THE UNITED NATION AND SPECIALIZED AGENCIES: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF

ITS ROLE AS A REPLACEMENT OF LEAGUE OF NATION

Subject – Law and Justice in a Globalizing World (CPII-03)

Faculty – Ms. Anwesha Tripathy (Assistant Professor)

Submitted by – RAHUL CHANDRA PANDA

Regd. No. – 2361811105

LLM – CCL

2023-24

SOA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF LAW (SNIL)

SOA UNIVERSITY

BHUBANESWAR
INTRODUCTION
The League of Nations and the United Nations (UN) were both established to enhance
international cooperation, uphold peace and security, and prevent future conflicts. Nevertheless,
they arose in distinct historical contexts and with slightly different objectives. League of Nations
(1919-1946): Post World War I: Established in 1919 following World War I, the League of
Nations was created in response to the devastation caused by the war and the aspiration to avert
such large-scale conflicts in the future. It aimed to establish an international organization
dedicated to maintaining peace and settling disputes peacefully. Principle of Collective Security:
The League strived to achieve collective security through the collaboration of its member states.
Member countries were expected to resolve conflicts peacefully, and in the event of aggression
by any member state, others would collectively respond to preserve peace. Limited Success: The
League encountered obstacles, such as the absence of major powers like the United States, which
undermined its effectiveness. It notably failed to prevent the eruption of World War II. United
Nations (1945-present): Post World War II: Established in 1945 after World War II, the United
Nations was founded in response to the need for a more efficient international organization to
prevent conflicts and encourage global cooperation. Expanded Membership and Authority:
Unlike the League, the UN was structured with broader membership and stronger mechanisms
for conflict resolution and peacekeeping. It was founded with the objective of preventing future
wars through collective action and promoting economic and social development worldwide.
Human Rights and Development: The UN's charter also underscores the promotion of human
rights, social progress, and improved standards of living for people globally. This indicates a
wider range of concerns beyond just security.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The League of Nations, established in 1920, represented a groundbreaking shift in the field of
international relations. It was the first organization of its kind to bring together nations from
around the world in a collective effort to promote peace, resolve conflicts, and foster global
cooperation. This innovative concept of states voluntarily joining forces for the greater good was
not entirely unprecedented, as historical examples of such cooperation can be traced back to
ancient times.

Throughout history, there have been instances of states or city-states forming alliances or
confederations to address common challenges or threats. For example, in ancient Greece, the
Delian League was created in the 5th century BCE to protect its member city-states from Persian
aggression. Similarly, the Hanseatic League, established in the 14th century, united trading cities
in Northern Europe to safeguard their economic interests and ensure safe passage for their
merchants.

However, the League of Nations represented a significant departure from these earlier forms of
cooperation. Unlike its predecessors, the League aimed to encompass a wide range of areas for
global collaboration, including disarmament, territorial disputes, economic cooperation, and the
protection of minority rights. It sought to establish a permanent body that would serve as a forum
for nations to come together, discuss their grievances, and find peaceful solutions to conflicts.

The League of Nations was born out of the recognition by world leaders, particularly those who
had witnessed the devastating consequences of World War I, that a new approach to international
relations was necessary. The war had exposed the limitations of traditional diplomacy and
highlighted the urgent need for a collective security mechanism to prevent future conflicts. The
League was seen as a means to prevent the outbreak of another catastrophic war and to promote
a more cooperative and peaceful world order.

Although the League of Nations faced numerous challenges and ultimately failed to prevent the
outbreak of World War II, its establishment laid the groundwork for the creation of the United
Nations. The lessons learned from the League's shortcomings informed the development of the
UN, which was established in 1945 with a stronger mandate and a more comprehensive approach
to global cooperation.

In conclusion, while the concept of states or city-states voluntarily coming together for
cooperation has historical precedents, the League of Nations represented a significant departure
in the realm of international relations. Its establishment marked the first time that nations from
around the world joined forces in a comprehensive organization aimed at promoting peace,
resolving conflicts, and fostering global cooperation. Despite its ultimate failure, the League
served as a precursor to the United Nations and laid the foundation for future efforts to address
global challenges collectively.

