle that a learner can learn a second language much
like she learns a first language.
 Language is acquired ‘directly’, and exclusively, in the target language, e.g.,
English, via active demonstration by the teacher.
 The learners’ native language and all translation are excluded from the
classroom.
Audiolingual Approach
 Language learning is all to do with habit formation. Language classes should,
therefore, concentrate on the formation of speech habits by using a series of
mechanical and repetitive oral drills.
 The learning consists mainly of the accurate imitation and memorisation by
learners of sentences or dialogues modelled by the teacher.
 Language is a matter of speech, and so classroom work concentrates almost
exclusively on speaking.
From the 1970s onwards, other approaches arose, principally to counter the mimic-
heavy, pattern-based teaching approaches of the previous decades. These include
Total Physical Response (which we’ll touch on in a later Module), The Silent Way,
Suggestopedia, and the Natural Approach. All these approaches have had different
degrees of success.
Remember this! It would be silly not to recognise that all of these approaches
have included some teaching elements that have been useful at some time or
another for teaching. Beware of anyone who dismisses all these approaches. It’s
maybe because they do not know enough about them!
When reflecting on teaching approaches, one thing that should spark our interest is
when a profound and notable transformation takes place – a sea change or
paradigm shift (a shift from one way of thinking to another).
One such sea change in the approach to teaching took place in the 1970s and
1980s, and it is still gathering strength at this moment. This period saw the
introduction of what is commonly known as Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) or the Communicative Approach.
We’ll come to this in a few moments.
1.4. Teaching Approaches, Methods And Techniques
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
1.4.1. Approaches, Methods, Techniques
We will view an ‘approach’ as a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying
any language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of
how it can be learned. It contains a set of theoretical principles about teaching with
practical applications.
An approach gives rise to ‘methods’, the way of teaching language items, e.g., via
classroom activities or techniques.
A method is how a language is taught. A method is made up of a set of techniques
that usually reflect a particular view of language teaching.
Example
The Communicative Approach is the most popular and most current approach to
language teaching. Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with teaching
the Communicative Approach. Other methods are also associated with teaching the
Communicative Approach.
However, to confuse matters, some methods have also been labelled ‘approaches’.
1.4.2. Most Recent Methods/Techniques
Here is a list of the most popular methods of teaching ELT:
1. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)
In this method, the teacher presents the new language item for learning, using a
situation (presentation stage). Then the teacher gets the learners to practise the
new language via exercises or other controlled practice activities (practice stage).
And then he asks learners to use or produce the same language in a communicative
and less controlled way (production stage).
 Audiolingual Method (mentioned above)
In this method, language learning is all about habit formation, mainly by repetitive
drilling. Error correction is considered essential to prevent bad habits.
The Audiolingual Method is largely discredited in academic circles, though in some
places it is still practised.
 Lexical method (often termed ‘lexical approach’)
In today’s communicative classroom, the word lexis is used to signify both the
teaching of vocabulary and areas of grammar together. Vocabulary is typically seen
as individual words, whereas lexis is a somewhat broader concept and consists of
words, phrases, collocations, chunks, and formulaic grammatical expressions.
These words, chunks, and patterns are now often called lexical items.
Instruction focuses on fixed expressions that frequently occur in dialogues.
Note that we will only use the word vocabulary on a few occasions from
now on. We will use the term lexis instead. We will also use the
adjective lexical, which derives from lexis.
We’ll explore lexis in-depth in Module 4.
 Task-based method
In Task-Based Learning, the learning is designed around a series of authentic tasks
which give learners the experience of using the language in ways in which it is used
in the ‘real world’ outside the classroom. In this method, there is no predetermined
language syllabus, and the aim is for learners to learn from the tasks the language
they need to participate successfully in them.
A task could be working out the itinerary of a journey from a timetable or requesting
information from a travel agent.
 Principled Eclecticism Method
This method involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, a mix of all
the different activities above and other teaching methods. Proponents (supporters)
of this method say that there are weaknesses as well as strengths in other methods.
Thus, it’s best to use a mix of methods to ensure the learning does not become
mechanical and, therefore, the learners will benefit from several methods.
 Communicative Method (often termed the ‘Communicative
Approach’)
 In this method, the focus is on authentic, meaningful communication,
not structure.
 Learners accomplish tasks using language. They do not study the
language, as happened in the past.
 The syllabus focuses on functions (e.g., asking permission, asking
directions, etc.), not grammatical/structural development (tenses,
conditionals, etc.).
 Fluency and communication are more important than accuracy.
 The class becomes more learner-centred (or learner-centred). Learners
accomplish their tasks with other learners, while the teacher plays
more of a facilitator/observer role.
This is the method/approach we will be majoring in throughout the course.
1.5 Total Focus On Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), Also Known As The
Communicative Approach
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative
Approach, is the approach we will major in throughout the course.
It’s not easy to define CLT in a few words as many teachers and linguists stress
different elements within this approach. However, it’s safe to say that this definition
from Richards and Schmidt (2002) will serve us well:
It is an approach that emphasises that the goal of language learning is
communicative competence. Communicative competence aims to make meaningful
communication and language use the focus of all classroom activities.
CLT is a broad term for learner-centred, authentic, and meaningful
language acquisition principles that inform the most widely practised language
teaching approach used in second language learning classrooms today.
That’s quite a bit to take on board. For the moment, all you need to grasp is that in
the 1970s and 1980s there was a paradigm shift in the approach to teaching EFL.
This shift witnessed a move away from and reaction against what is often now
termed as ‘traditional’ approaches, e.g., the Grammar-Translation Approach.
‘Traditional’ isn’t an easy word to describe precisely, but for our purposes here we
will use it to describe the teaching approaches which were commonly in use before
the Communicative Approach reared its head in the 1970s and 1980s.
The main principles of the Communicative Approach you will be using can be
summarised as follows:
Communication
 Classroom work aims to help learners reach an effective standard of
communication outside the classroom.
 Accuracy in grammar and pronunciation are important, but these are less
important than the ability to communicate meaningfully in real life (even if
there are some mistakes in the language).
 There is a strong emphasis on listening and speaking, but lessons can include
reading and writing. This depends on school policy and learner needs.
 The principal achievement goal of Communicative Language Teaching is to
enable learners to communicate knowledge and opinions surrounding a topic
in the target language (English). Remember this: The target language is
the language learners are studying (i.e. English).
 Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very first lesson.
 Practice activities are put in communicative contexts, wherever possible. So,
there is frequent use of role-plays, discussions, etc. at all levels.
Meaning and use
Language learning is mainly about learning to communicate effectively. So, the
primary emphasis is always on the meaning and use of language items.
Context
New language items are presented and practised in realistic and meaningful
contexts which show their meaning and use. It is the context that gives language
meaning. Simply put, the language necessary for buying a train ticket would be set
in a train station (the context).
Fluency
It is assumed that the ability to communicate effectively in a language will result
from a combination of formal learning of rules and holistic acquisition.
Creativity
Language learning and acquisition are creative processes, and they involve trial and
error on the part of the learner. The learner should be encouraged to try out
language items in a supportive classroom environment and, with your help, he will
learn from his mistakes.
Functions
To do this, the underlying premise is that learners need to be able to go beyond the
learning of the grammatical structure of a language and into the functions (e.g.
buying a bus ticket; ordering a meal; applying for a job) or areas and ways such
utterances are used in communication in the real world.
Form
 Linguistic competence is only part of the whole picture of language
acquisition. Learners must be able to choose the most appropriate form for a
situation, such as when to use could you or would you as an issue of register
or politeness.
 Register is a variety of a language or a level of usage, as determined by the
degree of formality and choice of lexis, pronunciation, and syntax (grammar),
according to the communicative purpose, social context, and standing of the
user. For example, we generally use a different variety of language when we
speak to our doctor than we do when speaking to our friends (unless the
doctor is a close friend).
 Learners must also recognise that a variety of forms can be used to achieve
the same end or function such as It may rain and Perhaps it will rain, each of
which achieves the same communicative purpose which is the possibility of
rain.
Teacher role
This is very important.
  Your emphasis must always be on communication in English. Your role is to
facilitate, help, and advise your learners and also to be a language resource.
The core principle is that you do not ‘teach’ (as in the past) but instead help
and facilitate your learners to learn or acquire.
 The classroom is learner-centred or learning-centred, with many activities
taking place in pairs or groups, monitored and unobtrusively facilitated by
you.
Individual learning preferences
Your learners will have different learning needs and preferences. You will, therefore,
need to use whichever techniques you feel will help your learners most. That is, on
occasion, you may discuss grammar rules if this helps your learners. Remember
this: grammar is never taught in isolation unless it is absolutely necessary.
Real English
In some parts of lessons, learners will be exposed to fine-tuned input (language at
or within the learners’ knowledge). In other parts, they will be exposed to rough-
tuned input (language which is a little above the learners’ level). Even in Beginner
classes, learners will be exposed to examples of authentic English: newspaper
articles, etc.
Occasional structured drills
 Remember this! Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either
individually or as a group, repeating whatever you say. Drilling is a way for
your learners to practise new language, e.g., lexis, grammatical structures,
and pronunciation, in a controlled setting.
 Oral drilling and classroom-type exercises may occupy a small proportion of
lesson time.
 They are ways of helping learners with pronunciation, grammar patterns, etc.
In summary, to obtain communicative competence via the communicative
approach, lessons need integration of the following:
1. Situation/context: The situations one encounters in life, e.g., meeting a
new friend; going to the doctor. A meaningful context is set.
2. Functions: Functions are speech acts that learners are likely to face, e.g.,
seeking advice, requesting information, expressing gratitude, complimenting
someone, expressing requests, asking permission, complaining, etc.
3. Form: Socio-linguistic-language used in a social setting, social niceties, social
situations, formal v informal expressions, etc. You will integrate socio-
linguistic competence (such as acceptable and unacceptable ways to
complain) as well as strategies and methods to overcome communication
breakdown when it happens.
 4. Meaning and use: These will be linked to the form
 Grammar: Always taught in context. It is linked to materials related to
conversation, reading, listening, and writing. It is never taught in isolation
unless it is necessary.
 Notions: Days of the week, dates, months, should be introduced in context.
For example, in lesson planning, you will determine how to adapt these
competencies to learner needs. To do this, you could:
 Choose a situation such as a visit to a doctor.
 Present the language functions such as giving formal greetings,
requesting advice, giving advice, demonstrating gratitude.
 Present the form related to the situation and its meaning and usage.
 Choose the necessary grammar and lexis to complete the exercise.
 Construct and choose communicative activities for the learners to
practise and produce.
So, this integrated communicative approach is the one we will focus on. It’s an
exciting approach where skills are integrated. Each of your lessons may include a bit
of speaking, listening, writing, and reading, where possible.
The achievement goal at all times is to enable learners to communicate knowledge
and opinions surrounding a topic in the target language – English. There’ll be very
few standalone grammar lessons, but you will still need a sound grasp of basic
grammar so that you can handle queries and questions seamlessly. We’ll be
tackling bits of grammar in various parts of the course. It’s not too stretching!
1.6. L1 And L2 Learning
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
1.6.1. L1 And L2 And Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Remember! Repetition is an excellent teaching attribute so, now and again, we’ll
remind you of a few things mentioned earlier in the course.
As mentioned before, L1 is the label given to a person’s first language (the learner’s
native language, e.g., Mandarin). When this person learns a second or foreign
language (e.g., English), this additional language is labelled the person’s L2
language.
So, all the learners you will be teaching will have a non-English language, e.g.,
Mandarin, as their native/first language (L1) and you will be teaching them English
which will be a second or foreign language for them, known as L2.
Now, let’s explore the critical area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). SLA is the
term used for learners learning a second language after their first language is
already established.
There’s no doubt that L1 learners learn differently from L2 learners. It’s vital that
you reflect on the key differences.
You can probably work out for yourself the key points relating to L1 learning as you
have been an L1 learner. Let’s reflect on this.
Time to reflect
Can you identify any differences between an L1 learner learning her native
language and an L2 learner learning his second or foreign language? Try
and do this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done!
L1 learner
 Generally immersed in language at all times from birth
  Wants, needs and is motivated to communicate by signs or baby words, with
meaning, e.g., I want some food!
 Adults often praise and encourage the child’s use of language, spurring her
on to more significant linguistic achievements
 Gets a lot of attention to aid the learning
 Learns by playing and experimenting with the new language, and lots of time
to do so
 Not often corrected
Let’s now consider the L2 learner’s learning situation
L2 learner
 Not intensively exposed to the L2
 Most often exposed by being taught the English language in the classroom;
often limited exposure outside the classroom
 May not be motivated, but could be, though
 Often only learns through interaction with you and his classmates – may not
be motivated to try out functions outside of the classroom.
 Often learns by using language in a controlled setting with you and other
learners and often with lots of controlled practice activities
 Teachers vary in the amount they praise or encourage L2 learners – some
teachers may not do this effectively, certainly not as effectively and
frequently as a mother/father/caregiver would do in an L1 situation. When
you see good, specific examples of positive behaviour, praise your learners.
 The learner typically receives limited attention from the teacher.
 Many teachers regularly correct learners for accuracy; this can be
demotivating for some learners.
So, there are some significant differences between L1 and L2
learning. Remember these and another piece will be in place in your ‘Good Teacher
Jigsaw’.
1.7. Key Influences On L2 Learning
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Why do some L2 learners learn faster and better than others? Here are some vital
points for you to remember and reflect on regularly when you are on the job. They
are not in any specific order.
 Degree of intellect
Some L2 learners are just brighter than others. If they are motivated to learn, they
will achieve higher levels of learning.
 Age
So many studies have been carried out to prove or disprove that age is or isn’t a key
influence on learning. None have achieved their purpose successfully. When we
compare SLA with, say, learners at age 6, 16, 26, or 56, there are so many other
variables involved. How can the acquisition of a 6year-old with an open mind and no
cares in the world be compared to the acquisition of a 26-year old who is learning
part-time and has lots of concerns?
There is no definitive answer.
However, our experience tells us that, generally, the older a person becomes, the
more difficult it is to acquire a second language. Even although that older person
has a broader view of the world and more extensive experiences, he also has many
more things requiring his focus and concentration.
 Learning preference
If the teaching is not carried out in line with the learner’s preferred learning
approach, e.g., lots of visuals or lots of audio or lots of discussions and activities,
etc., learning may very well be curtailed. We will explore ‘learning preferences’
later.
 Motivation
Whether this is intrinsic (learning for its own sake) or extrinsic (for some goal or
reward, e.g., securing a new job), every learner has varying degrees of motivation.
It’s also challenging to keep learners motivated all of the time.
Remember this! The whole person comes to school, be it your learners or you.
Learners have their ups and downs. They come with all their personal baggage, e.g.,
worrying about a sick parent/child, or upset due to a breakdown in some personal
relationship. So, the motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated person
today. Help and show empathy wherever you can.
And the same applies to you.
You may feel a little bit down due to some personal issue. Alternatively, you may
have had just one too many social events the nights before. You’ll need to make a
supreme effort not to let these events affect your teaching. Your learners need you
to be constant, i.e., positive, welcoming and full of life all the time.
 Language proficiency in L1
There’s no doubt that a learner who is proficient in her L1 language (grammar,
structure, mood, etc.) and understands all of this, has a great head start when
learning an L2.
 Awareness of L2
Again, a learner will have a great head start on others if she already has an
awareness of the L2, perhaps through living in a bi-lingual environment.
These were easy for you! Let’s ramp it up a bit. Now, let’s look at some
trickier additional issues that we have come across in our years of
teaching EFL:
 Autonomy
Some educators say that learners should play a more active role in designing or
selecting learning experiences in schools.
This approach can encourage learners to be more interested in school, more
motivated to learn, and more likely to take responsibility for their education.
That is, learners should be given some degree of autonomy. There is no doubt that
most learners thrive on autonomy. Studies have shown that as learner autonomy
increases, so does learner motivation. And, thus, so do learning results.
An example of autonomy would be to let learners pick from a list of topics to debate
instead of being told what to do.
Of course, there are those learners who shy away from autonomy. These learners
want the teacher to lead them. However, generally, the more autonomy there is,
the better the learning results will be.
 Prior learning
Learners may bring to class their expectations regarding teacher relationships,
teacher behaviour and teacher approaches to learning that prevailed in their home
countries, especially if they had extensive schooling there.
Therefore, some learners from more traditional educational systems may expect
you to behave in a more formal and authoritarian fashion during classes. They may
be displeased, puzzled, or offended if you use an informal instructional style, such
as using their first names in class or allowing the learners to move freely around the
room. They may believe that this will affect their learning.
When teaching learners, you must try to find out how they have learned previously
and how they would prefer to learn in your classroom. Simply put, you need to ask
them.
  Pattern of classroom activity
Some learners may also want you to maintain a clearly ordered pattern of classroom
activity and, perhaps, engage in extensive correction of grammatical form or
pronunciation during all activities rather than at irregular points in a lesson or not at
all.
Failure to conform to these ideals may give some learners the impression of lazy or
inadequate class preparation on your part.
 Your behaviour
You, similarly, bring to the classroom your expectations regarding teacher
behaviour. This includes your views on appropriate behaviour within society in
general, as well as in the classroom.
For example, if you come from a culture of self-reliance, are at ease in expressing
and defending personal opinions, and are interested in personal advancement, you
will likely provide instruction that addresses these goals. You may unconsciously
attribute these same goals to your learners.
The potential for conflicting expectations and evaluations of behaviour between you
and your learners is evident.
 Gender
Find out whether learners have ever experienced mixed educational groupings,
whether they expect male and female teachers to behave differently, and how
different classroom activities, e.g., roleplays or dialogue practice, might affect
learners adversely because of their native cultural constraints.
Failure on your part to take this into account may affect learner learning.
 Female participation
In encouraging women learners to speak up and take an active role in class, you
may sometimes encounter reluctance from both men and women from cultures in
which women have historically been constrained by social roles that do not promote
active participation in mixed-sex settings.
You must reflect on this point continuously.
 Culture: Appropriate topics for learning
Cultural expectations regarding the nature of education and what is appropriate to
talk about may also affect the kinds of topics learners are willing to pursue in class
and their motivation to learn. Cultural as well as personal sensitivity is vital in
knowing if, when, and how to introduce topics or lessons that may be inappropriate
(for some) or complicated.
 Classroom Participation
The communicative classroom creates a lively, vibrant environment. This is
generally a motivating learning environment for those who enjoy working with
others. But not always.
What about the learner who prefers to work alone? Verbally expressing ideas and
asking questions during class can prove difficult for learners who are unaccustomed
to this form of active and lively pair and group participation.
And what about the situation where a learner loves to be with the same partner all
of the time, in a pair? She may not like being moved into a group.
There are communicative approach proponents who see pair work and group work
as the answer to everything. This is not the case. We need to observe well and
consider our learners’ preferences, at least for some of the time.
 Communication styles
There are patterns of expression and rules of interaction that reflect the norms and
values of a culture.
If you lack understanding of these communication styles, this could lead to
confusion, anxiety and conflict – and a reduction in learning. Let’s consider just two
of these styles.
A. Direct Style V Indirect Style
Direct Style
Here are the key indicators of a direct style of communication presented by the
teacher and, perhaps, some learners in the classroom:
 Straightforward talking
 No beating about the bush – straight and to the point
 Directness means there is respect for the other person.
 Avoiding ambiguity
Here are the key indicators of an indirect style of communication presented by the
teacher and, perhaps, some learners in the classroom:
Indirect Style
 Meaning is conveyed by subtle means, stories, implication – not getting to the
point
 Indirectness means politeness and respect for the other person.
 Frequent use of implication – not directness
B. Idea-Focussed Style V Person-Focussed Styles
Idea-Focussed
  Ideas and person are separate
 Open disagreement is acceptable
 Disagreement with a person’s views is not seen as a personal attack
Person-Focussed
 Ideas and person are not separate
 Feelings are important
 Disagreement is handled very carefully
 Disagreement is an attack on the person
So, here we have conflicting ways of looking at communication. This is a
potential boiling pot. Learning will be affected, and your critical task will
be to find a balance. It’s not your role to try and change people’s cultural
ways of working. It is your role to find a solution to this.
So, there are lots of ways an L2 learner’s learning can be influenced.
1.8. Effective Learning Strategies
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviours used by
language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of
new information.
The more proficient learners use learning strategies that are appropriate to the
material, to the task, and their own goals, needs, and stage of learning.
For example, strategies could be techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures,
observations, and surveys.
More proficient learners appear to use a broader range of strategies in a significant
number of situations than less skilled learners. For example, more proficient
learners:
 employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in improved
proficiency or achievement overall or in specific skill areas.
 tend to use strategies that work well together and which are tailored to the
requirements of the language task. These learners can easily explain the
strategies they use and why they employ them.
 use metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analysing, and other
strategies, such as planning and organising. Using combinations of strategies
often has more impact than relying on a single strategy.
 use specific strategies or clusters of strategies that are linked to particular
language skills or tasks.
Learners may have created their own strategies or may have picked up some
strategies from their teachers, their parents or siblings, or their friends. They may
also have gained some useful strategies from a library or internet search.
There are many different and preferred strategies that learners may use. The
following list is not definitive but it will give you a good idea of the commonly-used
types of strategies that some learners use. Note that no definitive list of strategies
has been agreed on by language researchers.
Anyhow, you can pass on some of these ideas to those of your learners who have no
concrete strategies for learning and studying.
1. Circumlocution
This is best explained via an example. The more proficient learner doesn’t know the
word ‘nephew’ but she doesn’t give up. So, she uses different words or phrases to
express the intended meaning, e.g. my brother’s son.
 Avoidance
Avoidance is where a more proficient learner may learn to avoid talking about topics
for which she lacks the necessary lexis or other language skills. She may also come
to a halt mid-utterance once she realises she does not have the language resources
needed to complete her communication.
 Word coinage
This is the term for more proficient learners creating new words or phrases for
words that they do not know. For example, the learner doesn’t know the
word freezer and she constructs and uses a new word ice cabinet instead.
 Language switching or code switching
This is where a more proficient learner doesn’t know a word and uses a word with
the same meaning from her first language, hoping that her communication partner
will understand. For example: My aunt and uncle are coming for Christmas. They
will be staying chez nous.
 Clarification and comprehension checks
Some learners are often too shy or embarrassed to say anything when they do not
understand the other speaker. More proficient learners, however, use clarification
and comprehension checks. For example:
For clarification check:
 Do you mean …?
 Could you explain what you mean by …?
 Could you give me an example, please?
For comprehension check:
 Sorry, I don’t understand.
 Sorry, I don’t know what you mean.
 Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you.
Note that this appeal for assistance may also be done indirectly via a puzzled
expression, raising eyebrows, etc.
 Non-verbal strategies
This refers to strategies such as the use of body language, gestures, mime, facial
expressions, sound imitation to support or replace verbal communication.
 Approximation
This is where the more proficient learner uses an alternative term that approximates
the meaning of the target word or phrase as closely as possible. For example, she
may say ship instead of (the more difficult) word yacht.
 Use of all-purpose words
When the more proficient learner lacks a specific word in a conversation, she may
use a general, empty lexical word or phrase to replace it; for example, stuff, thingie.
 Using minimal responses
More proficient learners build up a stock of minimal responses, to help them
engage.
Minimal responses are predictable phrases that conversation participants use to
indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another
speaker is saying; for example: Oh, I see. Is that so? That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t
catch that.
These minimal responses enable a learner to concentrate on what the other
participant is saying, without having to plan a reply simultaneously.
1. Recognising scripts/patterns opportunities
More proficient learners understand that many communication situations are
associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges. For example, greetings,
compliments, apologies, invitations, and other functions that are influenced by
social and cultural norms often follow scripts or patterns. For example:
Can I help you?
Yes, please.
It’s the same with exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information
and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker’s turn
and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.
1. Fillers and hesitation devices
This is where the more proficient learner uses fillers or hesitation devices to fill
pauses and to gain a bit of time to think.
Fillers:
 em …
 er …
 mm …
 uh …
 As a matter of fact, …
 Well, …
 Actually, …
 To be honest/frank, …
Hesitation Devices/Stalling For Time To Think
Let’s see, …
Wow, that’s a difficult one.
Now, let me think.
Now, just a minute.
That’s a good question.
I’ll have to think about that for a moment.
What I’m trying to say is… How shall I put it?
How can I best explain this?
Let’s put it this way.
Where should I start?
1. SMART goals
More proficient learners know how to set SMART goals:
 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic
 Time-based
Smart goals provide the benchmark, focus and plan for surging ahead. The more
proficient learner also knows and understands what it is to be too ambitious. It will
take lots of practice and lots of time before she can consider how fluent she is. But
it will all be worth it in the end.
1. Using authentic material and practising in authentic situations
The more proficient learner listens to the teacher’s advice that the best route to
fluency is through consuming lots of authentic material. What is learned and
practised in the classroom is not enough. Consuming lots of authentic material
outside the classroom, in different formats, is vital for fluency success. As is
practising the language in real-life situations with native speakers.
1. Self-monitoring
The more proficient learner does not just rely on teacher comments and the
institution’s assessments to tell her how she is doing. She assesses her own
capabilities frequently by taking relevant, external proficiency tests and quizzes.
This helps her to further determine what areas she needs to develop.
She knows that another way to assess her own skills without a proficiency test/quiz
is to think through what she’s most comfortable with. If she had to
communicate with a native speaker, would she feel more comfortable with:
 Listening to the native speaker, then responding in speech
 Speaking with the native speaker and responding in speech
 Writing to the native speaker
 Reading about the native speaker and then responding to some
questions
It’s likely that the option she chooses is her strongest skill and, thus, she knows
what other skills she needs to focus on.
The four skills (listening, speaking, writing, reading)
Finally, with regard to the four skills, the more proficient learner will likely
demonstrate a cocktail of some of these strategies:
1. Listening: Comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inference,
selective attention, and self-monitoring.
2. Speaking: Speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing,
circumlocution, selfmonitoring, and self-evaluation.
3. Writing: Writing benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-
monitoring, deduction, and substitution.
4. Reading: Comprehension benefits from using strategies like reading aloud,
guessing, deduction, and summarising.
Help your learners to develop and enhance their learning strategies so that,
eventually, they will become independent learners with the ability to use robust
strategies in a variety of contexts.
Well done! You have learned a lot already. Every piece of information
above will help you become a competent and effective EFL teacher. And
there’s lots more to come!
Time for another little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 1.
It’s not difficult. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 2, where we will focus in-depth on
You: the competent and effective EFL teacher. A whole Module about You.
Lucky you!
Module 2: Becoming A Competent And Effective EFL Teacher
2.1. What Makes A Competent And Effective EFL Teacher?
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
As in any work role, the goal a person aims for is competence. However, what is
competence, and what makes a competent teacher?
Let’s agree on what the word competent means. The Oxford Dictionaries tells us
that competent means having the necessary ability, knowledge or skill to do
something successfully.
Far be it from us to question this dictionary definition when relating it to teacher
competence, but here goes.
Our experience tells us that you also need to include habits when considering how
competent you are as a teacher.
For example, it seems to us that turning up at the classroom on time, ready to greet
your learners and welcoming them as they come into the classroom is an excellent
habit. And so is you reflecting on how the lesson panned out, immediately after the
lesson or as soon as possible.
So, let’s expand our definition of a competent teacher to: A person who
has the knowledge, ability, skills and habits necessary to teach
successfully. We hope you agree with this definition.
Notice that we changed the order of the words a bit. There was a practical reason
for this as you will be able to recall these critical components of competence by
the mnemonic KASH for knowledge, ability, skills and habits.
So, when you’re asked to contribute your thoughts on what makes a competent
teacher during a staff meeting, you’ll have a good aide-memoire of the mnemonic
KASH to get you moving.
Surprise! Surprise! We’re going to ask you the same question right now!
Time to reflect
What makes a competent and effective teacher?
Try and answer this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.
Well done!
Here’s what we believe are the key traits and characteristics of a competent and
effective teacher, some of which you will have already identified. Well done!
1. Adheres To A Code Of Practice For Teachers At All Times
You’ll find on your travels that many schools do not have a Code of Practice that
you are asked to follow. And there are lots of TEFL courses that do not contain a
Code of Practice for learners. How can this be? Dearie me! However, don’t worry
about this – it’s just the way things are. It doesn’t stop you from following YOUR
Code of Practice.
So, where do you get this? Don’t worry; we have one already made up for you.
ACCREDITAT, our accrediting body, has developed a Code of Practice for you. The
Code is based on their experiences and the experiences of many excellent TEFL
teachers over the past 30 years. Here it is:
ACCREDITAT Code of Practice for Teachers
At the heart of the ACCREDITAT Code of Practice for Teachers is:
►a conviction that excellence is achieved via competence
►a belief in the worth, individuality and dignity of each person
►a commitment to truth, excellence and democratic principles
►an allegiance to freedom to learn and teach
►a dedication to the principle of equal opportunity for all
Members of the TEFL teaching profession are committed to demonstrating the
following values and ideals which underpin the profession:
1. Honesty And Integrity
►creating and maintaining appropriate professional relationships in the classroom,
school and in public
►acting with impartiality, truthfulness and honesty
►displaying consistently high standards of personal and professional behaviour
►refraining from disclosing information about colleagues in the course of
professional service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is
required by law
►refraining from any abuse of a position of authority or relationships with learners,
parents, caregivers or colleagues for financial, political or personal gain
►acting according to the law
2. Dignity And Diversity
►valuing diversity and treating learners, parents, caregivers and colleagues
equitably and fairly and with care and compassion while respecting the uniqueness
of family and socio-economic backgrounds, cultures, races, religions and beliefs
►valuing the learning needs, effort, and potential, and acknowledging the
uniqueness, of each learner
►improving the wellbeing and progress of those learners with special needs
►fostering the valuing of diversity and encouraging the development of
international, multicultural, gender, and indigenous and other perspectives
►allowing, reasonably, the learners’ access to varying points of view
3. Respect And Trust
►acknowledging that mutual respect, trust and confidentiality of personal
information underpin all relationships with learners and their families unless
disclosure of any information serves a compelling professional purpose or is
required by law
►acknowledging the contribution that mutual respect, trust and privacy make to
learners’ wellbeing and learning
►acknowledging the desires and hopes of the learners’ families and caregivers
►acting with educational colleagues and the broader community in ways that
enhance the profession
►accepting the status, responsibilities and authority of colleagues
►remaining open to constructive criticism from peers and showing respect and
consideration for different viewpoints
4. Responsibility And Accountability
►giving priority to the education and welfare of all learners in our care
►guiding and encouraging learners to achieve their potential, ensuring all learners
have an equal opportunity to reach their potential
►creating interactive learning environments, rather than environments in which the
learners are merely passive recipients of information
►regarding themselves as learners and engaging in continuous professional
development, and improving teaching and learning strategies for themselves and
colleagues
►working collaboratively, cooperatively and enthusiastically with colleagues and
other educational bodies in the best interests of the education and welfare of the
learners
►taking heed to clarify their personal views and those of the local educational
authorities ►promoting the ongoing development of teaching as a profession
►upholding school policies, procedures and practices
►modelling the behaviour, attitudes and positive values which are widely accepted
in society and encouraging learners to apply them and critically appreciate their
significance
5. Care And Protection
►having empathy and respect for, and rapport with, learners and their families and
caregivers, colleagues and communities
►committing to learners’ wellbeing and learning through the practice of positive
influence, professional judgement and empathy in practice
►adhering to the school’s learner protection policies and procedures
►protecting learners from conditions harmful to learning or health and safety
►refraining from any racial, gender, political, verbal, physical or emotional abuse,
embarrassment or harassment
►being generous with praise and giving positive inputs and feedback
6. Fairness And Justice
►being fair and reasonable at all times
►being committed to the wellbeing of individuals and the community and the
common good
►resolving competing claims or problems arising from different ethical principles
and various interest groups through reflective professional discussion
Note this: View this as an excellent aide-memoire to reflect on what you
should be doing on a day-to-day basis. Keep it by your side at all times.
Reflect on it frequently. It will serve you well in your TEFL career.
2. Demonstrates That She Is Warm, Caring And Approachable
You can show this in many ways, e.g. being approachable at all times, being a
person that learners can go to with any concerns or to share an amusing story,
being an active listener, trying very hard to be consistent even although you may
feel under the weather, etc.
3. Establishes Good Rapport And Relationships With All Learners At All
Times
This doesn’t mean that you strive to be humorous and have lots of fun in your
classroom. Some older learners, in particular, may not take to this. They may feel
that too much fun in the classroom is eating up their valuable time.
Inexperienced teachers often misinterpret fun for learning. Although it’s good to
have some fun, the critical question you must ask yourself is: What did they learn
successfully?
Alternatively, some learners may come from a culture where humour in the
classroom is not an accepted thing.
Rapport exists when people develop a feeling of harmony, well-being and security.
We’ll explore how to build rapport and relationships a little bit later. The same
processes are involved whether we’re applying them to learners or anyone else in
the school.
4. Fosters A Constructive Learning Experience
Again, we’ll cover this thoroughly in a later Module but for the moment here are
some suggestions:
 everything is planned
 there are excellent class routines
 standards of behaviour are agreed
 an inclusive environment is created where all learners are treated fairly and
equally
5. Creates A Sense Of Classroom Community
A classroom community is one where:
 everyone feels accepted and supported as a vital part of the group
 there is a sense of belonging
 collaboration to achieve the goal is at the centre
 positive social skills are promoted
 learners know they can depend not only on the teacher but also on the whole
class
Creating a classroom community spirit is critical to the success of you and your
learners. This promotes learning, engagement, and retention. The more learners
feel comfortable, the more they will participate, engage, learn and retain what they
have learned.
6. Sets High, Yet Achievable, Expectations For His Learners
The expectations that you propound for your learners will affect their achievement
levels. If you set low achievement expectations, then it’s likely you’ll get low
achievement levels. Generally, learners give their teacher as much or as little that is
expected of them by the teacher. So, set high, yet achievable, expectations.
7. Plans And Works Flexibly
Although she has planned well, she knows from experience that things don’t always
go to plan. So, she also reflects on what might not go to plan. Based on continuous
monitoring, she is ready to change tack a bit or find a new way to present the
material seamlessly, without anyone else being aware of these necessary changes.
8. Adjusts Own Level Of English To Suit The Class
No fancy or sophisticated language. And no prizes for using this type of language.
9. Always Gives Clear, Precise Instructions
When giving instructions, these instructions may very well have a different value
and weighting amongst their learners. Thus, the need to make instructions as
simple, clear and precise as possible.
10. Chooses Appropriate Moments For Correcting The Learners’ Language
When learners are in full flow and are communicating, it’s often wise to let it run
even if there are mistakes. After they have finished, you can then pick up on the
mistakes or errors.
11. Understands The Need To Use A Range Of Relevant And Suitable
Materials And Resources
12. Works Successfully With Learners At Various Levels
13. Enables Learners To Feel A Sense Of Progress
14. Assesses Fairly And Frequently, And Plans Are Based On Assessment
15. Recognises And Understands The Range Of Backgrounds And
Experiences Within The Learners’ Group
16. Employs A Variety Of Teaching Styles And Approaches At Different
Stages And In Different Contexts
17. Understands The Broad Range Of Learner Needs Including The Needs
Of Learners With Learning Difficulties
18. Reduces Teacher Talking Time (TTT) And Maximises Student Talking
Time (STT)
19. Reflects And Self-Appraises Continuously
20. Facilitates Language Learning And Acquisition Both Inside And Outside
The Classroom
Note that the end goal for you should be a mix of these traits and
characteristics. In essence, the end goal you are aiming for is
a ‘competent and effective teacher cocktail’.
Let’s spend a bit more time on point 20.
2.2. A Competent And Effective Teacher Facilitates Language
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Learning And Acquisition Both Inside And Outside The Classroom
Some teachers are glued to the classroom. They are blind to the
opportunities for learning outside the classroom.
First, let’s explore some critical elements for classroom teaching. Then
we’ll explore the outside teaching environment.
1. Inside The Classroom
You can facilitate language learning greatly by providing a selection of suitable
materials to support the learning.
Of course, you’ll use exercises in the coursebook, and you’ll make up your
supplementary materials where resources are short. However, the best way of all is
to use authentic materials.
1. Authentic materials
It is paramount that your learners are exposed to authentic materials. Authentic
materials are materials which are unscripted and unedited and are not explicitly
developed for language learning purposes. They haven’t been fabricated for a
language learning purpose.
Authentic materials ensure that your learners are exposed to the real world.
Here are some examples:
 Postcards and letters
 Bulletin board notices
 Extracts from newspapers, including articles, advertisements, classifieds,
crosswords, horoscopes, features, etc.
 Comics and cartoons
 Shopping receipts
 Airline tickets and itineraries
 Photographs
 Picture sequences
 Creative texts, such as poems and extracts from plays, short stories, and
novels
 Recordings of casual conversations amongst native speakers
 Radio and TV news and weather broadcasts
  Public announcements (e.g. from airports)
 Messages recorded from answering machines
 Telephone conversations
 Transactions in stores and public institutions such as libraries
The list is never-ending.
Think! How can I use this item to engage my learners?
Every single one of these real-life items could be used for practising and enhancing
listening, speaking, writing and reading skills. It just takes a bit of thought.
Let’s take one of the more challenging ones: shopping receipts. Let’s imagine you
have collected a range of shopping lists, discarded by customers as they exit a
variety of shops. Just dig into the rubbish bin!
Listening and speaking
One of the receipts contains the following: a Real Madrid strip; a Real Madrid scarf;
Real Madrid socks; a Real Madrid flag.
You could read this out (including the prices) and ask a range of questions:
 Which team does the buyer, or the person they are buying these for, like? An
easy one to get started.
 Who bought this? (Intentionally, there’s no clue. So, this will lead to a
discussion/debate.
 Why do you think they bought them? (Again, intentionally, there’s no right
answer; so, more discussion.
 Can you remember which was the most expensive/cheapest item?
 Can anyone tell me how much this person spent altogether/in total?
 Would you buy these items if you had the same amount of money? Again, a
range of answers: yes/no; I’d buy Barcelona things, etc.)
Writing
Follow up on the last point.
Learners write a few words about what they would buy if they had the same amount
of money given to them as a present.
Reading
The learners read out their piece of writing. This leads to questions and further
discussion.
There are many engaging activities you could do with shopping receipts. Because
these are real-world items, your learners are aware of them, and this background
knowledge will inspire them when practising the skills.
Recordings
Again, aim to use authentic materials. Carry a little recording device with you into a
busy supermarket or train station.
Steer clear of pre-made recordings, constructed for a learning purpose. These
seldom demonstrate authentic speech. Here are some key points relating to
authentic speech:
Authentic speech creates problems for the listener
 Brevity of chunks: We typically break speech into shorter chunks. In
conversation, for example, people take turns to speak, usually in short turns
of a few seconds each.
 Pronunciation: The pronunciation of words is often blended or slurred, and
noticeably different from the phonological representation of some words in
the dictionary.
 Lexis: The lexis is often colloquial. In spoken English, for example, you might
use that guy whereas in writing you would use that man.
 Noise: There will be a certain amount of noise with bits of the discourse
unintelligible to the listener. This may be because the words are not spoken
clearly or are not known to the listener.
Preparation before using authentic materials
 Evaluate the content and ensure it’s at the right level for your learners.
 Choose topics that are relevant, practical and of interest to your learners.
 Ensure the material is of an appropriate length, to ensure the topic can be
covered in the timescale set.
 A successful approach is to plan lessons and activities, based around the
authentic materials that will:
o introduce a new lexical chunk or new single words (but not too many) o build on
an item/idea they are already aware of o make a slightly complex concept more
straightforward.
2. Self-Access Centre (SAC)
A self-access centre is merely a space in your classroom or another designated
room, where your learners can work independently or in pairs at their own pace.
There may or may not be one in the school where you will be teaching.
A very good self-access centre will include a range of materials that match the
needs and learning preferences of your learners.
At a basic level, it will contain some appropriate readers, laminated worksheets or
work cards and some authentic laminated materials, such as newspaper articles,
magazine articles and cartoons.
Depending on the financial investment by the school, the SAC may also include
other facilities such as:
 a recorder with headsets and pre-recorded cassettes
 a video recorder
 a DVD player and films
 a PC or PCs with language learning software, perhaps connected to the
Internet.
What’s the purpose?
Here are some valuable purposes:
 To allow learners to work independently at their pace
 To allow those who have finished a task early to further their learning, instead
of just sitting in their seats and twiddling their thumbs, waiting for others to
finish
 To differentiate your lessons in a mixed-ability setting. That is, the SAC could
be used, say, for a group of high achievers who have completed early or for a
group of lower achievers who may need a bit more practice on some item.
2. Outside The Classroom
Never view your classroom as an island. Never ever!
In addition to bringing bits of the real world into the classroom (e.g. newspapers,
CDs and videos), we can, if allowed by the school management, take our learners
out into the world during class time. Here we are effectively using the outside world
as an extension of the classroom.
Learners need to use and understand language outside the classroom so that they
can progress. Embrace outside activities, and you will observe remarkable progress
in your learners as they practise what has been learned back in class.
Outside tasks may seem more obvious activities for intermediate or advanced
learners. But the earlier learners begin to engage in outside-world activities, the
better their progress will be. So, consider doing this with beginners. The key starting
point should be survival language.
Clearly, at lower levels, lots of preparation is needed so that learners have the
necessary language back-up, ability and motivation to undertake the set tasks.
You could start with a bit of reading, e.g. street names, where most of the speaking
will be between learners and not with native speakers.
You could teach some simple questions they could address to native speakers,
e.g. How much?
The next step could be short conversational pieces where learners can try questions
and follow up the answer given with a typical phrase such as: Thank you.
It takes lots of planning, energy, and assistance from others where the group is big,
to ensure the learners are safe outside and have someone to turn to when they get
into language difficulties. But it’s all worth it!
So, what are some of the benefits?
 Remember that outside-world language is authentic language.
 Through your teaching, the learners will be initiating the simple language
transactions and will hear the expected responses.
 Being able to deal with some everyday transactions in the outside world will
be motivating.
What types of activities could you arrange?
These will depend on learner levels and what aspect of the language you wish to
practise:
 Identifying objects in streets and parks
 Following maps and directions
 Visiting shops
 Interviews and surveys with English-speaking people
 Visiting museums, art galleries, historical sites
 Obtaining information from public offices, e.g. post office, tourist bureau
 Visiting travel agents
 Attending the cinema showing an English-speaking movie or a non-English-
speaking movie with subtitles
Of course, many of these activities can still be carried out where you are based in a
non-English speaking country. There are many organisations – banks, hotels,
supermarket chains, museums and so on – that have native-English speakers
working within them.
It will just require some additional energy from you to organise the visit. And seek
out native-English tourists and backpackers.
These outside-world activities not only make language study more meaningful and
motivating. They will also stand your learners in good stead when the time comes
for them to go forth as completely independent learners, without your support.
Give it a go!
2.3. Learners’ And The Teacher’s Expectations Of Each Other
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
You cannot assume that your expectations of the classroom will be the same as your
learners’ expectations. It is vital that you are fully aware of the environment in
which you are working. Don’t judge the learners based on your cultural background
and educational experiences.
In some cultures, learners are generally expected to be silent and passive learners
(Japan). In others, the norm will be a noisy and active classroom with lots of
questions being asked by learners (Spain).
Also, the social foundations on which the school operates may be very different
from your own experiences. Some may be based on authority and punishment,
while others may be based on rewards.
Learners come to class with an increasing diversity of cultural communication
styles, multicultural values and non-verbal communication behaviours that you may
not be familiar with.
To improve cross-cultural communicative competence and to reach learners from a
variety of cultural backgrounds, you will need to raise your awareness of significant
differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between cultures. This is
especially true of those differences that have a direct impact on teaching and
learning in the multicultural classroom.
We will explore this further in the Section Cross-Cultural Aspects in the Classroom in
Module 9. For the moment, here are a few examples:
 Learners’ learning preferences may differ from yours.
 Your previous learning experiences may have influenced the way you think
learners should learn. However, your learners may have different
expectations of how they can best learn.
 Some learners may expect to use a coursebook every day, but your approach
may be entirely different.
 What you think the learners need may be much different from what some
learners want.
2.4. There’s More To The Teacher Role Than You Might Think
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
You’ve already studied what it takes to be a competent and effective teacher – and
you will be if you take all our ideas on board and marry them with your thoughts.
Also, we have already discussed the critical knowledge, ability, skills and habits
elements you require to deliver up a successful lesson.
However, there are several other things you need to do to ensure success. It would
be delightful if your role comprised merely of being a tutor:
 choosing what the learners will learn
 tutoring them to grasp the learning points
 creating an enjoyable atmosphere and utilising pleasant activities to ensure
the learning takes place
How cool would that be? It would be truly wonderful! However, it’s not as easy as
that.
There are other vital personal and supervisor-type roles and activities you will be
responsible for, and these require skill, energy, commitment and awareness. They
come with the job, as they say.
What do you think these might be?
Time to reflect
What other roles and activities will you be responsible for?
You may think this question is not apt as you may not have taught before.
That doesn’t matter. All you need to do is to reflect on when you were a
learner. Over those years, you will have noticed some other essential
activities and roles your teachers were responsible for.
Since we are helpful people, here’s a clue to get started: Your teacher was
also an Assessor.
Your teacher was responsible for:
 assessing progress
 correcting errors
 allowing learners to demonstrate their mastery of the material in
different ways
 planning what needs to be done in follow-up lessons
 preparing and delivering tests and examinations and marking them,
as required
  communicating grades/results/progress with sensitivity and support
 ensuring that you can meet any required external standards or
inspections
So, try and answer the question without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below, in
Section 2.4.1.

