Southern Ocean

The Southern Ocean, also known as the

Antarctic Ocean,[1][note 4] comprises the
southernmost waters of the world ocean,
generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude
and encircling Antarctica.[5] With a size of
21,960,000 km2 (8,480,000 sq mi), it is the
second-smallest of the five principal oceanic
divisions, smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic
and Indian oceans, and larger than the Arctic
Ocean.[6]

The maximum depth of the Southern Ocean,

using the definition that it lies south of 60th
parallel, was surveyed by the Five Deeps
Expedition in early February 2019. The
expedition's multibeam sonar team identified
the deepest point at 60° 28' 46"S, 025° 32'
The Antarctic Ocean, as delineated by the draft 4th
32"W, with a depth of 7,434 metres (24,390 ft).
edition of the International Hydrographic Organization's
The expedition leader and chief submersible
Limits of Oceans and Seas (2002)
pilot Victor Vescovo, has proposed naming
this deepest point the "Factorian Deep", based
on the name of the crewed submersible DSV Limiting Factor, in which he successfully visited
the bottom for the first time on February 3, 2019.[7]

By way of his voyages in the 1770s, James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern
latitudes of the globe. Yet, geographers have often disagreed on whether the Southern Ocean
should be defined as a body of water bound by the seasonally fluctuating Antarctic
Convergence — an oceanic zone where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic
mix with warmer Subantarctic waters[8] — or not defined at all, with its waters instead treated
as the southern limits of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. The International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO) finally settled the debate after the full importance of
Southern Ocean overturning circulation had been ascertained, and the term Southern Ocean
now defines the body of water which lies south of the northern limit of that circulation.[9]

The Southern Ocean overturning circulation is important because it makes up the second half
of the global thermohaline circulation, after the better known Atlantic meridional overturning
circulation (AMOC).[10] Much like AMOC, it has also been substantially affected by climate
change, in ways that have increased ocean stratification,[11] and which may also result in the
circulation substantially slowing or even passing a tipping point and collapsing outright. The
latter would have adverse impacts on global
weather and the function of marine
ecosystems here, unfolding over
centuries. [12][13] The ongoing warming is
already changing marine ecosystems here.[14]

Definition and term use

A general delineation of the Antarctic Convergence,

sometimes used by scientists as the demarcation of the
Southern Ocean

The International Hydrographic Organization's delineation of the "Southern Ocean"

has moved steadily southward since the original 1928 edition of its Limits of Oceans
and Seas.[5]

Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International
Hydrographic Bureau, the precursor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference
on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, the first edition
being 1928. Since the first edition, the limits of the Southern Ocean have moved progressively
southward; since 1953, it has been omitted from the official publication and left to local
hydrographic offices to determine their own limits.

The IHO included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of the 60th parallel south in
its 2000 revisions, but this has not been formally adopted, due to continuing impasses about
some of the content, such as the naming dispute over the Sea of Japan. The 2000 IHO definition
was circulated as a draft edition in 2002, and is used by some within the IHO and other
organizations, such as the CIA World Factbook and Merriam-Webster.[6][15]

The Australian Government regards the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of
Australia (see ).[16][17]

The National Geographic Society recognized the ocean officially in June 2021.[18][19] Prior to
this, it depicted it in a typeface different from the other world oceans; instead, it showed the
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans extending to Antarctica on both its print and online
maps.[20][21] Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema
Maps[22] and GeoNova.[23]

Pre-20th century
"Southern Ocean" is an obsolete name for the Pacific
Ocean or South Pacific, coined by the Spanish explorer
Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover the
Pacific, who approached it from the north in Panama.[24]
The "South Seas" is a less archaic synonym. A 1745 British
Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering a
Northwest Passage to "the Western and Southern Ocean
of America".[25]

"Southern Ocean" as alternative to theAuthors using "Southern Ocean" to name the waters
Aethiopian Ocean, 18th century
encircling the unknown southern polar regions used
varying limits. James Cook's account of his second voyage
implies New Caledonia borders it.[26] Peacock's 1795
Geographical Dictionary said it lay "to the southward of America and Africa";[27] John Payne in
1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit;[28] the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50
degrees.[29] The Family Magazine in 1835 divided the "Great Southern Ocean" into the
"Southern Ocean" and the "Antarctick [sic] Ocean" along the Antarctic Circle, with the northern
limit of the Southern Ocean being lines joining Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, Van
Diemen's Land and the south of New Zealand.[30]

The United Kingdom's South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern
limit of the new province of South Australia as "the Southern Ocean". The Colony of Victoria's
Legislative Council Act 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as "along the New
South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean".[31]

1928 delineation
In the 1928 first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, the Southern Ocean was delineated by
land-based limits: Antarctica to the south, and South America, Africa, Australia, and
Broughton Island, New Zealand to the north.
The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in
Chile eastward to Cape Agulhas in Africa, then
further eastward to the southern coast of mainland
Australia to Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia. From
Cape Leeuwin, the limit then followed eastward
along the coast of mainland Australia to Cape Otway,
Victoria, then southward across Bass Strait to Cape
Wickham, King Island, along the west coast of King
Island, then the remainder of the way south across
Bass Strait to Cape Grim, Tasmania. 1928 delineation

The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania

southward to the South East Cape and then went eastward to Broughton Island, New Zealand,
before returning to Cape Horn.[32]

1937 delineation
The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were
moved southward in the IHO's 1937 second edition of
the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition,
much of the ocean's northern limit ceased to abut
land masses.

In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then

extended from Antarctica northward to latitude 40°S
between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20°E) and Cape
Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115°E), and
extended to latitude 55°S between Auckland Island of
New Zealand (165 or 166°E east) and Cape Horn in 1937 delineation
South America (67°W).[33]

As is discussed in more detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly
excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the
1928 edition, and delineated as shown in the figure above in the 1937 edition. It therefore
encompassed former Southern Ocean waters—as designated in 1928—but was technically not
inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937.

In the 2002 draft edition, the IHO have designated "seas" as subdivisions within "oceans", so
the Bight would have still been within the Southern Ocean in 1937 if the 2002 convention were
in place then. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is
necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, how the 2002 change in IHO terminology for
"seas" can affect the comparison.