The League of Nations was established in the aftermath of World War I with the aim of
preventing future conflicts through diplomacy and collective security. The organization sought to
create a forum for nations to resolve disputes peacefully and promote economic and social
progress. The League's structure included an Assembly, a Council, and a Secretariat, with the
Council responsible for maintaining international peace and security. Despite its noble intentions,
the League faced challenges in enforcing its decisions and preventing the rise of aggressive
powers, ultimately leading to its dissolution and the creation of the United Nations.

Evidently, the League of Nations failed to fulfill its primary objective of preventing future wars.
Its failure became evident when it was unable to prevent the outbreak of World War II.
Throughout the war, the League of Nations held no political significance whatsoever. Several
factors can be attributed to the failure of the League of Nations in achieving its crucial mission of
maintaining international peace and preventing armed conflicts. These factors include its
structural weaknesses, such as the unanimity rule for decision-making in both the Council and
the Assembly, the inadequate regulation of the prohibition on the use of military force, and the
lack of universal membership. The United States never joined the League of Nations, and
significant international players like Germany, Italy, and Japan withdrew from the organization
shortly after joining, while the Soviet Union was excluded. Additionally, the League of Nations
lacked representation from the Third World, as many regions in Africa and Asia were still under
colonial rule and did not meet the membership requirement of sovereignty. Despite these
shortcomings, the League of Nations did serve as a valuable platform for international
cooperation in the social and economic realms, which saw significant advancements. However,
overall, the League of Nations cannot be considered a success. Its collapse was not solely due to
the aforementioned deficiencies but was primarily caused by the power interests of influential
political players who disregarded the principles and objectives outlined in the League's Statute
and resorted to unrestricted military force to settle their disputes.

The Italo-Abyssinian War serves as a prime example of this ambivalence. It compelled League
members to denounce Italy as an adversary of the collective system, while simultaneously
maintaining a friendly relationship with the same country within the status quo security system.
This ambivalence can also be attributed to the fact that delegates from member states advocated
for disarmament and free trade in Geneva, but supported armament and tariff barriers within their
own countries. The concept of sovereignty played a crucial role in this dynamic. No member
state was willing to relinquish its sovereign rights, and sovereignty remained the foundation of
the international network of relationships. As each state believed it was the most capable
guardian of its own interests, a truly homogeneous international organization was unattainable.

Furthermore, the league faced challenges in enforcing its decisions, as member states often
disregarded its authority and pursued their own agendas. The league's inability to effectively
address aggressive actions by countries such as Japan, Italy, and Germany further weakened its
credibility. The league's failure to prevent the annexation of Manchuria by Japan in 1931 and the
invasion of Abyssinia by Italy in 1935 highlighted its limitations in maintaining peace and
security.

Despite its shortcomings, the league did leave a lasting impact on the international community.
Its efforts laid the groundwork for the establishment of the United Nations after World War II,
which aimed to prevent future conflicts and promote cooperation among nations. The league's
emphasis on collective security and the peaceful resolution of disputes continues to influence
international relations to this day.

In conclusion, the League of Nations, while ultimately unable to prevent the outbreak of
World War II, made significant contributions to global governance and the promotion of peace
and cooperation among nations. Its successes and failures serve as valuable lessons for the
international community as it continues to strive for a more peaceful and prosperous world.

The League's track record was even more dismal, particularly in matters of peace and war. In its
early years, the League managed to fulfill its promises on a few occasions, but only when the
issue was minor and the nation involved was weak. For example, it successfully resolved a
border dispute between Finland and Sweden, protected the sovereignty of Albania when it was
threatened by Greek and Yugoslav forces, ensured the withdrawal of Greek forces from Bulgaria
in 1925, and secured compensation from Greece after an incident between the two countries. It
also resolved a territorial dispute between Turkey and Iraq over Mosul and even deployed a
small peacekeeping force in 1934 to mediate a dispute between Colombia and Peru, resulting in
the withdrawal of Peruvian forces. While these achievements may have been seen as successful
applications of the League's principles by optimists, they were relatively insignificant. However,
when it came to dealing with the aggressiveness of Italy and Japan in the 1930s, the League
Council was unable to take decisive action. England and France prioritized their own national
interests, leading to the failure of collective security. The voluntary sanctions imposed on Italy
after its occupation of Ethiopia in 1935 had little impact. The League's lack of support from
major powers was particularly evident in the United States' failure to join, due to opposition from
Congress and its isolationist stance. The League's failure highlighted the absence of liberal
democratic countries and exposed the challenges posed by non-democratic members.