Well done!
2.4.1. The Range Of Teacher Roles
Assessor
Described above.
Controller:
 ensuring that the whole class is tuned into what needs to be done, e.g.
starting a new activity
 ensuring that classroom order is maintained

Facilitator:
 knowing what facilitation is
 stepping back and allowing your learners to find their way along the language
journey, while still monitoring and motivating as needs be
 being available and ready to act as a resource when needed

Guide:
 guiding those who are unsure of what to do
Manager:
 ensuring all the nitty-gritty elements that underpin a successful lesson are
carried out, e.g. giving effective and coherent instructions, arranging the
 most practical seating, ensuring guidelines are carried out as planned, and
ensuring that tasks are completed as scheduled
 ensuring group dynamics skills are utilised to provide efficient classroom
routines, smooth transitions and different types of groupings to encourage
specific types of learning
 making sure there is a sense of community and belonging in the classroom

Monitor:
 observing and analysing ongoing interactions – daily
 monitoring what’s going well and what’s not going so well – daily
 reflecting on the evidence and deciding what needs to be done in a feedback
session later
 being able to deliver practical, constructive and timely feedback to all
learners you are responsible for
 recognising when there is a need to act as a counsellor, providing emotional
support as needed to help learners feel confident in their learning
Motivator:
 motivating some of your learners who may not be so keen on the activity or
who may be tired or are thinking elsewhere, perhaps due to the stresses and
strains of life outside the classroom
 understanding that lessons should be dynamic, meaningful and stimulating
and should respond to the learners’ emotional, cognitive and linguistic needs
 remembering that the whole person comes to school, so even the intrinsically
motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated person today

Needs Analyst:
 identifying the learning needs expressed by your learners
 accounting for differing language ability levels and varying backgrounds,
interests, and needs
 Remember: Learners may have other requirements that you may identify,
e.g. behavioural or social needs, but here we use the term ‘needs
analyst’ solely in relation to learners’ learning needs.
Planner/Organiser/Task-Setter:
 preparing lesson plans for the class or age group you are assigned to
 accounting for differing language ability levels and varying backgrounds,
interests, and needs
  embracing a multicultural perspective in the planning and encouraging this in
the learning episodes
 accounting for maximum learner interaction within the plans
 ensuring that there is plenty of opportunity for authentic and communicative
language use
 setting out the roadmap for the lesson and organising all the tasks and
activities for your learners
Prompter/Editor:
 being ready always to prompt learners when they are unsure and not just
giving them the answer or moving swiftly to another learner who can supply
the solution
 having the skills to edit learners’ contributions at the right time and
demonstrating in a crystal-clear manner how the learners could best present
that piece of language and why your suggested way may help

Resource Producer:
 producing more appropriate, more relevant and often much better materials
than a coursebook offers
 ensuring a variety of material mediums – paper/image-based, audio and
video, realia, where appropriate
Sometimes, many of these skills and roles are required in one lesson. The ability to
seamlessly master the skill of multi-tasking will make your lessons more fluid, more
productive and more enjoyable.
You may have learned some of the skills necessary for your teacher role already in
another job or activity, so that experience will serve you well.
If not, you should consider delving into these areas before you take up your
teaching post. Our course will help you with several of these personal and
supervisor-type skills, e.g. assessment, motivation, planning and you’ll likely have
friends who use other skills in their job and can help you. An informative book on
general supervisor or management skills will also be of great benefit.
The majority of inexperienced TEFL teachers setting out for their first teaching post
have given little thought to this. Perhaps their course did not make them aware of
this. It’s then a severe shock to their system when they realise they’re unprepared
in some of these skills areas.
But you won’t be unprepared!
2.4.2. Peer-Observations
1. Peer observation
Peer observation allows teachers to learn from each other in a non-threatening
environment.
Where there is no judgemental outcome and an atmosphere of trust between the
participants, teachers will share ideas and suggestions openly and constructively to
their mutual professional benefit.
Hopefully, your school will offer opportunities for peer observation:
 You can observe experienced teachers in action so that you learn from how
they do it.
 Experienced teachers can observe you so that you can benefit from their
ideas and suggestions.
You should grab these opportunities whenever they arise. If there are no set school
procedures for this, don’t give up. After a short time there, you will have built
relationships with the other teachers. Seek their help.
What are the kinds of things you could notice when you are observing an
experienced teacher?
To make this easier to handle, we have constructed a Teacher Observation Form (2
Pages) for you. It will give you a good idea about what we would aim to observe if
we were in this position.
Also, if there is a set procedure for observing new, inexperienced teachers, the
Teacher Observation Form will give you useful guidance on what your observer is
likely looking for.

Teacher Observation Form: Page 1

Yes/ Commen
Instructional Skills
No ts

Assessment: Uses assessment feedback to modify teaching

methods and curriculum.

Atmosphere: Creates a relaxed environment where learners

are willing to use the target language and take language
risks, as necessary.

Attention: Attends to all learners, the amount of attention

depending on learners’ individual needs.
Body Language: Uses effective voice, body language, mime
and gestures.

Correction and Feedback: Knows what to check, what to

ignore, promotes self-correction and gives immediate
feedback on errors, questions, queries.

Cultural Awareness: Demonstrates cultural awareness.

Examples: Uses adequate examples that are meaningful,

clear and varied.

Knowledge: Demonstrates an understanding of the subject

matter.

Materials: Relates materials to learners’ lives, their class lives

and their outside-world lives.

Modes: Uses a variety of teaching modes (e.g. seeing,

hearing, speaking, touching, writing, and reading).

Learner-Centred Learning: Facilitates learners’ learning.

Teacher Talking Time (TTT): TTT is minimised as much as

possible, giving learners ample opportunity to practise.

Techniques: Uses a variety of techniques (e.g. handouts,

audio-visual, drills, role-plays, small group, pairs and
individual work).

Technology: Integrates technologies to enhance language

learning (e.g. recordings, computers)

Timing: Allows appropriate timing for each step/activity.

Visuals: Visual work is clear and engaging (e.g. board work,

charts, slides, pictures, illustrations, etc.).

Warmer: Starts with an engaging warmer that relates to what

the learners will learn.

Teacher Observation Form: Page 2

Yes/ Commen
Organisational skills
No ts

Lesson Planning: Lesson shows evidence of sequencing;

connection to past and future; goal-focus; task analysis and is
appropriate for learner level.

Materials: Has designed or adapted materials to address

learner needs.

Retention Activities: Regularly includes activities that help

retention (e.g. review, summary, memory exercises).

Classroom Management Skills

Adult Learners: Relates to, and engages with, learners as

adults.

Evaluation: Allows time at end of class to evaluate the

success of the lesson in terms of comprehension, relevance
and significance.

Expectations: Sets clear expectations for classroom

interaction and behaviour.

Multi-Level Classrooms: Recognises and manages different

levels of learners.

Outside World: Brings the outside world into the classroom

with media, field trips, etc.
 Records and Data: Maintains attendance and progress
reports.

Staying on Topic: Sticks to the subject and doesn’t wander

off-topic.

Learner accomplishments: Helps learners to see and

verbalise their progress.

Time-keeping: Starts and ends class on time.

Wait Time: Allow several seconds for learners to respond.

2.4.3 Co-Teaching
You may be working in a co-teaching setting. So, here is solid practical advice to
ensure you get it right immediately.
What exactly is ‘co-teaching’?
Co-teaching is where you will work with a local teacher in the classroom. The co-
teaching relationship can differ, depending on the local teacher. In some situations,
you will take over the whole class with the local teacher in attendance to support
you, as necessary.
In other situations, you may be carrying out daily routines and pronunciations with
learners while the local teacher is teaching the main content of the lesson.
Not all co-teaching episodes work out seamlessly; most do, but there are a few
occasions where the co-teaching relationship doesn’t work out so well.
There are several challenges which you need to meet and overcome, but most of
these can be headed off at the pass, or, at the least, minimised significantly. The
more you prepare to meet these challenges, the less chance there will be of you
ever experiencing them.
So, what are key challenges, and how can you overcome these?
Here are some critical practical points to absorb, concerning getting your co-
teaching right the first time.
Challenge 1: Recognising that the onus is on you to fit in
You are a temporary visitor to the country. It may sound harsh to say this, but it’s
you who needs to fit in with your new colleagues. You need to meld in right away.
The onus is not on them to fit in with you as they go about their day-to-day roles
which they may have been doing in the same way for many years. So, grasp this
point with both hands, as they say.
People differ between cultures in many respects, e.g. how they plan things, how
they relate to their learners, how they relate to other colleagues, what importance
they give to certain teaching practices (e.g. upholding rote-learning over different
teaching approaches), and how they think about things.
We are not suggesting that you can fully understand a culture when working
temporarily in the culture, but you can glean and absorb much valuable information
by researching the people and their country before you go.
To overcome this challenge, you need to bite the bullet and accept that the onus is
on you to fit in. If you do this, you will fit in well, and people will respect you for
doing so. Where there’s respect, there’s trust. Also, where there’s trust, others will
listen to you and your point of view.
Challenge 2: The need to build a strong rapport and relationship with your
co-teacher
Here’s what to do:
Building Rapport
Rapport exists when two people develop a feeling of harmony, well-being and
security. It’s a bit like striking a tuning fork and holding it near to another tuning
fork. The second will also start to vibrate even though they do not touch.
Rapport occurs between people when they work in an open, trusting and contented
relationship. Rapport is all about:
 meeting people on their level
 making them feel at ease
It is based on mutual respect and agreement.
When you relate initially to your prospective co-teacher, you can choose one of two
standpoints from which to start:
You can focus on the differences between you.
OR
You can emphasise the similarities between you (the things you agree on, feel and
think the same about and react the same way too).
If you emphasise the differences, it will be virtually impossible to achieve rapport.
The emphasis on similarities occurs not just in the words you will use when talking
to your co-teacher, but also in the way you express yourself through your body
language, speech and attitude.
Building A Strong Relationship For The Future
Once you have established the initial successful rapport, you can then focus on
building a strong relationship for the future:
Here’s what to do:
 Display honesty at all times. If, for example, you are asked later as to how
you feel the lesson went (led either by you or your co-teacher) tell the truth
honestly and objectively, supported by actual events and evidence (not how
you feel it went).
 Demonstrate your desire to help at all times. Don’t just wait until you are
asked. Observe and think about where you can support your co-teacher and
act on it. Ensure your actions speak louder than your words.
 Demonstrate your competence at all times. Don’t go into your co-teacher’s
class without being fully prepared in terms of your knowledge, attitude, skills
and habits.
 Keep all your promises and commitments. For example, if you say you will be
ready and prepared to teach a lesson on Monday at 9 am, ensure you are.
 Always speak naturally and from the heart. Don’t take on different personas
to suit the situation. Be yourself at all times.
 Continue to display empathy, i.e. ‘standing in your co-teacher’s shoes’ and
communicating from her point of view
 Ask more than you tell. Don’t give the impression that you know it all.
 Instead of telling your co-teacher what you can do, word it so that you are
seeking her advice, based on her experience: I think I could do it this way.
What do you think? Would it work?
 Show your co-teacher that you care about her and her success. Don’t get
wrapped up in your success in the classroom. Take time, intentionally, to
express your admiration about what and how she achieved as a result of the
lesson she led.
 Finally, your unbounded enthusiasm will go a long, long way to establishing a
strong relationship with your co-teacher.
Challenge 3: Collaborating Well
To meet this challenge, you need to reflect long and hard on how
collaboration is built. In essence, collaboration is all about team playing.
Here’s what to do:
1. Listen actively and respectfully
Collaboration is dependent on each co-teacher listening carefully and actively to
each other when the other is speaking, and thereby they can assimilate the
messages into one vision.
 Demonstrate reliability and consistency
Successful co-teaching collaborators get the work done together and do their fair
share of working hard and meeting the commitments.
 Share information without restrictions
Excellent collaborators don’t hoard teaching ideas, materials or information; they
share it freely.
 Communicate openly and constructively
Successful collaboration needs people who speak up and express their thoughts and
ideas, directly, honestly, and with respect for each other.
 Function as an active participant
Excellent collaborators are active participants. They’re fully engaged in the work of
their co-teaching team and do not sit passively on the sidelines.
 Be co-operative, not competitive
Excellent collaborators co-operate and do not compete. They are motivated when
they see their co-teacher achieve and, instead of competing with the achiever, they
emulate and align with them.
 Be flexible and adaptable to change
Flexibility is a necessary trait when working with others. If you are rigid in your
approach to new concepts or change, then your co-teacher will be negatively
impacted as they too must adapt.
 Be a good negotiator
Successful collaborators know how to negotiate, which means that situations that
could become tense instead become a win-win for both co-teachers.
 Show commitment to the team
Experienced collaborators care about their work, the co-teaching team per se, and
the team’s work. They show up every day with this care and commitment upfront.
1. Treat others in a respectful and supportive manner
Excellent collaborators treat fellow collaborators with courtesy and consideration —
not just some of the time but consistently.
1. Work as a problem-solver
Co-teaching teams need to deal with problems. Excellent collaborators are willing to
deal with all kinds of issues in a solutions-oriented manner. They’re problem-solvers,
not problem-avoiders.
1. Be optimistic and happy
To be an excellent collaborator in a co-teaching situation means you need to be the
type of person others want to be around. Positive, confident people are attractive.
They draw their collaborators to them and encourage recognition of achievements.
Challenge 4: The need to communicate well
To meet this challenge, you need to reflect long and hard on what needs to be
communicated and how to communicate it.
Here’s what to do:
The two of you need to discuss and firm up:
 The process for keeping a record of your communications, so that
responsibility for the tasks is crystal clear and there is no confusion.
 The how, where, when, why and what of planning your joint lessons.
 The how, where, when, why and what of giving feedback to each other. Agree
that both will be comfortable with this process. Consider that this is often
best done in the café down the road instead of in the staffroom, where there
may be interruptions.
 An agreement that the feedback is welcome, must be objective and clearly
explained, and that neither party will take any feedback personally. Emotions
will play no part. The input is for the benefit of you both and the benefit of
your learners.
 Regular communication sessions where you can both bounce ideas and
approaches off each other. Firm up the how, where, when, why and what for
these sessions.
 Agreement that it’s OK to disagree with each other and that in these cases
the bestnegotiated agreement, based on a bit of giving and taking, will be
fine.
Challenge 5: Plan well
So, you feel you fit in, you’re building a good rapport and relationship with your co-
teacher, you sense there’s a solid basis for collaboration, and you feel that the
communication lines are open and working well.
Let’s now consider the final piece in the co-teaching jigsaw – planning what needs
to be done and how it needs to be done to ensure both of you, and your learners,
will achieve the success you are aiming for.
To meet this challenge, you need to reflect long and hard on what needs to be
planned and how to plan it.
Here’s what to do:
1. Planning, in general
Agree:
  that each must contribute fully to the planning process
 what elements will be taught and by whom
 what each will do during the lesson and that each role is equally important
 what overall strategy/approach/model will be used to achieve the objective(s)
 what must be done to ensure the learners see both of you as equal partners
in the learning event
 how the learners will be assessed and when
 Planning the specific lesson in action
Agree that:
 each will model successful collaboration in the classroom
 both your names will be pinned up to emphasise this partnership in teaching
 the classroom space will be worked out equitably, and two teacher desks will
need to be set up in agreed areas
 learners will be informed that this is a co-teaching event and the benefits of
this will be set out
 both will have a lead role in the teaching and learners will recognise this
 both will take part in the assessment of the learners
 there is or isn’t a need for different groups of learners to be taught at the
same time
 changes may need to be made during the lesson, depending upon certain
agreed circumstances
 classroom management will be shared equally
2. Post-lesson activity
Agree that:
 each will provide feedback to the other
 each will take on board any changes or improvements for the future and
continue to reflect on what may make the co-teaching event even better
 both will celebrate the success of the co-teaching event and make it known to
others who have not yet tried this approach
Summary
Overcoming potential co-teaching challenges is all about research, thinking and
planning. If you take on board all the practical points we have set out above, it’s
doubtful that you will face any coteaching challenges.
2.5. Getting To Grips With The School Syllabus
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
2.5.1. What’s A Syllabus?
1. Syllabus
Generally, a syllabus is a document that consists of a series of topics prescribed for
an entire course of study. The actual components of the topics may be either
content items, such as words, structures, functions, or they may be process items,
such as tasks and methods.
Sometimes a school department will decide to include some of their own specific
rules and guidance which may not appear in another department’s syllabus. For
example, learners are expected to participate actively, bring textbooks to class,
complete homework assignments on time and so on.
No syllabus is perfect, but you will have to be familiar with it if the school dictates
that you must follow the syllabus.
Note: In some schools overseas, there may not be a syllabus as described above.
Sometimes a coursebook is used, and you follow that religiously whether it’s good
or bad.
When you are new and inexperienced, it’s best to accept the situation and get on
with it. Gradually, you can add in your self-made supplementary materials and
additional topics where you feel something is lacking.
A general rule is that the more the school administrators see you working hard and
guiding the learners to improve, the more flexibility you will be allowed in
introducing new materials and topics.
2. Main Features of a Syllabus
There is no universal structure.
Here is what a typical syllabus might look like:
 Syllabus items are ordered and should have explicit objectives which tell
learners the language items (i.e. bits of language, e.g. words or structures)
they will have learned by the end of the course.
 It may contain a general time framework (by the end of this course …) but
some syllabi break up the time framework of their components, prescribing,
for example, the specific items that should be dealt with in the first month, in
the second, and so on, and by the end of a course.
 A preferred approach or methodology the class uses may also be defined,
e.g. the Communicative Approach.
 A syllabus may list recommended materials, such as principal textbook(s),
visual materials or supplementary materials.
  A syllabus may explain assessment both in terms of elements to be assessed
and how they are to be weighted.(Some elements may be ‘weighted’, i.e.
attributed more importance or value.)
 It may show how the course fits into a broader context (‘the big picture’).
 It may also establish a learning contract with learners by publicly stating
policies, requirements, and procedures for the course.
 It may also set the tone for the course and convey how you perceive your role
as the teacher and their role as learners.
 It is often designed to help learners assess their readiness for the course by
identifying prerequisite areas of knowledge.
 It may be designed to help learners manage their learning by identifying
outside resources and providing advice.
 It can be used to communicate course goals and content to you and your
colleagues.
 The syllabus may be linked to or based upon a set coursebook which must be
used. Note that you may still have to build in supplementary materials to suit
particular groups or activities. Remember: No coursebook is perfect and can
soon become out of date.
2.5.2. Choosing, Adapting And Creating Materials
Following on from the final bullet point above, you may need to choose, modify and
develop materials to ensure the best learning experience possible.
Advantages
Here are some advantages:
1. You can ensure the materials better fit the context
Here are the main criticisms of coursebooks and accompanying ready-made
materials:
 The coursebook and accompanying materials produced for the global EFL
(including EYL) market are often too generic.
 Often, they are not geared to specific groups of learners.
 Often, they are not geared to any specific educational or cultural context.
 They often contain functions and speech outputs based on situations that
most foreign language learners will never be in.
 They are Anglo-centric in their construction and production and therefore do
not reflect any local varieties of English. ‘Anglo-centric’ typically
means centred on or giving priority to England or things English.
By choosing wisely from other sources, or by creating them yourself, you can ensure
your materials will better fit the context.
2. You can make the materials meet the individual learners’ needs
Commercially produced generic materials cannot address the needs of all the
unique individual learners in classrooms. But you can by:
 creating or adapting materials to the individual needs and learning
preferences of learners
 creating or modifying materials that consider the learners’ first language and
the learners’ culture and personal experiences
 creating or adapting materials at the right level for your learners, to ensure
the materials present an appropriate challenge and degree of success
 changing the often-repetitive model and organisation in the coursebook to
add more variety within the classroom to meet developing needs (e.g. using
whatever is appropriate to reach the goal – topics, situations, functions, etc.)
3. You can make them fit today’s events
Commercially produced materials cannot keep up to date with local and
international events. World and country changes can happen rapidly, and learning
materials need to keep up with changes and happenings that are of particular
interest to learners in their situation.
Only teachers on the ground – as you will be – can make the materials relevant to
today’s world.
4. You can overcome the lack of finance
Many schools may not have the budget to supply resources for the TEFL classroom.
Instead of moaning and groaning, most motivated teachers step up to the plate and
design their materials as a matter of course. The school and your learners will be
very appreciative of this.
Disadvantage
There is one critical disadvantage of doing so: time spent.
It takes lots and lots of time to choose, adapt and create additional materials to fit
the context and match learner needs and preferences.
Where does the time go? It will likely be taken up by:
1. Going through an interminable amount of inadequate materials on the
internet, until you find something you can use
2. Adapting materials to ensure they meet your learners’ needs as precisely as
possible
3. Ensuring the materials fit with the syllabus
 4. Ensuring the materials look good
5. Ensuring the materials stretch your learners
6. Ensuring the materials integrate all the language skills
7. Ensuring coherence. That is, ensuring one piece of material links with another
in steady progression towards the language learning goal.
8. Writing clear instructions
What’s the best solution?
The best solution is to create your materials. At first, this will seem time-consuming,
but gradually it will be much faster when you get into this habit.
In Module 8, we will explore the types of supplementary materials you can create
and how to do this. Then you’ll see how easy it is.
2.6. Learner Levels
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
2.6.1. CEFR, Common Labels, English Profile Facility
Note this: There is a lot of information here on the CEFR, Common Labels
and the English Profile Facility. This is information that is good to know
and understand. We have taken this information from the relevant
sources.
However, since the information is lengthy and may require you to study
this in-depth at a later stage, we will not be assessing you on this
information. So, decide to read and absorb this now or come back to this
at a later stage if you wish.
The information we are referring to is covered in this Section 2.6.1.
Unfortunately, some trainees who are studying other TEFL courses won’t
be aware of this. But, fortunately, you will.
1. CEFR
Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a learner’s
proficiency/competency in language as compared to mainstream English classes in,
for example, the USA or the UK.
As you’ll already know, measuring a learner’s proficiency in a language is not an
exact science.
No universal system of rating exists.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR or CEF) is,
perhaps, our best guide. There are other guides.
Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular levels.
Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which CEFR level the materials
are intended for, and schools will have similar class labelling to indicate what level
the learners are studying. So, there’s no need to worry!
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
What is it?
 The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It
has 6 levels in ascending order from A1 to C2.
 The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a
language-neutral format. Because it is language-neutral, it can be used for
any language in the world.
 It is useful for school directors, syllabus designers, teachers, teacher trainers
and proficient learners.
  Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as
their scale of levels, though some give each level their own name.
The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each of those
bands divided into two, giving us six main levels. It also describes (provides
descriptors) which represent what a learner should be able to do at each level.
You may have heard of other learner-level terminology in EFL, e.g. Beginner,
Intermediate and Advanced. Very loosely, you can view the CEFR levels as similar to
Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced – though the CEFR levels are more precise
than these terms (and calls them Basic, Independent, and Proficient).
2. The CEFR’s Approach: Communicative Language Competence
The CEFR’s approach is based on the notion of communicative language
competence – the increasing ability to communicate and operate effectively in the
target language
It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR’s view of communicative
language competence.
Communicative language competence has several components: it includes
linguistic, socio-linguistic and pragmatic competences. Each of these competences
is made up of knowledge, aptitudes and skills.
Linguistic Competence
Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to:
 lexis (generally, words and phrases)
 phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds)
 syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-
formed sentences in a language)
 other features of language systems considered independently of the
sociolinguistic impact of variations in use and the pragmatic functions of the
utterances produced.
 It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the
scope and precision of lexical knowledge) but also involves cognitive
organisation and the way this knowledge is stored in memory. For example,
the question of how a lexical item fits into the networks of associations the
speaker has available. It is also concerned with accessibility (for example,
how an item can be recalled, activated and its availability for use).
Socio-Linguistic Competence
Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in using
language functionally in a social context.
Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social norms
and customs which affect to a significant degree all linguistic communication
between representatives of different cultures, even if the participants are frequently
unaware of them.
These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings and
politeness, the way in which relations between generations, sexes, people of
different social status, social groupings are expressed through special language
markers, linguistically codified rituals, differences in register, dialect and accent,
through vocal rhythms, for example.
Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural parameters and
how they influence language use. Pragmatic competence
Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources (carrying
out language functions, speech acts) using scenarios or predetermined scripts of
interactional exchanges.
It also involves mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the recognition of
text types and genres, using irony or parody. The development of pragmatic skills is
strongly influenced by interactive experience and by the cultural environment.
Let’s have a look at these CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a Global Level
You will find that the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It’s not
difficult. It’s an excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on track when
you start on your TEFL journey. CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors – Global
Level

Level
Level Descriptor
s

Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or

read. Can summarise information from different spoken
and written sources, reconstructing arguments and
Proficient
C2 accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express
User
him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the most
complex situations.