1953 delineation
The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, a
note in the publication read:
 The Antarctic or Southern Ocean has been omitted from this publication as the
majority of opinions received since the issue of the 2nd Edition in 1937 are to the
effect that there exists no real justification for applying the term Ocean to this body of
water, the northern limits of which are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal
change. The limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been
extended South to the Antarctic Continent.
Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are
therefore left to decide their own northern limits (Great Britain uses Latitude of 55
South.)[34]: 4

Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended
southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per
the first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the
southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northward.[34]

2002 draft delineation

The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern
Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations,
28 responded, and all responding members except
Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the
importance placed by oceanographers on ocean
currents. The proposal for the name Southern Ocean
won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean.
Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean's
northern limit at the 60th parallel south—with no
land interruptions at this latitude—with the other
14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly the 50th
parallel south, but a few for as far north as the 35th
parallel south. Notably, the Southern Ocean
Observing System collates data from latitudes higher
Area inside the black line indicates the area
than 40 degrees south. constituting the Pacific Ocean prior to 2002;
darker blue areas are its informal current
A draft fourth edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas borders following the recreation of the
was circulated to IHO member states in August 2002 Southern Ocean and the reinclusion of
(sometimes referred to as the "2000 edition" as it marginal seas.[35]
summarized the progress to 2000). [36] It has yet to be
published due to 'areas of concern' by several
countries relating to various naming issues around the world – primarily the Sea of Japan
naming dispute – and there have been various changes: 60 seas were given new names, and
even the name of the publication was changed.[37] A reservation had also been lodged by
Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits.[38] Effectively, the third edition—which did not
delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices—has yet to be
superseded.
Despite this, the fourth edition definition has
partial de facto usage by many nations,
scientists, and organisations such as the U.S.
(the CIA World Factbook uses "Southern
Ocean", but none of the other new sea names
within the "Southern Ocean", such as the
"Cosmonauts Sea") and Merriam-
Webster, [6][15][21] scientists and nations – and
even by some within the IHO.[39] Some nations'
hydrographic offices have defined their own
boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55th
parallel south for example.[34] Other
organisations favour more northerly limits for
the Southern Ocean. For example,
Encyclopædia Britannica describes the
Southern Ocean as extending as far north as
South America, and confers great significance
on the Antarctic Convergence, yet its
description of the Indian Ocean contradicts
this, describing the Indian Ocean as extending
Continents and islands of the Southern Ocean
south to Antarctica.[40][41]

Other sources, such as the National Geographic

Society, show the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans as extending to Antarctica on its maps,
although articles on the National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern
Ocean.[21]

A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928–1953) was also seen in the 2002 draft edition
when the IHO delineated "seas" as subdivisions within the boundaries of "oceans". While the
IHO are often considered the authority for such conventions, the shift brought them into line
with the practices of other publications (e.g. the CIA World Fact Book) which already adopted
the principle that seas are contained within oceans. This difference in practice is markedly
seen for the Pacific Ocean in the adjacent figure. Thus, for example, previously the Tasman
Sea between Australia and New Zealand was not regarded by the IHO as part of the Pacific,
but as of the 2002 draft edition it is.

The new delineation of seas as subdivisions of oceans has avoided the need to interrupt the
northern boundary of the Southern Ocean where intersected by Drake Passage which includes
all of the waters from South America to the Antarctic coast, nor interrupt it for the Scotia Sea,
which also extends below the 60th parallel south. The new delineation of seas has also meant
that the long-time named seas around Antarctica, excluded from the 1953 edition (the 1953
map did not even extend that far south), are automatically part of the Southern Ocean.
Australian standpoint
In Australia, cartographical authorities define the
Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water
between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and
New Zealand, and up to 60°S elsewhere.[42] Coastal maps
of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as
Southern Ocean[43] and Cape Leeuwin in Western
Australia is described as the point where the Indian and
Southern Oceans meet.[44]

History of exploration A map of Australia's official interpretation

of the names and limits of oceans and
seas around Australia

Unknown southern land

Exploration of the Southern Ocean was inspired by a
belief in the existence of a Terra Australis – a vast
continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the
northern lands of Eurasia and North Africa – which had
existed since the times of Ptolemy. The rounding of the
Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first
brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and
proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from
any Antarctic land that might exist.[45] Ferdinand The 1564 Typus Orbis Terrarum, a map by
Magellan, who passed through the Strait of Magellan in Abraham Ortelius, showed the imagined
1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the link between the proposed continent of
south were an extension of this unknown southern land. Antarctica and South America.
In 1564, Abraham Ortelius published his first map, Typus
Orbis Terrarum, an eight-leaved wall map of the world,
on which he identified the Regio Patalis with Locach as a northward extension of the Terra
Australis, reaching as far as New Guinea.[46][47]
European geographers continued to connect the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of
New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown
spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the
Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into
the tropics. The search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th
and the early part of the 17th centuries.[45]

The Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who claimed having sighted "snow-covered mountains"
beyond the 64° S in 1603, is recognized as the first explorer that discovered the continent of
Antarctica, although he was ignored in his time.
In 1606, Pedro Fernández de Quirós took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he
had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides) and those he would
discover "even to the Pole".[45]

Francis Drake, like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open
channel south of Tierra del Fuego. When Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire discovered the
southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the
Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land, as
previously thought. Subsequently, in 1642, Abel Tasman showed that even New Holland
(Australia) was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent.[45]

South of the Antarctic Convergence

The visit to South Georgia by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was
the first-ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic
Convergence, i.e. in the Southern Ocean/Antarctic.[48][49] Soon
after the voyage cartographers started to depict "Roché Island",
honouring the discoverer. James Cook was aware of la Roché's
discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.[50]

Edmond Halley's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic

investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in
January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi [230 km] off
the north coast of South Georgia) was his farthest south. A
determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-
Portrait of Edmund Halley by
Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the "South Land" – Godfrey Kneller (before 1721)
described by a half legendary "sieur de Gonneyville" – resulted in
the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation
of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730.[45]

In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from
Mauritius in search of "a very large continent". He lighted upon a land in 50° S which he called
South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out
again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable
island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him.[45]

South of the Antarctic Circle

The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple,
the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command
the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by
the admiralty to Captain James Cook. Sailing in 1772 with Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons
under his own command and Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first
searched in vain for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in
latitude 58° S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of 60° S, a lower southern latitude
than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any
vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was
crossed for the first time in history and the two ships
reached 67° 15' S by 39° 35' E, where their course was
stopped by ice.[45]

Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern

and Antarctic Lands, of the discovery of which he had
"Terres Australes" [sic] label without any
received news at Cape Town, but from the rough charted landmass
determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook
reached the assigned
latitude 10° too far east and
did not see it. He turned
south again and was
stopped by ice in 61° 52′ S by
95° E and continued
eastward nearly on the
parallel of 60° S to 147° E. On
16 March, the approaching James Weddell's second expedition in
winter drove him 1823, depicting the brig Jane and the
northward for rest to New cutter Beaufroy

Zealand and the tropical

Famous official portrait of
islands of the Pacific. In
Captain James Cook who November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company
proved that waters with the Adventure, and reached 60° S by 177° W, whence he
encompassed the southern sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed.
latitudes of the globe. "He The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook
holds his own chart of the
remained south of it for three days, compelled after reaching
Southern Ocean on the table
67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W.[45]
and his right hand points to the
east coast of Australia on it."[51]
A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land
connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego. Turning
south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W before his
progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W. This point,
reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great
detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for
refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific
without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on
29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia, and discovered the
South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen,
before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60°. He thereby
laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable
southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the
60th parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically
inaccessible and without economic value.[45]
Voyagers rounding Cape Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven
southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of
them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.

In a voyage from 1822 to 1824, James Weddell commanded the 160-ton brig Jane, accompanied
by his second ship Beaufoy captained by Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South
Orkneys where sealing proved disappointing. They turned south in the hope of finding a
better sealing ground. The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823
the two ships reached latitude 74°15' S and longitude 34°16'45″ W the southernmost position
any ship had ever reached up to that time. A few icebergs were sighted but there was still no
sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that the sea continued as far as the South Pole.
Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coat's Land (to the east of the Weddell
Sea) but Weddell decided to turn back.[52]

First sighting of land

The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was
discovered by the Englishman William Smith, who sighted
Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith
returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands
archipelago, landed on King George Island, and claimed the new
territories for Britain.

In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in

September 1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her
wreckage were found months later by sealers on the north coast
of Livingston Island (South Shetlands). It is unknown if some
survivor managed to be the first to set foot on these Antarctic
islands.
Admiral von Bellingshausen
The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be
accurately attributed to one single person. It can be narrowed
down to three individuals. According to various sources,[53][54][55] three men all sighted the ice
shelf or the continent within days or months of each other: Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen, a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy; Edward Bransfield, a captain in the
Royal Navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sailor out of Stonington, Connecticut. It is
certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and
Mirny, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the
sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W[56] that became known as the Fimbul Ice Shelf. On
30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the Antarctic
mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in
November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander
I Island, the first islands to be discovered south of the circle.

Historical maps showing a southern ocean between Antarctica and the continents of
South America, Africa and Australia
1683 map by French cartographer Samuel Dunn's 1794 General Map A New Map of Asia, from the
Alain Manesson Mallet from his of the World or Terraqueous Globe Latest Authorities, by John Cary,
publication Description de shows a Southern Ocean (but Engraver, 1806, shows the
L'Univers. Shows a sea below meaning what is today named the Southern Ocean lying to the south
both the Atlantic and Pacific South Atlantic) and a Southern Icy of both the Indian Ocean and
oceans at a time when Tierra del Ocean. Australia.
Fuego was believed joined to
Antarctica. Sea is named Mer
Magellanique after Ferdinand
Magellan.

Freycinet Map of 1811 – resulted 1863 map of Australia shows the 1906 map by German publisher
from the 1800–1803 French Southern Ocean lying immediately Justus Perthes showing
Baudin expedition to Australia to the south of Australia. Antarctica encompassed by an
and was the first full map of Antarktischer (Sudl. Eismeer)
Australia ever to be published. In Ocean – the 'Antarctic (South
French, the map named the ocean Arctic) Ocean'.
immediately below Australia as
the Grand Océan Austral ('Great
Southern Ocean').
 Map of The World in 1922 by the
National Geographic Society
showing the Antarctic (Southern)
Ocean.

Antarctic expeditions

USS Vincennes at Disappointment Bay,

Antarctica in early 1840

In December 1839, as part of the United States

Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted
by the United States Navy (sometimes called
"the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed
from Sydney, Australia, on the sloops-of-war
1911 South Polar Regions exploration map USS Vincennes and USS Peacock, the brig
USS Porpoise, the full-rigged ship Relief, and
two schooners Sea Gull and USS Flying Fish.
They sailed into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an
Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica
was later named "Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day.

Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered
Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice
that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two
ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and HMS Terror.[57]
The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by
Ernest Shackleton, set out to cross the continent via the
pole, but their ship, Endurance, was trapped and crushed
by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition
members survived after an epic journey on sledges over
pack ice to Elephant Island. Then Shackleton and five
others crossed the Southern Ocean, in an open boat
called James Caird, and then trekked over South Georgia
to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken.
Frank Hurley: As time wore on it became
In 1946, US Navy Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd and more
more and more evident that the ship was
than 4,700 military personnel visited the Antarctic in an doomed (Endurance trapped in pack ice),
expedition called Operation Highjump. Reported to the National Library of Australia.
public as a scientific mission, the details were kept secret
and it may have actually been a training or testing
mission for the military. The expedition was, in both military or scientific planning terms, put
together very quickly. The group contained an unusually high amount of military equipment,
including an aircraft carrier, submarines, military support ships, assault troops and military
vehicles. The expedition was planned to last for eight months but was unexpectedly
terminated after only two months. With the exception of some eccentric entries in Admiral
Byrd's diaries, no real explanation for the early termination has ever been officially given.

Captain Finn Ronne, Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition
in 1947–1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. He disproved the notion that the
continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single
continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected.[58] The expedition
explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and
identified the Ronne Ice Shelf, named by him for his wife Jackie Ronne.[59] He covered 3,600
miles (5,790 km) by ski and dog sled – more than any other explorer in history.[60] The Ronne
Antarctic Research Expedition discovered and mapped the last unknown coastline in the
world and was the first Antarctic expedition to ever include women.[61]

Post-Antarctic Treaty
The Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1 December 1959 and
came into force on 23 June 1961. Among other provisions,
this treaty limits military activity in the Antarctic to the
support of scientific research.