Upon the implementation of fascist rule in Germany, the country withdrew from the League of
Nations. This marked the beginning of the end for the League. The failure to prevent the
outbreak of World War II in 1939 did not diminish the belief in the necessity of a universal
organization. Instead, it reinforced the commitment to learn from past mistakes and establish a
more effective body to uphold international peace in the future. The shortcomings of the League
of Nations highlighted the importance of unity of purpose among the major powers for lasting
peace. Consequently, cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union became a
focal point. Eloranta provides several reasons for the failures of the League, including its
imperfection in achieving disarmament, lack of universality, internal conflicts within member
states, and challenges faced during disarmament conferences. Ultimately, the League's failure
can be attributed to its role as a proponent of the status quo established by the Versailles Treaty.

United Nations (UN)

United Nations (UN), international organization established on October 24, 1945. The United
Nations (UN) was the second multipurpose international organization established in the 20th
century that was worldwide in scope and membership. Its predecessor, the League of Nations,
was created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and disbanded in 1946. In 1945, after the event of
World War II causing irreparable damage to many nations of the world, it was a time where the
world wanted peace. In the same year, 51 countries met at a conference held in San Francisco to
sign a document which was the United Nations Charter founding the United Nations
Organization (UNO). The United Nations Organization headquartered in San Francisco was
created for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. Presently, there are 193
member states in the UNO.

History of the United Nation:

The Atlantic Charter (1941) : After the failure of the League of Nations and when World War II
started, a dire need for a new organization for promoting international peace was felt. The
Atlantic Charter was a Joint Declaration issued by two leaders American President Roosevelt and
British Prime Minister Churchill in 1941. Initially, the word ‘United Nations’ was used by
President Roosevelt and it indicated the countries that are allied against Germany, Japan, and
Italy. On 1st January 1942, 26 nations signed the Declaration at Washington DC stressing their
adherence to the principles of the Atlantic Charter.

Dumbarton Oaks Proposal (1944-1945) : A meeting was held at Dumbarton Oaks for the
formation of the United Nations, where the principles of the organization were laid down. On 7th
October 1944, a proposal was submitted by the Big Four (China, Great Britain, USSR, and the
United States) regarding the structure of the world organization to all the UN Governments. But,
there was still disagreement on the question of voting in the Security Council. For this purpose,
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at a conference at Yalta and on 11th February 1945
announced that the question was resolved and summoned the San Francisco Conference. 4
Maurice Vaïsse, 1993 On the 25th of April 1945, the leaders gathered at the San Francisco
Conference (United Nations Conference on International Organization) to determine the final
structure of the United Nations Charter. On 24th October 1945, the 5 permanent members and
other signatory nations ratified the official UN Charter. The principal organs of the United
Nations (UN) are: General Assembly: Comprising all member states, the General Assembly
serves as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. It discusses
and makes recommendations on various issues concerning international peace and security,
development, and other matters on the UN agenda. Security Council: Responsible for
maintaining international peace and security, the Security Council has 15 members, including
five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States)
and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms. Secretariat: Headed by the
Secretary-General, the Secretariat provides administrative support to the UN's work, including
implementing decisions of the General Assembly and other organs. International Court of Justice
(ICJ): The principal judicial organ of the UN, the ICJ settles legal disputes between states and
gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized
agencies. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Responsible for promoting international
economic and social cooperation and development, ECOSOC coordinates the economic, social,
and related work of 15 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions, and five regional
commissions. Trusteeship Council: Originally established to oversee the administration of trust
territories, the Trusteeship Council suspended its operations in 1994 after the last of the trust
territories gained independence. It now meets as and when needed.

SPECIALIZED AGENCIES: When the UNO was created during the 1940s, the initial
member states recognized that there were several problems poorly fitted to deliberations within
the General Assembly, ECOSOC, and several of the problems were extremely technical. This
was because the ability of communication systems needed the cooperation of stakeholders not
represented in those 3 bodies such as the international labour law. Several of the specialized
agencies predated the creation of the international organization system. The second oldest is the
Universal communication Union, created in 1874 to coordinate communication policies and
guarantee cross-border delivery of mail. Another is the International Labour Organization created
as a part of the League of Nations in 1919.