Proficient C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer

User texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express
him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much
obvious searching for expressions. Can use language
flexibly and effectively for social, academic and
professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-
 structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing
controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors
and cohesive devices.

Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both

concrete and abstract topics, including technical
discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact
with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes
Independen
B2 regular interaction with native speakers quite possible
t User
without strain for either party. Can produce clear,
detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a
viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and
disadvantages of various options.

Can understand the main points of clear standard input

on familiar matters regularly encountered in work,
school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely
to arise while travelling in an area where the language
Independe
B1 is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on
nt User
familiar topics or of personal interest. Can describe
experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions
and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions
and plans.

Can understand sentences and frequently used

expressions related to areas of most immediate
relevance (e.g. basic personal and family information,
shopping, local geography, employment). Can
Basic User A2 communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar
and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms
aspects of his/her background, immediate environment
and matters in areas of immediate need.

Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions

and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of
needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and
others and can ask and answer questions about
Basic User A1
personal details such as where he/she lives, people
he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a
simple way provided the other person talks slowly and
clearly and is prepared to help.
We can also use the ‘+’ to indicate the top half of a level. For example, ‘B1+’ means
the top half of the B1 range. You will find this convention in various course books.
3. Why Do We Need the CEFR?
Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts, there can be much
variety in what is meant by terms like ‘beginner’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘advanced’. This
variability increases significantly across different languages, in different countries,
with different age ranges of learners, etc.
The CEFR makes it easier for all of us to talk about language levels reliably and with
shared understanding.
4. What Is It Used For?
The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes:
 Developing syllabuses
 Creating texts/exams
 Marking exams
 Evaluating language learning needs
 Designing courses
 Developing learning materials
 Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment
 Teacher training programmes
5. Is It Just About Levels?
The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching because its
impact goes beyond merely describing learner levels.
It has underpinned a particular approach to language learning as the one most
commonly recommended or expected in language teaching today. This is the
Communicative Approach we explored earlier.
It’s not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills-based and
take the form of Can Do statements, as in the examples below. These descriptions
of ability focus on communicative purpose and make for a very practical
approach, which looks at what people can do – rather than on specific
linguistic knowledge.
The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all the
various sub-skills and areas of competence:
 the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening)
 communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification)
  types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing)
 and more linguistic skills (e.g. lexical range, phonological control) It allows
you to link up skills in each of these areas with the learner’s overall level.
Examples of ‘can do’ statements from the CEFR:
 Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate
environment and matters in areas of immediate need. [A2, Global Scale]
 Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex
topics beyond his/her field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional
details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar. [C1, Listening]
 Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle
distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning. [C2, Reading]
 Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple
information of immediate relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to
be important. [B1, Written interaction]
 Can use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain
time and keep the turn while formulating what to say. [B2, Turn taking]
You can view a list of ‘Can Do Statements’ at
https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?
documentId=090000 168045b15e
6. What’s in It for You? How Can the CEFR Be Useful for You?
1. Understanding Language Levels Better
The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for describing
language levels. National, local and school policies are increasingly being expressed
in CEFR levels – and so it’s essential to understand what they mean.
2. Seeing More Clearly What Learners Need To Work On
The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next level. You
will find it particularly useful in showing how different component skills are
described at each level.
You may have an idea of what a B2 learner is like, but what should they be able to
do in terms of listening to lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken
fluency? The CEFR helps you see what is needed for different aspects of learning
English.
3. Assessment Grids
The CEFR scales are also beneficial for creating your assessment grids. These use
the descriptors in the scales and can help teachers with assessing their learners
during and at the end of a course.
They can also be used for self-assessment by the learners – though it’s usually
necessary to simplify them for this purpose, or even translate them in some
situations. You can find links to official translations of some of the scales on the
Council of Europe
website: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/elp/elp-reg/cefr_grids_EN.asp .
4. Curriculum Plan
If a teacher is responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class – just
her own or for the whole school – it is beneficial to use the CEFR as a broad
framework.
Look carefully at the descriptors for the levels you need – not just the Global Scale,
but component scales as well where relevant.
What do you want your learners to achieve in each course on their path to the
target level? This can be further elaborated by looking at the information coming
from the English Profile, which we’ll come to in a moment.
Of course, most teachers do not need to create their curriculum. By choosing a
coursebook that is aligned to the CEFR, you have a syllabus designed by experts –
which you may then choose to adapt for your circumstances.
7. Should You Introduce Your Learners to the CEFR?
Yes, it’s advantageous for learners to understand how mastery of a language builds
up from beginner to mastery. Of course, this needs to be suitable for their level and
age, and it is probably adults and teenagers who will find it useful.
Scales – adapted to their language level – are very useful for self-assessment, which
can be very helpful in developing language skills.
8. Common Labels
Other frequently used labels for the various levels, both for the learner and
coursebook, are (in ascending learning level from Beginner):
 Advanced
 Post-intermediate
 Intermediate
 Pre-intermediate
 Elementary
 Beginner
Get to grips with this labelling structure too. Note that under this structure, there is
an additional level for Elementary and a different heading of Post-intermediate
compared to Higher Intermediate on the CEFR levels.
The two different structures have much the same descriptor content – it’s just that
they have been moved around a bit.
So, a few tweaks may have to be made.
Remember! Don’t worry about this. Until that time, you would be best advised to
use the grading of items provided by the class coursebook as a guide to the
language that you should be presenting, if you have a class coursebook.
And, of course, you can seek help and advice from your Head of
Department/Director of Studies and your new teaching colleagues.
9. English Profile
The English Profile Programme involves major research projects that are all working
towards a reliable, detailed description of the actual learner English that is typical of
each CEFR level.
Initially, the focus has been on vocabulary and grammar, and the English
Vocabulary Profile is now complete for all six levels, A1-C2. A separate research
team is developing a similar resource, the
English Grammar Profile, which describes the gradual mastery of grammar across
the six CEFR levels.
Cambridge University Press has given teachers around the world access to their
research into vocabulary learning across the CEFR.
Go to the English Profile website – www.englishprofile.org – and click on Free
Registration English Vocabulary Profile. This will allow you to find out which words
and phrases – and individual meanings of each word – are typically mastered by
learners at each CEFR level. It is a valuable tool to make decisions about what to
teach learners as they progress. Cambridge University Press authors and editors
make extensive use of this research in developing their course materials.
2.7. False Beginners Versus Absolute Beginners
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Before we leave the subject of levels, we must make you aware of the phenomenon
of false beginners.
By the time you are in action, you will have picked up this Very Important
Point from this course – beware of false beginners.
Note that at the beginner level, CEFR A1 Level, a distinction is often made between
teaching false beginners and absolute beginners.
False beginners
False beginners are those learners who have perhaps had a little English learning, or
who have picked up English more informally and inconsistently, perhaps through
travelling or from bi-lingual parents/caregivers.
False beginners may give the appearance of knowing some English, which initially
makes them easier to teach. However, their superficial knowledge can present some
teaching challenges, as these learners may have developed early bad errors/habits.
Their classroom motivation may also be affected, as they may think that they
already know the material just because they recognise it. Look out for false
beginners.
Absolute beginners Conversely, absolute beginners have a high intrinsic
motivation from day 1 and will catch up to the false beginner learner very quickly.
2.8 Practical Tips For The Beginner Level
While we are discussing absolute beginners, it seems a good idea to give you some
guidance on teaching beginner level learners. To get the best out of your beginner
level learners and aid their progress, you need to reflect deeply on your teaching
approach.
For example, you need to ensure you have a clear objective of what you are aiming
to achieve during the lesson. Do not try to accomplish too much. There may be
exceptions to the ‘rule’ you are teaching. Leave these for another day.
Time to reflect
Following on from the information above, what do you think would be
sound practical advice for teaching absolute beginners?
Take some time out to make a drink and/or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.
Have a go!

Well done!
Practical advice for teaching beginners
1. Ensure you have a clear objective of what you are aiming to achieve during
the lesson. Do not try to accomplish too much. There may be exceptions to
the ‘rule’ you are teaching. Leave these for another day.
2. Ensure you have clearly mapped out the steps of your lesson. Stick to these.
There needs to be a logical progression. This will also ensure your timing is
right.
3. Engage and involve your learners. Do not act as if you are the sage on the
stage. Engagement and involvement are critical.
4. Praise them several times, e.g. when they understand, complete an activity,
etc.
5. Involve them through questions, drills and exercises.
6. Tell them what you and they are going to do and why it’s essential. Remind
them why it’s important on several occasions.
7. Use a variety of activities/ examples to get your point over.
8. Also, make effective use of gestures and mime to help get the message
across.
9. Get them involved in pair and group work. Use pair or group activities that
encourage interaction by providing learners with situations in which they
must negotiate meaning with partners or group members to complete a task.
(When speakers negotiate meaning, they are attempting to reach a clear
understanding of what each person is saying. Achieving this involves several
strategies such as rephrasing, asking for clarification, and confirming what
you think you have understood.)
10.Ensure your instructions are clear.
11.Never give out the worksheets until you are sure they know what to do.
12.Model what they need to do. That is, show them how to complete an activity.
You can do it, or you can choose a learner or pair to do this.
13.Always check their understanding before they start an exercise.
14.Ensure any activities they are doing to demonstrate accuracy are scaffolded,
i.e. arranged from easy to hard.
15.Monitor when they are completing an activity.
16.Ignore spelling during this lesson. Your focus is on ensuring they understand
the learning point. You can come back to spelling at a later time.
17.Note any recurring error. This can be addressed at the start of the next
lesson.
18.Correct as a whole class in a random fashion.
19.Checking pronunciation via whole-class and individual drilling is vital.
20.Leave ample time to summarise what they have learned:
 They can tell you what they have learned.
 Ask them to tell you why this learning is vital for them.
 A pair or pairs can do a final, quick demonstration if time allows.
 Always finish by praising what they have achieved.
21.Keep it all simple: grade your language carefully. Remember! There are no
prizes for you for using fancy, complicated language.
 22.You’ll need to speak slower but not too slow and deliberate such that it
sounds like you are talking to a baby; otherwise, the learners may feel
patronised.
23.Don’t miss out essential words and structures. Don’t say Ah, you go to party
tonight. Learners need to hear specific structures even if you haven’t reached
that learning point with them. Otherwise, they may think that’s how English
really is spoken.
24.Make a personal connection. Ensure you know the learners’ names. If you
have any difficulty with this, draw up a seating plan with their names on it.
When you’re away from your desk, you can use some tricks of the trade:
1. You: Well done, Maria (whose name you have remembered). Who will I
ask now? You tell me, Maria. You can point to the person and say their
name.
Maria: Juan (pointing to Juan)
You: Thank you, Maria. Juan (whose name you had forgotten), what is
the dog’s name?
2. You: The next learner I will ask is a boy, he has a red shirt, and he sits
near the window. Who is it?
They: Alejandro! (pointing to him)
You: That’s right. Well done! Alejandro (whose name you had
forgotten), what is the dog’s name?
25.Learn a bit of their language. They will appreciate your effort. The learners
will enjoy helping you learn a few new words each day. By learning bits of a
new language, you will have more empathy for your learners’ struggles to
learn English.
26.Review continuously. You are the beginners’ textbook and study guide as well
as their teacher. Provide review sessions at the beginning of every class, so
learners will practise what they’ve learned and acquire the language.
27.Minimise your learners’ cognitive burden. Cognitive, as you will know, is the
fancy word for the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
When teaching groups of beginner learners, it’s best not to write a lot of information
on the board and have learners copy it down while you continue to explain
concepts. We can easily forget these learners cannot multi-task with their current
language proficiency level, and it is essential to break down tasks into smaller
components.
Do one thing at a time.
Note that most of the points above will also apply to a good number of
elementary learners.
2.9. Example Lesson Plan
It now seems logical and apt to introduce you – softly, softly – to lesson planning
and lesson presentation for all learner levels.
Lesson planning and lesson presentation is the most critical teacher skill
of all. Planning lessons and presenting lessons successfully will be your core
activity for most of your time when you are teaching.
To ensure you get this skill right the first time, we will introduce it gradually.
Here we introduce you to the 5 Step Lesson Plan, which you will be using for all
your lesson planning, no matter which learner level you will be teaching. Most of our
teachers have been using this for years and years.
Here is a brief explanation of the 5 Step Lesson Plan. We will delve into this again in
Module 6. Then, in great depth in Module 7.
Step 1: Opening
Your learners need to know where you are taking them, i.e. what they are about to
learn and why it’s important to them. But there’s more to a good opening. It needs
to engage your learners and incite their interest.
Step 2: Introduction Of New Material
Here you will clearly and succinctly (briefly/neatly) introduce your learners to the
new learning. It could be a new language form, skill or concept which you’ll
introduce, explain, model, demonstrate, and so on.
Step 3: Guided Practice
Your learners must have sufficient time and opportunity to practise their new
learning. In this step, it will be guided, controlled practice, practice which is
supported by you.
The principal intention of this step is to help the learners internalise the learning, in
a sheltered environment, from their short-term memory (information memorised
during your Introduction) into their long-term memory for the future.
Step 4: Independent Practice
This is where learners refine the language form, skill or concept on their own,
without your assistance. It’s generally free, uncontrolled practice, but you will still
be there to give help and guidance where needed. This step is usually conducted in
pairs or groups.
Step 5: Closing
Here your focus is on:
 Keeping up their engagement by asking the learners what they have learned.
Ask them:
What have we learned in this lesson?
 Keeping up their interest by asking the learners to tell you about the
significance of what they have learned. Ask them: What is the
significance/importance of what we have learned? How will this benefit you?
 Issuing homework, as necessary.
Activity: Example Lesson Plan
1. Go to a quiet place. This activity requires your full concentration.
2. It’s not difficult but it needs total focus to get the right feel of it.
3. We have set out your example lesson plan below, on 2 pages. Note that this
is a rough template. In Module 7, we will introduce you to a thoroughly
professional template.
4. Through time, when you are teaching, your lesson plans may be a good bit
shorter, by adding in abbreviations, using mnemonics, etc.
5. Take your time and trawl through this example lesson plan several times. Get
the feel of the order of the steps and what you do at each step.
6. Once you’ve got a good feel of it, refer back to Section 2.8. See if you can
identify some of the listed practical points within the lesson plan. Every listed
point won’t be in the lesson plan because some of the listed points relate to
general advice, such as the teacher learning a bit of her learners’ language.
7. Try not to query too much. For example, we haven’t included handouts or
worksheets. Accept it as it is at this stage. Everything will be explained as we
carry on through the course. Your entire focus should be on getting the feel of
the order of the steps and what you do at each step.
8. Hopefully, you’ll recognise that the 5 Step Lesson Plan is an excellent format,
keeping you and your learners on track all of the time.
Lesson Plan: Comparatives of Adjectives Level: CEFR A1
Class:1B Page 1
Objective: To introduce my learners to the comparative form of 1 adjective
(‘big’ to ‘bigger’) initially and demonstrate they can use this structure with many
other short adjectives.
Step 1: Opening – getting them engaged and telling them what’s going to
happen
Show building blocks. Build a big tower. Elicit ‘big’. Repeat out loud. Then build an
even bigger tower. Through head shaking and face gestures, try to elicit words for
this bigger tower. No correct responses.
Then focus on the word big using Anjelica and Carlos – front of class. Don’t have a
word to describe Carlos, who is bigger. They return to their seats. Tell them: It’s
important to know this and other words to describe differences in people, animals,
things. Show words on board then use Anjelica and Carlos again. Then a written
activity and some fun games.
Step 2: Introduction of new material – introducing the new learning
Board. Draw Anjelica. Then draw Carlos. What can they see? Carlos is….?? Gestures
and hand movements to show Carlos bigger but don’t have a word. Tell them Carlos
is bigger. Write bigger under Carlos, underlining the ending –er. Get them to
repeat bigger as a class and ask learners at random to repeat the word. Get them
to repeat: Anjelica is big. Carlos is bigg er. Point to the ending -er. Bring out
Anjelica and Carlos again. Ask the class at random. Who is big? Who is
bigger? Confirm and praise. Anjelica and Carlos return to their seats.
Now ask all the learners to get into pairs, swiftly – with one partner being bigger
than the other. Go round the pairs, checking they can identify themselves as big
and bigger. Confirm and praise.
Now demonstrate again from board work that for the comparative (won’t use this
word) they add –er to the basic word when the other person, thing or animal is
bigger – both in speaking and writing. Remind and demonstrate to them on the
board that this happens with most words that they know, e.g. small-smaller, young-
younger, old-older, miming these and using the learners to demonstrate your
point.
Keep them engaged! Emphasising these new words is very important. But they’ll
use lots of words they already know. Finish with a fast-moving question/answer
session to ensure engagement and interest.
Step 3: Guided practice – practising the new learning, to check their
accuracy, under my guidance and control
Activity 1
Tell and demonstrate. Pin up (Blu-Tack) flipchart sheet – a large copy of the
worksheet. Ensure all can see. Hold up the worksheet. Explain they are going to
write in their answers on their worksheet. The exercise has 4 questions.
In questions 1-4, they need to fill in words, using the same form as they learned
about the word big by adding –er on the end of the word. Check understanding.
Hand out the worksheet. Then monitor, help and correct throughout this step.
Ignore spelling. Then correct as a whole class, asking pairs at random to give their
answers, confirming each got it right and checking pronunciation by class drilling
and by random selection of learners. Confirm and praise. Clear up any mistakes.
Then, l will introduce some realia: toy animals and things that they can compare,
giving out their responses orally, while using the practised structure, e.g. bigger,
smaller, younger, older. This will further consolidate their learning.

Page 2
Step 4: Independent practice – practising the new learning, to check their
fluency, independently (I’m observing and listening, but will help as need
be)
Emphasise again that these new words are very important. Again, work in pairs,
which always engages them. Keep encouraging and praising them – this also
engages them.
Clearly state what I want them to do.
Activity 2
Demonstrate by using a flipchart sheet with a blown-up copy of their worksheet – a
copy of a map of South America (learners are Colombian) with country names clear.
Pin it up with Blu-Tack. There are no sizes on the map – learners will decide visually
and ask me to referee if necessary.
Will identify who is A and who is B in the pair. A selects two countries, tells B what
they are and A writes in his workbook, for example, Bolivia is big. Colombia is
bigger. At the same time, B does the same for two countries, but he must choose
two different countries from those that A chose.
A now reads aloud his first comparison to B who reads and checks aloud the
comparison and country size and then B does the same with A. They do the same
format again, choosing different pairs of countries, this time
using small/smaller. Check understanding by questions and eliciting. Use a pair of
learners to model this.
Give out worksheets.
During all this time I will be walking about, listening, answering a few questions,
giving help as necessary, but not teaching or interrupting the flow. I will quietly ask
the pairs to read out their selections to me. Monitor the structure of the sentence
and the pronunciation of big, bigger, and small/smaller. Confirm and praise. Take
note of any recurring errors and address this at the start of their next lesson.
Stop Activity
Step 5: Closing – summarising and checking further what they’ve learned
and discussing how useful this is for them. Praising them.
I’ll get their engagement by telling them they have done very well and that I have
some very important questions to ask them. I’ll tell them I need their help. It’s vital
in this step to ask the learners to summarise what they learned. So, I’ll ask them.
They can give an example to support this.
It’s also important to remind them about what I said at the start – that these new
words are important. So, I’ll ask them: Do you think these new words are important,
helpful, etc.? How? Why?
My learners have been given opportunities to demonstrate their mastery (so far) of
some comparatives, but I think it’s always good to have a final round-up,
particularly focussing on those who did not get enough time to display their mastery
fully during the activities. So, at great pace, and giving lots of praise, I will ask some
of the pairs if they would like to come out to the front of the class and do a short
display in front of the class. I’ll include other pairs, though, who can read out their
attempts while seated.
Finally, I will remind them that they have been involved in speaking, listening,
writing and reading English during this lesson, and I will praise them for this.
End of Lesson Plan
Well done! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will
help you better understand your role and the knowledge, ability, skills and
habits required in your role.

Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 2.
It’s not too challenging. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 3, where we will focus in-depth on
your EFL learners. We will be covering a lot, so take your time and get it
right the first time.
Module 3: Knowing And Understanding Your EFL Learners
3.1. Motivation
A massive proportion of learners need to be motivated to learn.
Learner motivation makes learning, as well as teaching, immeasurably easier and
more pleasant and more productive.
Theories of motivation are sometimes of value but are unlikely to add much to your
practical learning at this stage. You can delve into these theories if you wish.
You know what motivation is, and you know that sometimes you are highly enthused
and driven. At other times, you don’t quite feel the same drive, or you’re bereft of
any drive at all. Of course, your learners are no different.
When you are motivated, there’s some inspiration and eagerness to succeed in
what you are doing. If you apply this awareness to your learners, you can identify
the motivated learner. This is a learner who is willing and eager to invest significant
effort and substantial time in language learning and is driven to make progress.
Instead of digging into the numerous theories, let’s consider some different types of
motivation and how knowledge of motivation will be of great practical use in your
role.
3.1.1. Different Types Of Motivation
The types of learner motivation in Point 1 below are the best known and most talked
about:
1. Intrinsic motivation v Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
This is the urge to engage in a learning activity for its own sake, for the enjoyment it
provides, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes. This type of learner is driven
by personal achievement.
Extrinsic Motivation
This comes from external incentives and reward and success, e.g., a qualification,
need for a high proficiency score (e.g., to gain entry to an English-speaking
university). Or, perhaps, the desire for higher pay (where language proficiency
offers that).
Whether one type of motivated learner is more motivated than another is up for
grabs. There is not enough conclusive research. Give thought to this when meeting
up with your new class, particularly adults.
Ask them why they have decided to take your course (and note the reasons why).
This will benefit you when you are teaching them or when you happen to mingle
with them during some other school activity.
2. Integrative motivation v Instrumental motivation
Let’s have a look at another two types of motivation.
Integrative Motivation
A learner who is integratively motivated wants to learn another language because
he wants to get to know and better understand the people who speak that other
language. He is also interested in the culture associated with that language. For
example, a learner may have a significant relationship with a person or persons in
another country and wants to learn their language and learn about their culture.
Instrumental Motivation
A learner who is instrumentally motivated wants to learn another language for
practical reasons, e.g., getting into college, achieving a salary increase, securing a
post overseas, etc.
3.1.2. Key Elements Of Motivation
Here are some key elements of motivation, drawn from our wide-ranging
TEFL and Learning and Development experience of over many years:
1. You Need To Be Motivated To Motivate Them
You must be motivated before you can motivate your learners. Don’t expect your
learners to be motivated if you are not.
Yes, there will be occasions when you find it challenging to overcome a temporary
lacklustre feeling.
Tough though this is, you will need to get out of it, or your learners will quickly
become deflated.
2. Most Learners Can Be Driven In Some Way Or Another
There may be the odd learner who appears to lack motivation but, generally, most
learners can be motivated in some way or another.
Perhaps there are cultural considerations. For example, he may not like you taking
up his learning time when the class is involved in fun activities. Alternatively, he
may be finding the work too hard. Or, perhaps, he’s not convinced by the whole
communicative approach.
Therefore, you need to find out as much as possible about your learners from Day
1.
What are their likes and dislikes? How have they previously been taught? Did they
communicate with you during the lesson or were your lessons wholly teacher-
centred?
If you cannot identify a reason for the drop in drive, make up some reason to meet
with the learner after class (away from his classmates). Try and determine the
reason for his lack of, or decline in, motivation. It is incredible how a little chat can
help.
Once you trace the reason why, you can work out ways to help build up his
motivation.
3. Motivation Should Be Multi-Directional
When you take up your teaching role, remember that motivation should be multi-
directional. Don’t just think that your purpose is only to motivate learners. You can
also help to stimulate a colleague when she is feeling down. You will reap the
rewards from this in the future when she helps you when you are a bit lacklustre.
4. Motivation Doesn’t Last
Motivation doesn’t last. You need to keep at it all the time. Motivating others is a
strenuous activity, but it’s also rewarding. You cannot give up when you, your
learners or any of your peers are feeling down. Dig into your reserves and help as
much as you can.
Remember this, again! The whole person comes to school, be it learners or
teachers. They come with all their personal baggage, e.g., worrying about
a sick parent/caregiver, or upset due to a breakdown in some special
relationship.
So, the motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated person
today. Help and show empathy wherever you can.
3.1.3. The Relationship Between Motivation And Language Learning
As research has shown, and as your learning and any teaching experiences probably
confirm, motivation is very strongly related to achievement in language learning.
You will be in a position to strongly influence your learners’ motivation to learn their
new language.
You will need to ensure, for example, that your lessons have clear objectives and
clear goals and that your activities are varied and personalised for your learners.
Also, ensure that you give feedback and assess on an ongoing basis.
By doing so, you will be able to foster, stimulate, or even rekindle your learners’
motivation to learn.
If you can accomplish this, learning will happen regardless of whether your learners’
motivation is extrinsic or intrinsic.
There’s little doubt about it.
Remember this: The most successful learners are not necessarily those who
naturally find language learning easy. It is often those who have specific
motivational and attitudinal characteristics, for example:
 the need for achievement
 goal orientation
 perseverance
  tolerance of ambiguity
3.1.4. Recognising A Motivated Learner
What do you think are the characteristics of a motivated learner? How will you
identify a motivated learner?
Think of motivated learners you have observed in the past. You may have
thought: She’s always on the go, wanting to learn. How does she do it? What traits
and qualities did she have?
Or, perhaps, you have always been a motivated learner. What motivation traits and
qualities do you have? Reflect on this.
Time to reflect
Focus on a motivated learner you know – past or present. It could be
yourself.
What traits and qualities does/did this person have?
Try and do this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this
question.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done!
Research has shown that the motivated learner will typically display most or all of
the following characteristics:
 Perseverance; a ‘never-give-up attitude’.
 The learner is willing to face tasks and challenges and has confidence in her
success.
 The learner finds it essential to succeed in learning, to maintain and promote
her positive self-image.
 The learner needs to achieve, to overcome difficulties and succeed in what
she sets out to do.
  The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high proficiency,
and top grades.
 The learner is acutely aware of the goals of learning, or specific learning
activities, and directs her efforts towards achieving them.
 The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning and is not
discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress.
 The learner is not bothered or frustrated by situations involving a temporary
lack of understanding or confusion; she can live with these patiently,
confident that understanding will come later. In essence, she has a tolerance
for ambiguity.
3.1.5. How To Influence And Drive Learner Motivation
Always focus on practical ways in which you can influence and drive motivation.
Here’s what to do:
1. Personalisation
Learners are more likely to be interested in tasks that relate to themselves or their
interests. Ask learners to share their opinions, tastes, experiences and suggestions.
This can be very motivating because they’re connecting the learning material to
their personal life experience and context.
We have taught boys-only classes in the Far East where the English Premier Soccer
League was king, as was David Beckham at the time. Every single boy in the class
was passionate about football(soccer) and anything to do with football, e.g.,
magazines, strips, soccer cards with their favourite player’s picture on the front and
details about him on the back, etc.
There was no need to motivate them when a lesson was built around, for
example: What are the three questions you would ask David Beckham if you met
him? OR Draw your own football strip and tell your group why you chose the
patterns and colours on the strip and badge.
2. Realia
Your learners will be much more engaged when you use realia: real-life, authentic
language materials. Authentic materials are materials that
are unscripted and unedited and are not explicitly developed for language
learning purposes. These could be, for example:
 Restaurant menus
 Extracts from newspapers, magazines: photos, advertisements, classifieds,
crosswords, horoscopes, features, etc.
 Travel tickets
 Recordings of casual conversations amongst native speakers
  Radio and TV news and weather broadcasts
Realia material can help to bring the language classroom to life.
3. Gamification
Gamification is where a teacher adds in-game elements to motivate her learners.
Some teachers have been doing this for many years.
As learners now grow up with video and computer games as part of their everyday
life, the concept of gamification is becoming more prevalent in the classroom.
In general, it mirrors several elements found in the video/computer games context:
 the excitement when participating, individually or in a team
 a fast pace
 rewards, and sometimes ‘punishments’
 time limits, often with a visible countdown (a big alarm clock)
For example, the teacher might set up a lexical recycling activity (re-meeting lexis
they have learned recently), where the groups of learners need to look at pictures
and complete the gaps in sentences with the correct recently learned word. The
rules of the game could be:
 a countdown period for completion
 points for finishing earlier than others (but answers must be correct)
 marks for correct sentences
 points not given (or deducted) for incorrect sentences
 possible additional points added by the teacher for observed group
organisation, e.g., the group appoints a ‘checker’ to check the answers before
they say they have finished
Generate a bit of tension and challenge, now and again.
4. Choice
Occasionally, let your learners choose what they want to do or how they want to do
it. When they have choices, they have a feeling of autonomy.
An example of autonomy would be to allow learners to pick from a list of topics to
debate. Or you can let learners choose partners with whom they would like to team
up with for a specific activity or game.
5. Projects With Tangible Results
Projects are very motivational. Everyone can contribute. There can be many
tangible results.
For example, the short and simple storybook, The Very Hungry Caterpillar, can be
extended into a very motivational project. Here are some of the many tangible
results:
 The life cycle of a butterfly – mapping the stages, making drawings, making
wire butterflies and hanging them up in the room, raising butterflies from
caterpillars in the classroom, observing and noting their growth, identifying
differences in the butterflies
 Learning strategies such as predicting, guessing, hypothesising, sequencing
(putting the days of the week in order or the life cycle steps in order),
memorising (what he ate on Tuesday), researching (what caterpillars eat and
drink), etc.
 Art and design: making cardboard or cloth models of caterpillars, and making
patterns and colouring
 Music, drama, and movement: singing butterfly songs and rhymes, reciting
poetry and taking part in performances for an audience, and moving like a
caterpillar and butterfly
6. Warmers
When you engage your learners and inspire their interest at the start of a lesson,
you are using a ‘warmer’.
This is very important; more than likely they’ll have just come from classes and
situations where they have been using their native language. So, a warmer will get
them swiftly engaged and participating, and into the ‘English mode’ immediately.
Always try to make the warmer related to what they have already been
learning or what you are about to teach. That is, don’t use an unrelated
warmer just for fun.
We have included several warmer examples in Module 7. Here is an
example of a warmer with a purpose:
Example
In the previous lesson, they have learned the structure: Would you prefer to…?
For the start of their next lesson, make up some two-set fun choices, headed up
with: Would you prefer to …
The options could be anything:
 be a lion/be an elephant
 eat popcorn all the time/eat potatoes all the time
 be stranded alone on a deserted island/be stranded on a deserted island with
someone who plays the trumpet all day and all night
Then, the learners choose, and you can encourage them to tell the class why they
chose one of the options.
7. Make Them Aware Of Their Success
An effective way to motivate your learners is to make sure that they are aware of
their success. You can convey this message by a nod, a tick on the page, or a smile.
But a sense of pride and satisfaction may, of course, also be enhanced by explicit
praise or approval, or by a comment in the learner’s answer book.
8. Vary Classroom Topics And Tasks
Topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as inspiring as possible.
However, there are very few single types of activities that interest everyone, so you
should use a wide range of different ones over time. Even within a lesson, you can
organise a series of tasks that have learners doing different things to keep them
engaged.
For example, get your learners to listen to a dialogue about ‘School Routines’. Then
ask them to complete a worksheet and get them to compare their answers with a
partner. Next, then have learners partner up to create an original dialogue on the
same topic. Variety is a primary key to success.
9. Create A Fun And Friendly Atmosphere
Entertainment produces enjoyment, which in turn adds motivation. Entertainment
can be teacher produced, such as jokes, stories, mimes, songs, or even dramatic
presentations. It can be recorded, such as movies, video clips, or television
documentaries.
Other activities such as role-play and simulations that use the imagination and put
learners in different situations can be very motivating.
It is important to note, however, that some learners are inhibited and may find such
activities intimidating at first. As such, you especially want to avoid running learners
up to the front of the class to ‘perform’ spontaneously.
10. Create Open-Ended Exercises
A cue that invites several possible responses is usually much more stimulating than
one with only one right answer. By aiming for this, the participants’ contributions
become more unpredictable. They are also more likely to be insightful, original, or
even humorous. For example, If I won a million yuan, I would …
3.2. How To Identify An Effective Learner In Your Class
3.2.1. Techniques
Here are some practical techniques that effective learners apply. This will
help you to reflect on the traits and attributes you want to nurture in
learners who are lacking in some areas.
Look out for those who:
1. They know and understand their learning preferences.
These learners are self-aware. They know themselves. They know how they
prefer to learn and choose learning approaches that suit their way of learning.
2. They take responsibility for the learning.
They take responsibility for their learning. In addition to learning in class, they
create opportunities to learn the language elsewhere, e.g., films with English
sub-titles, watching CNN or the BBC. They know that practice is critical.
3. They grasp all opportunities to keep learning.
They grasp all opportunities for speaking the target language (L2) and
actively take part in the learning process. They are keen to experiment.