The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was

the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in a 10-
metre (30 ft) steel sloop Ice Bird. MS Explorer in Antarctica in January
1999. She sank on 23 November 2007
A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma, was born near after hitting an iceberg.
Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby
born on the continent. He also was born further south
than anyone in history.[62]
The MV Explorer was a cruise ship operated by the Swedish explorer Lars-Eric Lindblad.
Observers point to Explorer's 1969 expeditionary cruise to Antarctica as the frontrunner for
today's sea-based tourism in that region.[63][64] Explorer was the first cruise ship used
specifically to sail the icy waters of the Antarctic Ocean and the first to sink there[65] when she
struck an unidentified submerged object on 23 November 2007, reported to be ice, which
caused a 10 by 4 inches (25 by 10 cm) gash in the hull.[66] Explorer was abandoned in the early
hours of 23 November 2007 after taking on water near the South Shetland Islands in the
Southern Ocean, an area which is usually stormy but was calm at the time.[67] Explorer was
confirmed by the Chilean Navy to have sunk at approximately position: 62° 24′ South, 57° 16′
West,[68] in roughly 600 m of water.[69]

British engineer Richard Jenkins designed an unmanned saildrone[70] that completed the first
autonomous circumnavigation of the Southern Ocean on 3 August 2019 after 196 days at
sea.[71]

The first completely human-powered expedition on the Southern Ocean was accomplished on
25 December 2019 by a team of rowers comprising captain Fiann Paul (Iceland), first mate
Colin O'Brady (US), Andrew Towne (US), Cameron Bellamy (South Africa), Jamie Douglas-
Hamilton (UK) and John Petersen (US).[72]

Geography
The Southern Ocean, geologically the youngest of the oceans, was formed when Antarctica and
South America moved apart, opening the Drake Passage, roughly 30 million years ago. The
separation of the continents allowed the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

With a northern limit at 60°S, the Southern Ocean differs from the other oceans in that its
largest boundary, the northern boundary, does not abut a landmass (as it did with the first
edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas). Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian
and Pacific Oceans.

One reason for considering it as a separate ocean stems from the fact that much of the water
of the Southern Ocean differs from the water in the other oceans. Water gets transported
around the Southern Ocean fairly rapidly because of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which
circulates around Antarctica. Water in the Southern Ocean south of, for example, New
Zealand, resembles the water in the Southern Ocean south of South America more closely than
it resembles the water in the Pacific Ocean.

The Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 m (13,000 and 16,000 ft)
over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water. The Southern Ocean's greatest
depth of 7,236 m (23,740 ft) occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at
60°00'S, 024°W. The Antarctic continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep,
its edge lying at depths up to 800 m (2,600 ft), compared to a global mean of 133 m (436 ft).
Equinox to equinox in line with the sun's seasonal influence, the Antarctic ice pack fluctuates
from an average minimum of 2.6 million square kilometres (1.0 × 106 sq mi) in March to about
18.8 million square kilometres (7.3 × 106 sq mi) in September, more than a sevenfold increase
in area.

Subdivisions
Subdivisions of oceans are geographical
features such as "seas", "straits", "bays",
"channels", and "gulfs". There are many
sudivisions of the Southern Ocean defined in
the never-approved 2002 draft fourth edition
of the IHO publication Limits of Oceans and
Seas. In clockwise order these include (with
sector):

Weddell Sea (57°18'W – 12°16'E)

King Haakon VII Sea[note 5] (20°W – 45°E)
Lazarev Sea (0° – 14°E)
Riiser-Larsen Sea (14° – 30°E) Seas that are parts of the Southern Ocean

Cosmonauts Sea (30° – 50°E)

Cooperation Sea (59°34' – 85°E)
Davis Sea (82° – 96°E)
Mawson Sea (95°45' – 113°E)
Dumont D'Urville Sea (140°E)
Somov Sea (150° – 170°E)
Ross Sea (166°E – 155°W)
Amundsen Sea (102°20′ – 126°W)
Bellingshausen Sea (57°18' – 102°20'W)
Part of the Drake Passage[note 6] (54° – 68°W)
Bransfield Strait (54° – 62°W)
Part of the Scotia Sea[note 7] (26°30' – 65°W)
A number of these such as the 2002 Russian-proposed "Cosmonauts Sea", "Cooperation Sea",
and "Somov (mid-1950s Russian polar explorer) Sea" are not included in the 1953 IHO
document which remains currently in force,[34] because they received their names largely
originated from 1962 onward. Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use these
latter three names, including the 2014 10th edition World Atlas from the United States'
National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th edition of the British Times Atlas of the World,
but Soviet and Russian-issued maps do.[73][74]

Biggest seas
Top large seas:[75][76][77]

1. Weddell Sea – 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi)

 2. Somov Sea – 1,150,000 km2 (440,000 sq mi)
3. Riiser-Larsen Sea – 1,138,000 km2 (439,000 sq mi)
4. Lazarev Sea – 929,000 km2 (359,000 sq mi)
5. Scotia Sea – 900,000 km2 (350,000 sq mi)
6. Cosmonauts Sea – 699,000 km2 (270,000 sq mi)
7. Ross Sea – 637,000 km2 (246,000 sq mi)
8. Bellingshausen Sea – 487,000 km2 (188,000 sq mi)
9. Mawson Sea – 333,000 km2 (129,000 sq mi)
10. Cooperation Sea – 258,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi)
11. Amundsen Sea – 98,000 km2 (38,000 sq mi)
12. Davis Sea – 21,000 km2 (8,100 sq mi)
13. D'Urville Sea
14. King Haakon VII Sea

Natural resources
The Southern Ocean probably contains large, and
possibly giant, oil and gas fields on the continental
margin. Placer deposits, accumulation of valuable
minerals such as gold, formed by gravity separation
during sedimentary processes are also expected to exist
in the Southern Ocean.[5]

Manganese nodules are expected to exist in the Southern

Ocean. Manganese nodules are rock concretions on the Manganese nodule
sea bottom formed of concentric layers of iron and
manganese hydroxides around a core. The core may be
microscopically small and is sometimes completely transformed into manganese minerals by
crystallization. Interest in the potential exploitation of polymetallic nodules generated a great
deal of activity among prospective mining consortia in the 1960s and 1970s.[5]