So, the answer to this problem was the creation of specialized/expert and technical agencies. The
specialized agencies are autonomous organizations tasked with raising these problems, setting
international standards, and implementing them around the world. A key role of these agencies is
international standard-setting.

Today, there are more than a dozen specialized and technical agencies. The keyword of these
specialized agencies is “autonomous.” These agencies don’t report back to the ECOSOC. Their
work is directed by their board and also the budget that the board approves. One of ECOSOC’s
mandates is coordinating international organization activities and policies with the specialized
agencies. The heads of the specialized agencies conjointly meet with the Secretary-General
frequently. Several specialized agencies share resources and have interaction in joint work. The
specialized agencies along with the United Nations are often collectively called the United
Nations System.

At present, there are 17 specialized agencies which are as follows:

1) International Labour Organization (ILO)

2) International Maritime Organization (IMO)

3) International Monetary Fund (IMF)

4) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

5) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

6) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

7) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

8) Universal Postal Union (UPU)

9) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

10) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

11) World Health Organization (WHO)

12) World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)

13) World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

14) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

15) World Bank Group (WBG)

16) Former specialized agencies

17) Related organizations

SPECIALIZED AGENCIES IN BRIEF:

International Labour Organisation (ILO) : The International Labour Organization (ILO) was
constituted in 1919, forming a part of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1946, ILO became specialized
agency of the UN. The ILO as a UN agency has a directive to advance social and economic
justice through setting International Labour Standards.

The International Labour Organization comprises 187 member states, 186 of them are the
member states of the UNO and the Cook Islands. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland
with around forty field offices in different parts of the world, and it employs about 2700 staff
members from more than 150 nations, of whom 900 are employed in technical cooperation
programmes and projects.

In conditions of freedom, equity, security and dignity, ILO’s international labour standards aim to
ensure accessible, productive, and sustainable work worldwide. These are outlined in its
conventions and treaties, eight of which are fundamental conventions covered in the ILO
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 1998. These fundamental subjects
include freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining,
effective abolition of child labour, the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour,
and the elimination of discrimination at the workplace in employment and occupation. For
governance, there are four governance conventions, their significance emphasized by the ILO
Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalization in its follow up.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) : The FAO is one of the specialized agencies of the
United Nations. It was constituted in 1945, and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has
its headquarters in Rome, Italy. The goal for which FAO was constituted was to provide food
security for everyone and also ensure that high-quality food in sufficient quantities is available to
people to maintain a healthy lifestyle.

Each year, several major reports are published by FAO about food, agriculture, forestry, fisheries,
and natural resources of the world. Its main functions can be listed as follows:

• Coordinate the activities of governments and development agencies which are targeted to
develop and improve agriculture, fisheries, forestry and other land and water resources.

• The FAO, to improve agricultural output and development, conducted research and provided
technical assistance to various projects.
• It conducts educational and training programs and also collects agricultural data and analyses it
to improve yield and production.

• The FAO is also involved with publishing several publications/reports, such as: the State of the
World, the State of the World’s Forests, the Global Report on Food Crises, the State of Food and
Agriculture, etc.

Its other functions include executing current and prospective activities dealing with matters
related to Food and Agriculture around the world, Programme of Work and Budget,
administrative matters and financial management of the Organisation and constitutional matters.

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) : It is a specialized United Nations

agency which is an international financial institution. It was constituted in 1977, after the 1974
World Food Conference and since then it has been involved in offering grants and loans with low
interest for associated projects. Its headquarters is in Rome(Italy) and it has 177 member
countries. Its key function is to improve agricultural development and livelihoods of people in
developing countries. It does this by helping to increase the productive capacity of the poor and
rural people, enabling them to increase their food security, improve nutrition and raise their
incomes. It supports many vulnerable groups such as foresters, fishers and small-scale
entrepreneurs in rural areas by sharing the weather information, assisting in disaster
preparedness, providing lessons in social learning and technology transfer which in turn
empowers the farmers to feed growing populations and enhance the climate robustness of rural
farming systems. IFAD mobilizes billions in loans and grants to support programs and projects in
rural areas in partnership with recipient governments.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) : UNIDO is a UNO development

agency established by the General Assembly and constituted in 1967 but it became a specialized
agency of the UNO only in 1987. Its headquarters is based in Vienna. UNIDO also has liaison
offices in other parts of the world such as New York City and Geneva and many smaller field
offices all across the world. India is also part of UNIDO.

