Introduction to Research Methods in Politics

UNIT 1 NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODS IN POLITICS

Devendra Dilip Pai

Assistant Professor
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi

STRUCTURE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Human Enquiry and Social Science Research
1.4 Political Inquiry
1.5 Political Inquiry in Contemporary Context
1.6 Transparency and Subjectivity vs. Objectivity
1.7 Epistemological Debate – Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis
1.8 Summary
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 Essential/Recommended Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit discusses the methods that underpin the study of politics, offering
insights into why and how we conduct research in this politics.
Politics or Political science, as a discipline, seeks not only to describe but
to explain and predict political phenomena, from elections to policy outcomes.
To achieve these goals, researchers employ a variety of methods, each with its
own philosophical underpinnings, strengths, and limitations.

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1.2 OBJECTIVES

By studying this unit, you will,

• Understand Human Enquiry in Political Science and explore the
methodologies involved in political research
• Define and Justify Political Inquiry
• Investigate the challenges of maintaining objectivity and the role of
interpretation in political research.
• Analyse Epistemological Methods in political science, understanding their
philosophical bases and integration for comprehensive analysis

1.3 HUMAN ENQUIRY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

RESEARCH

Human enquiry is the natural process by which individuals seek to understand the
world around them. It is a fundamental aspect of human cognition, encompassing
observation, questioning, and reasoning. Social science research, on the other
hand, is a systematic and formalised extension of human enquiry. It involves
the use of scientific methods to study human behaviour, societal structures,
and cultural phenomena. Together, human enquiry and social science research
contribute to a deeper understanding of social realities and the formulation of
solutions to societal challenges. This unit explores the relationship between
human enquiry and social science research, the methodologies employed, and
their significance in understanding complex social phenomena.

1.3.1 The Nature of Human Enquiry

Human enquiry begins with curiosity. From early childhood, individuals observe
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This innate drive to know stems from the need to adapt and survive. Human NOTES
enquiry can be categorised into two types:
1. Informal Enquiry
o Informal enquiry involves casual observation and reasoning. For
example, individuals may draw conclusions based on personal
experiences, anecdotal evidence, or intuitive reasoning. While this
approach is useful for everyday problem-solving, it often lacks
systematic rigour and objectivity.
2. Formal Enquiry
o Formal enquiry is more structured and methodical. It involves the
deliberate use of logical reasoning and empirical evidence to arrive
at conclusions. This type of enquiry lays the foundation for scientific
investigation, including social science research.

Characteristics of Human Enquiry

The quest to understand why certain political events occur or why people behave
in certain ways politically is fundamental. This curiosity leads to the formulation
of questions that seek to unravel the complexities of human behaviour and
societal structures.
It is the Starting Point inquiry, particularly in the study of politics which
begins with a simple yet profound question: Why? Why do people vote the way
they do? Why are some policies more effective than others? Why does political
power shift in certain ways? This curiosity is not just about satisfying personal
interest but is fundamental to understanding the political landscape.
The desire to know the reasons behind political events and behaviours is
what drives political research. It is about uncovering the unseen forces that shape
our political environment. From curiosity springs questions. These questions
guide the research process, prompting investigations into the nature of political
phenomena
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NOTES Given below are the characteristics of human enquiry:

• Curiosity-driven: The pursuit of knowledge begins with a desire to
understand.
• Observation-based: Enquiry relies on sensory experiences and
observations.
• Question-oriented: It involves asking “why” and “how” questions to
explore phenomena.
• Adaptive: Human enquiry evolves over time, incorporating new
information and perspectives.

1.3.2 Social Science Research: A Systematic Extension of Human Enquiry

Social science research builds on human enquiry by employing scientific

methods to investigate societal issues. It aims to produce reliable, objective,
and verifiable knowledge about social phenomena. Key disciplines within social
science research include sociology, anthropology, political science, economics,
and psychology.

Objectives of Social Science Research

The objectives of social science research are as follows,
1. Description: To provide a detailed account of social phenomena, such as
cultural practices or political systems.
2. Explanation: To understand the underlying causes and mechanisms of
social behaviour and events.
3. Prediction: To forecast future social trends and outcomes based on existing
data.
4. Intervention: To develop strategies for addressing social problems and
improving societal well-being.