The icebergs that form each year around in the Southern Ocean hold enough fresh water to
meet the needs of every person on Earth for several months. For several decades there have
been proposals, none yet to be feasible or successful, to tow Southern Ocean icebergs to more
arid northern regions (such as Australia) where they can be harvested.[78]

Natural hazards
Icebergs can occur at any time of year throughout the ocean. Some may have drafts up to
several hundred meters; smaller icebergs, iceberg fragments and sea-ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m
thick) also pose problems for ships. The deep continental shelf has a floor of glacial deposits
varying widely over short distances.
 Sailors know latitudes from 40 to 70 degrees south as the
"Roaring Forties", "Furious Fifties" and "Shrieking Sixties"
due to high winds and large waves that form as winds
blow around the entire globe unimpeded by any land-
mass. Icebergs, especially in May to October, make the
area even more dangerous. The remoteness of the region
makes sources of search and rescue scarce.

An iceberg being pushed out of a

shipping lane by (L to R) USS Burton
Island, USS Atka, and USS Glacier near
McMurdo Station, Antarctica, 1965

Physical oceanography

Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Antarctic

Convergence
While the Southern is the second smallest ocean it
contains the unique and highly energetic Antarctic
Circumpolar Current which moves perpetually eastward
– chasing and joining itself, and at 21,000 km (13,000 mi)
in length – it comprises the world's longest ocean current,
transporting 130 million cubic metres per second
(4.6 × 109 cu ft/s) of water – 100 times the flow of all the
world's rivers.[79]
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
Several processes operate along the coast of Antarctica to
is the strongest current system in the
produce, in the Southern Ocean, types of water masses
world oceans, linking the Atlantic, Indian
not produced elsewhere in the oceans of the Southern and Pacific basins.
Hemisphere. One of these is the Antarctic Bottom Water,
a very cold, highly saline, dense water that forms under
sea ice. Another is Circumpolar Deep Water, a mixture of Antarctic Bottom Water and North
Atlantic Deep Water.

Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence encircling Antarctica,
where cold northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the
subantarctic, Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters, while
associated zones of mixing and upwelling create a zone very high in nutrients. These nurture
high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and Antarctic krill, and resultant
foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses and a wealth of other
species.[80]
The Antarctic Convergence is considered to be the best natural definition of the northern
extent of the Southern Ocean.

Upwelling
Large-scale upwelling is found in the Southern Ocean.
Strong westerly (eastward) winds blow around
Antarctica, driving a significant flow of water northward.
This is actually a type of coastal upwelling. Since there
are no continents in a band of open latitudes between
South America and the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula,
Upwelling in the Southern Ocean some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In
many numerical models and observational syntheses, the
Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means
by which deep dense water is brought to the surface. Shallower, wind-driven upwelling is also
found off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest Africa, and
southwest and southeast Australia, all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure
circulations.

Ross and Weddell gyres

The Ross Gyre and Weddell Gyre are two gyres that exist
within the Southern Ocean. The gyres are located in the
Ross Sea and Weddell Sea respectively, and both rotate
clockwise. The gyres are formed by interactions between
the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the Antarctic
Continental Shelf.

Sea ice has been noted to persist in the central area of the
Ross Gyre.[81] There is some evidence that global
warming has resulted in some decrease of the salinity of
the waters of the Ross Gyre since the 1950s.[82] Location of the Southern Ocean gyres

Due to the Coriolis effect acting to the left in the Southern

Hemisphere and the resulting Ekman transport away from the centres of the Weddell Gyre,
these regions are very productive due to upwelling of cold, nutrient rich water.

Observation
Observation of the Southern Ocean is coordinated through the Southern Ocean Observing
System (SOOS).[83][84] This provides access to meta data for a significant proportion of the data
collected in the regions over the past decades including hydrographic measurements and
ocean currents. The data provision is set up to emphasize records that are related to Essential
Ocean Variables (EOVs)[85] for the ocean region south of 40°S.
 Climate
Sea temperatures vary from about −2 to 10 °C
(28 to 50 °F). Cyclonic storms travel eastward
around the continent and frequently become
intense because of the temperature contrast
between ice and open ocean. The ocean from
about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle
has the strongest average winds found
anywhere on Earth.[86] In winter the ocean
freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude
in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south
latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering
surface temperatures well below 0 degrees
Celsius. At some coastal points, persistent
intense drainage winds from the interior
Regional Working Group zones for SOOS
keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the
winter.

Clouds over the Southern Ocean, with continent labels

Change
Southern Ocean overturning circulation (sometimes referred to as the Southern Meridional
overturning circulation (SMOC)[87] or Antarctic overturning circulation) is the southern half of
a global thermohaline circulation, which connects different water basins across the global
ocean. Its better-known northern counterpart is the Atlantic meridional overturning
circulation (AMOC). This circulation operates when certain currents send warm, oxygenated,
nutrient-poor water into the deep ocean (downwelling), while the cold, oxygen-limited,
nutrient-rich water travels upwards (or upwells) at specific points. Thermohaline circulation
transports not only massive volumes of warm and cold water across the planet, but also
dissolved oxygen, dissolved organic carbon and other nutrients such as iron.[88] Thus, both
halves of the circulation have a great effect on Earth's energy budget and oceanic carbon
cycle, and so play an essential role in the Earth's climate system.[89][90]
As human-caused greenhouse gas emissions cause
increased warming, one of the most notable effects of
climate change on oceans is the increase in ocean heat
content, which accounted for over 90% of the total global
heating since 1971.[95] Since 2005, from 67% to 98% of Even under the most intense climate
this increase has occurred in the Southern Ocean.[96] In change scenario, which is currently
West Antarctica, the temperature in the upper layer of considered unlikely,[91][92] the Southern
the ocean has warmed 1 °C (1.8 °F) since 1955, and the Ocean would continue to function as a
Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is also warming strong sink in the 21st century, and take

faster than the global average. [97] This warming directly up an increasing amount of carbon
dioxide (left) and heat (middle). However,
affects the flow of warm and cold water masses which
it would take up a smaller fraction of heat
make up the overturning circulation, and it also has per every additional degree of warming
negative impacts on sea ice cover in Southern than it does now (right),[93] as well as a
Hemisphere, (which is highly reflective and so elevates smaller fraction of emissions.[94]
the albedo of Earth's surface), as well as mass balance of
Antarctica's ice shelves and peripheral glaciers.[98] For
these reasons, climate models consistently show that the year when global warming will reach
2 °C (3.6 °F) (inevitable in all climate change scenarios where greenhouse gas emissions have
not been strongly lowered) depends on the status of the circulation more than any other factor
besides the emissions themselves.[99]