Many developing countries and economies which are in transition sometimes get marginalized
and UNIDO helps prevent that. It assists them by mobilization of information and technology,
knowledge, and skills to push forward a competitive economy, beneficial employment and a
sound environment. It also mobilizes cooperation not only at the global level but also at regional,
national and sectoral levels. UNIDO is different from the other specialized agencies of the UNO
as it has a constitution. It has its own policy-making organs and even its own regular budget. The
voluntary contributions made to UNIDO are disposed of to finance developmental activities.
Another unique thing about UNIDO in the United Nations system is that it is the only
organization promoting the creation of wealth and removing poverty through manufacturing.

The focus of UNIDO is on three interrelated thematic priorities which are:

• Environment and Energy

• Reduction of poverty through Productive Activities

• Trade capacity-building

One of UNIDO’s achievements is that it has created the largest portfolio of projects related to
building trade capacity in the UN system. UNIDO also plays an important role in the
implementation of the Montreal Protocol (for prevention of ozone depletion) and the Stockholm
Convention (removal of persistent organic pollutants).

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): UNESCO

was constituted in 1945 before which existed the League of Nation’s International Committee on
Intellectual Cooperation. UNESCO came into force only in 1946. Its headquarters are in Paris,
and currently, it has 193 members. UNESCO itself is also a member of UNDP.

The broad objectives of UNESCO are promoting sustainable development, human rights, world
peace and security through international cooperation in education, the sciences, and culture. It
carries out these objectives through five major program areas:

• Education,

• Natural Sciences,

• Social/Human Sciences,

• Culture, and

• Communication/Information.
Via these objectives, it sponsors projects that develop literacy, provides technical education and
training, spreads knowledge of sciences, protects press freedom and independent media, and
preserves regional and cultural history thereby promoting cultural diversity. UNESCO is also an
environmental conservation organisation. There are many Culture Conventions of UNESCO
which aim at the protection and preservation of the culture and natural heritage of the world.
UNESCO has also declared some sites as World Heritage Sites and there are about 1000 such
heritage sites across 167 nations which are declared because these sites have distinctive cultural
or physical significance and they are considered to be of great value to humanity.

World Health Organization (WHO) : WHO is a specialized agency which works for the public
health globally since the time it came into existence in 1948 and it is a member of the UN
Development Group. It succeeded the health Organization which was a part of the League of
Nations.

WHO has 194 members currently but post Covid-19 there have been some differences between
the WHO and the US due to which the US is expected to withdraw its membership. It’s
headquarter is in Geneva and it is headed by its Director-General.

The herculean objectives of WHO include:

• The main objective is the achievement of the best possible health standard for all the people of
the world.

• To achieve the best health standard for all it collaborates with the UN specialized agencies,
governmental health administration of the different member countries, and professional and other
groups related to the health. In this regard, it helps countries to improve their health system by
helping them build better health infrastructure, and set up local health centres, and assists in the
development of national training institutions for medical and nursing personnel of the member
states.

• It works to eradicate diseases by promoting research to find new and better cures for the
diseases.
• It promotes maternal and child health and provides important drugs needed for their medical
care. It runs an immunization programme for children against six major diseases such as
Measles, Diphtheria, Tetanus, Tuberculosis, Polio and Whooping Cough.

• It works to improve nutrition, sanitation, working conditions and other aspects of

environmental health such as providing safe drinking water and adequate waste disposal.

• It also provides technical advice to the governments of member countries in the preparation of
their long-term national health plans and sends out expert international teams to even conduct
field surveys.

• It sponsors various education and support programs to the health care professionals world-wide
and provides fellowship awards to doctors, public-health administrators, nurses, sanitary
inspectors, researchers, and laboratory technicians.

• WHO also develops and promotes international standards regarding food, biological and
pharmaceutical substances.