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Characteristics of Social Science Research NOTES

Characteristics of social science research are that it is,
• Empirical: Relies on data collected through observation, experimentation,
or surveys.
• Systematic: Follows a structured methodology to ensure consistency and
reliability.
• Theoretical: Involves the development and testing of theories to explain
social phenomena.
• Ethical: Adheres to ethical principles to protect participants and maintain
integrity.

1.3.3 Methodologies in Social Science Research

Social science research employs a variety of methodologies, broadly classified

into qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Each approach has its strengths
and is suited to different types of research questions.

1. Qualitative Methods
Qualitative research focuses on understanding the meaning and experiences
behind social phenomena. It is exploratory and interpretive in nature.
• Techniques:
o Interviews: In-depth conversations to explore participants’ perspectives.
o Focus Groups: Group discussions to gather diverse opinions and
insights.
o Participant Observation: Immersive observation to understand cultural
practices and behaviours.
o Document Analysis: Examination of texts, media, and archival records.

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NOTES • Strengths:
o Provides rich, detailed data.
o Captures the complexity of social contexts.
o Allows for flexibility in data collection.
• Limitations:
o Subjectivity in interpretation.
o Limited generalisability.
o Time-consuming.

2. Quantitative Methods
Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to
identify patterns and test hypotheses. It is deductive and seeks to establish causal
relationships.
• Techniques:
o Surveys: Questionnaires to collect data from a large sample.
o Experiments: Controlled studies to test specific variables.
o Statistical Analysis: Use of tools like regression and factor analysis to
interpret data.
o Content Analysis: Quantifying the frequency of specific themes in texts
or media.
• Strengths:
o High reliability and replicability.
o Allows for generalisation to larger populations.
o Facilitates hypothesis testing.

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• Limitations: NOTES
o Limited depth and context.
o Potential for oversimplification.
o Reliance on standardised measures.

3. Mixed Methods
Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative approaches to provide a
comprehensive understanding of research questions. This approach leverages
the strengths of both methods while mitigating their limitations.
• Strengths:
o Triangulation enhances the validity of findings.
o Balances depth and breadth of analysis.
o Provides a holistic view of social phenomena.
• Limitations:
o Requires expertise in multiple methodologies.
o Time and resource-intensive.

The Process of Social Science Research

Social science research follows a systematic process that ensures the reliability
and validity of its findings. This process involves several key steps:
1. Identifying the Research Problem: The research process begins with the
identification of a specific problem or question. For example, a researcher
might investigate the impact of social media on political participation.
2. Literature Review: A comprehensive review of existing studies helps
to identify gaps in knowledge, refine the research question, and build a
theoretical framework.
3. Formulating Hypotheses or Research Questions: Researchers develop
testable hypotheses or exploratory questions to guide their investigation.
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NOTES 4. Choosing a Methodology: Based on the research objectives, researchers

select an appropriate methodology (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed).
5. Data Collection: Researchers gather data using tools such as surveys,
interviews, or experiments.
6. Data Analysis: Collected data is analysed using qualitative or quantitative
techniques to identify patterns and draw conclusions.
7. Interpretation and Reporting: Findings are interpreted in light of the
research questions and existing theories. Results are then reported through
academic papers, reports, or presentations.
8. Ethical Considerations: Throughout the research process, ethical
principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, and respect for
participants are upheld.

Significance of Human Enquiry and Social Science Research

Human enquiry and social science research play a vital role in addressing societal
challenges and advancing knowledge. Their significance can be understood in
the following ways:
1. Understanding Social Phenomena
o Social science research helps to unravel complex social processes, such
as migration, inequality, and globalisation, providing insights into their
causes and consequences.
2. Policy Development
o Research informs policymakers by providing evidence-based
recommendations for addressing societal issues, such as poverty,
education, and healthcare.
3. Promoting Social Change
o By highlighting systemic injustices and inequalities, social science
research contributes to social movements and reforms.
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4. Enhancing Critical Thinking NOTES

o Human enquiry fosters critical thinking and encourages individuals to
question assumptions, challenge stereotypes, and seek evidence-based
answers.
5. Improving Everyday Life
o From improving educational practices to designing effective public
health campaigns, research has a tangible impact on daily life.