Greater warming of this ocean water increases ice loss from Antarctica, and also generates
more fresh meltwater, at a rate of 1100–1500 billion tons (GT) per year.[98]: 1240 This meltwater
from the Antarctic ice sheet then mixes back into the Southern Ocean, making its water
fresher.[100] This freshening of the Southern Ocean results in increased stratification and
stabilization of its layers,[101][98]: 1240 and this has the single largest impact on the long-term
properties of Southern Ocean circulation.[102] These changes in the Southern Ocean cause the
upper cell circulation to speed up, accelerating the flow of major currents,[103] while the lower
cell circulation slows down, as it is dependent on the highly saline Antarctic bottom water,
which already appears to have been observably weakened by the freshening, in spite of the
limited recovery during 2010s.[104][105][106][98]: 1240 Since the 1970s, the upper cell has
strengthened by 3–4 sverdrup (Sv; represents a flow of 1 million cubic meters per second), or
50–60% of its flow, while the lower cell has weakened by a similar amount, but because of its
larger volume, these changes represent a 10–20% weakening.[107][89] However, they were not
fully caused by climate change, as the natural cycle of Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation had also
played an important role.[108][109]

Similar processes are taking place with Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC),
which is also affected by the ocean warming and by meltwater flows from the declining
Greenland ice sheet.[111] It is possible that both circulations may not simply continue to
weaken in response to increased warming and freshening, but eventually collapse to a much
weaker state outright, in a way which would be difficult to reverse and constitute an example
of tipping points in the climate system.[99] There is paleoclimate evidence for the overturning
circulation being substantially weaker than now during past periods that were both warmer
and colder than now.[110] However, Southern Hemisphere is only inhabited by 10% of the
world's population, and the Southern Ocean overturning circulation has historically received
 much less
attention
than the
AMOC.

Since the 1970s, the upper cell of the circulation

has strengthened, while the lower cell weakened.[89]

Consequently, while multiple studies have set out to

estimate the exact level of global warming which could
result in AMOC collapsing, the timeframe over which
such collapse may occur, and the regional impacts it
would cause, much less equivalent research exists for the
Southern Ocean overturning circulation as of the early
2020s. There has been a suggestion that its collapse may
occur between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F), but this
estimate is much less certain than for many other tipping
points.[99]

The impacts of Southern Ocean overturning circulation

collapse have also been less closely studied, though
scientists expect them to unfold over multiple centuries.
A notable example is the loss of nutrients from Antarctic Evidence suggests that the Antarctic
bottom water diminishing ocean productivity and bottom water requires a temperature
ultimately the state of Southern Ocean fisheries, range close to current conditions to be at
potentially leading to the extinction of some species of full strength. During the Last Glacial
fish, and the collapse of some marine ecosystems. [112] Maximum (a cold period), it was too
Reduced marine productivity would also mean that the weak to flow out of the Weddell Sea and
ocean absorbs less carbon (though not within the 21st the overturning circulation was much
[93]
century ), which could increase the ultimate long-term weaker than now. It was also weaker

warming in response to anthropogenic emissions (thus during the periods warmer than now.[110]
raising the overall climate sensitivity) and/or prolong the
time warming persists before it starts declining on the
geological timescales.[87] There is also expected to be a decline in precipitation in the Southern
Hemisphere countries like Australia, with a corresponding increase in the Northern
Hemisphere. However, the decline or an outright collapse of the AMOC would have similar but
opposite impacts, and the two would counteract each other up to a point. Both impacts would
also occur alongside the other effects of climate change on the water cycle and effects of
climate change on fisheries.[112]
Biodiversity

Animals
A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or
indirectly, on the phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean.
Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales, orcas,
colossal squids and fur seals. The emperor penguin is the
only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica,
while the Adélie penguin breeds farther south than any Orca (Orcinus orca) hunting a Weddell
other penguin. The rockhopper penguin has distinctive seal in the Southern Ocean
feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of
elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins,
and gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by
sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell seal, a "true seal", is
named after Sir James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea.
Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of
the Southern Ocean, and is an important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur
seals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[113]

The benthic communities of the seafloor are diverse and dense, with up to 155,000 animals
found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). As the seafloor environment is very similar all around the
Antarctic, hundreds of species can be found all the way around the mainland, which is a
uniquely wide distribution for such a large community. Deep-sea gigantism is common among
these animals.[114]

A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some
500 researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life
(CoML) and has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in
both polar regions, having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,500 mi). Large animals such as
some cetaceans and birds make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of
life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans.
Various factors may aid in their distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean
at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C (9.0 °F), and the major current
systems or marine conveyor belt which transport egg and larva stages.[115] Among smaller
marine animals generally assumed to be the same in the Antarctica and the Arctic, more
detailed studies of each population have often—but not always—revealed differences,
showing that they are closely related cryptic species rather than a single bipolar
species.[116][117][118]
Birds
The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore
islands provide nesting space for over 100 million birds
every spring. These nesters include species of albatrosses,
petrels, skuas, gulls and terns.[119] The insectivorous
South Georgia pipit is endemic to South Georgia and
some smaller surrounding islands. Freshwater ducks
inhabit South Georgia and the Kerguelen Islands.[120]
A wandering albatross (Diomedea
The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern exulans) on South Georgia
Hemisphere, with the greatest concentration located on
and around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species
live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the
subantarctic islands.[121] Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping
them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.[122]

Fish
There are relatively few fish species in few families in the Southern Ocean. The most species-
rich family are the snailfish (Liparidae), followed by the cod icefish (Nototheniidae)[123] and
eelpout (Zoarcidae). Together the snailfish, eelpouts and notothenioids (which includes cod
icefish and several other families) account for almost 9⁄10 of the more than 320 described fish
species of the Southern Ocean (tens of undescribed species also occur in the region, especially
among the snailfish).[124] Southern Ocean snailfish are generally found in deep waters, while
the icefish also occur in shallower waters.[123]