They will also use different ways of communicating to overcome gaps in

linguistic knowledge. For example, when a word is not known, the effective
learner will try to describe the object or its function, e.g., for scissors: They’re
made of metal, and you use them to cut paper. Or she will find another word
approximate to the meaning of the word she is looking for,
e.g., pot for saucepan or she will make up an innovative word, e.g. foot-
finger for toe.
4. They try to work out how the English language works.
They aim to come to grips with the language as a system. They pay close
attention to form and look for patterns in the language.

They are good guessers, continually monitoring the context of the

conversation or text and then revising expectations when necessary. They
use clues from the situation to help them guess the meaning of unknown
words and phrases rather than giving up.

For example, once an effective learner grasps the idea of the infinitive form
made up from to plus the verb stem, e.g., to go, to eat, to sleep, he will likely
grasp that it is the base form of a verb (verb stem) which will complete the
blank in the following sentence:

John likes to __________ .

So, he will likely complete it with swim, play, run, paint, etc. and not with, for
example, a gerund (swimming), a noun (football), or adverb (quickly), etc.
5. They know that language is used to communicate, and they take
risks.
They pay attention to meaning. They have effective techniques for practising
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In the initial stages of their language
learning, they do not worry about making mistakes. They take risks and are
not embarrassed when they get it wrong.

They speak to achieve the goal of becoming fluent. They seek out
opportunities to talk with native speakers. They realise that language learning
is not merely an academic subject but is also a means of communication.
6. They study like detectives.
They are always inquisitive, looking for evidence and clues that will help them
to grasp how the language works. They guess and ask people to correct them
if they are wrong. They compare what they say with what others say.

They keep a record of what they have learned and reflect on it. They monitor
themselves. They keep a careful eye on the forms of the language to discover
patterns that will aid learning.
7. They use the language outside the classroom.
Effective learners create opportunities to try out what they have learned and
do not merely complete the homework. They are not content only with the
exposure to the language that the classroom can provide but like to find
opportunities outside.

Remember this! You’ll know effective learners when you see them. Be wise.
Use them to help others achieve in the classroom. Don’t single them out in
front of others. Just ensure that your pairs and groups are strengthened by an
effective learner so that some of their skills and attributes can brush off on
others.

And, use the list above as a reminder to nurture learners who are lacking in
some of these areas.
3.3. Learners’ Learning Preferences
3.3.1. What Exactly Is A Learning Preference?
A learning preference is how a person better perceives, conceptualises, organises
and recalls information.
This could be a preference for learning through visual activities as opposed to, for
example, audio activity. For example, one learner may prefer to look at graphs while
another may prefer to listen to the information on a podcast.
There are other preferences, as we will see below. Proponents say that learning
preferences are influenced by the individual’s genetic make-up, previous learning
experiences, culture, and society.
3.3.2. Identification Of Learning Preference – Useful Or Not?
There are different views as to the relevance of the identification and usage of
learning preferences in the classroom. Unfortunately, many of the views from either
side of the debate lack real or scientific proof as learning preference methodologies
remain unproven.
However, our opinion based on our experience is that learner preference
identification is useful and is pretty successful, particularly with adult learners.
Many teachers and educators see the benefit of using learning preferences
approaches. Remember, though, that there is likely to be usage which is
appropriate and other usages which are not.
So, especially if you are working with young people, use methodologies
with care. It is wrong to apply any methodology blindly and unquestioningly, and
wrong not to review and assess the effectiveness of methods used.
In any case, we feel it’s vital that you are aware of learning preferences, no matter
whether you end up being in favour of them or not.
3.3.4 The VAK Approach
There are many different approaches used to determine an individual’s learning
preference(s).
We will focus on one of these: The VAK Approach. We’ll also summarise some
other approaches/methods
1. The VAK Approach
This is our preferred approach. It’s simple and easy to administer.
The VAK analysis identifies three learning preferences: Visual, Auditory and
Kinesthetic. Sometimes kinesthetic is said to include tactile learning, and
sometimes this is added as a separate learning preference.
Key points underlying this approach:
Any individual will operate in all three modalities, but with a preference for one or
two.
Visual learners are likely to prefer mind-maps, diagrams, graphic language, flow
charts, use of colour, white space on the page, etc.
Auditory learners are likely to prefer discussion, explaining things to others, using a
recording machine, and teaching linked to anecdotes/jokes, etc.
Kinesthetic learners are likely to prefer group work, using models/objects in
describing things, walking around while learning, hands-on activities, role-plays,
books with strong plots, etc.
When doing a learning preferences analysis with learners, the learners should be
made aware of their individual preferences.
Some research has shown that learners can perform better in tests if they change
their study habits to fit their learning preferences.
For example, visual-learning learners will sometimes have difficulty during written
exams, because they can’t recall test material that was spoken in class. However,
by using a visual aid when studying, e.g. outlining materials in colour, they may
absorb more. For these learners, visual tools may improve their ability to recall
information more thoroughly.
Key characteristics of the visual, audio and kinaesthetic learning
preferences based on the VAK approach
Visual learner characteristics
Visual learners learn best by seeing things. A visual learner:
 is likely to be good at spelling but may forget names
 needs quiet study time
 has to think and reflect for some time before understanding a lecture
 likes colours and fashion
 dreams in colour
 understands and likes charts
 is good with sign language
Use these types of resources to capitalise on the visual learning
preference when using warmers and doing activities:
 A map of events or timeline, when reading a story
 Lots of whiteboard activity: colour coded words, matchstick drawings, games
 Flashcards
  Making coloured markings of everything: using highlighters, circling words,
underlining
 Comics and cartoons. Erase the existing speech in the bubbles and get them
to put in their own story.
 Copying what’s on the board, and then colour coding them (into nouns, verbs,
etc.)
 Illustrated reading: using books with lots of illustrations
 Word puzzles, e.g., crosswords, word searches
 Making a diagram/sketch/flowchart/mind map
 Making lists
 Watching videos: identifying key actions
 Pictionary, but you may have to adapt it to suit your learners’ level
 Graphic organisers
 Multimedia, e.g., PowerPoint
Auditory learner characteristics
Auditory learners learn best through hearing. An auditory learner:
 likes to read to self out loud
 is not afraid to speak in class
 likes oral reports
 is good at explaining
 remembers names
 notices sound effects in movies
 enjoys music
 is good at grammar and foreign languages
 reads slowly
 follows spoken directions well
 can’t keep quiet for extended periods
 enjoys acting and being on stage
 is good in study groups
Use these types of resources to capitalise on the auditory learning
preference when using warmers and doing activities:
  Participating in group discussions, e.g., discussing the learning materials
 Phonetic reading: using rhyming and word games
 Using word association to remember facts and lines
 Listening to lectures and recording lectures
 Listening to others reading aloud and learner reading aloud
 Oral presentations
 Watching videos – identifying specific dialogue, words, and phrases
 Memorising and repeating facts and spelling (often with eyes closed)
 Using audiotapes for language practice
 Books which have been recorded
 Taping notes after writing them
 For younger learners, use melodies, beats, and rhythms to reinforce the
learning (e.g., pronunciation)
Kinesthetic learner characteristics
A kinesthetic learner is someone who:
 needs to move, do and touch
 is good at sport
 can’t sit still for long
 is not great at spelling
 does not have great handwriting
 likes working in science labs
 studies with loud music on
 loves adventure books, movies
 likes role-playing
 takes breaks when studying
 builds models
 is involved in martial arts or dance
 is restless during lectures
Use these types of resources to capitalise on the kinesthetic learning
preference when using warmers and doing activities:
  Games with action, e.g., quickly finding someone who…, and running to the
board to add/change some word
 Total Physical Response activities, e.g., songs with movement (Simon Says;
Wheel on the Bus; Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes)
 Use lots of realia: e.g., fruits, vegetables, clothes, tea set
 Craftwork, e.g., arising from a storybook read or a project based on a
storybook
 Studying in short blocks
 Experiments, e.g., as part of a project on butterflies, looking after, watching
and noting the growth of caterpillars into butterflies
 Role-playing
 Taking field trips and visiting museums
Key points to consider when you start teaching:
To what extent does your teaching provide a range of activities to cater to the
visual, audio and kinesthetic learning preferences?
How can you enhance the range of activities in your classroom?
What learning preference do you have? Is it visual, audio or kinesthetic? Or is it a
mix of two or more?
Some people find that their learning preference may be a blend of two or three
preferences.
Naturally, it is not always practical or even possible to account for all learning
preferences in a class.
But you may discover that an awareness of the various kinds of learning
preferences will help you to create more creative and appealing lessons. This, in
turn, promotes more learner engagement, as learners will be leveraging learning
modes that match their strengths.
Your learners’ increased engagement and success in learning may also stimulate
you to raise their expectations. This initiates a powerful expectation-response cycle
that can lead to higher achievement levels. This, in turn, leads to increased
motivation for your learners and you.
You can do your analysis of learners’ learning preferences through close
observation, noting what you hear and see.
There’s also a range of materials on the internet which will give you some ideas as
to how to approach this. And you can carry out a learning preferences analysis on
yourself to find out what learning preferences you may have if you are not aware of
this already.
Please note that materials on the internet may be protected by copyright and you
may be restricted to using materials for your personal use. Check carefully.
The best route is always to carry out your analysis via your approach, by observing
your learners closely and noting what you hear and see.
Summary – the VAK approach
As with any learning approach, you need to decide whether this offers you any
practical usage. The VAK learning preferences approach has its proponents and
detractors. Overall, however, we feel it serves as a useful aid/for you when choosing
appropriate learning activities:
1. Structure Learning Materials Around The Learners’ Strengths
If you have individuals or groups who have particular interests or strengths, e.g.,
sport, music, and you want them to be involved and successful in their language
learning, then structure your learning materials around these interests and
strengths.
2. Variety Brings Life To The Classroom
Providing a vibrant mix of learning activities derived from a blend of the different
preferences will result in a lively and engaging class for all your learners.
3. A Whole-Person Approach
Every individual uses all preferences to some degree or another. A multi-faceted
teaching approach that appeals to all preferences addresses the whole person in
ways that more one-sided approaches do not.
The VAK approach helps to develop the whole person within each learner, which
best serves the person’s language learning requirements as well.
Give it a try – preferably with older learners.
3.3.5. Additional Learning Preferences
Here are two other learning preferences models, for your information:
1. Kolb Learning Preference Model
Four learning preferences:
1. Convergers (they do and think):
1. Learn by solving problems
2. Prefer doing technical tasks
3. Good at finding practical uses for ideas • Like concepts and
experimenting with new ideas
2. Divergers (they feel and watch):
 1. Learn by observation
2. Good at brainstorming and gathering information
3. Are imaginative and sensitive
4. Like practical experience and reflection
Assimilators (they observe and think):
 Prefer to put information in a concise, logical order
 Use reflective observation
 Like abstract modelling and concepts
 Like theoretical reasoning
Accommodators (they do and feel):
 Prefer a practical, experiential approach
 Rely on intuition rather than logic (‘gut instinct’)
 People-oriented
 Hands-on learners
 Rely on feeling more than logical analysis
 Like practical experience and active testing
2. Honey-Mumford Model
This is similar to Kolb’s model.
There are four learning preferences.
According to this approach:
 Activists like practical work such as labs, fieldwork, observation exercises
and using visual source material for information, etc.
 Reflectors like to learn by watching other people, taking time to consider
observations of their own experience, etc.
 Theorists like lectures, reading papers on topics, considering analogies,
etc.
 Pragmatists like simulations, case studies, homework, etc.
Thus, the four types might approach learning a software programme in different
ways:
 Activists might start using it and feel their way into it.
  Reflectors might have a go at using it and then take time to think about what
they have just done.
 Theorists might begin by reading the manual.
 Pragmatists might start using the programme but make frequent references
to the help files.
The four types of learning are viewed as cyclical stages through which a learner can
progress (Watch>>>Think>>>Feel>>>Do), as well as categorising specific kinds
of learning experiences.
3.4. Different Learning Strategies
3.4.1. What Learning Strategies Did You Use?
Reflecting on your own experiences is a powerful aid when teaching. You were a
learner in the past. Consider which learning strategies you used at school, college,
university. If a strategy worked for you, it may likely work for some of your learners.
But avoid limiting learning methods and techniques based on your learning
preferences.
It’s paramount to experiment with a variety of activities that will in turn appeal to a
range of learning preferences.
Your learners will likely have a mix of learning preferences.
Example
Somewhere in the past, you may have picked up the idea of mind mapping. You
even go the extra mile by highlighting and colouring bits of your mind maps.
You believe that mind mapping is a potent tool which, of course, it is. So, when you
take up your teaching post, lots of the board work you do is based on mind mapping
as this is second nature to you.
However, this technique is hardly likely to fully satisfy those learners who have a
strong leaning towards auditory or kinesthetic learning.
So, remember to vary your methods and techniques.
Remember: The ways your learners learn best can be different due to a range of
factors, such as learning preferences, age, prior learning experience, and so on.
Be aware of these differences and try and not to limit learners to think that they can
only learn in one way.
Achieve this by ensuring that your lessons have elements that not only cater to the
different learning preferences of your learners but are also conducive to the various
learning strategies of your learners.
You can influence and help to develop such strategies. Of course, it is not always
feasible to meet the learning characteristics of each learner all the time. However,
you can try to vary how you teach across a series of lessons or classes so that you
can match the learning characteristics of a range of your learners most of the time.
In short, being aware of your learners’ learning characteristics, preferences and
learning strategies will go a long way to ensuring that you can motivate them to
learn.
Here Are Some Examples Of Effective Learning Strategies You Can
Encourage Your Learners To Use:
 Repeating new words in their heads until they remember them
 Experimenting/taking risks by using recently learned language in
conversations
 Guessing the meaning of unknown words
 Asking you to offer feedback about their use of language
 Using the foreign language as much as possible without resorting to their
native language
 Recording themselves speaking, then analysing and correcting their
pronunciation
 Asking a speaker to repeat what she said
 Deciding what area of lexis they need to learn and then learning it
 Thinking about how to remember all the new words they learn in each lesson
and then writing each one on a separate card to review
Paraphrasing, or using language indirectly to say what they want to say
3.5. Learner Autonomy
3.5.1 Autonomy
We touched on autonomy previously. It’s a critical element in successful
teaching, so let’s draw it all together.
Effective learners generally take responsibility for their learning, both inside and
outside the classroom. Therefore, effective learners take steps to become
autonomous.
Autonomous learners:
 are aware of learning strategies and learning preferences
 do not hold back from the learning task at hand
 are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all
costs
 are good guessers
 address the form and structure of the language as well as content; that is,
accuracy and appropriateness are both essential to them
 are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply
Studies have shown that as learner autonomy increases, so does learner motivation.
And, thus, so do learning results.
While the competent teacher will always try to get his learners to become
autonomous learners, learners can also learn to become more autonomous on their
own.
These days, in some schools, there are just as many learner resources available as
there are classroom materials. For example, learners can access grammar reference
books, dictionaries, lexis exercise books, and CD-ROMs that supplement the main
textbook series. There are also endless online learning resources.
And, remember that there are also many ways for learners to get exposure to
English outside the classroom, even if they are living in a non-English speaking
context.
Here are a variety of ways in which you can increase learner autonomy.
1. Learner Journals
Use journals for different purposes. Here are some examples:
Encourage your learners to keep a learning journal of new words and their
meanings (with a sentence showing the usage of the word), then learn these and
later test them out in the classroom in pairs.
A dialogue journal is an ongoing written dialogue between the learner and you,
akin to writing notes or short letters to each other. It is used specifically for
assessing writing ability, but it is also useful for gaining insight into the learner’s
views, goals, motivation, and attitude to learning.
An open-ended journal allows a place for learner reflection and commentary. The
learner chooses what they feel they should address in their learning, e.g., what they
should read, questions to ask, how they might apply the learning to their personal
experience, etc.
2. Self-And Peer-Assessment
In self-assessment, the learners are asked to reflect and rate themselves on their
performances.
In peer assessment, a learner assesses another learner’s work. Remember this:
The youngest of learners, though, are not able to give very detailed peer feedback
because they are not yet ready to think in-depth.
3. Self-Access Centre (SAC)
A self-access centre is simply a place in your classroom or another designated room,
where your learners can work independently or in pairs at their own pace.
4. Outside-Classroom Activities
Allowing your learners to practise activities outside the classroom will enhance
autonomy. For example, they may discuss the route to the park or public library with
their peers. They may say hello to passers-by or talk to the librarian in the public
library and ask for a book. Or they may discuss road signs amongst themselves, and
so on.
5. Strategy Training
We have already explored several strategies for better learning. The more learners
use these strategies, the more autonomous they will become.
6. Goal Setting
If you aim to get the best out of your learners, it’s important to remember that
setting learning goals is not all down to you.
You should encourage your learners to set their own goals in some areas. What do
they want to be able to do?
7. (Online) Dictionaries And Resources
Demonstrate the value and benefits of utilising a good English language dictionary,
in hard copy or online. Then encourage them to use this resource independently –
and frequently. The same applies to other language resources.
8. Homework
Teachers have different opinions on the use of homework.
Our long experience tells us that it is a potent activity for increasing autonomy –
and learning.
It needs to be issued regularly, and there should be open-ended pieces, allowing the
learners to respond as they wish to the content and length.
To get the best out of it, it needs to be well-planned and inspiring. And, wherever
possible, it should involve the learners’ parents or caregivers – even where the
parents or caregivers do not speak English.
Here is an activity we have used on many occasions with young learners whose
parents did not speak English.
1. We encouraged the parents/caregivers to supply their child with a memory
stick. We ‘bought’ the parents/caregivers into participating – merely listening
to the child’s pronunciation of the words/expressions on the stick and
encouraging the child.
2. For pronunciation practice, we recorded lots of relevant and practical words
and short phrases onto each stick. The content progressed from easy to hard.
3. The only ‘rule’ was that the learners needed to practise the
words/expressions in order. There were no ‘rules’ as to how many they
needed to practise and no timescale was set.
4. The results were remarkable. The class learned much more in a quicker
timescale than classes where this activity was not used. This kept us well
ahead of the syllabus.
9. Learner ‘Experts’/ ‘Helpers’
You will increase your learners’ autonomy if you encourage them to be ‘experts’ and
‘helpers’.
An ‘expert’/’helper’ who has finished first could, for example, help others in her
group who are struggling a bit.
Remember this! It’s essential to try and get everyone involved in a role. Don’t just
choose the seemingly higher achievers all the time. Learners have different
attributes. The seemingly high achiever in listening and speaking may not be so
good at writing skills or pronunciation.
3.6. The Plateau Effect
3.6.1. What Is A Learning Plateau?

A learning plateau occurs when learning progress in learning a new skill seems to
stop. These plateaux are normal and commonly experienced periodically
when learning a new language.
This also happens when learning to play a musical instrument or tackling some
other complex discipline.
The plateau effect refers to the stage when learners reach a point, either real or
perceived, where their language learning ‘flattens out’. This only affects some
learners. Others march on, unaffected.
At the beginner level, a learner’s progress (generally) tends to be quite rapid and
evident.
But once some learners hit the intermediate level, their progress slows down and
learning speed declines. And, it gets increasingly challenging for you and your
learner to measure that progress.
At the advanced stage, learning speed can decline even further for some learners
and the length of the stage increases again.
Some people used to think learning plateaux could not be overcome because a
plateau represented the limit of your genetic ability. They believed that no amount
of exertion, practice or education would help to overcome this ‘wall’.
However, psychologists have discovered that with the right approach and
a few attitude adjustments, most of us can break through our plateaux
and reach higher.
So, what can you do to help get any of your learners off their plateaux and move
onwards and upwards?
Here are some practical ideas:
1. Explain The Plateau Effect
Explaining to your learners that plateaux are a natural and expected occurrence in
any learning process will help ease concerns or anxieties about their progress. This
will show them that the language learning process is not a linear one.
It will help learners visualise where they might expect to experience the highs and
lows of a typical language learning curve.
2. Encourage Them To Take Risks
Growth and progress come when we stretch past our comfort zone. Instead of
challenging ourselves to develop further, we stick with routines that we know we
can do effortlessly. This reluctance to risk is a recipe for plateauing.
3. Get Them To Embrace Their Failure
Plateau learners must embrace their failure. To overcome their reluctance to take
risks, learners have to permit themselves to fail. Instead of avoiding the challenges,
the achievers in the world specifically focus on these challenges; they purposefully
focus on the areas in which they make the most mistakes.
This keeps them from getting stuck and drives their performance. So, instead of
focussing on failure as a negative thing, plateaued learners should be helped to
consider their failures as steps to success. If they choose to learn from their failures,
they can drive themselves closer to their goal.
4. Be An Honest Mentor
Another reason some learners reach a plateau is that everyone around them is
telling them that everything is OK. We often listen to people who tell us what we
want to hear, not what we need to hear.
Be an honest mentor who doesn’t hold back and gives the learners the honest
criticism they need to improve, and guidance on how to achieve improvement. Yes,
their ego will get bruised, but perhaps that’s the price one must pay for personal
and professional growth.
5. Get Them Back To Basics
Even when a learner has already reached an advanced stage, delving back into the
basics of learning can give her fresh insights that can help her progress even
further.
6. Help Them To Think Long Term
When we think short-term, we tend to feel that plateaux are permanent walls we
will never get past. But when we take the big-picture view of things, we start to see
plateaux as temporary hurdles that we will get over with some extra work.
By thinking long-term, we give ourselves more space to take risks and fail, because
we see that problems are just momentary setbacks in the long journey of learning.
To help a plateaued learner cultivate this attitude, ask him to reflect on a time (any
learning situation) where he felt he had reached the end of his development in
some area, only to later burst through the plateau. If it was possible then, it’s
possible now.
Well done! Another one bites the dust. Module 3 completed. What you
have learned here will help you better understand your EFL learners and
will have demonstrated what you should and shouldn’t do. And there’s
lots more excellent, practical stuff to come!

Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 3.
It’s not too taxing. Good luck! After that, we’ll move on to Module 4,
where we will focus on some challenging English Language Elements. It
may be some time since you studied these language elements, so this will
bring you up-to-date.
Module 4: Mastering Some Challenging English Language Elements
4.0 Intro
Some learners worry a bit when hearing words such as ‘language
elements’, ‘phonology’, etc. We felt the same when we were in your
position. However, pretty swiftly we realised that much of language study
is just common sense and is not particularly difficult to grasp. It just takes
a bit of time.
Knowing, understanding and being able to apply and explain key language
elements is a great skill, just like reading and writing. Being well-skilled in
language elements makes a teacher’s role much, much easier. And your
learners will admire your in-depth knowledge.
Take it easy as you go through this Module; there’s a lot to be covered. If
there’s anything that stops you in your tracks, there are several ways you
can get back on track.
If you are a bit unsure about any English grammar/language element, here
are some very reliable recommendations to help you:
Books
1. Grammar for English Language Teachers: by Martin Parrott
(Cambridge University Press)
An invaluable resource helping teachers at all levels of experience to develop
their understanding of English grammar. Grammar for English Language
Teachers is designed to help practicing and trainee teachers to develop their
knowledge of English grammar systems. It encourages teachers to appreciate
factors that affect grammatical choices and evaluates the rules of thumb
presented to learners in course materials. In paperback and hardcover.
2. English Grammar in Use (Fourth Edition): by Raymond Murphy
(Cambridge University Press)
Raymond Murphy’s classic reference and practice book for learners of English
at intermediate (B1B2) level. Perfect for self-study, but also ideal for
supplementary grammar activities in the classroom. This book has been used
by millions of language learners and teachers around the world.

The fourth edition is available as a printed book, an eBook with audio, a

mobile app for iOS and Android, and online with a Learning Management for
educational institutions
3. Practical English Usage (Fourth Edition): by Michael Swan ( Oxford
University Press)
Revised and updated for the fourth edition, it answers the questions that
teachers and learners ask about English grammar and vocabulary with clear,
corpus-informed explanations and examples.
 Hardback with online access
  Paperback with online access
 Paperback
 Online (1 year’s access)
4. Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation: By John Seely (Oxford
University Press)
 Handy pocket-size format
 Provides the information about grammar and punctuation that people
need on a day-to-day basis
 Accessible design and diagrams with related terms make the Oxford A-
Z of Grammar and Punctuation simple to use
 Uses examples of real usage to clarify grammatical points
 Contains longer feature entries on a wide range of tricky issues, such
as the difference between active and passive, and hyphens
Grammar Websites
1. The Internet Grammar of English from University College
London at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/
2. Grammar Tips from
Grammarly at https://www.grammarly.com/blog/category/handbook/
Grammar Dictionaries: Online
All the major English language dictionary companies publish both paper and free
online learner’s dictionaries. They provide lots of useful grammatical and vocabulary
information about words and give examples of how words are used. The three
dictionaries listed below are all free online. However, the online versions are not as
comprehensive as the paper dictionaries. Thus, we recommend you buy one of
them in paper format.
 Cambridge Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary
 Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary
 Macmillan Dictionary
Website Covering A Mix Of Grammar And Language Elements
The British Council resources. Some would say that this is simply the best.
There’s a huge amount of practical English language resources to suit your
language teaching needs:
 grammar
 lesson plans
  activities
 ideas for stories and poems
 songs
 teaching tools
There are full lesson plans to choose from, covering different topics and themes, all
organized according to the levels of the Common European Framework of Reference
for languages (CEFR).
They also have shorter activities, as well as ideas for using songs, poems and
stories to help your learners improve their English in engaging, motivating and
enjoyable ways.
All their practical materials are written by experts in English Language Teaching and
are free to download.
See:
Grammar: https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar
Young Learners: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/resources/primary
Secondary/High School
Levels: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/resources/secondary
Adult: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/resources/adults
Let’s get started!
4.1. Phonological And Phonemic Awareness
Let’s explore phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. You may not be
aware of these terms. You’ll soon find out, though, that they’re not difficult to grasp.
Lots of people, including some teachers, get a bit confused with these terms. Some
teachers put all of this under the heading ‘Pronunciation’ but, as we will see, this is
wrong.
So, take your time with this Section and see if you can grasp the differences
between these elements.
4.1.1. Phonological Awareness
Although your focus in the initial stages will be on helping your learners to grasp the
meaning of words, you need to help them become aware of the sounds of words.
Not only will they be better able to produce the right sounds for words that they
hear and become familiar with but also this attention to the sounds of words will
prepare them well for later success with reading and writing.
Phonological awareness is the ability to focus on the sounds of the language. It’s
about making your learners aware that words are made up of individual and
different-sized sounds.
You need to help them to improve their ability in this, bit by bit. It can be a bit
challenging for some younger learners, but it needs to be done.
So how do you promote this phonological awareness?
Here is a practical route to follow. Stick to this order as best as you can:
1. Do lots and lots of listening games that focus your learners’ attention on
words.
2. Move on to rhyming practice, e.g. rhymes, songs, and poems, to draw their
attention to the sounds at the end of words
3. Then, focus on alliteration (e.g. A big, bad bug bit the little beetle.) which will
draw their attention to the sounds at the beginning of words. Look out for
stories and rhymes and songs that will help them with this.
4. Building on what they have learned in the rhyming and alliteration work,
focus on and practise the comparison and contrast of sounds at the beginning
and end of words.
5. Move on to sentence segmenting, helping them to be aware of, and counting,
the number of words in sentences.
6. Then focus on syllable segmenting and blending, clapping and counting the
syllables in words and then blending (combining) them back together into
words. Remember: A syllable is a part of a word that is pronounced with one
uninterrupted sound. For example:
  lion: li-on (two syllables); clap and count the syllables li-on, li-on, li-
on then blend back to lion; help them with the pronunciation at the
same time
 elephant: el-e-phant (three syllables); clap and count the syllables el-
e-phant, el-e-phant, ele-phant and then blend back to elephant; help
them with the pronunciation at the same time
If you are unsure about syllables, check
out http://www.howmanysyllables.com
7. Move on to onset and rime, dividing one-syllable words by their initial
consonant sound and all their other sounds. You can usually split a syllable
into two distinct parts:
1. The onset. This consists of the initial consonant or consonant blend.