World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)

The UNWTO is a specialized agency of the United Nations which promotes tourism for not only
economic growth but environment friendly and responsible tourism. The World Tourism
Organisation went into operation in 1974 but became a specialized agency of the United Nations
system in 2003. UNWTO has 158 member states, 6 territories and 2 permanent observers.

The Executive Council is UNWTO’s governing body and it is headed by its Secretary-General.

Some of the responsibilities are as follows:

• It makes tourism universally accessible and also promotes sustainable and responsible tourism.

• It focuses especially in the area of development of sustainable tourism in Small Island

Developing States (SIDS).

• UNWTO helps develop tourism as a means of economic growth to promote the potential of
tourism in fighting poverty specially focussing on the developing nations.
• It prescribes the execution of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism to enhance the aid from
tourism to socio-economic development, simultaneously ensuring minimum negative impacts.

• It is steadfast in promoting tourism to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs), which are for eliminating poverty and nurturing sustainable development and
peace around the world.

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

WIPO became a specialized agency of the UN system in 1967. It originated from the United
International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property (BIRPI), constituted in 1893,
which was set up primarily to safe-guard and promote intellectual property (IP) to encourage
creativity without it being stolen. This is ensured by many legal provisions and rules.

Currently, WIPO has 192 member states and its headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland.

Some of the WIPO treaties are:

• WIPO Performance and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT)

• Madrid Protocol for the International Registration of Marks

• Marrakesh Treaty

• WIPO Copyright Treaty WIPO defines IPR (intellectual properties rights) as the original
thoughts, concepts/creations that an individual envisions and develops some product.

Intellectual property products could be mediums from the artistic to the industrial; they are
legally identified as either works of industry or works of art and literature. WIPO’s activities thus
revolve around such legal protections as provided by copyright, trademarks, patents, and
industrial designs. So, to be able to accomplish this task, WIPO has a widespread network of
registered trademarks, designs, and patents which enables member nations to access a
comprehensive database for cross-checking inventions and creations to all nations. This helps in
establishing accountability and protection of intellectual property.
World Bank Group (WBG)

The World Bank Group consists of five international organisations which function towards
eradicating poverty and assisting in economic development basically of developing countries. It
achieves this by providing loans at a minimal interest and providing grants. The World Bank also
provides loans to various government organizations for better health infrastructure, irrigation
system, educational infrastructure, and water supply etc. It provides technical and
monetary/financial advice to different projects of the member countries.

The World Bank came into existence after the ratification internationally of the Bretton Wood
agreement in 1945 and commenced its functioning in 1947 when it acquired the status of a
specialized agency of the UN system.

The headquarters of the World Bank Organization in Washington D.C. Out of the 5 international
organizations of the World Bank Group, only 3 (IBRD, IFC and IDA) are specialized agencies of
the UN system. ICSID and MIGA are not Specialized Agencies of the UN system.

Basically, the World bank group targets sustainable growth and promotes the socio-economic
status of the society. Its international organisations are as follows:

1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

2. International Finance Corporation (IFC)

3. International Development Association (IDA)

4. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

5. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)

Former specialized agencies

These are those specialized agencies that no longer exist. Till date, there is only one such
specialized agency which is the International Refugee Organization, which existed for the
duration of 1946 to 1952. It is now called ‘Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees’ and it is a subsidiary organ of the United Nations General Assembly having its
headquarter in Geneva, Switzerland.
Related organizations

Some intergovernmental organizations which have an agreement with the UNO and have a
similar structure to the specialized agencies of the UN system are called related organisations.
These related organisations do not deal with economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and
related fields as mandated by Articles 57 and 63 of the UN Charter with the specialized agencies.

Some of them are explained in brief below:

• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): IAEA deals with cooperation in the nuclear
or Atomic energy field. IAEA was established in 1957 but then it was called ‘Atoms for
Peace’. The Headquarter of IAEA is in Vienna, Austria. 171 countries are its member
states and its main objective is to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
through the peaceful use of energy harnessed nuclear/atomic technology. India has been
its member since 1957. The IAEA ensures exhaustive safeguards in non-nuclear-weapon
states which is mandatory under NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty). While it
promotes and aids in research and development in the peaceful applications of nuclear
technologies, it absolutely discourages its use for military purposes.
• International Organization for Migration (IOM): Migration of people for better livelihood
and opportunities is quite common in the global set up. It also poses many problems
between countries and to the migrants themselves. IOM is an inter-governmental
organisation set up in 1951 for implementation of national and international projects
pertaining to migration around the world. Its headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland.
Currently, it has 173 member states and 8 observer states. IOM’s mission is to support
humanitarian and methodical migration of people by providing services and management
and advice to governments and migrants.