Icefish
Cod icefish (Nototheniidae), as well as several other
families, are part of the Notothenioidei suborder,
collectively sometimes referred to as icefish. The
suborder contains many species with antifreeze proteins
in their blood and tissue, allowing them to live in water
that is around or slightly below 0 °C (32 °F).[125][126]
Antifreeze proteins are also known from Southern Ocean
snailfish.[127]
Fish of the Notothenioidei suborder, such
The crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae), also as this young icefish, are mostly
known as white-blooded fish, are only found in the restricted to the Antarctic and
Southern Ocean. They lack hemoglobin in their blood, Subantarctic.
resulting in their blood being colourless. One
Channichthyidae species, the mackerel icefish
(Champsocephalus gunnari), was once the most common fish in coastal waters less than 400
metres (1,312 ft) deep, but was overfished in the 1970s and 1980s. Schools of icefish spend the
day at the seafloor and the night higher in the water column eating plankton and smaller
fish.[125]
There are two species from the genus Dissostichus, the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus
mawsoni) and the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). These two species live on the
seafloor 100–3,000 metres (328–9,843 ft) deep, and can grow to around 2 metres (7 ft) long
weighing up to 100 kilograms (220 lb), living up to 45 years. The Antarctic toothfish lives close
to the Antarctic mainland, whereas the Patagonian toothfish lives in the relatively warmer
subantarctic waters. Toothfish are commercially fished, and overfishing has reduced toothfish
populations.[125][128]

Another abundant fish group is the genus Notothenia, which like the Antarctic toothfish have
antifreeze in their bodies.[125]

An unusual species of icefish is the Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum), which is

the only truly pelagic fish in the waters near Antarctica.[129]

Mammals
Seven pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest,
the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to
4,000 kilograms (8,818 lb), while females of the smallest,
the Antarctic fur seal (Arctophoca gazella), reach only 150
kilograms (331 lb). These two species live north of the sea
ice, and breed in harems on beaches. The other four
species can live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon
carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii)
are the most southerly of Antarctic
weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals mammals.
(Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii)
live solitary lives. Although these species hunt
underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend a great deal of time there, as they have no
terrestrial predators.[130]

The four species that inhabit sea ice are thought to make up 50% of the total biomass of the
world's seals.[131] Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of
the most numerous large animals on the planet.[132] The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos
hookeri), one of the rarest and most localised pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the
subantarctic Auckland Islands, although historically it had a wider range.[133] Out of all
permanent mammalian residents, the Weddell seals live the furthest south.[134]

There are 10 cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean: six baleen whales, and four
toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24
metres (79 ft) long weighing 84 tonnes. Many of these species are migratory, and travel to
tropical waters during the Antarctic winter.[135]
Invertebrates

Arthropods
Five species of krill, small free-swimming crustaceans,
have been found in the Southern Ocean.[136] The
Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is one of the most
abundant animal species on earth, with a biomass of
around 500 million tonnes. Each individual is 6
Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) are a
centimetres (2.4 in) long and weighs over 1 gram
keystone species of the food web.
(0.035 oz).[137] The swarms that form can stretch for
kilometres, with up to 30,000 individuals per 1 cubic
metre (35 cu ft), turning the water red.[136] Swarms usually remain in deep water during the
day, ascending during the night to feed on plankton. Many larger animals depend on krill for
their own survival.[137] During the winter when food is scarce, adult Antarctic krill can revert
to a smaller juvenile stage, using their own body as nutrition.[136]

Many benthic crustaceans have a non-seasonal breeding cycle, and some raise their young in
a brood pouch. Glyptonotus antarcticus is an unusually large benthic isopod, reaching 20
centimetres (8 in) in length weighing 70 grams (2.47 oz). Amphipods are abundant in soft
sediments, eating a range of items, from algae to other animals.[114] The amphipods are highly
diverse with more than 600 recognized species found south of the Antarctic Convergence and
there are indications that many undescribed species remain. Among these are several "giants",
such as the iconic epimeriids that are up to 8 cm (3.1 in) long.[138]

Slow moving sea spiders are common, sometimes growing as large as a human hand. They
feed on the corals, sponges, and bryozoans that litter the seabed.[114]

Molluscs, urchins, squid and sponges

Many aquatic molluscs are present in Antarctica.
Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on
the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live
in burrows filtering the water above.[114]

There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern

Ocean,[139] the largest of which is the colossal squid
(Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which at up to 14 metres
(46 ft) is among the largest invertebrate in the world.[140]
Squid makes up most of the diet of some animals, such as A female warty squid (Moroteuthis
ingens)
grey-headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the
warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the
subantarctic's most preyed upon species by
vertebrates. [139]
The sea urchin genus Abatus burrow through the sediment eating the nutrients they find in
it.[114] Two species of salps are common in Antarctic waters: Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea
racovitzai. Salpa thompsoni is found in ice-free areas, whereas Ihlea racovitzai is found in the
high-latitude areas near ice. Due to their low nutritional value, they are normally only eaten
by fish, with larger animals such as birds and marine mammals only eating them when other
food is scarce.[141]

Antarctic sponges are long-lived and sensitive to environmental changes due to the specificity
of the symbiotic microbial communities within them. As a result, they function as indicators of
environmental health.[142]

Environment
Increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the Antarctic ozone hole has reduced
marine primary productivity (phytoplankton) by as much as 15% and has started damaging
the DNA of some fish.[143] Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, especially the landing of
an estimated five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, likely
affects the sustainability of the stock. Long-line fishing for toothfish causes a high incidence of
seabird mortality.

International agreements
All international agreements regarding the world's
oceans apply to the Southern Ocean. It is also subject to
several regional agreements:

The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary of the

International Whaling Commission (IWC) prohibits
commercial whaling south of 40 degrees south (south of
60 degrees south between 50 degrees and 130 degrees
west). Japan regularly does not recognize this provision,
because the sanctuary violates IWC charter. Since the
An adult and sub-adult Minke whale are
scope of the sanctuary is limited to commercial whaling, dragged aboard the Japanese whaling
in regard to its whaling permit and whaling for scientific vessel Nisshin Maru.
research, a Japanese fleet carried out an annual whale-
hunt in the region. On 31 March 2014, the International
Court of Justice ruled that Japan's whaling program, which Japan has long claimed is for
scientific purposes, was a cloak for commercial whaling, and no further permits would be
granted.