Challenges in Social Science Research

Despite its significance, social science research faces several challenges:
1. Complexity of Social Phenomena
o Human behaviour and societal structures are inherently complex,
making it difficult to establish clear causal relationships.
2. Ethical Dilemmas
o Researchers must navigate ethical concerns, such as obtaining informed
consent and ensuring the confidentiality of participants.
3. Data Limitations
o Incomplete or biased data can affect the reliability of research findings.
4. Cultural Sensitivity
o Researchers must be mindful of cultural differences and avoid imposing
their own biases.
5. Dynamic Social Contexts
o Rapid societal changes, such as technological advancements or
political upheavals, require researchers to adapt their methods and
interpretations.
Human enquiry and social science research are indispensable tools for
understanding and addressing the complexities of society. While human enquiry
reflects the innate curiosity and reasoning capabilities of individuals, social Self-Instructional
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NOTES science research formalizes this process through scientific methods. Together, they
contribute to a more informed, equitable, and progressive society. By continuing
to refine methodologies and addressing the challenges inherent in studying social
phenomena, researchers can enhance the impact and relevance of their work in
solving the pressing issues of our time.

1.4 POLITICAL INQUIRY

Political Inquiry, a specific branch that investigates power structures, governance,

and political behavior. This section will clarify what political enquiry entails and
why it is essential for analysing and improving political systems.

1.4.1 Definition of Political Inquiry

What is Political Inquiry?

Political inquiry is the systematic and critical exploration of political systems,
behaviour, and ideologies. Unlike casual observations or opinions, it is grounded
in rigorous methods that seek to analyse power, governance, and policies
comprehensively. Political inquiry involves both empirical analysis (what is)
and normative evaluation (what ought to be).
Normative Aspect: It explores ethical and justice-related questions, such
as “What is the ideal form of government?”
Empirical Aspect: It examines facts, evidence, and data, for example, “How
do democratic systems function in diverse societies?”

Scope of Political Inquiry

Political inquiry spans several dimensions:
1. Political Institutions: Investigating the structure and role of governments,
parliaments, and courts.
2. Political Processes: Analysing processes such as elections, policymaking,
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3. Political Behaviour: Studying public opinion, voter behaviour, and social NOTES
movements.

Key Features
• Interdisciplinary Approach: Political inquiry integrates knowledge from
fields like history, economics, law, and sociology.
• Dynamic and Evolving: It continuously adapts to address emerging global
challenges such as climate change, digital governance, and political
polarisation.

Why Political Inquiry is Unique

While related to other forms of social inquiry, political inquiry focuses specifically
on the distribution and exercise of power. Key questions it addresses include:
- Who holds power and authority?
- How is power exercised and contested?
- What are the implications of political power for individuals and societies?
With a clear understanding of what political inquiry entails, we now
explore ‘why political inquiry is essential’ in today’s world. The next section
will examine its critical role in shaping governance, promoting social equity,
and fostering informed citizenry.

1.4.2 The Need for Political Inquiry

Political Inquiry aims to

• Understand: The goal is to understand ‘why’ behind political events,
behaviours, and institutions. For instance, why do people support certain
political parties? Why do some nations have different forms of government?
Understanding these aspects helps us grasp the underlying dynamics of
political life.
• Explain: Political inquiry is not just about asking questions; it is about Self-Instructional
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NOTES effects. For example, what leads to voter turnout? How do economic
conditions influence political choices? By linking causes with their
outcomes, we can better comprehend political processes.
• Predict: With understanding and explanation comes the ability to predict.
Political inquiry allows us to forecast future political scenarios or the
potential impacts of policy decisions. For instance, if a new policy on
education is proposed, political scientists might predict its effects on voter
behaviour or social mobility.
Political Inquiry helps in,
• Policy Making: Imagine you are crafting a policy for public health.
Political research provides the data and analysis to understand what has
worked in the past, what did not, and why. This evidence-based approach
ensures that policies are not just ideas but are informed by real-world data,
increasing the likelihood of achieving the desired outcomes.
• Democratic Engagement: Democracy thrives on an informed citizenry.
When people understand how political processes work, they can engage
more effectively. They can make informed voting decisions, hold their
representatives accountable, and participate in political discourse with
more substance. Political inquiry educates the public, enhancing democratic
participation.
• Theory Development: Political science, like any science, relies on theories
to make sense of complex realities. Through research, we develop, test,
and refine these theories. Theories help categorise and analyse political
behaviour, offering frameworks for understanding how politics functions
across different contexts

Relevance to Modern Society

In today’s complex, interconnected world, political inquiry plays a vital role in
addressing the multifaceted issues that societies face. These include challenges
such as inequality, climate change, and human rights. Political inquiry not only
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helps us understand the root causes of such problems but also provides insights NOTES
into the possible solutions.
For example, political inquiry into electoral systems helps in understanding
how different systems—such as first-past-the-post versus proportional
representation—affect political representation, voter participation, and
governance. In countries like India, where diverse groups coexist, political inquiry
helps ensure that all voices are heard and represented in the political process.
Moreover, the rise of global challenges such as climate change requires
international cooperation, which political inquiry also addresses. Researchers
explore the effectiveness of global political institutions like the United Nations
and examine how treaties and agreements can be strengthened to address
transnational issues.