The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

OPCW is also an intergovernmental organization of the UN, headquartered in the Hague,

Netherlands. OPCW is the international body that was setup to put in effect the Chemical
Weapons Convention which bans the usage of Chemical weapons of any kind and also
necessitates their destruction. Its responsibilities include verification and evaluation of
declarations by member’s states and on-site inspections.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

There was a proposal to have a specialized agency dealing with trade issues in the UN system
but the proposal failed but in its place, was established the WTO which has its headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland.

Its key goals are:

• Resolution arising from trade disputes,

• Setting a standard and enforcing rules for international trade,

• To facilitate negotiations for further liberalization of trade,

• Working towards a clean, transparent decision-making process as regards international trade,

• To cooperate and work with other international bodies involved in global economic management,
and

• Most importantly assist and aid the developing nations get an advantage from the global trading
system.

This basically ensures protection of the interests of small and poor countries against
discriminatory trade practices of bigger powerful countries.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF UN’S ROLE AS A REPLACEMENT OF

LEAGUE OF NATION

The United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies represent a significant evolution from the
League of Nations, offering a more comprehensive and collaborative approach to addressing
global challenges.
Here's a critical analysis of the UN's role, particularly through its specialized agencies, as a
replacement for the League of Nations:

• Multifaceted Approach

• Expertise and Technical Assistance

• Global Health and Development

• Cultural and Educational Exchange

• Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development

• Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution

• Humanitarian Assistance and Refugee Protection

• Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment

• Human Rights Promotion and Protection

• Global Governance and Reform .

The UN, along with its specialized agencies like the World Health Organization (WHO),
UNESCO, and UNICEF, adopts a multifaceted approach to global issues, addressing not only
security concerns but also health, education, culture, and other socio-economic aspects.
Specialized agencies bring expertise in their respective fields, providing technical assistance,
research, and capacity-building to member states.

Agencies like the WHO and UNICEF have played pivotal roles in global health initiatives,
disease control, and humanitarian assistance, contributing to significant improvements in public
health and development outcomes worldwide. UNESCO promotes international cooperation in
education, science, culture, and communication, fostering mutual understanding and preserving
cultural heritage.
Agencies like the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) work to address environmental challenges and promote
sustainable development practices globally. The UN's peacekeeping operations have been
instrumental in preventing or mitigating conflicts in various regions, providing a forum for
diplomatic negotiations, and facilitating post◻conflict reconstruction and reconciliation efforts.
UN agencies like the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Food
Programme (WFP) play crucial roles in providing humanitarian assistance, protection, and
support to millions of refugees, displaced persons, and vulnerable populations worldwide. The
UN has made significant strides in advancing gender equality and women's empowerment
through initiatives like UN Women and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), promoting women's rights, participation, and
leadership in all spheres of society. The UN's human rights mechanisms, including the Office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Human Rights Council, monitor,
report on, and advocate for the protection and promotion of human rights worldwide, holding
governments and non-state actors accountable for violations.