2. The rime. This consists of the vowel and any final consonants.
So, in the word cat, c is the onset and at is the rime. So, following on
from cat, you could then use m-at, s-at, b-at, etc.
8. Focus on phoneme deletion and phoneme substitution of sounds in words. A
phoneme is each meaningful sound in a language. Here is an example of
phoneme deletion: Now, class, let’s look at the word smile. Smile. Take away
the /s/ sound. What have we got? That’s right, mile. Smile without the /s/
sound is mile. Here is an example of phoneme substitution: Now, class, I saw
a bug. Let’s look at the word bug. What sound does it end with? That’s right –
/g/. Now, change the /g/ sound to /n/. What’s the new word? That’s right –
bun.
9. Then focus on phoneme blending – blending individual sounds. The learners
listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes and then combine the
phonemes to form a word. Then they write and read the word, e.g. /b/, /i/,
/g/ to make big.
10.Focus on phoneme segmentation, breaking down words into individual
phonemes. Your learners break a word into its separate sounds, e.g. breaking
down grab into /g/, /r/, /a/, /b/, saying each sound as they tap out or count it.
Then they write and read the word.
11.Then help them to move to overall phoneme manipulation, replacing
individual sounds in a word. Phoneme manipulation includes deleting
phonemes from words, adding phonemes to words, blending phonemes to
make words, segmenting words into phonemes and substituting one
phoneme for another to create a new word.
Strategies to promote phonological awareness
Here’s what you must do (and what you mustn’t do):
1. Ensure It Is An Integral Part Of Communication
Learners will do well with their phonological awareness so long as it is not run in
isolation, and you ensure it becomes an integral part of communication in the
classroom. Don’t just suddenly bring up a word out of thin air and start to analyse it.
2. Do Not Aim For Perfection
No, the more realistic goals for you are that your learners:
 develop intelligibility (the degree to which the learner’s speech can be
understood in different language situations)
 increase communication ability
 develop increased self-confidence in speaking the language and listening and
understanding the language
3. Plan The Phonological Awareness Experiences
Don’t just do these as they come up. You have a route to follow, as outlined above.
So, plan what you’ll do when and how.
The activities need to be fun. Always add a bit of fun to keep up their motivation
and participation.
It’s so easy to promote enjoyment and fun when dealing with younger learners. For
example, when guiding them through alliteration, you could easily change a song
they love, such as Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star into Binkle, Binkle, Bittle Bar. They’ll
find it funny but will be learning at the same time.
Utilise all the activities they are already familiar with. There’s no need to try and
introduce some unfamiliar activity. Their focus may be more on understanding the
unfamiliar activity than the phonological awareness you are striving for.
So, use experiences they are familiar with, e.g. singing songs, rhyming games,
chanting nursery rhymes, poems, etc. Just adapt what’s already there.
However, don’t just focus on games and activities. Use familiar routines to practise
and recycle their phonological awareness. For example:
 Everyone whose name begins with the llll sound, bring your books to
me. Remember this: you must emphasise the sound and not the letter
name.
 When lined up outside the class, you could say: All those whose name begins
with a ssss sound come in first. Next, those with a tttt sound. Each time you
would vary the order. You could also do this when they leave your class.
Think about how you can involve parents/caregivers in this. In some countries,
learners’ parents/caregivers may not know a single word in English. However,
depending on the cost and the effort you are prepared to put into it, you could
record this week’s sounds onto copies of CDs or memory sticks that the children
take home with them and the parents/caregivers support them in the sound activity
practice.
This won’t be too challenging for non-English speaking parents/caregivers.
Generally, you are best to start with phonological awareness activities and then
move on to phonemic awareness activities. But sometimes, it will be apt to interlink
the two at the same time.
4.1.2. Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness relates to the correspondences between letters or groups of
letters and the sounds they represent.
If the learners do not first become phonologically aware, later instruction in
phonemic awareness and decoding (breaking up a word into sounds) will not
make sense.
Learners with phonemic awareness can break up words into their different sounds.
They can join sounds together to make words.
It helps beginning readers to see the links between the spoken and written words.
Once they grasp this, they can recognise familiar words quickly and can have a go
at figuring out unfamiliar words.
Research shows that progress in learning to read depends on how much
phonological and phonemic awareness a learner has.
Remember this: Phonemic awareness aims to help learners see the
correspondence between letters and sounds so that when they see a letter or
sometimes a group of letters, they learn that these symbols (letters) represent
speech sounds heard in words.
Children can demonstrate that they have phonemic awareness in several ways,
including:
 recognising words, in a set of words, which start with the same sound
(e.g. bell, bike, and boy all have /b/ at the beginning)
 identifying and speaking the first or last sound in a word (e.g. the beginning
sound of dog is /d/; the ending sound of bit is /t/.)
 linking, or blending, the separate sounds in a word to say the word (/m/,
/a/, /p/ = map.)
When learners break up a word into sounds, this is called decoding. The end goal is
for the learner to join the individual sounds in a word and then utter the word as a
whole.
Inexperienced teachers get confused between phonemic awareness and
pronunciation and often use the word pronunciation as a label for all aspects of
sound production in the classroom. This is wrong.
Phonemic awareness is the teaching of sounds as part of decoding letters in words
to decipher the individual sounds.
Pronunciation is different. It refers to how a person articulates specific sounds.
Decoding – the deciphering of individual words – is of immense importance. In
English, decoding can be tricky due to the exceptions there are between sound and
symbol correspondence. It differs from other languages such as Spanish, which has
a straight one-to-one sound and letter correspondence.
Learners of English can find this very tricky as there may be no indication of how the
letter symbol should be pronounced. For example, the letter c can be:
 a hard sound, /k/, as in can, cake, cage
 a soft sound, /s/, as in cent, circle, city
The key points to remember when enhancing learners’ phonemic
awareness:
1. Always remember that the end goal is the understanding of meaning, not
phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness instruction is a critical objective
which needs to be met on the way to the goal of reading comprehension. It is
certainly not an end goal in itself.
2. In some schools, a full phonemic awareness approach early in the programme
may be the norm. If this is what the school leaders have set down, there’s not
much you can do about this, at least until you have been there some time.
Or this type of approach may be followed because that’s the way it has
always been done. The problem with a full phonemic awareness approach is
that it’s unlikely to work well in the initial stages of learning, where your
learners have limited meaning of words in English and lack oral proficiency.
Unlike native-English learners, they don’t know lots of chunks and phrases
which native-English speakers have already picked up from songs, stories,
rhymes and chat from their parents/caregivers and siblings. It will be wise to
remember this.
3. Some teachers, for various reasons, often overemphasise the role of
phonemic awareness. Perhaps it’s because they and the learners enjoy this
type of activity. Or maybe it’s a comfort zone for the teacher, and he stays in
that zone just a bit too much. The problem is that where there is more
emphasis on phonemic awareness than on meaning and comprehension, the
learners may lose sight that they are reading words. The decoding is critical,
but it must not replace meaning and comprehension
(understanding). Phonics teaching should enhance comprehension; it
should not usurp or be deemed more important the primary goal of
comprehension/understanding.
4. Never ask learners to decode a word where they don’t know its meaning. You
need to focus on the words they already know.
5. Phonemic awareness instruction should be tackled briskly and relevantly. It
should always take place in activities which are relevant and have a purpose.
 Learners should not be involved in phonics instruction which has the effect of
isolating letters and sounds from meaningful use in text.
6. It should emphasise chunks and patterns in words that learners will recognise
when reading other words with similar chunks and patterns.
4.1.3. Phonological And Phonemic Awareness Activities
Here is a mix of phonological and phonemic awareness activities. We’ve put them
together as you’ll likely be doing quite a bit of interlinking of activities. A variety of
activities and lots of practice are the keys to success.
Explore and reflect on what’s best to meet the need. And, remember, make it fun.
Here are some activities:
1. Listen and imitate: This is a technique in which learners listen to a model
(you or a recording) and repeat or imitate it, e.g. breaking up a word into its
syllable parts and noticing the change in mouth and lip movements.
2. Minimal pairs: Seeing if learners can distinguish between minimal pairs. A
minimal pair is simply a pair of words that differ in only one phoneme (each
meaningful sound in a language). Examples of common minimal pairs are:
 ship/sheep
 pin/pen
 buy/boy
 hut/hat
3. Contextualised minimal pairs: In this technique, you establish the
context/setting, such as a blacksmith shoeing a horse, and present key lexis.
Learners are then trained to respond to a sentence stem with the
appropriate, meaningful response (a or b) – Sentence stem: The blacksmith
(a. hits / b. heats) the horseshoe. Cued learner response: a. with the
hammer / b. in the fire.
4. Visual aids: For sound formation, it may help to use a sketch of the mouth or
a colour wall chart, and to describe the pronunciation of a sound in terms of
lips, tongue, teeth, etc.
5. Tongue twisters: This is a technique from speech correction strategies for
native speakers. One well-known example is: She sells seashells by the
seashore. You could make up your own twisters. Rhymes and jingles are also
effective, as are chants.
6. Drilling: These can include imitation drills, with repetition of sounds, words
and sentences and varied repetition of drills (varied speed, volume, and
mood)
7. Linking: Trying to link the sound to a word that they already know. For
example, they may find the sound in cheese quite easy, but then find it quite
 tricky when it appears in the middle of a word like purchase. Reminding them
of the sound in the word cheese will help them to form it correctly
in purchase.
8. Same or different: Read a short list of three words to the learners and ask
them to tell you if you are reading the same word, or if there is a different
word in the list. If the words are all the same, they say same, and if there is a
different sound, they say different. The learners will not see the list of words,
of course, e.g. sit sat seat; ship sheep ship
9. Stop me: Very similar to the example above, except that the learners stop
you when you use a different sound, e.g. ship, ship, ship, ship, ship, sheep
10.Listen!: Place minimal pairs in sentences so that the learners listen carefully
and decide on the word being used.
Notice that both words must make sense in the context, e.g. Come here and
have a look at this lock/rock; If you sit up straight you won’t slip/sleep; He
came to ask me about his cut/cat.
11.Pictures: Pictures can be very effective with learners of all ages. The
learners can have pairs of pictures in front of them; e.g. ship and sheep.
When you say a word (or read out a sentence), they must point to the
appropriate picture.
4.2. Pronunciation And Teaching Techniques
Remember: Pronunciation refers to how a person articulates specific
sounds. Let’s explore 5 critical elements of pronunciation.
4.2.1. Pronunciation: Vowels, Consonants And Syllables
When teaching pronunciation, you’ll want to have a good knowledge of vowel
sounds. Vowels sounds are made with the mouth open and the airway unobstructed
(just recite a, e, i, o, u). With consonants, however, the flow of air is briefly
obstructed in some way (just recite b, f, v, for example).
In speech, the exact number of vowels depends on the regional accent, but there
are more than 20 English vowel sounds.
Diphthongs are an essential element of pronunciation. A diphthong is simply a
vowel sound that is composed of a sequence of two vowels. The vowel in the
word so, for example, begins with the o sound of hot and then glides into
the u sound of put. Other diphthongs are the vowel sounds in high and late.
When teaching pronunciation, you’ll also need to know a bit about consonants. As
mentioned above, a consonant is a sound that is made by blocking the flow of air
while speaking.
For example, the first sound in the word mark is made by closing the lips briefly,
while the last sound is produced by pressing the blade of the tongue up against the
hard palate. There are 22 consonants in spoken English.
Let’s consider some other critical features of speech which you need to know to
help your learners’ pronunciation.
4.2.2. Pronunciation: Stress At Word And Sentence Level
Word stress is where we say part of a word with greater energy, i.e., with more
length, more depth, more emphasis and sound on the vowel sound. Distinguish the
stress in the vowel sounds in the stressed syllables and the other syllables in the
words pencil, photography, volunteer (stressed syllables are underlined).
Like English, many languages give especially strong stress to one syllable in a word.
Other languages give similar length to all the syllables.
Stress can also influence how we pronounce sentences and incomplete sentences.
We apply more or less stress to different parts of the sentence, i.e., slower and
louder, or quicker and more softly. This is called sentence stress.
Generally, one word in the sentence will have the main stress. This is the word
which the speaker thinks is most important for the meaning of the utterance.
Other words can have secondary stress. This is not as strong as main stress and
falls on words which are not as important to the meaning as the word with the main
stress.
Other words in the sentence are unstressed.
For example, in this spoken sentence: She came home late last night, the word with
the main stress is the underlined one – late; the words with secondary stress would
probably be came, home, last, night; and the unstressed word is she.
But remember: It is possible to stress any word in a sentence if the speaker thinks it
is important.
Whether you are focussing on word stress or sentence stress, provide the class with
some guidance about the position of the stress in one of two ways.
Either write the word/sentence on the board and show the stress by using a symbol
or use a hand to make a gesture (perhaps a chopping movement) to demonstrate
where to place the stress when you say the word.

Word Stress And Sentence Stress Rules

We’re going to stick to the simple rules here as many rules are full of exceptions.
For example, there are many two-syllable words in English that are spelt the same
but their meaning changes depending on the stress:
1. You will progress a lot with your English if you follow this rule.
You will make a lot of progress with your English if you follow this rule.
2. He rejected the plan.
This bowl was a reject, so I bought it at half price.
 3. Everyone was present at the meeting.
I will present my ideas to the company tomorrow in a presentation.
Here are some fundamental word stress rules:
1. One word has only one primary stress. One word cannot have two primary
stresses. If you hear two stresses, you hear two words. Two stresses cannot
be one word. There can be a secondary stress in some words. But a
secondary stress is much smaller than the main (primary) stress and is only
used in long words.
2. We can only stress vowels, not consonants.
Here are some fundamental sentence stress rules:
1. Content words are stressed. Content words carry meaning, e.g. main verbs,
nouns, adjectives, adverbs and negative auxiliaries (don’t, can’t, aren’t)
2. Structure words are unstressed. Structure words are used for correct
grammar, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions and
auxiliary/helping verbs (e.g. do, be, can, have, must).
3. The time between stressed words is always the same.
There’s the odd exception to sentence stress rules, but far fewer than word
stress exceptions. For example, we have said that structure words are
unstressed in a sentence. But look at the structure word she below, which the
speaker is stressing for emphasis while confirming information:

Lisa didn’t do that, did she?

Yes, she did.
4.2.3 Pronunciation: Intonation
Intonation is another important part of pronunciation. It is the movement of the
level of the voice, i.e., the tune of a sentence or a group of words.
We use intonation to express emotions and attitudes and to emphasise or make less
important particular things we are saying.
We also use intonation to signal to others the function of what we are saying; that
is, to show we are starting or stopping speaking, or whether we are asking a
question or making a statement.
Practice
To hear these intonation uses, try saying School’s just finished with these
meanings:
 stating a fact
 with surprise
 with happiness
  as a question
 to emphasise just
You should hear the level of your voice rising and falling in different patterns.
Different intonation patterns can show many different meanings. However, there is
no short and simple way of describing how the patterns relate to meanings.
Intonation patterns can also be demonstrated with the use of arrows on the board or
hand gestures to show the ‘musical’ pattern. Wherever possible, try to speak in a
normal manner without a distorted intonation pattern as this will provide the
learners with a better model to follow.
4.2.4. Pronunciation: Rhythm
Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or beat. Look at this sentence:
Will you CLOSE the DOOR because he’s GONE to WORK?
In our sentence, the 4 key content words (close, door, gone, work) are stressed.
Why is this important for pronunciation? It is important because it adds music to the
language. It is the rhythm of the English language. It changes the speed at which
we speak (and listen to) the language. The time between each stressed word is the
same.
There is 1 syllable between CLOSE and DOOR and 3 syllables between DOOR and
GONE. But the time between CLOSE and DOOR and between DOOR and GONE is the
same. We maintain a constant beat on the stressed words.
To do this, we say the more slowly, and because he’s more quickly. We change the
speed of the small structure words so that the rhythm of the key content words
stays the same.
4.2.5 Pronunciation: Linking
Learners need to hear natural, fast, relaxed pronunciation as we speak it every day,
not a carefully over-articulated, overly-pronounced one-word-by-one-word phrasing
of sentences. Speaking too slowly and too emphatically is a common characteristic
of the inexperienced teacher.
Speaking unnaturally can have a detrimental effect:
 Your learners will imitate your speaking style and speak unnaturally too.
 They will not recognise and understand rapid natural speech when they hear
it.
This doesn’t mean you shouldn’t slow your speech down a bit to help your learners
get some basic ideas, but it does mean that you should speak naturally most of the
time. It also means that you need to teach them what natural speech sounds like.
There is some evidence that says that if learners don’t speak naturally, they won’t
recognise normal speech when they hear it.
Some examples:
 How much is it? sounds something like How muh chi zit?
 Don’t eat apples! sounds something like Don tea tapples!
If you habitually speak slowly and over-enunciate, your learners will listen for How
much is it? and won’t understand when they hear the normal speech sounds of How
muh chi zit? You need to instruct your learners in these differences, how to
pronounce them and how to listen for them.
Where the end of one word connects to the beginning of the next word, this is called
‘linking’. Linking is a naturally occurring phenomenon in the speech of every native
speaker of English and is not the result of sloppy or defective speech.
One major feature of linking occurs when a word ending in a consonant sound
precedes a word beginning with a vowel sound – as in don’t eat apples.
When the native-English speaker says this, the consonant sound at the end
of don’t runs into the vowel sound at the beginning of eats and the consonant
sound at the end of eats runs into the vowel sound at the beginning of apples. Thus,
it sounds like don tea tapples.
Many learners of English tend to separate the words into distinct units and so their
speech sounds ‘staccato’.
Other structural features cause this, e.g. linking between one word that ends in a
vowel sound and the second which begins with a vowel sound.
You should encourage your learners at least to attempt to approximate these linking
features of English because they are so commonly used in everyday speech. This, in
turn, should raise their awareness of the existence of these features and will make
the task of listening easier.
4.2.6. Teaching Pronunciation
1. Key Points
The overall aim of teaching pronunciation is for the learner to develop spoken
English so that:
 the learner is easy to understand when speaking English
 it allows a positive image of himself as a speaker of English
Here’s what you must do (and what you mustn’t do):
1. Ensure it is an integral part of communication
Learners will do well in the pronunciation of English if the pronunciation
episode is not run in isolation and instead becomes an integral part of
communication in the class.
 2. Do not aim for perfection
The goal of pronunciation in the CLT class is not the attainment of ‘perfect’
pronunciation. Who has this, anyway, and who says it’s ‘perfect’? And how
can it be proved? No, the more realistic goals for you are that your learners:
 develop intelligibility (the degree to which the learner’s speech can be
understood in different language situations)
 increase communication ability
 develop increased self-confidence in speaking the language and
listening and understanding the language
3. Give lots of practice
Remember! The more practice given, the better the pronunciation will be.
2. The Phonemic Chart
All the activities listed above under Phonological and Phonemic awareness
activities can be used to enhance pronunciation, as can the Phonemic
Chart.
The Phonemic Chart
This is an alternative method of approaching the teaching and learning of English
pronunciation.
A phonemic chart provides a set of symbols, each one intended to represent an
individual sound of the language, irrespective of the way it appears in the standard
written script.
There are a few different phonemic charts.
We highly recommend that you use this British Council phonemic chart. Go to:
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/teaching-resources/teaching-secondary/
teaching-tools/phonemic-chart where you will see the symbols, can hear all the
sounds and can download it to your computer or iPad -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WeAC9xJgnCk&ab_channel=SpeakingAccent
It may take several weeks for you to familiarise yourself with all the sounds. But it
will be worth it.
In preparation for your TEFL career, you should start to familiarise yourself with the
chart and the sounds. Once you have had a first look at it, the following information
will be useful.
The individual sounds of English are called phonemes, and the set of symbols
representing the sounds is called the phonemic alphabet.
Having received a basic knowledge and teaching in this system and by using a good
quality EnglishEnglish dictionary, most older learners should be able to discover the
pronunciation of unknown words without your help.
Many teachers are reluctant to introduce the phonemic chart to their learners for
several reasons:
 They do not feel that the time spent learning the system is justified.
 They feel that learners already have an uphill task dealing with English
spelling without asking them to learn another alphabet.
 They feel unsure about the system.
But:
 Learning the phonemic alphabet is not as challenging as it first appears, and
it can be made considerably easier by introducing it piece by piece to the
class as part of your daily lesson plan.
 With a little application, you often discover that the system becomes second
nature.
Note:
Other languages have their own unique phonemic systems. When learning English,
it is common for the phonemic system of their first language to influence the
production of sounds in English.
Please remember that in an English-speaking country, dialectal differences should
be considered when using phonemic charts.
Note there is not always a correspondence between the number of letters and the
number of sounds.
Also, note that most English dictionaries show where the stress of a word is by using
the mark ‘.
Give it a go!
3. Moving Pronunciation From The Brain To The Mouth
An excellent technique for teaching pronunciation well and faster is to enable
learners to move pronunciation from their brains to their mouth.
Some teachers who see pronunciation only as a cognitive activity will take longer to
achieve their pronunciation goals, and it will be less engaging and practical for their
learners.
The solution is to make it both a cognitive and physical activity.
Make it a wholly physical activity by getting your learners to focus on the muscles
that produce sound, rhythm and articulation.
You need to get them to sense physically what their muscles are doing so that they
become aware of the interaction between muscle movement, sound production and
aural perception.
This will enable them to:
  Adapt their pronunciation, e.g. adapt/change the way they say a sound or
stress a syllable
 See the muscle movement and adapt/change it if necessary
 Increase their awareness of the internal sensation/ movement from the
muscle movement
Thus, you are encouraging them to:
 Listen to the sound they are emitting, e.g. from a recording
 ‘See’ the sound, e.g. in a mirror
 Feel the sound, e.g. by placing their fingers on their lips, tongue and jaw.
This is a much more practical and successful method for teaching pronunciation.
Before doing this, it would be wise to explore a modern pronunciation text with lots
of illustrations of lip, tongue and jaw movements when pronouncing. You could copy
these and distribute them to your learners. Using illustrations, demonstrations,
mirrors and muscle movements will make your pronunciation sessions much more
engaging, practical and fun.
4.3 Lexis
4.3.1. What Is Lexis?
You have met this word briefly before.
In the past, when many native-English speakers were being taught English, one
primary approach used by the teacher was to teach grammar (often as a separate
session), and from time to time she would introduce new vocabulary (often arising
from reading exercises).
And sometimes, vocabulary was taught by the teacher making up a list of words
that the learners needed to learn. The point is that these two activities – grammar
and vocabulary – were often handled separately.
In Communicative Language Teaching, the approach you will be using, there has
been a shift over recent years to using the word lexis to signify both the teaching of
vocabulary and certain areas of grammar together.
Vocabulary is usually seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a somewhat broader
concept and consists of words, phrases, collocations (words that are commonly
connected), chunks and formulaic grammatical expressions.
It also includes set patterns that were previously designated as grammar elements,
e.g. If I were you …; Do you mind if …, etc. These words, chunks and patterns are
now often called lexical items.
Recognising specific grammar structures as lexical items means that they
can be introduced much earlier, without structural analysis or elaboration
in a separate grammar session.
Since the idea of notions and functions made its way into language teaching, mainly
as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has gained prominence, some
structures associated with grammar started to be taught lexically (or functionally).
I’d like to is not taught as the conditional tense but is taught as a chunk of language
we use to express desire. Similarly, many ‘traditional’ grammar items can be
introduced lexically, early on.
So, the proponents of lexis see vocabulary and certain areas of grammar
linked together, so there is neither a separate grammar session (except
for difficult concepts) nor a separate vocabulary session. These are
married together under the umbrella of lexis.
You may teach in a school that is well up-to-date and talks about lexis and lexical
items OR you may be in a school that separates the two and talks of grammar and
vocabulary. Neither is better. The key is to be aware of this.
4.3.2. Selecting Appropriate And Relevant Lexis
You may be a little bit apprehensive when you are reflecting on what lexis you will
teach when you take up your post. Don’t worry about this; this thought comes into
the minds of all new teachers.
But remember: There are always solutions.
Here’s what to do:
1. Local standards/curriculum
The most critical point of all is that you need to find out first whether there are local
standards and a curriculum set down by the local government and/or the school
concerning the relevant lexis (and related content) that you must teach.
If there are standards and a curriculum set down, then you must adhere to these for
the level(s) you will be teaching. Note that this doesn’t mean you cannot add
additional lexis to the standards and curriculum set down.
Let’s imagine your learners are studying a theme/project on food. An individual or
group may ask you to tell them the name of, say, a kitchen utensil they have seen
but they don’t know what it’s called or even, perhaps, what it does. Maybe it’s an
apple corer.
The utensil is not set down in any of the curriculum lexical lists. If you feel it’s
relevant and they may come across this utensil reasonably frequently in the future,
then it would be a good idea to introduce them to this new word and its
pronunciation.
If you have never come into contact with educational standards, have a browse
through the USA Common Core State Standards Initiative
at http://www.corestandards.org/. This will give you some background to educational
standards but note that any educational standards set down outside the USA are
likely to be different.
2. Coursebook – or not
In some cases, you will be helped in the selection of new lexical items by the
coursebook that you use, if there is one.
From this point forward, let’s imagine there are no standards, curriculum
or coursebook, and you’ve been asked to teach a beginner class. We’ve
been there and done this. Easy-peasy. Read on.
4.3.3. Relevant Lexis
Here are some very practical ways to decide on the relevant and
appropriate lexis to teach:
1. Ask Your Experienced Colleagues
Meet with your Head of Department/Director of studies and ask for her advice. It
may be that last year’s group first tackled a group theme/project, e.g. My family.
This would be a great start, and you’d have a pretty good idea of the type of lexis
you could use.
2. Meet With Last Year’s Teacher
Meet with the teacher who taught last year’s beginner class if he is available. Ask
for his advice.
3. Observe The Previous Year’s Class
If points 1 or 2 don’t work out, ask the teacher who is now teaching the class who
were beginners last year if you can sit in on some of her classes, if possible, to see if
you can get a grasp of what they learned in the previous year.
With her permission, carry out a simple needs analysis to see what relevant lexis
and chunks they learned.
4. Find Out How They Spend A Typical Day
Find out from your teaching colleagues, as best and as soon as you can, what a
typical day for a school child in your class looks like, for the age and level you will
be teaching. This will give you lots of information to help you in deciding what lexis
is relevant:
 Do some walk long distances to school?
 Do some travel on buses?
 Do they go shopping?
 Do any of them come from large families?
 What sports are they mad on, both for the girls and boys?
 Do they go to watch matches?
 What are the frequent types of food they eat?
And so on. Information like this is like gold dust and will keep you on track with the
content/themes you will major on and the relevant lexis to teach.
Remember: your focus is always on introducing language in meaningful contexts.
There’s little point in basing a theme around The World of Computers if few have
access to these.
Always keep asking yourself this question: What are the typical situations my
learner group get involved in? Your learners will find themselves in many situations
which will be typical for your group, e.g. going on a bus, buying something in a
shop, apologising for bumping into another learner in the school corridor, etc.
So, you need to make sure that you identify the critical situations for your learners
and include these in your content. As their language improves, you won’t need to
ask your colleagues. You can ask your learners about the kinds of things they do in
their normal daily life.
This will then guide you to the essential lexis you need to teach.
Identifying situations will lead you to introduce functions and exponents. Once this
happens, you won’t be worrying about what lexis you should be teaching. You’ll be
full of ideas. We will explore functions and exponents later.
5. Frequency Is Paramount
One significant factor in the selection of relevant lexis is the frequency of the word.
There would be little point in teaching words to your learners if they are rarely likely
to need them or use them.
In terms of language input, the frequency of lexis is accorded a high level of
significance. The rationale for this is quite simply that the most frequently occurring
words in the English language will be those which are most useful to learners.
For example, the beginner level of many series of coursebooks will have a basic
lexical syllabus formulated from the first 500 to 800 most frequently occurring
words in English.
Here is a list of what are purported to be the 200 most common speaking words in
English:

This table is merely a guide, and should only be viewed as such, but there is merit
in this. It gives you a rough guide to fundamental constructions and chunks that you
could first major on, e.g. I like.., I don’t like …
Then you would add in the new and relevant lexis to these constructions, e.g. I like
gazpachuelo malagueño, which would lead you on to introducing very pertinent
lexis in English such as fish, potatoes, mayonnaise, wine vinegar, shrimps, clams,
etc.
6. Research The L2 Language Reading Books
Let’s imagine that all your learners are native-Mandarin speakers in China.
Think outside the box, particularly with anything that can make your job easier. In
China, what Chinese reading books, pertaining to the age and level of your learners,
can you get your hands on, say, from a library or your learners?
These will help to indicate the level of Mandarin lexis for your group but, more
importantly, it will provide you with an indication of the type of lexis used at their
level, i.e. what words they have been learning in Mandarin. You may have to get a
Mandarin speaker to translate for you.
This will make your choice of relevant English lexis easier, and they will be able to
relate to the new English words easier when you show them you can speak some of
these words in Mandarin. Remember, though, not to overdo this translation-type
activity.
7. Remember The English Profile Programme
This will keep you on track when deciding which words are appropriate for the
learner’s CEFR level.
4.3.4. Appropriate Lexis
You wouldn’t be taking this course if you were not regarded as being a person with
integrity.
Choosing appropriate language is all down to your integrity, and you can work out
much of this for yourself. For example, if your first class is a beginner class, you can
work out that it wouldn’t be sensible:
 to give lexis which is outside of their interests, needs and view of their world
 to give beginners long and complex words with several syllables
 to introduce them to words that relate to cognitive concepts such
as analyse. It’s much too soon for that.
 to introduce them to any words which are recognised almost everywhere as
taboo for learners, e.g. certain parts of the male and female bodies
 to introduce many idioms, which are much too complicated for this stage
 to introduce many city-dwelling words if the learners are based in a rural
area, and viceversa
 to introduce words and ideas through words, which are outside of their
culture
A significant point to remember is the difference between surface culture and deep
culture.
Surface culture relates to topics such as the customs, food, holidays, places,
situations, famous people and traditions that are relevant to the learners’ local
context. Lexis for these activities would be very appropriate.
Deep culture issues relate to concepts such as attitudes, perceptions, and values.
Keep away from these in the early stages. There may be occasions where these can
be discussed with advanced learners.
The opportunities for being misunderstood, due to the learners’ lack of lexis,
meaning and the understanding of nuances in English, are enormous. Stay clear.
Always try to avoid getting bogged down with lexis in subjects which are regarded
as taboo in all but very advanced levels, e.g. religion and politics. Again, the
opportunities for being misunderstood are immense.
For example, if you were a royalist from the UK and proud to mention your Queen,
this could easily backfire on you in a country whose bloody history involved getting
rid of royalty. A learner could go home and state to his anti-royalist
parents/caregivers: We learn about queen. She very nice person. Everybody like
her.
So, be sensible and act with integrity. To save you from falling into traps like the one
above when, say, you are teaching in China, you should research China’s history
and make-up, using a reputable site such as The World Factbook
at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-worldfactbook/geos/
co.html
We will be delving further into cultural aspects a little bit later.
4.3.5. Types Of Language
1. Words And Chunks
When learners have listened to the English language for a large period of time, they
will gradually and naturally start to utter words and chunks of language they have
heard you say.
So, once they are comfortable with hearing the words, they will take the wonderful
step to say the words. You will notice this in different scenarios:
 Speaking out phrases and chunks they have learned through listening to you,
e.g. please, thank you, open book (to their friend), etc.
 Joining in with the Total Physical Response (TPR) activities you’ll use with
rhymes and songs, but now uttering some of the chunks. Learners listen to
rhymes, songs or stories, and mime to them without having to produce the
language. TPR links language learning to physical actions and ensures that
learners hear lots of English in meaningful contexts without having to say any
words. The key principle of TPR is that learners have lots of opportunities to
absorb the language before they have to say anything. Then they start to
repeat the words/chunks.
 Answering simple questions you ask them, e.g. Are all the books open? and
answering: Yes! or Yes, Miss, or Yes, Miss Brown or My open or Book open,
etc.
 Memorising short dialogues through time: How are you? I fine or See you!
 Introducing themselves: Me, Lucy.
And you’ll notice that they generally use them at the right times. For example, when
you always say Open your books, they’ll know what to do as you always say that
chunk after handing out the books.
Or, if you always say Bye, children at the end of the lesson and perhaps add a little
wave, they’ll recognise that this always happens when they leave so you must be
saying something like goodbye.
Of course, at this stage, they won’t be able to analyse your chunks into separate
words or understand what each of the words means on its own.
As adults, we all use chunks. These may vary a bit depending on our native-English
type, but these will demonstrate the point:
 See you later!
 Goodness me!
 What a (pleasant) surprise!
 That’s awesome!
 What’s up?
 What do you think?
 How do you feel about that?
These are called fixed chunks. They are all complete and ready to use at any time.
Other chunks are partially fixed – they are not complete, and they need some other
items or elements so that the whole chunk then makes sense. For example:
 What do you want to …?
 Where would you like to …?
 I like …
 I don’t like …
 Have you got …?
The critical point is that chunks, whether fixed or partially fixed, help learners to
produce their language output much faster. The learners don’t need to give any
thought to the individual words making up the chunk.
Grasping these chunks is a crucial step not just for building their lexical bank, but it
is vital for building up their knowledge and skills so that they can participate in
communication. To speak the new language, they need to participate.
Once they can participate, you can then guide them on how they can
participate.
Your next step is to build on this by introducing them to set phrases as chunks.
These will open up new horizons for them.
Your first step, of course, is to help them grasp the meaning of the chunks, then how
they can use these effortlessly in meaningful situations. Here are examples of the
types of chunks you’ll likely want to cover with them. You’ll be able to think of many
more. The chunks are underlined:
A: What do you want to do?
B: I want (to play, to play soccer, to sleep)
A: What do you like?
B: I like (football, sleeping, ice cream)
A: Do you like (cheese, tomatoes, apples or oranges)?
B: I like cheese.
A: Where are you going?
I’m going to (school, the cinema, the toilet, etc.)
A: What do you have (in your hand, in your bag, for tea)?
B: I have (a pen, a book, rice for tea)
A: Are you a (monkey, fly, flower) – as in a classroom guessing game, identifying a
mime)?
B: Yes, I’m a (monkey, fly, flower, etc.)
B: No, I’m a (caterpillar, teacher, snake, etc.)
These chunk structures need to be practised a lot, and they may seem repetitive to
you. But they are necessary. You should try to make them fun and ensure that they
are meaningful and can be used well, time after time by the learners.
Then you’ll really start to see them advance so long as you continue to introduce
them to other meaningful language they can use in their immediate world.
Examples: Chunks used by British tourists
To reinforce the importance of chunks, a useful example in the UK is the annual
holiday exodus that many make to Europe. Let’s use France as an example. In
general, UK holidaymakers don’t make a significant effort to learn foreign
languages. Maybe it’s because they think everyone should speak English.
Even although they may never have had any L2 input whatsoever, it’s interesting
how they pick up chunks to get over the meaning of what they want to have, do,
find out, etc. They learn these from their children, from listening to other British
tourists, from films etc.
It’s unlikely that many of the visitors would recognise the words written down or be
able to analyse the separate words in isolation. But they get by when meaning is
essential.
For France, most of them will have picked up:
 Avez vous … ? (Have you got …?) and they’ll fill in the word from a dictionary,
or mime.
 Où est …? (Where is …?) and they’ll fill in the words from a dictionary, or
mime.
 Quelle heure? (What time?) Here they ask the time but are not sure how to
finish off the sentence. However, it doesn’t matter since the meaning is
clear.
  Merci beaucoup! (Thank you very much)! Here, they use a whole chunk.
 S’il vous plaît. (Please.) An essential whole chunk.
2. Metaphors and similes
Learners need to get to grips with unusual language. Let’s consider metaphors and
similes.
Similes and metaphors are both used to make comparisons or elucidate concepts
but tackle these in a different form.
Metaphors state a comparison. Similes use the words like and as to make a
comparison.
 That country’s a melting pot. (metaphor)
 She’s the light of my life. (metaphor)
 The room is like a furnace. (simile)
 He is as bald as a coot. (simile)
The difficulty for L2 learners is understanding these expressions and, importantly,
using the correct wording. We don’t say That country’s a melting saucepan or She’s
the luminosity of my life.
This inability to use other words in these expressions demonstrates the collocations
that exist in all languages, where words seem to go together naturally. These are
constructions that your learners will have to learn bit by bit through study and
practice.
4.3.6. Lexis Activities And Exercises
Here are some practical options for presenting new lexical items. These
are best carried out in pairs or groups:
Context: Learners see the text that contains lexical items and deduce the meaning
of the item based on the surrounding language.
Miming or gesturing: Learners guess the meaning of a lexical item based on your
or another learner’s miming and gesturing.
Substitution drills: These kinds of drills enable learners to focus on structure
while learning related lexis. For example, a dialogue or sentence structure is first
taught, then learners substitute different content words.
Antonyms/synonyms: Learners match items from a list of synonyms or antonyms
to the word(s) in a text.
Hangman: The classic lexis game where learners choose letters to spell out the
lexical item in a limited number of rounds.
Odd-Man-Out: You list four words for your learners to analyse. Learners must
determine the relationship between the words and then explain why one word does
not belong.
Matching definitions: Learners match words to a list of definitions.
Gapped dictation: You read a text with some lexis missing, and the learners must
deduce what the lexical item is, based on the context.
Using dictionaries: These can be used for several reasons:
 Using the alphabet and placing words in alphabetical order
 Checking the pronunciation of new words
 Positioning the stress correctly
 Distinguishing different uses of the same word
 Distinguishing different meanings of words with the same spelling
 Checking the grammatical role of a word
 Identifying British and American spelling or meaning
 Checking on the formality or informality of a new word
Keeping a lexis record: Jotting down any new words. You can then use this as a
warmer exercise, a few days later, to check whether the word and its meaning and
usage have been embedded.
Using drawings/pictures: These can be used very effectively to teach lexis.
Labelling: Working in pairs or small groups, or pairs and then small groups, the
learners can, for example, label the various parts of a picture of a bicycle or the
parts of the body.
One learner alone may not possess all the lexis that is needed, but by working in
pairs or small groups they are likely to have a larger group of words. They can then
combine with another pair or small group to see if they have a complete list.
When teaching lexical items to learners, you should keep in mind that a learner’s
learning of a word means not only knowing its dictionary meaning but also
understanding its form, different connotations and its correct use.
Rather than simply giving learners the meaning of a lexical item, you need to make
sure that your learners understand the meaning.
To this end, you can help your learners develop effective lexis learning strategies.
You can also develop learner-centred presentation techniques, such as eliciting and
effective concept checking, which make lexis learning, and teaching, much more
engaging.
Recycling
Remember this!
All your excellent work may be undone if there is no recycling.
Recycling is where your learners meet and use a word several times so that
eventually it is remembered and recalled naturally.
Don’t just focus on your learners learning new words. Continue to recycle words
they have met already. This will help to ensure that words are embedded in their
long-term memories.
And remember this! Where your learners have learned a word successfully, and
enjoy using it, introduce them to other words in that lexical set. A lexical set can be
defined as a group of words embracing the same topic, function or form. For
example, recycling the word amazing will provide a solid foundation for introducing
them to a variety of words with somewhat similar meanings, e.g.
wonderful, great, fantastic, awesome and remarkable.
One of the best times to recycle lexis is during the warmer the next day. Here’s a
simple example.
Example
 Let’s say you covered a lexical set of fruit the previous day.
 Split the class into small groups of, say, three or four learners.
 Give them a real-life picture of fruit from their local marketplace. It contains
all the fruit they learned.
 In turns, a learner must identify and speak out one of the types of fruit you
covered the day before.
Rules: No repetition allowed. A learner can be challenged if others think he’s wrong.
Each learner has 3 lives. If they can’t identify and say a fruit name, they lose a life.
The winner is the last person to have a life left.
4.4. Connotation And Denotation
Connotation
Connotation refers to the associations, or positive or negative feelings, which a
lexical item evokes. It is an idea or feeling which a word invokes for a person in
addition to its literal or primary meaning, e.g. the word discipline has unhappy
connotations of punishment and repression for some people.
Words may have positive or negative connotations.
For example, consider the words childish, childlike and youthful. They have much
the same literal meaning, but they have different connotative
meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation as they often refer to
the immature behaviour of a person. On the other hand, youthful implies that a
person is lively and energetic.
Here are some other examples. Cultural and emotional associations shape their
suggested meanings:
 A dove has connotations of peace or gentility.
 Hollywood connotes such things as glamour, celebrity, and dreams of
stardom.
 Home suggests family, comfort and security.
 Politician often has a negative connotation of insincerity
while statesperson connotes sincerity.
 Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating.
‘Strong-willed‘ and ‘pig-headed‘ have much the same literal meaning – ‘stubborn‘.
However, strongwilled connotes some degree of admiration for the level of
someone’s will and drive (a positive connotation), while pig-headed connotes
frustration in dealing with someone (a negative connotation).
Denotation
Denotation is typically defined as the literal meaning or dictionary meaning of a
word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. If we compare the
following two statements with the first two examples above, you’ll see the
difference between connotation and denotation:
A dove denotes any of the various birds of the family Columbidae, having a heavy
body, small head, short legs, and long pointed wings: order Columbiformes. They
are typically smaller than pigeons.
Hollywood denotes a NW suburb of Los Angeles, California: the centre of the
American film industry. In literary works, it is common practice for writers to deviate
from the dictionary meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Even in
our daily conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words and
prefer connotative or associated meanings of words to convey our message better.
4.5. Appropriacy In Relation To Cultural Contextualisation
We mentioned ‘appropriate lexis’ above, but here our focus is on appropriacy in
relation to cultural contextualisation. A subtler aspect of meaning that often
needs to be introduced to learners is whether a particular item is appropriate for
use in a specific context.
Appropriacy of a piece of speech is measured against sociocultural norms.
However, the same piece of speech in one society’s culture may not be considered
appropriate in another culture.
Possible repercussions may arise from a learner saying words that could be viewed
as inappropriate in another culture and society.
For this reason, you must make your learners aware of possible cross-linguistic
problems.
Thus, your learners must know that a particular word or phrase is very common, or
relatively rare, or ‘taboo’ in, say, polite conversation. Or, perhaps, the word tends to
be used in writing but not in speech; or that it is more suitable in formal, than in
informal discourse.
For example, weep is virtually synonymous in denotation with cry, but it is more
formal and poetic, tends to be used in writing more than in speech, and is much less
common.
So far, we’ve focussed on the learner. But what about YOU?
Here’s what you need to know and reflect on to ensure you get cultural
contextualisation right the first time:
1. Remember this: Communication is culture-bound. The way an individual
communicates and the words and structures she uses emanate from her
culture.
2. Learners with different cultural norms are at risk if you have little knowledge,
sensitivity or appreciation of the diversity in communication styles. You may
perceive differences as problems and respond to learners’ diversity with a
negative attitude, low expectations and culturally inappropriate teaching and
assessment procedures.
3. Remember: Cultures vary internally and are changeable. There are usually
many cultural differences within a single race or nationality. Avoid
stereotyping your learners.
4. What is logical and essential in your culture, e.g. always tagging on please to
a request, or taking turns to speak, may seem irrational and unimportant to
learners in another culture.
5. In describing another culture’s language, teachers tend to stress the
differences and overlook the similarities. Do not fall into this trap.
 6. Avoid some inappropriate cross-cultural communication barriers:
 Be aware of words, images and situations that suggest that all or most
members of a racial group are the same.
 Be aware of possible negative implications of word/colour symbolism
and usage that could offend people or reinforce bias. For example,
terms such as black magic or black market can be offensive in some
cultures.
 Avoid words that have questionable racial or ethnic connotations. For
example, a phrase such as you people may have a racial overtone.
 Be aware that words, objects, characters and symbols may reflect
different beliefs or values for different groups. For example, the
Confederate flag and Uncle Remus stories may offend African
Americans because they reflect the culture of slavery and the Old
South.
 Be aware of different approaches to taking turns during conversations.
For example, some cultures frequently perceive ‘breaking in’ to
reinforce or disagree with another’s point of view to be perfectly
permissible, indeed desirable.
Cultures often have different standards/levels for loudness, silence, speed of
delivering a message, attentiveness and time taken to respond to another’s point.
For example, Far East societies place a high value on contemplation and tend,
therefore, to feel little responsibility to make immediate responses during
conversation.
Understanding another culture’s language is a continuous process.
4.6. Word Formation
If you are a native-English speaker, you’ve probably never given much thought to
word formation. However, as an EFL teacher, you must reflect on this. It will help
your learners greatly.
Lexical items, whether one-word or multi-word, can often be broken down into their
component ‘bits’, or morphemes.
A morpheme is defined as the smallest linguistic unit that has meaning. Let’s start
with the word approach and change it to unapproachable. The new
word unapproachable has three morphemes: un + approach + able.
The prefix is the part of a word that comes before the base. So, the prefix here
is un. Prefixes add to or alter the base word in some way. The
prefix un means not or opposite of, so by adding it to approachable, it has given the
word a negative meaning.
The base or stem of the word is approach. The base is the word or part of a word to
which prefixes and suffixes are attached to make new forms.
The suffix is that part of the word that comes after the base. So, the suffix here
is able. When we add a suffix, we make a new word out of the base. A suffix often
changes the base word from one-word class (part of speech) to another. So, for
example, the base word approach has now been made into an adjective by
adding able.
Another example is adding –ish to the noun child, which then makes childish, which
is an adjective.
So, we can see from this simple activity that:
 If a learner knows what the prefix means, she’ll be on her way to
understanding a part of an unfamiliar word.
 If the learner knows what the suffix generally indicates, she’ll be on her way
to identifying whether the word is a verb, adjective, adverb or noun, if there
isn’t any other evidence available.
 A little bit of guessing with the meaning of the base/stem may get her right to
the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
Note that the process of adding prefixes and suffixes comes under the umbrella
heading of affixation, which means the linguistic process speakers use to form
different words by adding morphemes.
You can find lists of common prefixes and suffixes on internet sites, etc.
Ensure your learners take care with a word that may appear to have a prefix, but it’s
not; for example, the prefix post, meaning after, is not the same post in postman.
Compounding
Many words have been formed by compounding. Compound words are typically
formed by combining two lexical items. These items can be two nouns, or a noun
and a verb, or a gerund and a noun. (A gerund is the –ing form of a verb used as a
noun, e.g. Smoking is not permitted.)
The resulting compounding can be in the form of a single word, as in the following
examples: bookcase; lifeguard; baseball. We can also create one word out of two
separate, sometimes hyphenated words, as in the following examples: follow-up;
white-collar; paper clip. Help your learners to understand word formation. This will
encourage them to take risks in forming words once they know the base word.
4.7. Word Relationships
The relationship between words can be an advantageous, practical way to present
lexical items.
These relationships will help them to expand their language and make it more
varied.
Synonyms
A synonym is a word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another word
or other words in a language. Synonyms can be any part of speech, but the words
used as synonyms must belong to the same part of speech. Here are a few
examples:
 preposition: on and upon
 verb: buy and purchase
 adjective: big and large
 adverb: quickly and speedily
Antonyms
These are items that mean the opposite; rich is an antonym of poor; big is an
antonym of small.
Hyponyms
These are items that serve as specific examples of a general concept. Dog,
cat and donkey are hyponyms of animal. Potatoes, carrots and onions are
hyponyms of vegetable.
4.8. Phrasal Verbs, Idioms And Collocations
These items exist in all languages. We never think of them as we acquire our native
language. However, for all L2 learners, these present enormous challenges when
learning English. There are few robust learning strategies you can present to them
so that they can learn these.
You need to explain these when they come up in the classroom and encourage them
to rote-learn other examples as much as possible.
1. Phrasal Verbs
We mentioned before that phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the
English language and are very challenging for learners. Sentences such as I put it
down to the weather, or I made it up with my sister, are usually gobbledegook to
beginner non-native-English speakers.
Phrasal verbs are composed of:
1. a verb, and
2. a preposition or adverb, or both, added to the verb.
The addition of the preposition or adverb often changes the meaning of the verb
entirely, for example:
look up – consult a dictionary for the meaning of a word (look a word up in a
dictionary) look for – seek, search for (look for her contact lens) look forward to –
await eagerly (look forward to meeting someone or attending an event)
There are no definitive rules that can explain how phrasal verbs are formed
correctly. Some linguists have tried to set out rules, but their efforts have not been
persuasive. Unfortunately for the learner of English, there are thousands of phrasal
verbs.
Teaching Phrasal verbs
Here is the method we use to teach phrasal verbs.
The key: Think of an everyday context and topic that applies to all of
them.
Ask yourself: What do all my learners do to some degree?
Choose a relevant and meaningful topic to bring out a tranche of related
phrasal verbs.
All your learners need to eat, be it at home or in a café/restaurant. They may either
buy the food or make the food or watch their parents or friends making food.
All your learners are likely to use a phone to different degrees.
All your learners need to shop.
Most of the communicative functions are the same, e.g. Do you have …?; I would
like a thing that …; Can you show me a selection …? All these will include relevant
and appropriate phrasal verbs in everyday use.
All your learners need to travel from school to home, be it on foot, by bus, etc.
Again, all these events will include relevant and appropriate phrasal verbs in
everyday use.
Example
Let’s choose ‘Making a Sandwich’ as the topic. All learners will likely have had some
experience of this, either making a sandwich themselves or watching their parents
or siblings doing this in the kitchen.
You could use your teacher’s table as the kitchen top and use plastic vegetables for
your demonstration.
Here are some of the phrasal verbs that you could plan to bring out:
 peel off (fruit or vegetable skin)
 fry up (breakfast or vegetables)
 slice off (meat from the bone)
 cut up (into slices)
 cut off (fat)
 chop up (into small pieces or cubes)
 boil away (the water boiling in the pan for a set time)
 boil over (the water boiling over because there’s too much heat)
You would explain these, get them to repeat the sound, write what’s necessary on
the board and handle any queries. The learners could role-play a simple scenario of
making a sandwich explaining to each other what they are doing and who should do
what next. You could also reinforce these later by, say, a gap-fill exercise or a short
written piece on ‘How to Make the Perfect Sandwich’.
Then, perhaps, you could bring in some dictionary work which would add to the
phrasal verbs which they can use in this context.
And you could encourage them to use these phrasal verbs at home. You could ask
their parents or caregivers to encourage the learners to do the activity while
explaining to the parents or caregivers what they are doing.
This is how to do it, focussing on meaningful language they can frequently
use in familiar everyday contexts.
2. Idioms
These are a series of fixed lexical items that have their own figurative meaning
which is different from their literal component elements.
That is, an idiom is a phrase (a group of words), where the words joined together
have a different meaning from the dictionary definitions of the individual words.
Idioms are tricky for EFL learners. For example:
 We’ll get that contract. That’s a given. I’m not sure about the other one.
 He knew he had done wrong, and the only choice left was for him to go back
to them, cap in hand.
 There was absolute silence. You could cut it with a knife.
Introduce these as necessary but only one at a time on separate occasions. They
must be introduced in context. Take care to ensure that an idiom does not have an
alternative rude or offensive connotation.
3. Collocations
This is an arrangement of two or more words or other elements, especially those
that commonly co-occur: rancid butter, bosom buddy, or dead serious. These
combinations sound ‘right’ to native English speakers, who use them frequently.
Other combinations/constructions seem unnatural and just sound ‘wrong’. For
example:
 We say fast food but not quick food.
 We say quick shower but not fast shower.
 We say Let’s have a quick meal but not Let’s have a fast meal.
Why is this? Nobody knows!
4.9. Language Functions
When discussing Lexis, we mentioned the need for you to find out the various
situations that learners are involved in, so that you then have a reliable indicator of
what lexis you should then teach.
Once the key situations have been identified, the typical English language in these
situations can be identified and added to the content. Your focus will be on functions
and exponents.
4.9.1. Examples Of Functions
We’ve mentioned these before, and we mention them again. They are so important.
A function is the communicative purpose we have for speaking, the reason why we
say or write something, e.g. agreeing, offering to help, requesting, apologising,
complaining, inviting and asking permission, when we are in a particular situation.
Functions are sometimes also called ‘situational language’ because the situation or
context in which they are used is critical.
4.9.2. Exponents
An exponent is the language we use to express the function. Sometimes the
exponent is a set phrase, for example, Sorry, I don’t quite follow that, or sometimes
it is placed at the beginning of a sentence that could have a variety of different
endings – for example, Do you mind if I …?; Please can I …?; If I were you, I would
…; You should …
To choose the right exponent, we need to think about:
 the situation
 what the function is
 who the audience is
 the relationship of the speaker and receiver of the message
Remember: One function can be expressed through several different exponents,
e.g.
 Coming for lunch?
 Shall we have lunch?
 What about lunch on Sunday?
The words that are used will depend on the context. Exponents express various
levels of formality.
Examples: linking situation + function + exponents
1. Situation: Your learner Cristina has toothache.
  Function: She needs to ask permission to go home.
 Exponent: Please, Miss, may/can I go home? I have got toothache.
2. Situation: Your learner Chen sees an old lady having difficulty crossing a busy
road.
 Function: He wants to find out if he can help her.
 Exponent: Excuse me, Madam, can/may I help you across the road?
3. Situation: Your learner Brett arrives at the ticket office in the bus station.
 Function: He needs to buy a ticket to Edinburgh.
 Exponent: Please may I have a ticket to Edinburgh?
Let’ try another example from the Business English arena.
Example: Linking Situation + Function + Exponents
Situation: Here is a typical business situation. Cristina’s boss, Chen, has asked her
to attend a conference with the specific aim of chatting to attendees, telling them
about his business and persuading them to think about buying from his business.
Cristina is a non-native-English speaker and won’t know any of the attendees. In this
socialising situation, one of the things (functions) she’ll need to conquer is
introducing herself to people she doesn’t know (using the right language, i.e. the
right exponents).
Situation: Socialising at an event
Function: Introducing herself to people she doesn’t know in a socialising situation
Exponents: The language she needs to learn to help her start the conversation:
 Excuse me, could you explain this to me? My English is not so good. (This
may be a little white lie, but it’s an excellent conversation starter. People are
always willing to help, and this will lead to further discussion about her
English being good, where she comes from, etc.)
 Hello! (Hi!) My name’s Cristina. Is it OK if I join you (your group)?
 Excuse me. Do you mind if I join you?
 Are you here on your own or with a group?
 Do you know many people are here tonight?
 Is this your first time here?
 Have you travelled far?
 Sorry, do you have a light?
 Sorry, could you pass me the sugar?
  Are you giving a presentation?
 Are you enjoying the presentations?
4.9.3. Functions In CLT
Reflect on these key points:
The concept of communicative language stresses that teaching grammar alone will
not prepare learners for using the language independently.
This method of teaching proposes that learners need to understand the meaning
and the communicative function of a language to learn the language.
Communication goals can be conveyed in terms of situations/contexts, functions
and exponents. You plan the situation (e.g. buying a ticket at the station) within
which learners will be able to use their language for a purpose in the classroom.
These functions represent the basic units underlying a communicative system more
realistically than the categories of lexis and grammar, which may be taught
detached from communicative contexts.
Communicative functions are a big part of CLT since they promote authentic
communication. As mentioned before, you won’t need to worry about what lexis you
need to cover once they are ready for learning communicative functions.
When teaching functions and exponents, you need to:
 make the context (situation) clear to learners
 establish the relationship between the speakers in the activity
 highlight the grammatical form
 ensure the meaning is understood
 provide learners with plenty of controlled oral practice
A textbook grounded in the Communicative Approach will guide you through the
situation/context, function to be addressed and the exponents, i.e. the words used.
You must understand the concept of language functions. You also need to recognise
the importance that is placed on the learner’s need to be familiar with a wide range
of functions and their exponents to communicate effectively. Additionally, a
functional approach to teaching language helps you leverage real-world, authentic
contexts in which to present and to have learners practise other language skills and
systems, such as reading, writing, lexis and grammar.
4.10. Language Analysis
4.10.1. Form, Meaning And Use
Aim to balance form, meaning, and use. Learners must understand not only the
mechanics of the language, but also the how, why, when and where a particular
structure, word, or phrase gets used.
1. Form
Form refers to the visible (what is seen)) and audible (what is heard) parts of lexis
and functional expressions. This includes the words in a phrase, the spelling, the
phonemes, the syllable stress, the prefixes or suffixes, the word order (syntax), the
choice of noun or verb, etc. for a particular place in a sentence, and punctuation.
It refers to the mechanics of the language, either in terms of grammar or lexis. With
regards to grammar, learners (and you) must understand the sentence structure of
a specific grammar rule.
It answers the question: How is the lexis unit, functional expression, or grammar
structure formed?
2. Meaning
There are two aspects of meaning:
1. the literal meaning (the usual or most basic sense) of the word(s) or phrase
or functional expression or grammar structure
2. the meaning in the context (situation) it’s being used?
For example:
 He’s wearing a red shirt. (red=colour)
 His face is red; he’s been lying on the beach for too
long. (red=sunburnt)
Meaning is the comprehension or mental image that is created by the word(s) or
phrase or functional expression or grammar structure. Learners connect the
structure with the meaning. For example, the future tense signals events that will
take place in the future.
Once you have presented the structure, you should talk about the meaning too.
It answers the question: What meaning does the lexis, functional expression or
grammar structure have in the (specific) context?
3. Use
This is how the grammar or lexis gets used.
The word(s) or phrase or functional expression or grammar structure we choose to
use are determined by the situation (context) we are in and what we want to
communicate to our listener(s). Use is interconnected with meaning.
For example: As you know, Good morning! or Morning! is a typical greeting we use
with family, friends, our neighbours, our boss, etc. when we see/meet them before
noon.
However, let’s shift the same greeting to the afternoon. If we say Good
morning! or Morning! to a family member, when he gets up in the afternoon
(because he was out too late the night before), we are being ironic or perhaps
indicating a degree of disapproval. It’s unlikely we would ever say this to our boss
when she comes in late!
It answers the question: When or why is the lexis, functional expression or grammar
structure used?
Remember! This does not mean you should stand in front of the class delivering
one grammar point after another in the hope that your learners will then be able to
produce it. The form and meaning of a structure need to be integrated into the
lesson through topics, situations and functions for them to be learned effectively
and to be used.
But, the structure of a language item and its use are, of course, essential and will
still need to be presented to your class.
4.10.2. Analysing Language Items Before And During Class
Hopefully, in this Section, you will see the value of the points we have included
above on pronunciation, lexis, functions and form, meaning and use.
We included all these areas not just to make you more informed. Together with
other knowledge and tools you will study in the grammar Sections, we intend to get
you ready and confident for analysing language.
You don’t need to be an expert – all you need to have is the motivation to get to
grips with all of it. A bit at a time.
Why would you want to be able to analyse the language you are teaching?
1. Before A Lesson
Before introducing a new structure, you’ll want to do your analysis during your
lesson planning stage. You might consider some questions like these:
 What is the form?
 Is this a ‘rule’?
 Are there exceptions to the rule?
 Do I need to introduce new (grammar) terminology, i.e. metalanguage,
language about language, e.g. noun, determiner, etc. – or not?
 How can I take them from the past to the past perfect tense?
 Is the form static?
  Are there any irregularities in form?
 How can I best explain the meaning?
 How can it be used? How does the context affect it?
This kind of analysis will ensure you are fully prepared and have planned well to
ensure the smooth running of your lesson. The learners may still have some
difficulty with the new item, but they’ll know they are in safe hands with you.
2. During A Lesson
Being able to analyse language competently will help you to resolve quickly any
language issues which arise. Competence in this gives you a great feeling. Let’s
imagine that any of the following come up out of the blue during a lesson (they
will!):
 She has many magasine.
 My father drives a car very big and fast.
 I needs some informations about the trip.
 My sister has got a long blond hair.
 Most of Canadians speak a few French.
 I go town this afternoon
 Horse is in field.
 I have an idea. It just came out of the black.
Some of these mistakes/errors are more serious than others. We’ll discuss the
difference between ‘mistakes’ and ‘errors’ later in the course. For now, though, let’s
agree that I needs some informations about the trip needs to be resolved
immediately.
There are two different issues, and you may choose only to tackle one of them at
once. Most teachers would agree that needs has to be addressed right away. In any
case, you can’t cover two quite tricky concepts at the same time. So, you can come
back to informations later.
The point is this. How do you approach this if you don’t have the
knowledge and the tools to do so?
You can’t just say: We say need, Huong. Will she think this is only for the
word need or can she apply this rule to other ‘’I’ situations with other verbs? Or
might she think she shouldn’t ever say needs, so she may then say he need.
By being able to express the reason, clearly, and succinctly, as to why she should
say I need, both the learner and you will be delighted. Your study in the analysis of
language will have served you well.
What are the concepts and tools you need in your analytical toolbox? Well, you’ll
need to have a solid grasp of everything mentioned in this Module along with other
concepts we have covered and will cover in the grammar Module. Then you’ll be
fine, and you’ll feel good.
You’ll hear some new and inexperienced teachers saying things like: I get
by OK without much language analysis or grammar knowledge. Oh really?
What a lot of nonsense! We wonder then how the learners will get by in
their learning.
Well done! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will
help you better understand some critical English language essentials
which will come up in your classroom.
And there’s lots more to come!
Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 4.
It’s not too challenging. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 5, where we will explore the world of
grammar. We will be covering a lot, so take your time and get it right the
first time. You already speak and write the English language, so it
shouldn’t be too challenging. Much of grammar is simply common sense.
Module 5: Taking Control Of English Grammar
5.1 Grammar
Remember: If you are unsure about any aspect of grammar, take a look at
the reliable recommendations sources we listed at the beginning of Module
4.
In the teaching grammar arena, it’s often said that there are two kinds of teachers:
 those who worry about teaching grammar, and
 those who don’t
It’s as plain and simple as that.
Those who worry about teaching grammar probably don’t have a full grasp of it.
We’ve observed teachers who have allowed themselves to get into this stressful
situation.
Some often use delaying tactics such as: We’ll come back to that later, but they
seldom do.
Or they stand by some unfounded principle that communication is king and
grammar is not essential. Oh, really?
Or they wing it, and learners get confused.
Even from the point of view that it makes for a happier life inside the classroom,
knowing and understanding grammar is an excellent skill.
More than that, though, is the satisfying feeling that we are helping learners on their
language journey and we’re doing as best as we can to ensure that they get to their
destination.
5.1.1. What Do We Mean By The Term ‘Grammar’?
The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which
words are ordered and changed to form a sentence.
Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.
 Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish
to write ‘correct’ English.
 Descriptive grammar describes how language is used in the real world.
We must explore prescriptive and descriptive approaches because you need to
decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.
Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write
‘correct’ English. Sometimes, these ‘rules’ are based on observation of how
‘educated’ speakers use the language. At other times, they are based on what the
speaker was taught at school, many moons ago.
For example: My teacher always said you should never start a sentence
with And or But. Oh, really?
Prescriptive grammar rules are the ‘right’ rules, according to some ‘experts’.
Prescriptive rules make a judgement about how and why an utterance is correct or
not.
Descriptive grammar aims to describe how language is actually used in the real
world.
Descriptive ‘rules’ accept the patterns a speaker uses and attempts to account for
them. Descriptive rules allow for varieties in a language; a construction is not
ignored because some prescriptive grammarian doesn’t like it.
Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive grammar
is a reaction to the way people speak and is accepting of alternative, less nit-picking
forms.
Descriptive rules also tend to change because language itself is always changing.
Have a look at these example sentences:
1. Let’s Start At The Very Beginning.
Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because
the beginning is a specific start point, and you can’t make it any more specific.
However, descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken
English. So, we’ll align with the descriptive side, and we’ll keep very in.
2. That’s Absolutely True.
Native speakers also say absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules of grammar
would tell us that this is wrong because you can’t have anything stronger than true.
Something cannot be more true. However, again, descriptive rules say that this type
of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive
side.
3. Whom Do You Wish To Speak To?
Proponents of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine.
Proponents of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we should
never end a sentence with a preposition, they say. To satisfy the prescriptive group,
we would need to change this to: To whom do you wish to speak?
To us, this seems cumbersome and outdated, so we’re happy with the
construction: Whom do you wish to speak to? But you decide which is best.
4. You Must Not Start A Sentence With And Or But.
How often have we heard this? Thousands of times. Let’s have a look at this
prescriptive rule a bit further by exploring these sentences:
Sentence 1: It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those
amendments go far enough?
Sentence 2: It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those
amendments go far enough?
Sentence 1 fits with the prescriptive rule. Sentence 2 does not and fits with the
descriptive approach. There’s no doubt in our minds that Sentence 2 creates a more
powerful effect. The introductory conjunction But gives more weight to the thought
expressed in the sentence and is more emphatic.
So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side.
However, don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not
important:
1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard
and acceptable form of a language that is accepted and recognised by most
speakers of that language. By doing so, this allows us to be understood by
the highest possible number of individuals.
2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign
language. It just wouldn’t work if there were no guidelines for English
grammar.
3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn and
accept the rules of the standard dialect and use them in appropriate social
circumstances – if they wish to.
Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not accepted by
many groups and can inhibit a person’s progress in society, and business.
Here are some standard prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t exist,
there would be lots of confusion:
 The subject in a sentence must always agree with the verb. We mustn’t
say: He go to school.
 In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t
working. I need to get someone to fix it.
 Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It was I who phoned you NOT It was
me who phoned.)
 Always use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical
areas but not before the names of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far
East; Lake Superior, Europe).
Being able to distinguish between the two approaches is crucial since you will need
to ensure that your learners are familiar with critical prescriptive grammar rules,
while also alerting them to alternative or more informal descriptive uses.
Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which probably
suggests that both approaches have their strengths and weaknesses.
So, you need to decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.
5.1.2. Key Reasons For Teaching Grammar
1. Metalanguage
Grammar is essential because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk
about language (called metalanguage); for example, noun, verb, tense, subject.
It enables us to talk about how sentences are built, and about the types of words
and word groups that make up sentences. This is ‘knowing’ about grammar. People
always seem to associate grammar with errors and correctness. But knowing about
grammar also helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear and
engaging and precise.
If your learners understand grammar and put it into practice, there are great
possibilities that they can construct language that others will understand. The more
they know and understand, the better they will communicate and make themselves
understood.
2. Comprehensible Communication
When we know how to build certain structures and know-how and when to use
these structures, it enables us to make understandable communication. Without
these structures, there may be little comprehension.
3. Acceptability
However, there is often a need for more than just comprehensible (understandable)
communication.
We alluded to this a few moments ago when we said that non-standard dialects are
still frowned upon and not accepted by many groups and can inhibit a person’s
progress in society, and business.
Any divergence from the usual or accepted standards in a society may hinder
integration and even produce a form of prejudice.
So, your learners need to be inspired and motivated to strive for more than just
comprehensible communication, particularly where potential employers and
examiners require grammatical competence. Grammatical competence is the goal.
However, remember this! All of the above will depend on the learners’ situations
and aims. You will need to decide on what elements of grammar are necessary to
meet these situations and aims.
And remember this! Your role is to teach communicative English and not just
teach grammar. There’s just no point in going on and on about modal structures per
se if learners can’t go into a café and say: Can I have a cappuccino, please?
5.1.3. Myths About Teaching Grammar
1. Grammar Is Boring.
 Not if you are creative.
 Not if you avoid repetition of models delivered repetitively and boringly.
2. I Don’t Know Enough To Teach Grammar.
 You’ll know more than they think.
 Feelings are often based on past experiences of learning grammar
traditionally.
 What better way is there to learn it than by teaching it?
 The more creative and enthusiastic you become, the more your grammar
lessons will become stimulating and enjoyable.
3. I Can Wing It
If we try to get by winging it, we’re doing a disservice to our learners. In the end,
will they come out saying I’m not knowing that because the teacher didn’t put in the
effort? Let’s hope any ‘Winging-It’ teachers don’t continue that habit of winging it
when they later become taxi drivers or airline pilots. We wouldn’t want to travel
with them at the wheel.
5.2 English Language Grammar
5.2.1. Word Classes (9 Parts Of Speech)
In grammar, all the words that we use in everyday communication can be classified
into specific word groups. The classification is based on the way the word is used
grammatically. We call these groups word classes or parts of speech. We’ll use
the term word class as the term parts of speech is a bit dated.
So, for example, lion, which is a noun (a naming word), will be classified under the
noun class. It all seems nice and easy. However, some words can belong to more
than one class:
 I am looking forward to Grisham’s next book. (noun, a naming word for
people, places and things)
 Thank goodness! It’s time to book our holiday. (verb, a doing word)
We use a combination of three criteria for determining what class a word belongs
to:
1. The meaning of the word
2. The form of the word – its shape and structure
3. The position of the word in a sentence. This is also called the
word’s environment.
There are nine word classes in English:
 Verbs
 Nouns
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Interjections**
 Conjunctions
 Determiners
 Prepositions
 Pronouns
** Interjections are a small group of ‘words’. They are used to express emotions
such as pleasure, surprise, shock and disgust. Many interjections are sounds, rather
than actual words, and come at the beginning or at the end of what we say.
Linguists continually debate whether this is a class or not. Just in case you teach in
a school where nine classes is the rule, we have included interjections as a class.
We shall explore every one of these classes. It is critical that:
  you can identify each class
 you know what each class means
 you know how to use these individual words
Word classes can be classified into two groups:
1. The Major/Lexical (Or Open) Word Class
The five major word classes are:
 Verbs
 Nouns
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Interjections
They are termed major or lexical because they carry most of the content or
meaning of a sentence.
They are also called open because new words can still be added to these classes.
For example, recent new nouns added to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary include:
 crowdfunding: obtaining funding (as for a new enterprise) by asking for
contributions from a large number of people, especially from the online
community
 freegan: an activist who scavenges for free food (as in waste receptacles at
stores and restaurants) as a means of reducing consumption of resources
 catfish: a person who sets up a false social networking profile for deceptive
purposes
2. The Minor Or Grammatical (Or Closed) Word Class
The four minor word classes are:
 Conjunctions
 Determiners
 Prepositions
 Pronouns
They are termed minor or grammatical because they tend to perform grammatical
functions such as relating expressions to each other: for example, of relates the
hill to brow in brow of the hill.
These are also called closed classes as no new words will be added to these groups
in the future.
They are sometimes referred to as structure words because their function is to
contribute to the structure of phrases, clauses and sentences, rather than to add to
the meaning content. Note that:
 A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small
group of words, that forms a meaningful unit within a sentence.
 A phrase does not consist of a subject and a verb.
 A clause is a group of words that typically has its own subject and verb.
Here are the word classes, with short explanations to whet your appetite. Take
your time as you explore these, they’re not difficult to grasp.
1. Verb
This is a word or phrase that describes an action, condition or experience.
 They are often called ‘doing’ words.
 Verbs are categorised as doing verbs (e.g., read; study) or being or linking
verbs, which also encompass feeling (e.g., be; feel).
 Verbs are conjugated. To conjugate is to list the different forms of a verb that
show number, person, tense, etc. (e.g., I eat; He eats)
 They can be transitive, i.e. taking a direct object (He throws the ball). Note
that a direct object is the person or thing that receives the action of a verb.
 Or they can be intransitive, where there is never an object (I live in
Shanghai.)
 Depending on the context, some verbs can be both.
2. Noun
A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, thing, occurrence, quality or
substance. It’s often called a naming word.
Nouns function as:
 a subject (The baby is crying)
 an object (Juan threw the ball)
 a complement of a verb (Manuel is a fireman)
Remember! A compliment is simply a word or group of words (a phrase) added to
a sentence to make it complete. Complements usually tell us more about the
subject, e.g. what it is, how it feels, or what it is like. Here is a complement
consisting of a noun phrase:
He became a better worker.
Nouns also come after prepositions in a prepositional phrase (It is on the table.).
Nouns can further be categorised as:
 common: city; man
 proper: Beijing; Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Proper nouns name a specific
person, place, event, or thing. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
 countable: cat; city. Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form (cats;
cities). Countable nouns refer to things that can be counted.
 uncountable: mud, snow, butter. These do not regularly have a plural form
and are called uncountable. Abstract nouns are normally uncountable,
e.g. happiness, dread, darkness, information, furniture.
3. Adjective
Adjectives are words that refer to qualities of people, things or ideas or which group
them into classes. They are often called ‘describing’ words.
Key points:
• Most adjectives can be linked with a noun and usually come immediately
before the noun,
e.g. a red car, a fast car. These adjectives are said to modify the
noun. Remember: A modifier is any word or group of words that changes or
adds to the meaning of another word.
 Most adjectives can follow verbs like to be, to seem, to appear, e.g. She
seemed happy. In sentences like this, the adjective forms the complement of
the sentence and completes the meaning of the sentence subject.
 Many adjectives are gradable. They can be graded by adding a modifier
before or after them, e.g. a very fast car. Others are non-gradable, i.e. you
cannot add a modifier, e.g. They split up after 20 years. They
are very divorced (incorrect).
 Many adjectives have a comparative and superlative form, e.g. big, bigger,
biggest; unusual, more unusual, most unusual
 When two nouns are placed together, the first one functions as an adjective,
as in hair products or learner groups.
4. Adverb
This is a word that describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective or
phrase.
Adverbs have several elements. They are often used as adverbials, providing
information about, for example, time, manner and place:
 Time: soon, already, still
 Manner: easily, fast, slowly
  Place: here, away, somewhere
They can also be used as modifiers. They can modify verbs:
He speaks fast.
They can modify adjectives and thus form adjective phrases:
 You are terribly wrong.
 That was very easy.
They can modify other adverbs to make adverb phrases:
He speaks quite fast.
Adverbs can also function as transition phrases (Consequently, he had to move to
Paris.)
We all learned that adverbs end in –ly, but also remember those other endings such
as -wise, as in clockwise. Also, all words that end in -ly are not adverbs. Take the
words lovely and weekly: these are adjectives since the root word
form, love and week, are nouns; adding -ly makes them adjectives.
5. Interjection
We use interjections to express spontaneous emotions or reactions such as
pleasure, surprise, shock and disgust.
An interjection is an utterance on its own, and it may be just a sound rather than a
word.
This class includes such things as exclamations (great!, awesome!, ouch!, wow!),
greetings (hi!, hey!
bye!), responses (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), and hesitation fillers (uh, er, um).
6. Conjunction
This is a word such as and, but, or, while, and although that connects words,
phrases and clauses in a sentence.
Conjunctions show a connection between words. The most used conjunctions
are and, but, and or:
 Chen and Chung
 slowly but surely
 fast or slow
But they can also connect longer units:
 Chen plays football, and Chung plays the guitar.
 I play the guitar, but I don’t play well.
  We can go now, or we can wait till later.
Conjunctions fall into two groups:
Coordinating Conjunctions
These link items that have equal status/importance grammatically:
 Uncomfortable but happy
 Apple pie or jelly
 Their parents arrived, and they called room service.
 I thought it would snow, but it didn’t.
The commonest coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but
Subordinating Conjunctions
If the two items being linked do not have equal status/importance grammatically,
then a subordinating conjunction is used. Most commonly, this happens in complex
sentences when a main clause is connected to a subordinate clause:
Complex sentence: Businesses fail because they can’t pay their bills.
 Businesses fail (main clause)
 because (subordinating conjunction)
 they can’t pay their bills. (subordinate clause)
Another example: I passed the test although I didn’t study.
Other subordinating conjunctions include before, since, till, unless, whereas,
whether.
Note that others consist of two or more words, e.g. as if, as soon as, as long as, in
that, in order that, so that, such that:
The burglars ran away as soon as they heard the alarm.
7. Determiner
In grammar, this is a word that is used before a noun to show which particular
example of the noun we are referring to.
These are words that ‘determine’ the nouns that follow them.
For example, articles are determiners (The cat is drinking milk). In this case, ‘the’ as
a determiner tells us that the cat is specific, defined.
Possessive adjectives (not to be confused with possessive pronouns), such as my,
your, his are also determiners.
Essentially, anything that serves to qualify and quantify a noun is a determiner.
Here are some common determiners:
a an the
this that these those
some any no
my our your his her its their many few little much other last next one two
three, etc.
first second third, etc.
all both
half third, etc.
8. Preposition
This is a word that is used before a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, connecting it
to another word.
These are typically paired with nouns to form prepositional phrases. For
example: The letter is on the table. Prepositions give learners lots of problems,
particularly when they are linked to more than one preposition, as in out of and in
spite of or in the face of.
English has many prepositions, much more than many other languages. Most
English prepositions have multiple meanings. Also, many are monosyllabic and are
thus difficult to pick up in rapid speech.
Also, non-native speakers cannot depend on prepositional knowledge from their first
language. For example, the Spanish por could be expressed in English by the
prepositions by, for, during and through. You can see the potential for error when
learners are attempting to use English prepositions.
9. Pronoun
This is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase (a group of words built
upon a single noun).
Pronouns replace nouns or noun phrases and, similar to nouns, function as subject,
object, object of a preposition, or complement. Pronouns have different categories:
 subject pronouns (I, he, we)
 object pronouns (me, him, us)
 demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
 possessive pronouns (his, hers, ours, theirs)
 reflexive pronouns: (myself, yourself, himself, ourselves)
5.2.2. Verb Tenses
There are 12 tenses in English. They are all in the chart below. They’re not difficult.
Examples of constructions are given in each box. Study these carefully and get to
grips with the name of the tense and its construction.
So, what is tense?
Tense refers to the location of an event or action in time. There is an inflection of
the verb in the present and past tenses. Remember from before: Inflection is the
name given to an additional letter or additional letters added to nouns, verbs and
adjectives in their different grammatical forms, e.g. cat, cats; eat, eats; big, bigger
Cristina cycles to the gym. (Present tense)
Cristina cycled to the gym. (Past tense)
Reference to other times – the future, for instance – can be made in a number of
ways, by using the modal auxiliary will, or the semi-auxiliary be going to.
Remember from before: For us to use tenses and some passive forms, we need
to use auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs.
The verbs be, do and have are the most common auxiliary verbs.
For example, the auxiliary do is needed to ask questions in the present and past
simple tenses.
The verb be is necessary for the present and past continuous, and all the passive
forms.
The auxiliary have is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses
need more than one auxiliary (e.g. the present perfect continuous),
Here is the tense chart. Study it well and keep it by your side.
Time to reflect
Go to a comfortable, quiet place to study the tense chart. It’s not difficult;
it just takes a bit of time if you’re a little bit rusty. Take some time out to
make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.