The Indian Context

In the context of India, political inquiry is indispensable for understanding the
complexities of its democratic framework. India’s political system is deeply
rooted in its history, culture, and diverse population. Political inquiry into India’s
federal structure, and regional disparities is crucial to addressing issues of social
justice and equitable development.
For instance, the study of India’s electoral systems helps us understand how
the country’s diversity is reflected in its elections and governance. Political inquiry
has been instrumental in analysing the impact of policies such as affirmative
action (reservation system), land reforms, and poverty alleviation programs.
Political inquiry has also played a significant role in shaping India’s
democratic identity. Researchers have examined how the country’s constitution
balances individual rights with collective welfare, and how the system of checks
and balances works in practice. In a vibrant democracy like India, political inquiry
ensures that the voices of marginalised communities are represented and heard.
Having established the importance of political inquiry, we now turn our
attention to the methodologies that underpin it. In the next section, we will explore
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NOTES the different approaches—quantitative and qualitative—that are used in political

inquiry to ensure rigor, accuracy, and depth in research.

1.4.3 Historical Evolution of Political Inquiry – Western and Indian

Perspectives

Origins of Political Inquiry in the Western Tradition

The roots of political inquiry can be traced back to ancient civilisations, with
the earliest formal explorations into politics emerging from Greek philosophy.
‘Plato, in his work’ The Republic, discussed the nature of justice, the ideal state,
and the role of rulers. His idea of a philosopher-king, someone with wisdom and
virtue, reflects his belief that political systems should be based on knowledge
and ethical principles.
‘Aristotle, Plato’s student, is often considered the father of political science
due to his systematic approach to studying politics in ‘Politics. He sought to
classify different types of governments (monarchy, aristocracy, and polity) and
how they functioned, emphasising empirical observation and categorisation.
Aristotle’s comparative method laid the foundation for later political analysis,
as he scrutinised the strengths and weaknesses of various political systems and
their impact on citizens’ well-being.
During the ‘Enlightenment period, thinkers like’ ‘Thomas Hobbes,’ ‘John
Locke’, and ‘Jean-Jacques Rousseau’ significantly advanced political inquiry.
Hobbes’ Leviathan focused on the nature of human beings and the necessity of
a powerful central authority to maintain order. Locke, in contrast, argued for
limited government and the protection of natural rights. Rousseau’s The Social
Contract proposed the idea of the “general will” as the foundation of legitimate
political authority. These thinkers laid the groundwork for modern liberal political
thought, contributing to the shaping of democratic political systems.

The Rise of Modern Political Inquiry

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more empirical and scientific methods. The influence of ‘Max Weber,’ ‘Karl NOTES
Marx’, and ‘Emile Durkheim’ cannot be overstated. Weber’s work on bureaucracy
and authority, Marx’s theories of class and power, and Durkheim’s sociological
approach to politics provided valuable frameworks for understanding political
structures in industrial societies. Political inquiry became more focused on the
study of social structures and the role of economic forces in shaping politics.
The ‘behavioural revolution’ in the mid-20th century marked a shift towards
empirical research. Political scientists like ‘David Easton’ and ‘Gabriel Almond’
promoted the use of surveys, statistical analysis, and case studies to understand
political behaviour, institutions, and systems. This period also saw the emergence
of comparative politics as a subfield, with scholars comparing political systems
across countries to identify patterns and causal relationships.