The UN serves as a forum for international cooperation, dialogue, and negotiation, providing a
platform for member states to address common challenges, negotiate agreements, and shape
global norms and policies. Although these are comes under strength of UNITED NATION (UN)
but while we critically analyzed these points these are the weakness of UN as a replacement of
united nation which is discussed below: While this approach allows for a more comprehensive
response to global challenges, it also presents coordination challenges among different agencies,
potentially leading to duplication of efforts or conflicting mandates. Despite their expertise,
specialized agencies may face challenges in effectively implementing their programs due to
resource constraints, political interference, or lack of cooperation from member states. However,
these agencies sometimes struggle to respond rapidly to emerging health crises due to
bureaucratic hurdles, funding shortages, or geopolitical considerations, as seen in the response to
the Ebola and COVID-19 pandemics.
Political tensions or ideological differences among member states can hinder UNESCO's
effectiveness, as seen in controversies over cultural heritage sites or educational curricula.
Despite their efforts, progress on environmental protection and sustainable development has been
slow, partly due to inadequate funding, lack of political will, and competing economic interests.
However, peacekeeping missions often face challenges such as insufficient resources, unclear
mandates, political constraints, and lack of consent or cooperation from warring parties, which
can undermine their effectiveness and legitimacy. Despite their efforts, humanitarian agencies
often struggle to access conflict-affected areas due to security concerns, government restrictions,
or logistical challenges, leading to gaps in assistance and protection for those in need. However,
gender inequality persists globally, exacerbated by factors such as discriminatory laws and
practices, gender-based violence, lack of access to education and healthcare, and
underrepresentation in decision-making processes. However, the UN's decision making processes
can be slow, cumbersome, and subject to power dynamics and vested interests, hindering
meaningful reform and adaptation to contemporary global realities, including emerging threats
such as climate change, cyber warfare, and pandemics. In summary, while the UN and its
specialized agencies have made significant contributions to global governance and development,
they face ongoing challenges in fulfilling their mandates effectively. Overcoming these
challenges requires enhanced coordination, adequate resources, political commitment, and
greater inclusivity to ensure that the UN remains relevant and responsive to the evolving needs
of the international community. The United Nations (UN) faced and continues to face numerous
challenges in fulfilling its role as a successor to the League of Nations.

Here are some of the key challenges:-

• Security Council Paralysis: The structure of the UN Security Council, with five permanent
members holding veto power, often leads to gridlock and paralysis in decision-making,
particularly on issues where the permanent members have conflicting interests. This can hinder
the UN's ability to effectively address urgent crises and conflicts.

• Limited Enforcement Mechanisms: While the UN Charter provides for measures such as
sanctions and peacekeeping operations to enforce Security Council decisions, their effectiveness
can be limited by factors such as inadequate resources, lack of political will, and the complexity
of modern conflicts.
• Resource Constraints: The UN relies heavily on voluntary contributions from member states to
fund its operations and programs. However, funding shortages, particularly for peacekeeping
missions and humanitarian assistance, often constrain the UN's ability to respond effectively to
crises and meet the needs of vulnerable populations.

• Geopolitical Tensions: Geopolitical rivalries and power struggles among member states can
undermine consensus-building and cooperation within the UN, leading to diplomatic deadlock
and inaction on critical issues such as conflict resolution, disarmament, and human rights.

• Humanitarian Crises and Conflicts: The proliferation of humanitarian crises, armed conflicts,
and complex emergencies around the world pose significant challenges to the UN's capacity to
provide timely and effective humanitarian assistance, protect civilians, and promote peace and
stability.

• Violations of International Law: The UN faces challenges in addressing violations of

international law, including human rights abuses, war crimes, and crimes against humanity,
particularly in situations where powerful states are implicated or where there is resistance to
international accountability mechanisms.

• Lack of Universal Compliance: Not all member states fully comply with their obligations
under the UN Charter and international law, undermining the effectiveness and credibility of the
UN's efforts to promote peace, security, human rights, and sustainable development.

• Reform and Adaptation: The UN's institutional structure and decision-making processes have
faced calls for reform to better reflect contemporary geopolitical realities and address emerging
global challenges such as climate change, cyber threats, and pandemics. However, achieving
meaningful reform is often difficult due to divergent interests among member states.
CONCLUSION:
In order to address these challenges, the UN must adapt to the changing global landscape by
enhancing its coordination mechanisms, streamlining its decision-making processes, and
increasing its transparency and accountability. Additionally, the UN must work towards
strengthening its partnerships with regional organizations, civil society, and the private sector to
leverage their expertise and resources in addressing complex global issues. Furthermore, the UN
must prioritize conflict prevention and resolution efforts, invest in sustainable development
initiatives, and prioritize the protection of human rights and humanitarian assistance. By focusing
on these key areas, the UN can better fulfill its mandate and contribute to a more peaceful,
prosperous, and just world for all.

In conclusion, while the UN faces numerous challenges in fulfilling its mission, it remains
a vital institution for promoting international cooperation, peace, and development. By
addressing its shortcomings, enhancing its effectiveness, and fostering greater collaboration
among member states and stakeholders, the UN can continue to play a crucial role in addressing
the pressing global challenges of our time.