Twelve tenses in modern English

A. There are three simple tenses:
1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs
2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred
3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur
B. There are three perfect tenses
4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has occurred relative to
the present
5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative to the
past
6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have occurred relative
to the future.
C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses:
7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is
occurring in the present
8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was
occurring in the past
9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will be
occurring in the future
10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or
condition has been occurring relative to the present
11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition had
been occurring relative to the past
12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or
condition will have been occurring relative to the future.
Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)
With regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the
third person singular (he, she, it).

Subject Verb Stem

I like

you (singular) like

he/she/it likes
 we like

you (plural) like

they like

Positive: You like Real Madrid.

Question: Do you like Real Madrid?
Negative: You do not like Real Madrid.
Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past Tense)
This tense refers to actions in the past. With regular verbs, it is formed by adding –
ed to the verb stem (or -d if the verb stem already ends in e):

Subject Verb Stem (adding –ed) Verb stem (adding -d)

I requested liked

you (singular) requested liked

he/she/it requested liked

we requested liked

you (plural) requested liked

they requested liked

Positive: You played tennis.

Question: Did you play tennis?
Negative: You didn’t play tennis.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → became,
blow → blew, catch → caught. These have to be learned.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be,
i.e. was and were, is used:
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment?
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 1
For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem:

Subject will, shall Verb Stem

I ‘ll, will, and shall close the door.

you (singular) ‘ll, will close the door.

he/she/it ‘ll, will close the door.

we ‘ll, will, and shall close the door.

you (plural) ‘ll, will close the door.

they ‘ll, will close the door.

Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, e.g. I’ll and We
shan’t. Shall is less common in American English than British English.
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday

Question: Will you see her on Sunday?

Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
With shall:
Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future
Tense) Form 2
Often called the going to future, this form is a combination of be + going to + verb
stem.
 Subject am/is/are going to Verb Stem

I am; ‘m going to object.

you (singular) are; ‘re going to object.

he/she/it is; ‘s going to object.

we are; ‘re going to object.

you (plural) are; ‘re going to object.

they are; ‘re going to object.

Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. I’m, you’re.
Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.
Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?
Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight.
Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is formed by joining the present tense of the
verb have with the past participle of the main verb.

Present Tense of the Past Participle of the Main

Subject
verb have Verb

the
I have washed
dishes.

you the
have washed
(singular) dishes.

the
he/she/it has washed
dishes.

the
we have washed
dishes.
 the
you (plural) have washed
dishes.

the
they have washed
dishes.

Note that we often use contractions when using have, e.g. I’ve and we’ve.
Positive: You have visited the Great Wall before.
Question: Have you visited the Great Wall before?
Negative: You have not visited the Great Wall before.
Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense
This tense is formed by had, which is followed by the past participle:

Subject had Past Participle of the Main Verb

I had failed again!

you (singular) had failed again!

he/she/it had failed again!

we had failed again!

you (plural) had failed again!

they had failed again!

Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t.
Positive: You had studied Mandarin before you went to China.
Question: Had you studied Mandarin before you went to China?
Negative: You hadn’t studied Mandarin before you went to China.
Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense
This is a tense formed by will have followed by the past participle.

Subject will have Past Participle of the Main Verb

 I will have finished my work by 7 pm.

you(singular) will have finished my work by 7 pm.

he/she/it will have finished my work by 7 pm.

we will have finished my work by 7 pm.

you (plural) will have finished my work by 7 pm.

they will have finished my work by 7 pm.

Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past
participle]:
Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Either form can usually be used.
Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present Progressive
Tense)
This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the present
participle of the main verb.

Subject am/is/are Present Participle of the Main Verb

I am drinking Coke.

you (singular) are drinking Coke.

he/she/it is drinking Coke.

 we are drinking Coke.

you (plural) are drinking Coke.

they are drinking Coke.

Positive: You are watching TV.

Question: Are you watching TV?
Negative: You are not watching TV.
Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the Past Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by the words was or were, which are followed by the present
participle of the main verb.

Subject was/were Present Participle of the Main Verb

I was drinking Coke.

you (singular) were drinking Coke.

he/she/it was drinking Coke.

we were drinking Coke.

you (plural) were drinking Coke.

they were drinking Coke.

Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.

Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?
Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.
Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive
Tense) Form 1
There are two forms.
Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by the present participle.
 Subject will be Present Participle of the Main Verb

I will be dining late.

you (singular) will be dining late.

he/she/it will be dining late.

we will be dining late.

you (plural) will be dining late.

they will be dining late.

Positive: You’ll be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?
Negative: You won’t be cooking dinner when they arrive.
Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future
Progressive Tense) Form 2
Form 2: This form is made up of: am/is/are + going to be + present participle

Subject am/is/are going to be Present Participle

I am going to be jogging to work.

you (singular) are going to be jogging to work.

he/she/it is going to be jogging to work.

we are going to be jogging to work.

you (plural) are going to be jogging to work.

 they are going to be jogging to work.

Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home?
Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.
Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to create
the Future Continuous tense. There’s not much difference.
Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Present
Perfect Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by joining the present perfect of the verb be and the present
participle of the main verb.

has/have Present Participle of the Main

Subject
been Verb

customers for nine

I have been serving
hours.

you customers for nine

have been serving
(singular) hours.

customers for nine

he/she/it has been serving
hours.

customers for nine

we have been serving
hours.

customers for nine

you (plural) have been serving
hours.

customers for nine

they have been serving
hours.

Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.

Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?
Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.
Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past Perfect
Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.

Subject had been Present Participle of the Main Verb

I had been waiting for four hours.

you (singular) had been waiting for four hours.

he/she/it had been waiting for four hours.

we had been waiting for four hours.

you (plural) had been waiting for four hours.

they had been waiting for four hours.

Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
arrived.
Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
arrived?
Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
arrived.
Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the present
participle.

Subject will have been Present Participle of the Main Verb

I will have been studying for three hours.

you (singular) will have been studying for three hours.

he/she/it will have been studying for three hours.

 we will have been studying for three hours

you (plural) will have been studying for three hours.

they will have been studying for three hours.

Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours.
Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours?
Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours.
Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is not used
as much as the usual form above.
Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you
get back.
Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time
you get back?
Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six hours by the
time you get back.
NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in
meaning. Remember to print off the tense chart and keep it close by you.
Unless, of course, you know it all off-by-heart!
5.3 Conditional Forms
Let’s first set out a short definition for the word clause: A clause is a part of a
sentence that typically has its own subject and verb.
A definition of a conditional clause would be something like this: This is a clause
which describes something possible or probable, depending on something else
happening.
Such clauses usually begin with if or unless. In the classroom, we often call these if-
clauses. They all focus on what may or may not happen and what might have
happened but didn’t happen. They express different degrees of reality.
There are set constructions for these, which learners need to grasp.
Examples
Note that we can put the if or unless clause before or behind the main clause.
 If it snows, we won’t get the car out.
 If we go now, we’ll arrive on time.
 I’m not going shopping unless Jane comes too.
 We’ll never succeed if we don’t study hard.
Note: If we put the condition before the main clause, we use a comma.
Here’s what you need to know:
1. Conditions Can Be Categorised As Real And Unreal
Real Conditions
With real conditions, we do not know if the condition is, will be or was true. Here are
some examples:
 If it rains tomorrow, I’ll stay in.
 If Lisa is coming to the party, you can tell her the news.
 I’m sure she’ll come if Chen has remembered to tell her.
Note: We cannot use will for future time in a condition:
 We say If it snows tomorrow … Not If it will snow tomorrow …(incorrect).
 We say If she’s coming Not If she will be coming (incorrect).
We sometimes use unless at the beginning of a condition:
 Unless it rains tomorrow, I’ll go for a walk.
 Unless she’s in Scotland, I’m sure she’ll come.
Unreal Conditions
With unreal conditions for present and future time, the condition is not true, or
probably will not be true. We use a simple or continuous verb formation.
 If Jane were coming to the party, you could tell her the news. (But Jane isn’t
coming; you can’t tell her.)
 I would have more cash in my pocket if I didn’t gamble. (But I do gamble; I
have less cash.)
 I’d phone Jane if only I could find her number. (But I can’t find her number; I
can’t phone her.)
 If I found a pile of money in the road, I’d hand it to the police. (I don’t expect
to find any; I’m imagining.)
For past time (the condition was not true), we use a perfect verb formation in the
condition:
 If Jane had come, you could have told her the news. (But Jane didn’t come;
you couldn’t tell her.)
 I’d have phoned Jane if only I could have found her number. (But I couldn’t
find her number; I didn’t phone.)
 If I had found that pile of money, I would have given it to the police. (I didn’t
find it; I’m just imagining.)
 I’m sure Jane would’ve come if Michael hadn’t forgotten to tell her. (But
Michael forgot; she didn’t come.)
2. There Are Different Types Of Conditional Constructions
There are four types:
1. The Zero Conditional
2. The First Conditional
3. The Second Conditional
4. The Third Conditional
1. The Zero Conditional (Certainty) Form
if + present simple tense (for the condition) and verb stem in the present simple
tense in the main clause (for the result).
Examples
 If people don’t eat (condition), they get hungry (result).
 If you heat ice (condition), it melts (result).
 Babies cry (result) if they are hungry (condition).
Remember this: It doesn’t matter if the if clause is placed at the start of the
sentence or in the middle of the sentence.
Note that it’s possible to replace if with when in a zero conditional.
Use
We use this conditional construction when the result is always true for this
type of condition.
The result is certain. It’s a fact.
There is no thought given to the future or past.
2. First Conditional (A Real Possibility) Form
if + present simple (for the condition) and will + verb stem in the main clause (for
the result) Examples
 If I see Fang tomorrow, I’ll tell her about the party.
 If it rains, I won’t go shopping.
 If I study hard, I’ll pass my exams.
 I’ll walk to work if the bus is late.
 Will you walk to work if the bus is late?
 Will you go shopping if it rains?
Use
There is a good possibility that the condition will happen at a future time. I
may not see Fang tomorrow, but I might. There is a good possibility that the
condition will happen.
3. Second Conditional (Unreal Possibility) Form
if + past simple (for the condition) and would + verb stem in the main clause (for
the result)
 If I married Taylor Swift, I’d be the happiest person on earth.
 If I won the bet, I would quit my job.
 I would be happy if I married Lan.
 Would Lan be happy if she married you?
 Would you quit your job if you won the lottery?
Use
We are talking about a specific condition in the future (although we use the past
tense in the condition) but there is not a real possibility that this condition
will ever happen. It’s all a bit of a dream, an unreal possibility that this condition
will ever happen.
Note that we sometimes use the second conditional, with the same structure, to talk
about certain situations in the present. These are when the condition is pretty
impossible and far from a true situation, and therefore the result won’t
come to fruition.
Examples
 If I knew where he was, I’d contact him. (but you have no idea where he is,
and so you cannot contact him at all)
 If I were you, I wouldn’t go there. (but I’m not you and never will be)
4. Third Conditional (No Possibility) Form
if + past perfect (for the condition) and would + have + past participle in the main
clause (for the result)
Examples
 If I had seen Chen, I would have asked him. (but I didn’t see him at all, so I
wasn’t able to talk to him)
 If he had not passed, he wouldn’t have entered university. (but he did pass)
 If we had grabbed a taxi, we wouldn’t have missed the train. (but we didn’t
grab a taxi, and therefore we did miss the train)
 If it had snowed yesterday, I would have stayed at home. (but it didn’t snow
yesterday, and so I went out)
Use
Here the focus is on the past. We are speaking about a condition in the past that
didn’t happen. We use it to describe a situation or event that didn’t happen, and we
imagine the result of the situation.
There is no possibility for this condition, and therefore no possibility of
the result happening. Not then and not now.
3. Teaching Conditional Forms
Conditional forms are tricky for learners. Usually, the key problem lies with an
inexperienced teacher who attempts to take the learners too far too quickly.
Learners’ ages and levels will be the critical factors in deciding whether they are
ready for a particular conditional construction.
Then you can wait your time, see how well the learning is embedded in their
memory banks and then decide to try another type of construction.
As we have said before, take it softly, softly.
Here’s what to do:
1. Awareness In Context
When they are ready, start by raising their awareness of conditionals. Get them to
notice the use of conditionals in written pieces/activities you are using in class.
Make up your own pieces containing the odd conditional, for whichever conditional
form you plan to teach.
Point attention to the construction and get them to have a go at the meaning. They
can then try and mirror the construction with other situations. Don’t get too hung up
about tenses at this time.
2. Start At The Beginning
Some teachers start with the first conditional, leaving the zero conditional till last.
We don’t know why. We have always started with the zero conditional as it’s good
fun getting them to think about certainties in life: If you heat ice, it melts.
Once they’ve come up with lots of suggestions, including some you have written on
the board, see if they can work out the structure and tenses for a particular
conditional structure. Then it’s time to practise them. 3. Practice
You can use lots of activities to embed the learning of conditionals. Here are some of
them:
Matching exercises: matching the condition with the result and matching the result
with the condition.
Cloze activities: where they try to insert a selection of if-clauses into a piece which
has six or seven blanks in it.
Partnering activity: one learner states the condition, and the other completes it with
some sensible result. Then they reverse roles.
Learner surveys: Learners can survey each other about what they will and would
like to do in the future, using the appropriate conditional forms.
Wish lists: emphasising the unreal conditionals, learners can interview each other
and make up wish lists for their partners.
Advice columns: Learners can write letters of advice to each other or famous
figures, such as the President or Prime Minister, using the conditional. Probability
Discussions: Guessing the probability of certain events, using the conditional, e.g. If
Manchester United are on form, they’ll win the match.
5.4 Main Parts of a Sentence
In this Section, we will cover the main parts of a sentence – morpheme, word,
phrase, clause, subject and predicate. This will ensure you can discuss sentences
and the critical elements of sentences in your class without having any great hang-
ups or difficulties with meaning.
You’ll remember that we have mentioned the meanings of phrase and clause before.
However, they are vital parts of a sentence, and so we’ll explore them further.
If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be something
like this:
A sentence is a group of words that is complete in itself. It typically contains a
subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command.
It consists of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
A sentence is made up of a range of words to complete a purpose. There are several
purposes: one might be to make a statement, or another might be to ask a
question.
Here’s what you need to know:
1. Sentence
A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense. Its conclusion
is marked by a full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark).
In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb. There
is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain to be a sentence. The
only prerequisite is a main subject and a main verb.
For example, I exist is as much of a sentence as is The early bird catches the worm.

2. Morpheme
A good definition of a morpheme is that it is the smallest unit of language that can
convey meaning. You cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that
has meaning. Many simple words are morphemes, e.g. boy, hut, talk.
Note that some words may consist of two or more morphemes:
 child + ren
 talk + s
 blind + ness
ren, s and ness all provide some meaning, even though none of them is a word in
its own right. If we try to break them down any further, we end up with graphemes
or phonemes:
r+e+n
A grapheme is a term from linguistics, meaning the smallest unit in writing that can
change meaning. This is a letter or group of letters representing a single phoneme,
e.g.
b ng ea
A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words. In
writing, each word is made up of letters, and in speech, a word is made up of a
series of phonemes. There are 44 phonemes in standard modern English, fairly
evenly divided between vowels and consonants. The phonemes in a word do not
correspond to the letters with which we write it.
For example, the word singing contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds: s-i-ng-i-ng.
3. Word
A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these words
has a different job to do. Here are four words:
roared, mighty, lion, the
 Roared is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence.
 Mighty is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don’t have
to have an adjective in a group of words when we are trying to make a
sentence.
 Lion is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a
sentence.
 The is called a definite article. We always use the definite article before a
noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows precisely what we are
referring to or because there is only one of this thing in that place or those
surroundings. As you know, articles form part of a larger class of words known
as ‘determiners’.
So, a definite article’s job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking about.
We don’t have to have a definite article in a group of words when we are trying to
make a sentence.
We put words together to make a phrase.
4. Phrase
A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of
words, that forms a meaningful unit within a sentence:
mighty lion
Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.
Noun Phrase
The noun phrase can be a word or group of words built around a single noun or
pronoun. In a sentence, it can function as a subject, object or prepositional object; it
can be very simple or very complex. For example (bolded):
 A pile of books lay on the table.
 He was reading a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.
Verb Phrase
In grammar, a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more
helping (auxiliary) verbs and one main verb:
 can see (helping verb can + main verb see)
 would have sent (helping verbs would + have + past participle of main
verb send)
 may have been planning (helping verbs may + have + be + present
participle of main verb plan)
The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs are
there only to support it.
The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. Often its form changes
as in the previous two examples in which send becomes sent,
and plan becomes planning.
We use phrases to make a clause.
5. Clause
A clause is a larger word group that includes a bit more information. It consists of at
least two phrases – one is a noun phrase known as the subject, and the other is the
verb.
A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words that makes a sense unit, but it
might not be concluded by a full stop. A sentence can be made up of two or more
clauses, e.g. She left (1) because it was late (2) and she was tired (3); this sentence
contains three clauses.
We know we have a clause when there is a group of related words which contain a
subject and a verb. For example:
The mighty lion / roared.
In this clause, the noun phrase is the mighty lion, and the verb is roared.
A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count the main verbs.
For each main verb, there will be a clause.
This all leads us to the sentence.
6. Subject
The subject in a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is being or doing
something. If you can find the verb, then you can find the subject of a sentence.
For example, in the sentence The laptops in the self-access centre must be updated,
the verb is must be updated. What must be updated? The laptops. So, the subject
is laptops.
A simple subject in a sentence is the subject left when all modifiers are removed.

Remember: Modifiers are any word or group of words that change or add to the
meaning of another word. The simple subject in the sentence below is issue:
The really important issue of the debate, when we take away all other
considerations, is the nation’s morality.
Note that a simple subject can be more than one word, even a whole clause:
What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill a book.
The simple subject is not he, nor is it what he had already forgotten, nor is
it computer repair. Ask what it is that could fill a book. Your answer should be that
the entire bolded clause is the simple subject, i.e. What he had already
forgotten about computer repair
7. Predicate
A predicate is often called the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to
label the part of a sentence or clause which contains a verb and states something
about the subject.
So, the subject names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’; the predicate completes the rest of the
sentence. A simple predicate can be a verb on its own, a verb string, or a compound
verb (all bolded):
 The glacier melted.
 The glacier has been melting.
 The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.
More Examples
The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate:
People in glasshouses/shouldn’t throw stones.
Chen and Chung/went on vacation.
I/love eating gazpachuelo malagueño.
8. More about sentences and clauses
We explored some of this before, but it will be of great use to you if we explore this
further.
Now that you’ve grasped the terminology, particularly ‘sentence’ and ‘clause’, we’re
sure you’re ready to move on a bit further to types of sentences and clauses.
If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we’ve used, and a full stop at
the end, we have a sentence. From a linguistic point of view, sentences are the
largest grammatical units.
They are also intuitively complete in two senses:
 first, they may stand alone as informative units
 second, and more importantly, they include all required grammatical
elements The mighty lion roared. (This has a subject and verb and can stand
alone as a meaningful unit)
This is a simple sentence.
1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is comprised of a single clause that has a subject and a verb. A
simple sentence puts across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a
complete unit of meaning.
Here are some examples of simple sentences:
 Fang smiled. (Fang is the subject; smiled is the verb)
 The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
 The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the verb)
 Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)
There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain to be a sentence.
Again the only prerequisite is a main subject and a main verb. For example, He
phoned is as much of a sentence as is Barcelona is one of the best teams in Europe.
Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and
a verb. It may have other words which help to make up the meaning.
But look at this group of words:
Made in France.
This is correct English, but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To make it
into a complete sentence with a subject and verb, we would need to change it to
something like:
My fridge was made in France.
So, that’s simple sentences done.
2. Compound Sentences
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called a compound
sentence. This is a sentence which is comprised of two or more main clauses
joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called a connective).
Compound sentences have two or more pieces of information, and connectives link
the pieces of information. Coordinating conjunctions are connectives which link text
together, such as:
 but
 and
 or
Two simple sentences can be linked together with a connective to make a
compound sentence. For example:
 I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.
 I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence.
 If we join them together, we have a compound sentence: I do not like eating
strawberries, but I love eating carrots.
Note: but is the connective
Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives written in
bold:
 The boys walked down the road, and they met their friends at the bus stop.
 The postman came to the door, so the dog barked loudly.
One benefit of compound sentences is that a writer can build more variety into her
writing. On the other hand, one big problem is that some writers can get carried
away and write long rambling sentences:
We went to the park, and we met some friends, and then we went into town which
was not too far, but I was quite tired when I got there, so I sat down.
Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a sentence is
usually adequate, and they don’t need to be used in every sentence.
There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences.
3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A complex
sentence consists of:
1. one main clause that can make sense on its own
2. one or more minor (or subordinate) clauses that are linked to it.
We’ll call these minor clauses subordinate clauses from now on. It just sounds
better.
When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared.
The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb and
makes sense by itself.
The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a clause
with both a subject and a verb, it doesn’t make sense on its own. It must be linked
to a main clause for it to make sense.
We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In the
following example, the main clause is in bold, and the two subordinate clauses are
underlined.
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared because it was annoyed.
We can even interrupt the main clause with a minor clause and still have a complex
sentence.
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion, which was annoyed, roared.
In a complex sentence, there is one main idea and one or more subordinate ideas.
We can take the main idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea stands on its
own. Let’s consider this sentence:
The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.
We can cut out the main idea (the main clause), and it will stand on its own as a
meaningful unit:
The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its own,
has a subject and a verb)
What we are left with is:
as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this clause
cannot stand on its own; it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and is therefore
regarded as subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is a subordinate clause.
Note:
 The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It
contains both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.
The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It
contains a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s dependent on
the main clause for it to make sense.
5.5 Modals
Modals are complex and very challenging to present, and they are complex and
challenging for learners to learn.
They are a set of auxiliary verbs and are often called modal auxiliary verbs.
Modal verbs are used to enable the speaker to express feelings about, say, the
probability of an event, or the ability of a person to carry out a certain action or the
level of an obligation – but seldom the actuality (reality) of it happening.
Other uses of modals are to express one’s attitude, politeness, or advice; modals
are also used for making requests or giving permission.
The modal verbs in this category, although there are some different views on this,
are:

can could may might will

would must shall should ought to

Examples
 Can you speak French?
 He could speak it well if he studied more.
 May I come in?
 It might rain tomorrow.
 He will speak German once he feels confident.
Here’s what you need to know:
1. Key Points
1.Modals do not change their form at any time. Must remains must however you use
it. There is no musted or musting. They have no infinitive or past or present
participle. There is no infinitive to can or to must. There are no participles such
as canning, musting, canned or musted.
Just plain and straightforward must, can, should etc. at all times.
2. In the verb phrase, a modal verb must always be the first word. After a modal
verb, we put the base form of the verb (the verb stem – without to).
 It will be windy.
 You should look after your money.
 You could go on Saturday.
3. As with the other auxiliary verbs (be, have, and do), modal verbs are of great
significance in questions, negatives, and tags. A modal verb is placed before the
subject in questions and can have not after it.
 Positive: Your room should be tidier.
 Negative: Your room shouldn’t be untidy.
 Question: How should I organise my room?
 Question tag: You should tidy it each Saturday, shouldn’t you? I suppose I
should.
We do not use do with a modal. NOT How do I should organise my work? (Incorrect)
4. Modal verbs do not take -s in the third person.
Examples
 She should be here by now. (no –s)
 He must try again. (no –s)


5. Will and would have the written short forms ‘ll and ‘d.
 I’ll call her now.
 I wouldn’t do that.
6. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples
 She musted travel there last year. (Incorrect)
 She will can travel with us. (Incorrect)


7. We can stress a modal if we want to emphasise its meaning.

 You really must be quiet. (Meaning: It is very necessary.)
8. A modal verb does not typically include a tense. It can allude to the present or
the future.
 Present: We must act now. The instructions might be in my in-tray.
 Future: We must act soon. The instructions might arrive this afternoon.
 For the past, we use was able to, had to, etc. or we use a modal verb
+ have.
 Past: We had to know then. The instructions might have arrived yesterday.
But in some contexts/situations, could, would, should and might are past forms
of can, will, shall and may.
 I can’t remember the password. (present)
 I couldn’t remember the password. (past)


9. A modal verb can link with the perfect, the continuous, or the passive.
 Perfect: She may have told you this before.
 Continuous: They may be waiting at the airport.
 Passive: We may be shown the proposals later.
 Perfect + continuous: You must have been distracted.
 Perfect + passive: The evidence must have been destroyed.
10. We cannot use two modals together. NOT You will must come soon. (Incorrect)
2. Common Uses
Below is a table showing the most useful modals and their most common uses.
This is not definitive as there are a few other constructions that some people deem
to be modals.
We’ve stuck by what we think are the frequent and typical modals used on an
everyday basis. The tricky bit with modals is that there are nuances in meaning, so
even one native user may choose a different modal from another native speaker.
That said, the table below will serve you well.

Mod
Example Typical Uses
al

I can speak four languages. They can work out Ability / Possibility /
their own travel plans. You can make it if you Inability /
Can
try. We can’t do that. Can I sit down? Can you Impossibility / Asking
give me a hand, please? We can try that when for permission /
we arrive. Request / Opportunity

Coul Could I open the window a little Asking for permission /

d bit? Could you repeat that? We could try to Request / Suggestion /
repair it ourselves. The bad Future possibility / Ability
winter could affect next spring’s crop. He had in the past / Suggestion /
done it before so he could do it Conditional
again. We could get the bus or phone a
 taxi. We could go if I didn’t have to attend
that meeting.

May I sit down? You may play with the iPad Asking for permission /
once you’ve finished. The rain Giving permission /
May
forests may soon disappear. She may be in Future possibility /
Walmart or perhaps Dairy Queen. Present possibility

Your keys might be in your coat

Present possibility /
pocket. They might give us a
Migh Future possibility /
lift. You might drop in on Uncle Bill during your
t Suggestion / Request /
trip. Might I open the window? If I had tried
Conditional
harder, I might have succeeded.

We must leave now. Lucy,

Necessity / Obligation /
you mustn’t touch that. This must be Uncle
Must Prohibition / Certainty /
Bill’s house! You must do a bit more training
Recommendation
before you compete.