Indian Tradition in Political Thought

India’s history of political thought has a distinct and rich tradition, deeply
intertwined with its religious and philosophical systems. Political inquiry in
ancient India can be seen in the works of ‘Kautilya, especially his treatise’
Arthashastra, which offers a detailed analysis of statecraft, governance, law, and
diplomacy. Kautilya’s emphasis on realpolitik and the use of strategic thinking
in governance is still relevant in contemporary political inquiry.
The ‘Mahabharata, particularly the Shanti Parva’, also provides insights
into governance, the ethics of leadership, and the nature of power. The text
discusses the moral dilemmas faced by rulers and the principles of justice
and duty. The Bhagavad Gita, though not strictly a political treatise, has also
influenced Indian political thought, offering guidance on leadership, dharma
(duty), and the ethical conduct of rulers.
During the medieval period, Indian political thought was shaped by the
writings of scholars such as ‘Barani, who examined the nature of sovereignty
and the role of the ruler in maintaining order.’ ‘Ain-i-Akbari’, a treatise during
the Mughal period, explored governance, administration, and law in the context
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NOTES Modern Indian Political Inquiry

Modern Indian political inquiry is rooted in the socio-political changes that
occurred during British colonialism and the subsequent independence movement.
Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar, Veer Savarkar, Jawaharlal Nehru
and Deendayal Upadhyay contributed significantly to shaping political thought in
India. Gandhi’s ideas on non-violence and Satyagraha influenced India’s struggle
for independence, and Nehru’s vision for an industrialised state provided the
foundation of governance post India’s post-independence.
B.R. Ambedkar, a key architect of India’s Constitution, brought attention to
issues of social justice, especially concerning the marginalised Dalit communities.
Political inquiry in India has, therefore, been closely tied to questions of social
justice, equality, and the challenges of creating a unified nation-state out of a
deeply diverse society.
In addition to these figures, Veer Savarkar played a significant role in
shaping the political discourse of his time. Known for his ideology of Hindutva,
Savarkar’s works such as Hindutva: The Way of Life and his writings on India’s
history challenged colonial narratives and advocated for a more assertive form of
nationalism. Savarkar’s vision of India emphasised Hindu identity and the unity of
the Hindu nation, a perspective that continues to influence contemporary political
thought in India. While his views have been debated, Savarkar’s contributions
to the discourse on nationalism, identity, and political sovereignty are critical in
understanding modern Indian politics.
Deendayal Upadhyay blended Indian spiritualism and globalism humanism
by adding the idea of “Integral Humanism” to India’s political discourse
introducing new concepts with concepts like “Antyodaya” finding space and
relevance in contemporary programmes and policies of the government.
Post-independence, political inquiry in India has focused on studying
democracy, federalism, identities and social groups, electoral systems, and the
impact of economic policies. Scholars have examined how India’s political
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groups navigate power structures. Contemporary debates also address issues like NOTES
identity politics, regional autonomy, and the role of religion in politics.
Having traced the historical evolution of political inquiry in both Western
and Indian traditions, we now turn to the tools and methodologies used in modern
political inquiry. The next section will explore the key approaches—quantitative
and qualitative—that ensure the rigor and reliability of research in this field.

1.4.4 Methodologies in Political Inquiry – Quantitative and

Qualitative Approaches

Political inquiry, as a systematic approach to understanding political phenomena,

requires the use of specific research methodologies. These methodologies are
crucial in ensuring that political inquiry is both rigorous and objective. Broadly,
political inquiry relies on two major approaches: ‘quantitative research’ and
‘qualitative research’. Both methods have distinct characteristics, and their
combination provides a comprehensive understanding of political dynamics.

Quantitative Research in Political Inquiry

Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data.
This approach is particularly useful in studying patterns, relationships, and
trends in large-scale political phenomena. It uses tools such as surveys, polls,
and statistical models to analyse political behaviour, electoral outcomes, public
opinion, and policy impacts.
Key aspects of quantitative research include:
1. Data Collection: Surveys, opinion polls, and experiments are commonly
used to gather data. These tools help in gathering large amounts of data
that can be generalised to a wider population.
2. Statistical Analysis: Once data is collected, it is analysed using statistical
methods. Techniques like regression analysis, correlation, and hypothesis
testing allow researchers to identify patterns, relationships, and trends
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NOTES 3. Objectivity and Replicability: Quantitative methods are valued for their
objectivity, as they rely on measurable data. The use of standardised tools
and statistical techniques ensures that the research can be replicated by
other scholars, enhancing its credibility.
In political inquiry, quantitative methods are used to answer questions such as:
• What factors influence voting behavior in elections?
• How do economic conditions affect public support for political parties?
• What is the relationship between education levels and political participation?
For example, during the 2019 Indian general elections, political scientists
used large-scale surveys and statistical models to analyse voting patterns and
predict outcomes. Quantitative research can provide insights into broad trends,
but it often misses the deeper, more nuanced understandings of political behavior
and social dynamics.