The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. It
was signed at the conclusion of a multilateral conference in London on 11 February 1972.[144]

The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources is part of the
Antarctic Treaty System. It entered into force on 7 April 1982 with a goal to preserve marine
life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. It was established largely due to
concerns that an increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could seriously impact
populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food.[145]

Many nations prohibit the exploration for and the exploitation of mineral resources south of
the fluctuating Antarctic Convergence,[146] which lies in the middle of the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface
waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north. The Antarctic Treaty covers the
portion of the globe south of 60 degrees south;[147] it prohibits new claims to Antarctica.[148]

The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources applies to the area
south of 60° South latitude as well as the areas further north up to the limit of the Antarctic
Convergence.[149]

Economy
Between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999, fisheries landed 119,898 tonnes (118,004 long tons;
132,165 short tons), of which 85% consisted of krill and 14% of Patagonian toothfish.
International agreements came into force in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and
unregulated fishing, which in the 1998–99 season landed five to six times more Patagonian
toothfish than the regulated fishery.

Ports and harbors

Major operational ports include: Rothera
Station, Palmer Station, Villa Las Estrellas,
Esperanza Base, Mawson Station, McMurdo
Station, and offshore anchorages in
Antarctica.

Few ports or harbors exist on the southern

(Antarctic) coast of the Southern Ocean, since
ice conditions limit use of most shores to
short periods in midsummer; even then some
require icebreaker escort for access. Most
Antarctic ports are operated by government
Severe cracks in an ice pier in use for four seasons at research stations and, except in an
McMurdo Station slowed cargo operations in 1983 and emergency, remain closed to commercial or
proved a safety hazard.
private vessels; vessels in any port south of 60
degrees south are subject to inspection by
Antarctic Treaty observers.

The Southern Ocean's southernmost port operates at McMurdo Station at 77°50′S 166°40′E.
Winter Quarters Bay forms a small harbor, on the southern tip of Ross Island where a floating
ice pier makes port operations possible in summer. Operation Deep Freeze personnel
constructed the first ice pier at McMurdo in 1973.[150]
Based on the original 1928 IHO delineation of the Southern Ocean (and the 1937 delineation if
the Great Australian Bight is considered integral), Australian ports and harbors between Cape
Leeuwin and Cape Otway on the Australian mainland and along the west coast of Tasmania
would also be identified as ports and harbors existing in the Southern Ocean. These would
include the larger ports and harbors of Albany, Thevenard, Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Port
Augusta, Port Adelaide, Portland, Warrnambool, and Macquarie Harbour.

Even though organizers of several yacht races define their routes as involving the Southern
Ocean, the actual routes don't enter the actual geographical boundaries of the Southern Ocean.
The routes involve instead South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Ocean.[151][152][153]

See also
Borders of the oceans
List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands
List of countries by southernmost point
List of seamounts in the Southern Ocean
Seven Seas
International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean

Notes
1. Also a translation of its former French name (Grand Océan Austral) in reference to its position
below the Pacific, the "Grand Océan".
2. Used by Dr. Hooker in his accounts of his Antarctic voyages.[4] Also a translation of the ocean's
Japanese name Nankyoku Kai ( 南極海).
3. Also a translation of the ocean's Chinese name Nánbīng Yáng ( 南冰洋).
4. Historic names include the "South Sea", the "Great Southern Ocean",[3][note 1] the "South Polar
[2]

Ocean" or "South-Polar Ocean",[note 2] and the "Southern Icy Ocean".[2][note 3]

5. Reservation by Norway: Norway recognizes the name Kong Håkon VII Hav, which covers the sea
area adjacent to Dronning Maud Land and stretching from 20°W to 45°E.[36]
6. The Drake Passage is situated between the southern and eastern extremities of South America
and the South Shetland Islands, lying north of the Antarctic Peninsula.[36]
7. The Scotia Sea is an area defined by the southeastern extremity of South America and the South
Shetland Islands on the west and by South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands to the north
and east. As they extend north of 60°S, Drake Passage and the Scotia Sea are also described as
forming part of the South Atlantic Ocean.[36]

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Further reading
Arndt, Jan Erik; Schenke, Hans Werner; et al. (20 June 2013). "The International Bathymetric Chart
of the Southern Ocean (IBCSO) Version 1.0—A new bathymetric compilation covering circum-
Antarctic waters" (http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/502276/1/grl50413.pdf) (PDF). Geophysical
Research Letters. 40 (12). American Geophysical Union (AGU): 3111–3117.
Bibcode:2013GeoRL..40.3111A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013GeoRL..40.3111A).
doi:10.1002/grl.50413 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgrl.50413). ISSN 0094-8276 (https://search.wo
rldcat.org/issn/0094-8276). S2CID 210009232 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210009
232).
Gille, Sarah T. (15 February 2002). "Warming of the Southern Ocean Since the 1950s". Science. 295
(5558). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 1275–1277.
Bibcode:2002Sci...295.1275G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...295.1275G).
doi:10.1126/science.1065863 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1065863). ISSN 0036-8075 (ht
tps://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 11847337 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11
847337). S2CID 31434936 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31434936).
Tchernia, P. (1980). Descriptive Regional Oceanography. Oxford: Pergamon. ISBN 978-0-08-020919-
7.
Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey. 2003. Regional Oceanography: an Introduction. (see the
site (https://web.archive.org/web/20070630202249/http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/reg
oc/))
External links
The CIA World Factbook's (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/southern-ocean/)
entry on the Southern Ocean
The Fifth Ocean (http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.htm) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20080906122032/http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.ht
m) 6 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine from Geography.About.com
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO): Limits of Oceans and Seas (https://hdl.handle.net/1
0013/epic.37175) (2nd Edition), extant 1937 to 1953, with limits of Southern Ocean.
NOAA FAQ about the number of oceans (https://web.archive.org/web/20070313190338/http://fin
danswers.noaa.gov/noaa.answers/consumer/kbdetail.asp?kbid=595&start=121)
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (http://www.ccamlr.org/)

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