Doing what’s right /

We ought to own up to that. You ought
Recommendation /
to stop smoking. Lisa ought to win. The
Oug Deserving of it /
exchange rate ought to drop this
ht to Probability / Giving
quarter. You ought to try it. You ought not
advice for / Giving advice
try it. (notice that the to is omitted)
against

Shall I help you with that? Shall we meet at the

exact same time next week? Shall I do that, or Offer / Suggestion /
will you? I shall never forget the first time we Asking what to do /
Shall met. We shall overcome. With the economy in Promise / Belief it will
its present state, I’m afraid we shall lose our happen / Sense of
jobs. (Shall is more common in British English inevitability
than American English)

We should resolve this now. I think Doing what’s right /

we should action this now. Profits should rise Recommending
Shoul next quarter. You should strive for a better action / Uncertain
d work/life balance. I really should be studying prediction / Advice /
right now. I think they should already be in the Obligation /
hotel. Expectation

Will I’ll phone her right now. I’ll do that for you if Instant decisions /
 you like. I promise that I will get in touch as Offer / Promise /
soon as I arrive. Profits will increase next Certain prediction /
year. He thinks the office will be closed due to Less certain
the snow. prediction

Asking for
Would you mind if I brought my wife
permission / Request /
along? Would you pass the milk,
Making
please? Would 8 pm in Billy’s Bar suit
Woul arrangements /
you? Would you like to join us? Would you
d Invitation /
prefer red or white? If he were more ambitious,
Preferences /
he would be the CEO by now. When he first got
Conditional /
the car, he would wash it every Saturday.
Repetition

3. Teaching Modals
We’ve already said that modals are very challenging. One of the best ways to teach
modals is to use visual representations of the modals, where it’s easier to show the
degrees of probability, prediction, etc.
This helps to keep the learners’ attention when you are teaching this challenging
topic.
Example
The following context shows the least probability:
Chen: Somebody is at the door.
Chung: It could be Mum.
Now look at the range of probability expressed through different modals:
High Probability
 It must be Fang.
 It should be Fang.
 It may be Fang.
 It could be Fang.
Low Probability
Here are the past forms of these modals:
High Probability
 It must have been Fang.
 It should have been Fang.
  It may have been Fang.
 It could have been Fang.
Low Probability
Here is another set of modals that express degrees of prediction:
High Probability
 It will snow in January.
 It should snow in January.
 It may snow in January.
 It could snow in January.
Low Probability
Finally, here’s a visual representation of modals for giving advice; as you can see,
a general suggestion escalates into urgency:
Urgency
 You must discuss it with your tutor.
 You had better talk to your tutor.
 You should/ought to talk to your tutor.
 You could talk to your tutor.
Suggestion
5.6 Voice, Mood and Theme
Voice
When we talk about sentences, we also talk about ‘voice’; as with an actual voice,
we can look at the way a sentence speaks to us.
Active And Passive Voices
If the subject of a sentence is the doer of the action, the verb is said to be in the
active voice:
The Vikings invaded Britain. (Subject: Vikings; what they were doing: invading
Britain)
If the subject is the victim or the receiver of the action, the verb is said to be in the
passive voice:
Britain was invaded by the Vikings. (Subject: Britain; what was done to Britain: it
was invaded)
By choosing which of these two forms we use, we can emphasise certain words or
contrast one statement with another.
We can even use both forms in one sentence: Liu performed well, but the finest
performance was given by Mei.
Simply put, the verb changes its form to suit whether we say the subject did
something or something did something to the subject. In the end, the meaning is
much the same. The point is that the verb needs to change form to match how
something is being said or reported.
Generally, the active voice is much more direct and more forceful than the passive.
Mood
Mood in grammar relates to the form a verb takes to show how it is to be regarded.
Verbs change their form to match the mood of a sentence. For example, a verb tells
whether we should regard the information as a fact or a question, a command or
request, or a wish or uncertainty.
Here are examples of verbs changing their form to match the mood of a sentence:
 She is eating an apple. (statement, fact)
 Is she eating an apple? (question)
 Keep quiet! (command)
 Please keep quiet. (request)
 I suggest that she take the bus. (wish)
 I urge that he try to work harder. (uncertainty about him passing his exam)
The verbs in the last two examples (bolded and underlined)) are correct. They
belong to a form called the subjunctive which is only used in specific constructions
after certain verbs. It’s all a bit archaic. We needed to put this in as it is an element
of mood.
Don’t concern yourself about it. You won’t be talking about the subjunctive in your
classrooms apart from the very odd occasion with an advanced adult learner, if
ever.
Theme
English has a somewhat fixed word order compared with many other languages;
still, some variation is possible. For example:
1. The Girl Guides held the sale despite the rain.
2. The sale was held by the Girl Guides despite the rain.
3. Despite the rain, the Girl Guides held the sale.
The question that should come to your mind is the following: What is the difference
in these three word orders?
Well, the sentences appear to have the same core meaning, so what purpose does
word order variation serve?
The theme provides the point of departure of the message; that is, the part of the
sentence where the emphasis of the message is placed. For example, in 1, the
emphasis is on the Girl Guides; in 2, the focus is on the sale; and in 3, the emphasis
is on the rain. In other words, the theme provides the framework for interpreting
what follows.
5.7 Cohesion
Cohesion is the lexical linking within a written or spoken text or sentence that holds
a text together and gives it meaning. It gives it unity. It is linked to the broader
concept of coherence.
Let’s imagine you write a well-constructed paragraph that all makes sense, one
sentence leading into the next. Afterwards, generally, you cannot move the
sentences around willy-nilly unless you alter them in some way.
It’s the same, generally, with a completed and well-constructed sentence. You can’t
often move words around in a sentence willy-nilly either without making some other
modifications.
This is because of cohesion. Five fundamental linguistic mechanisms give writing
and speech their cohesion or unified structure:
1. Reference: The boy wanted to surprise her. The next day, he … (he refers
back to the boy)
2. Ellipsis: A: Who wrote the letter? B: Bianca. (The response Bianca elliptically
signals that Bianca wrote the letter.) Ellipsis is when we leave out of a word or
words that are redundant or able to be understood from contextual clues.
3. Substitution: I aim to run a marathon next year. If I do, . . . (do substitutes to
run a marathon)
4. Conjunction: Mike needed to lose some weight. He, therefore, decided to buy
an exercise bike. (therefore shows the causal relationship between the first
and second sentences)
5. Lexical cohesion: (here through synonymy): He was grateful for the money he
had been given. He put the cash in his wallet and drove to the shop.
(Cash refers back to money.)
We do this naturally, but it can be very challenging for L2 learners, mainly when
they are listening to conversations.
5.8 Register
Remember this from before! Register is a variety of a language or a level of
usage, as determined by the degree of formality and choice of lexis, pronunciation,
and syntax (word order), according to the communicative purpose, social context,
and standing of the user.
Learners need to use language appropriately and in the right context. Selecting the
correct language for the right situation is vital to demonstrate expertise and to save
problems arising.
Register denotes the choice of formal or informal language we use to match a given
situation.
These examples should make it clear.
1. Situation: Receptionist introducing to her boss a professor she
doesn’t know.
Dr Brown. I’d like to introduce you to Professor White. He’s the guy who gave
the speech at last year’s conference.
Guy is far too informal
2. Situation: A husband talking to his wife.
Let’s go to the 8pm show. I’ll accompany you at 7.30pm.
Accompany is far too formal.
3. Situation: A letter of complaint.
Last Tuesday, while shopping in your San Diego store, I was dissed by one of
your assistants. Dissed is a slang word and is far too informal for this very
formal situation.
5.9 Teaching Grammar
Remember: Avoid standalone grammar sessions as much as possible.
5.9.1. How To Teach Grammar
Teaching grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching other skills, in
that you need to consider a range of factors, e.g. age, level of competence, previous
grammar experiences in the native language and the like.
It would be a bit rash (and silly) for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure
should always be presented to a particular learner at a specific age. There are
several variables at play.
So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly general
age groups. You’ll soon know it’s time to focus more on grammar when learners
start asking you questions, such as: Mr Thomson, why does this word have an extra
letter (dogs) but the other one hasn’t (dog)?
Here is a pretty useful grouping:
 Very Young learners: younger young learners
 Young learners: older young learners
 Teenagers
 Adults
1. Teaching Grammar To Younger Young Learners
Here are some key points relating to teaching grammar to younger young learners –
those ranging from, say, 3 years old up to around 7 years old or so.
Key points
1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly under
the age of, say, 7 years old. That’s a general age guide. However, that
doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in grammar-type activities!
2. You should not use any metalanguage (e.g. the words noun, verb, etc.) with
your younger young learners. However, there is the possibility that your very
young learners may already be aware of some metalanguage, e.g. naming
word, noun, and adjective – from their learning in their native/first language
(L1) classes. You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the
terms naming word and noun, etc.
3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use
them automatically after lots of practice.
4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful
contexts, and there should be some meaningful communication that leads to
a focus on grammar, e.g. listening to you reading a story or singing a song
such as This is the way we wash our hands.
Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when
teaching younger young learners. This would be a recipe for disaster.
2. Teaching Grammar To Older Young Learners
Some would say that grammar learning and metalanguage are best left until
children are aged about 8 or so. So, this Section focuses on
these older young learners from around age 8 up to the age of 12 or so.
If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and some
metalanguage.
1. Key points
1. Use activities such as
 Rhymes
 Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst
themselves
 Some drilling
 Cloze activities
 Questionnaires and surveys
 Information gap activities
 Presentations
 Fun activities and games for motivation and learning
2. Gradually, for older young learners, it will be possible to introduce some specific
activities which focus on separating grammar for study. If the school organisation
does not prescribe a set curriculum, you need to decide when to do this.
You’ll know it’s time to do it when your older young learners show an active interest
in grammar forms such as: Why is it that eat becomes ate, but beat doesn’t become
bate?
3. Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in
their first language and make yourself aware of what metalanguage they know.
Don’t overdo this. Sometimes it may be necessary to introduce some
metalanguage.
4. Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation and
may be ready for some self-correcting.
5. Also, they should enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to discover
some basic grammar rules for themselves, e.g. most nouns are formed in the plural
with adding –s or –es but other groups make the plural in different ways.
6. They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g. Pronoun + Verb
+ Noun, e.g. I like apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g. I like green
apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp. So,
for example, you could give all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words and your
learners rearrange them to the order of the model.
7. Fun grammar activities are essential for older young learners, so include puzzles
where learners are encouraged to discover grammar rules for themselves, e.g.
describing differences between two pictures, which can be used to practise
prepositions. Also use some of the grammar activities we will explore later, adapting
them accordingly.
8. As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. So, ensure you follow this up
in later lessons.
Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs much
meaningful practice, recycling and guidance in attending to language form.
3. Teaching Grammar To Teenagers
The Sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12. Young
teenagers up to age 16 to 17 or so will continue their progress in grammar in the
school environment, doing more of the type of study we have cited for
the older young learners but at a more complex level.
Some will continue to progress during that period, and some will reach a plateau in
their learning and further progress in grammar may be difficult for them.
So, for teenagers, there’s not much to add in terms of grammar input. It will be a
continuation of the grammar syllabus.
Sometimes, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the learners have
reached a plateau or because some of them act as if they are a bit ‘too cool for
school’ and they lack interest in learning grammar.
Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more attractive for
teenagers, particularly with those who are struggling a bit or are a bit
disenchanted with grammar:
1. Avoid Using Metalanguage
Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing things
you’ll be doing tomorrow by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)
2. Empathise With Them
Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you were
younger. But, with a bit of effort, you came through. And look at you now!
Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs and
stories that others will admire, for passing examinations (not only in English), for
helping them in later years when they may wish to travel or work in an English-
speaking country, and so on.
3. Play To Their Interests As Much As Possible
Make a massive effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching action
movies, or soccer or fashion programmes on video. Catch their interest.
Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video at one
or two specific parts, to ask, for example, why the character made two similar
meaning statements but used different words for each statement.
4. Add In A Bit Of Controlled Competitiveness
Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that learners are
not alone and may feel embarrassed if they can’t find the solution. Put time limits
on these types of activities to heighten the tension. The activity shouldn’t be
complicated in any way.
Using the am going to example above, it could be:
I‘m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the worksheet, you’ll see the
words will and won’t several times. Put in am going to or am not going to in place
of will or won’t. Be careful. There may be some parts where you can’t do this. (For
example, the text may include the construction Will you come back tomorrow?)
One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has finished the
exercise and has checked it all over. Remember, it needs to be correct to get points
added for your end-of-term group prize. If it’s not entirely correct, no marks. I’ll then
pass it to the second group to have a go at getting points for the prize. Are you
ready?
Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that it’s not
the same group that wins all the time. You may have to change the groups around
from time to time to achieve a better balance, but you wouldn’t tell them the reason
for this.
5. Inspire Them By Giving Them More Autonomy
For example:
 Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a passage.
 On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach those who
haven’t.
 Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the story they
want to read (say, from a choice of three). With lots of effort beforehand, you
will have chosen areas of grammar that you want to major on.
6. Make It Fun
Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders where they
pick up cards you have prepared, and they must decide whether the sentence is
correct or not if they are to move up the board.
Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, but you
need to be moving around, monitoring and listening to ensure they’ve got it right.
4. Teaching Grammar To Adults
In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults
themselves. Let’s call them all adults.
Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these may very
much be the same as we have discussed for older young learners above.
So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and approaches
in place for meeting the needs of this group.
This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background (and
therefore competency), age, employment history and culture.
They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be
immigrants who need to grasp English quickly if they are to secure a job and some
may be young adults who need this learning to help them achieve entry to
university, college or a vocational programme.
Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job, and some may
be young or older adults who want to travel, work overseas or want to learn English
as it’s good to have. There may be other goals.
The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse group
with diverse goals? There is no easy answer to this. However, the challenge is
lessened for you due to one essential characteristic of this group.
All the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English.
Otherwise, why would they be there?
So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be
resolved is deciding on the best practices and approaches to meet their needs.
Here’s what you need to do:
1. Don’t Assume Adults Are Competent In Grammar
Remember this: Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and older
adults will be easier because they will have made more progress in grammar
learning. It may be the case sometimes; however, there is no guarantee.
Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.
2. Don’t Worry About The Level
When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all the above
information about young learners and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key
differences will be that there will likely be more explicit sessions on grammar, and
you will be helping them to be much more autonomous, identifying and fixing the
errors themselves where possible.
And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be armed and
dangerous, ready to handle any query about the Present Perfect Continuous or
Phrasal Verbs.
3. Do A Needs Analysis.
This is imperative.
A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t make
this into a big formal event. Do it informally. You could do it during your first meeting
with the class or an individual where you explain that you need to find out their
purpose for attending your class.
What you’re trying to find out is:
1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?
While chatting, think about questions such as:
 How good is her use of English at present?
 What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the target
situation?
 What are her grammar needs?
2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for learning
English?
Ask directly, questions such as:
 When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English?
 When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English?
Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to be done, via your teaching, to get
the learners to their desired situation in the future.
4. Help Them To Become Grammar Detectives
In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle tricky concepts much
easier than young learners can. This is a crucial difference between adult and
younger learner classes.
Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce them to
some concepts directly, while using the appropriate metalanguage. By doing so, all
of this will save time and get them faster to their goals. They will appreciate your
plan.
Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can put these
into practice.
Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They relate to
words and their positions and functions in a sentence. By understanding what these
are, your adult learners can quickly become grammar detectives.
They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the nature of
words themselves.
If you ensure that they are entirely au fait with the terminology and meaning of
these concepts, you’ll be off to an excellent start. These concepts are:
 Meaning
 Form
 Framework
 Function
If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning easier.
Not only that, it will involve them in analysing a sentence and working out
by themselves where something may have gone wrong. They will be able to self-
correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great benefit from this technique.
1. Meaning
This seems easy. However, it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:
1. A literal meaning- what the word means typically in everyday communication
2. A meaning for the context it’s being used in
Example
The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered in
water or another liquid, as in:
I slipped on the wet floor.
However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance to the
meaning above:
Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.
In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak character and
does not express any forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’ most of the time.
So, understanding meaning is crucial. However, it’s not just dictionary definitions
which help us to know the meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work out
meanings by creating mental images in our mind, which help us to work out the
meaning.
For example, when reading John was a tiresome … and coming to the last part of
the sentence, we expect the sentence to finish with a compliment, some
explanation as to who he was. In this case, it’s a wet.
We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-
dry wet (adjective), but a wet (noun), some kind of person. We know that it can’t
be wet with the meaning not-dry, as that wouldn’t make sense after the word a.
So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and meaning
are intertwined. If the adult learner understands this process, in many cases she will
be able to identify the meaning of a word from grammatical analysis.
2. Form
As you know by now, form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy,
boy’s in this sentence:
Example
The big boy took the small boy’s ball.
In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not just
because we know its meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add endings in the
plural and in possession, so that’s a good clue to this being a noun.
We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example, that
adjectives, adverbs, determiners, etc. don’t do this – they don’t add plural or
possessive endings.
There are other ways to confirm this is a noun, but these are not related to form,
e.g. it immediately precedes the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or pronoun. Then
we can eliminate the pronoun forms, e.g. he, she, it. Yes, it’s a noun
Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in a
sentence.
3. Function
Function is another critical element.
Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught your
learners that nouns are primarily subjects, objects and complements in a sentence.
That is, the noun can function as a subject, the object or the complement in a
sentence. (It can function as other things too.) Example
With this bit of knowledge, learners can better analyse a sentence. Have a look at
this intriguing sentence:
The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga.
Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work out its function from
analysis. They know that nouns commonly function as subjects, so this is likely to be
a noun. It can’t be a pronoun, as there is The before it.
Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us that
the ugggawagga is doing something, i.e., something is not being done to it. So, they
can work out that ugggawagga is functioning as the subject of the sentence, and it
is a noun.
4. Setting
In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.
If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can be placed
in that setting.
Examples
1. The/A/An —————- ate the apple.
We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete the
sentence is likely to be a noun. It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective, etc. We could
work out again that the missing word is the subject due to the action word ate and
the object word apple.
At this stage, we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take away The,
then we know it’s singular. If we take away The and A, we know it’s singular and
begins with a vowel. In any case, we know it’s a noun that fits this frame.
 The big boy —————the small boy’s ball.
If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s easy. Into
the frame steps a verb. We don’t know which verb it is, but we do know it is a verb
because it can’t be a sentence without a verb. We also know it’s a transitive verb
because there is an object.
Encourage your adult learners to become grammar detectives applying
these four tests/tools to work out word classes, to find what or who is doing what in
the sentence, to find out what’s wrong, and most of all to enable them to identify
and repair errors on their own, where possible.
5. Use Games And Drills Sparingly
Use games and drills sparingly with adults. All of them are there to achieve a goal
within a time limit. Although you may see great benefit in these, some of your
learners are unlikely to look at it the same way. This could have a negative effect on
the class atmosphere.
You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the end goal.
Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled look
on some of the faces. Why let this spoil the excellent atmosphere you have built up?
You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce games and drills now
and again, then we’re sure it will work out fine.
5.9.2 Making An Effective Grammar Presentation
These practical tips will ensure you make an effective grammar
presentation:
 1. Elicit frequent learner responses. Remember this: Eliciting is a term which
describes a range of techniques which enable you to get learners to provide
information rather than you giving it to them.
2. Maintain an appropriate (but fairly brisk) pace.
3. Get their attention: ensure learners are alert, focussing their attention on you
and the material to be learned.
4. Keep your learners’ attention.
5. Monitor and, when necessary, correct your learners’ comprehension and
responses.
6. Ensure there is equal participation of all learners in the process.
7. Ensure understanding via a range of ways, e.g. written and spoken exercises
to ensure your learners understand the meaning of the material you are
introducing. Also, importantly, ensure learners can make connections with
other things they already know.
8. Concept check again before leaving the session, i.e. check understanding via
random questions around the class.
Learners need to take the material into their short-term memory. This is required for
learners to remember it until later in the lesson when you will get them to do further
practice. So, the more impact the original presentation has, the better it will be.
Again, we repeat: beware of using too much metalanguage unless you are
confident they can handle this. You’d need to be sure of this before
introducing any metalanguage, particularly with young learners. In any
case, don’t over-burden them with this.
Build a fun atmosphere along the way with mime, gestures, funny pictures,
cartoons, etc.
5.9.3. Inductive And Deductive Presentations
A vital element you need to grasp is the difference between inductive and deductive
approaches to grammar teaching and learning.
A deductive thinker draws out specific facts from a general principle that you
have presented. For example, using a deductive approach, you will stand at the
front of the class and explain how to form a verb tense and what it means.
Your learners will then try out this new knowledge on a set of sample sentences in
an exercise.
On the other hand, an inductive thinker develops a rule or general principle for
himself by looking at a set of examples illustrating that rule or principle.
For example, he notices from the words and pictures that he has been given that
the letter a goes before some of them and the letters an goes before others. He
then identifies which are which and develops the rule for himself: an goes before
words beginning with the letters a, e, i, o and u, and a goes before all other letters.
He may not know that a, e, i, o, and u are called ‘vowels’, which may not be
important at his stage of learning. And, he may not know there are some
exceptions, e.g. an hour but that can be covered later. He has formed a pretty solid
principle on his own.
Within an inductive approach, you may provide a text, or examples of sentences
that illustrate the rule, and then step back to allow the learners the time and space
needed to work out the generalisation. In other words, you will not explicitly state
the rule.
Your role is to facilitate learning. That is why your best route is to provide
learners with inductive learning activities as much as possible.
However, there are moments when you will need to go the deductive way
to explain grammar concepts to the class, particularly with a complex
concept such as modals.
Remember this: It’s better to treat grammar as a skill much like speaking,
listening, reading and writing, and integrate it into speaking, listening, reading and
writing teaching, rather than teaching grammar as an area of knowledge.
Conveying The Meaning Inductively And Deductively
The advantage of an inductive presentation is that learners are not overwhelmed
with grammar metalanguage.
The other significant advantage is that by discovering language on their own,
learners gain learner autonomy. Autonomy gives learners the feeling that they are
responsible for their learning. And learner autonomy is a crucial factor in a learner’s
overall motivation.
It’s OK if learners don’t grasp the language at first. After all, it is the process of
asking several learners the same question and eliciting answers that would get
learners to eventually perceive the pattern being used and thus discover the
language form and meaning on their own.
Should there still be any questions, you could then fill in the gaps with more
examples or, when necessary, a grammar explanation.
In reality, when presenting grammar, you will need to be able to do so both
deductively and inductively.
You will also have to do so in a clear and concise manner and, of course, this will
necessitate your needing to be familiar with the terminology and concepts. It will
also require you to be adept at presenting structures in different ways.
The reality is that learners won’t always be able to infer all the rules, particularly
when it comes to achieving accuracy of form.
Striking a balance between using an inductive and deductive approach, even within
the same presentation, can be very effective.
5.9.4. Different Modes Of Presenting Grammar To Learners
There is no doubt that a strong knowledge and understanding of fundamental
grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language. However, it’s the way
that you teach these rules that paves the road to success by better embedding the
learning.
Here are some practical ideas you can implement:
1. Present Material Visually
One effective way to show how a given structure is formed, what it means, and how
it is used is to present the material visually, using board drawings, illustrations,
pictures, objects or props.
You could show them pictures and ask: What differences do you notice in the
pictures? To practise, for example, must/must have (as in He must have fallen.)
and could/could have (as in He could have been hit by a falling branch.).
2. Use Timelines
Another powerful visual is the timeline, which you can draw on the board. Timelines
are simple diagrams that can help learners see relationships between verb forms
and their time reference. They are a visual representation of the passage of time.
Learners can see how the verb ‘works’.
We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.
Yesterday, I walked to school.

There is no definitive format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain it
first of all. You can use an X or any symbol to mark the event.
Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive (continuous)
tense:
Next year he will be climbing Kilimanjaro.

Here we have used a squiggly line to demonstrate the event continuing.

The following exercise will give you enormous opportunities for embedding timelines
– and it will make grammar learning intriguing and fun. The critical point is that the
grammar part is integrated into the vital skills of speaking, reading, writing,
listening as much as possible.
Exercise –Timelines
As they get used to these timelines, you could introduce the idea of My Timeline,
where learners draw up a timeline of notable events in their lives from the past till
now.
Older learners will quickly come up with a range of notable events. Young learners
could ask their parents/caregivers for essential dates in the learners’ short lives–
when the learner was born, when the learner first walked and talked, when the
learner first went to school, etc.
And you could add in when the learner did something silly (this last one will create
lots of fun later when they read out what they’ve completed).
Then you can change the format – learner A interviews learner B and draws up a
timeline for learner B. Then they switch roles, and after this, they read out the other
learner’s timeline to the class.
You can also give them a list of important historical events that have happened in
their country and future events the country hopes to accomplish by some date in
the future and get them to plot them on the timeline.
These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious ‘political’ events
such as attempted coups. Alternatively, you could centre it on a world event such as
space exploration or the Olympic Games or the critical successes in the
development of medicine.
You could also give the learners a short written text and ask them to read it for
comprehension, and then they prepare a timeline based on the main facts in that
text.
As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded to
marking future events on their personal timeline, for example: when will they be
going to the ‘big’ school, when they hope to accomplish something; when they think
they will start working, etc.
Remember! Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms and their
time reference – is integrated into, and reinforced by, the critical skills of speaking,
listening, reading and writing.
3. Present Material Through Situations
Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the board
with a name under it. Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above her. Introduce
Maria. Say: This is Maria and she’s thinking about something nice. I wonder what it
is.
Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next
week. (Using gestures of forward movement.) She’s going to fly on an aeroplane.
She’s going to fly. Repeat this class: She’s going to fly. Class repeats.
Ask: I wonder where she is going.
Draw or show a big picture of the Great Wall in China – elicit until you get the
response. Yes, she’s going to visit the Great Wall. Repeat this class: She’s going to
visit the Great Wall. Class repeats. She’s so lucky.
Ask: I wonder what she will do there.
Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going to take
pictures. What is she going to do? Class repeats.
Say: I wish I were her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to this.
When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk along the Great
Wall, drill this (with the whole class and some individuals). Write this response on
the board.
Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then write the
correct response on the board. Then check with concept questions (checking
understanding) at random. Say: So, tell me: What is Maria going to do next week.
Where is she going to visit?
You can then recap on the structure, avoiding metalanguage, and move them on to
practising it with different activities, e.g. a gap-fill exercise and then move them on
to produce the correct structure, say, by conversing in pairs and a writing activity.
By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context, you
help the class to build up a clear idea of what the structure means and how it is
used. After giving a few examples, you can simply present the situation and try to
get the learners to provide the example.
This will verify how well the learners have understood the concept, and this also
helps to get the class more involved.
4. Present Material Through Demonstration
Another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material via physical
demonstration.
Let’s use the language item above – going to. You could also demonstrate the
concept of going to. You could tell them that you’re:
 going to open the door
 going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
 going to open the window because it’s too hot
 going to close the window because it’s too cold and so on.
Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way for you
to get them to grasp the concept.
5.9.5 Drilling
We’ve mentioned drilling before. Let’s explore this further.
Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either individually or as a group,
repeating whatever you say. Drilling is a way for your learners to practise new
language, both lexis and grammatical structures, in a controlled setting.
As you will tell them what to repeat, learners can focus fully on pronunciation and
usage. It can be as simple as repeating a word or repeating entire sentences.
Drilling is best used after new language has been introduced and explained.
People have different ideas about the value of writing the target language on the
board before drilling. On the one hand, it’s a way to familiarise the learners with the
written form, but on the other hand, it could hinder their ability to remember the
structure and may draw some of their attention away from meaning and
pronunciation.
In drilling exercises, rhythm, intonation and stress are very important. You can
illustrate this through gestures or by over-emphasising certain features.
Here are the most common types of drills:
‘Q and A’ drills utilise fairly basic conversation elements to mimic improvised
language production. Typically, you will ask a question, and the class responds – the
trick is that the target language has already been specified. The learners can
continue the drill by asking a question to the next person in line.
Substitution drills allow parts of the sentence to be changed and adapted. This
provides a more practical and absorbing way of using drilled language.
1. Simple Substitution Drill: The learners substitute one short item after another in
the framework of a single unvarying sentence. You could provide the next item, but
it’s best to get the learners involved. They can shout out the next item for the drill.
For example:
Where can I buy a magazine?
Where can I buy a ticket?
Where can I buy a bottle of water?
2. The Substitution Table: Another widely used drill is the substitution table. The
substitution table is a summary of a number of possible substitution drills derived
from a single sentence.
Where can I buy a bottle of water?
Where might he find a light bulb?
Where will she get a ticket?
Where do they sell drinks?
You can do vigorous drills in front of your class with a table like this, concentrating
on having the learners repeat the sentences of the drill and getting the learners to
give you complete sentences in response to cues that you provide.
The Transformation Drill: This drill requires the learners to produce sentences in
response to cues, but this time the cues are whole sentences. The simplest drills of
this type are the familiar Change this sentence to the negative or Change these
sentences to the past tense.
Drilling Pros
 It gives learners initial confidence.
 Choral drills allow learners to ‘have a go’ at new language without feeling
self-conscious.
 Repetition can aid memory.
 Drilling serves to highlight the key language items in a lesson.
Drilling Cons
 It can become mindless parroting.
 If overdone, it can have a childish effect which may not be appropriate for
older learners.
 Repetition is no guarantee that new language items are stored in long-term
memory.
 Drilling has limitations when used in the later stages of a CLT lesson since it
downplays contextualised use of the structure.
You should keep in mind that not all new language items may need to be, or can be,
drilled.
5.9.6. Grammar Activities
You must introduce as many communicative and interactive activities as
possible when doing grammar practice. By communicative and interactive,
we mean activities that tend to be more engaging due to the format of the
activity and which promote more open-ended, uncontrolled responses.
Communicative and interactive activities consist of reaching an outcome that
depends on the learners listening to one another and processing what they hear.
In such cases, learners will need to negotiate and repair communication breakdowns
and adapt their contributions accordingly.
In other words, there is some unpredictability in exercises that are more
communicative and interactive.
Here are some activities which we’ve used to liven up our grammar
sessions. They can be adapted for different levels. They have served us
well, and they will serve you well too.
Grammar mimes
Divide your learners into groups or pairs.
Give each group or pair a sentence that includes grammar already practised and
underline the words that should be guessed precisely.
One of the learners in the group/pair A must mime the sentence, and a learner in
group/pair B must guess what it is, in correct grammatical form. Then roles are
reversed.
Examples will depend on recent grammar learning, such as the past tense or
comparatives/superlatives:
 I swam yesterday
 I lost my watch last week.
 An aeroplane is bigger than a pencil.
 Mice have smaller teeth than crocodiles.
Get them moving
They are going to practise the simple past of regular or irregular verbs. Form a
circle. Say a verb out loud and throw a ball to a learner who has to say its past
form.
She responds and throws the ball back to you, and you choose another learner.
Whenever a learner makes a mistake, he has to leave the circle. The last learner left
standing gets a reward sticker or other prize. This activity can be adapted to any
grammar point.
Celebrity profiles
Contrasting the simple past and present perfect tenses by using biographies.
Find out which celebrities or sports stars your learners admire. Then find a short
biography or write one yourself summarising a celebrity’s main achievements. Read
the biography with your learners and make sure they understand the tense
differences.
Point out examples that clearly illustrate this: e.g. He starred in his first hit film in
2008. However, he has worked in 5 other films throughout his career.
Celebrity photos
Cut out relevant celebrity photos from entertainment or sport magazines. Use these
photos to teach comparatives and superlatives: Katie Holmes is taller than Tom
Cruise; or, in the European football arena, Neymar is good, Ronaldo is better, but
Messi is the best.
Articles
This activity works great with beginners, including young learners. Cut up a list of
several words that either take a or an and mix them up.
Then divide learners into pairs of groups and get them to put the words into two
bundles, depending on the article. Once you have checked their bundles, ask them
if they can figure out the rule by themselves.
For very young learners, you could use pictures instead of words.
Nonsense sentences
This works great with beginners and elementary learners. Use nonsense sentences
when teaching grammar, to make it fun, e.g. The cat smiled at the giraffe in the
dentist’s waiting room; Green lions love sparkling bottled water. Also, jumble up the
words to see if they can put the sentences together correctly.
Words and more words
This activity practises word order and the placing of grammar items
correctly in the sentence.
Write a short phrase on the board. For example: The giraffe … The learners’ task is
to expand the phrase by adding not more than one word at any one time.
Encourage them to give you suggestions, and they can write them into the
sentence. For example: The giraffe drank; The giraffe drank water; The thirsty
giraffe drank water; The thirsty giraffe drank bottled water … and so on.
If the suggestion put forward is incorrect, see if another learner can spot what’s
wrong; if not, gesture that there may be a mistake. If they cannot correct it, do it
yourself as a last resort.
Speak as little as possible to encourage the learners to speak, make suggestions
and point out any errors. Let the sentence build as long as possible. Note they are
involved in listening, speaking, and writing.
Fewer and fewer words
An alternative to the activity above is to give your learners a very long sentence
and ask them to make it smaller in any way that they can, one word at a time, while
still retaining a grammatically correct sentence.
Changing the words
Give the learners a short sentence. Their written task is to change one word at a
time in that sentence while still retaining a grammatically correct sentence. For
example: I like playing in summer; I like playing in Seville; We like playing in Seville
…
Construct a sentence
Construct a sentence and put each word is on a separate card. Give your groups the
cards in jumbled order and ask them to try to write a sentence using all the words.
They might construct the one you made, but they could construct other sentences.
Any grammatically correct sentence is fine.
Or you could ask them to make as many different sentences as they can with the
words that they have. Words can be used and reused.
This is excellent word order and writing practice.
Remember that written exercises like this one are another effective way to get
learners to practise grammar.
Dialogues
Let’s imagine that you have presented the simple past. They have practised it and
are now left in pairs to produce the concept orally. You give clear instructions and
then give out a handout and guide them through it.
On the handout, there are 7 regular verbs, e.g. answer, argue, close, collect, comb,
dream, and watch. Learner A asks learner B: What did you do last night? Learner B
answers I watched television. B asks A the same question, and A responds using a
different verb in the past tense, e.g. I combed my hair.
Other pairs are doing the same, responding with verbs on the list.
Move around, monitoring and helping, as necessary.
Once you are satisfied that a pair have grasped it, you can let them loose to ask the
same question, but the response from the partner now includes a new verb in the
simple past tense which is not on the list.
They are now taking risks with the new structure, which is what you are aiming for.
Again, you are walking around, monitoring, and helping, as necessary.
Prove it, please
Give your learner groups one or more statements to prove or disprove. The
statements can tie in with the topic or the grammar point of the class.
Examples: Nobody in this class likes winter. Everyone here loves Taylor Swift.
Your learners talk to as many other learners in the class as possible to
prove/disprove the statements. Then they give feedback to the class: This
statement is not true. There are at least 3 people in this class who don’t love Taylor
Swift.
People who …
This is an activity where the aim is to complete grammatically correct sentences
and prompt debate.
Hand out the following sheet and tell the learners they must complete the
sentences with a bit of realism-not just adding on a grammatically correct ending:
People who …
 park their cars on the sidewalk/pavement …
 throw litter on the ground …
  talk during a movie at the cinema …
 drink and drive …
 snore …
Remember this: The examples above are fine. But take great care when
you choose other ‘People who’ examples. For example, in some cultures,
spitting is acceptable behaviour. You could cause a bit of a stramash if you
don’t take cultural considerations into account.
Grammar auction
Construct a worksheet with 20 or so sentences using grammar points you have
recently taught. Half of the sentences should include a grammatical mistake.
Divide the learners into groups. Give each group a set amount of fake money. Keep
a pile of money for yourself.
Read out a sentence. Auction it off. The learners should aim to buy correct
sentences. The groups bid, and you sell to the highest bidder. You then say whether
the sentence is correct or not.
If it’s correct, the team wins the amount which they bid for it.
If it is incorrect, the team loses the amount which they bid and pass it to you. Any
group may bid again, stating the correct form. Again, if they get it right, pay them. If
they get it wrong, they need to pay you their bid amount.
If the sentence is correct and no group bids for it, all groups must pay a fine.
For each incorrect sentence which any group identifies, ask them to explain why it is
incorrect. If no group identifies an incorrect sentence, then explain why it is
incorrect. To ensure they remain interested while you are explaining, suggest there
may be other sentences like this that may come up later.
After you have read out all the sentences, the team with the most money wins.
Hold your breath
Prepare some cut-up sentences from the grammar area you’ve been working on and
stick them on the board with Blu-Tack – one mixed-up list on the left and one mixed-
up list on the right.
Mix the sentence words at random so that the lists have the same sentences, but a
different word order.
Put the learners into teams, standing behind a line or marker in front of the board.
The first learner in each team runs to the board and arranges the words in sentence
1 into a correct sentence; however, they are not allowed to breathe in. To prevent
this, the learners must repeat a word over and over, e.g. teacher, ice cream,
elephant, China etc.
If they stop saying the word, they must return to their teams. As soon as the first
learner finishes, the second person in the team runs to the board to do sentence 2
and so on.
The winner is the first team to arrange all their sentences correctly. You’ll need to
tell them when any completed sentence is incorrect, and hopefully, someone in
their group will be able to suggest how it should be. It’s noisy but great fun.
Well done! Halfway through the course! What you have learned here will
help you better understand the key elements of grammar. Hopefully, we
will have demonstrated that it’s not too difficult.
And there’s lots more good stuff to come!

Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 5. It’s not
too stretching. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 6, where we will explore the 4 key
skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing, in this order. And we’ll
add in a bit about Lesson Planning again. There’s quite a bit to cover. In
time to come, you’ll be very happy that you studied all the material.