Qualitative Research in Political Inquiry

Qualitative research, on the other hand, focuses on understanding the meaning
and context of political phenomena. It seeks to explore the subjective experiences,
motivations, and interpretations of individuals and groups. Rather than relying
on numerical data, qualitative research uses methods such as interviews, case
studies, ethnography, and textual analysis.
Key aspects of qualitative research include:
1. Interviews and Focus Groups: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews or
focus groups to explore the views and experiences of political actors, voters,
or activists. These methods are useful for understanding the underlying
reasons behind political behaviours or attitudes.
2. Case Studies: In-depth analysis of specific political events, movements, or
figures helps uncover the complexities and nuances of political phenomena.
Case studies can provide a detailed understanding of how political systems
function in practice, offering insights that broader surveys may not capture.
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3. Interpretive Analysis: Qualitative research emphasises the interpretation NOTES

of meaning. Researchers analyse texts, speeches, and other cultural artefacts
to understand political ideologies, symbols, and discourse.
In political inquiry, qualitative methods are often used to answer questions like:
• How do political leaders shape public discourse?
• What are the cultural and social factors that influence political decision-
making?
• How do citizens engage with political issues at a grassroots level?
For instance, qualitative research on social movements, like the farmers’
protests in India, involves studying the experiences and narratives of participants
to understand the deeper motivations behind their actions and the political
implications of their resistance.

Complementary Role of Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

While quantitative and qualitative methods are often seen as distinct, they
are not mutually exclusive. In fact, combining both approaches— ‘mixed-
methods research’—allows for a more holistic analysis of political phenomena.
Quantitative methods can provide generalisable data, while qualitative methods
offer insights into the context and motivations behind the numbers.
For example, in studying the 2014 Indian general elections, quantitative
research might examine voting patterns and demographic variables, while
qualitative research might explore the role of media narratives, identity politics,
and regional factors that influenced voter preferences. The combination of both
approaches can offer a richer and more comprehensive understanding of the
political landscape.

Importance of Methodological Rigour

Both quantitative and qualitative methods require rigorous application to ensure
the validity and reliability of the findings. In quantitative research, issues such as
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NOTES addressed. Similarly, qualitative research must ensure that its findings are
credible, often by triangulating data from multiple sources or using techniques
like member checking to validate interpretations.
Political inquiry also requires a critical approach to the use of methodology.
Researchers must be aware of their own biases and the potential influence of
their research methods on the outcomes. Ethical considerations, such as informed
consent in interviews and the protection of anonymity, are also crucial components
of the research process.
With an understanding of the methodologies used in political inquiry,
we now shift our focus to the challenges and debates in Political Inquiry that
underpins these methods. The next section will explore the central questions of
‘objectivity’, ‘interpretation’, and the nature of knowledge in political research,
examining how different methodologies address these concerns.

1.4.5 Challenges and Debates in Political Inquiry

Political inquiry, despite its critical role in understanding political systems

and behaviours, is fraught with challenges that impact both methodology and
interpretation of research. These challenges, when addressed effectively, can
enhance the relevance, accuracy, and ethical integrity of political research.

1.4.5.1 Issues of Objectivity and Interpretation in Political Enquiry

In political inquiry, the concepts of objectivity and interpretation stand at the
heart of methodological debates. These issues are not just technical challenges
but also philosophical dilemmas that question the very foundation of how we
understand and study politics or do research.
Political scientists face the dual challenge of striving for objectivity while
acknowledging the inescapable influence of personal and cultural biases in their
research. This section explores objectivity and interpretation in political enquiry.

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The pursuit of objectivity is crucial because it underpins the credibility and NOTES
reliability of research findings. It ensures that political science can contribute to
informed policy-making and public understanding without being swayed by the
researcher’s personal views.
Political phenomena are inherently complex and multifaceted, requiring
interpretation. However, this interpretation is shaped by cultural, ideological,
and theoretical frameworks, which can lead to varied conclusions from the same
set of data.

Objectivity
Political scientists, much like any other human beings, come with their own set
of values, beliefs, and biases. These personal attributes can unconsciously or
consciously influence the way they design, conduct, and interpret their research.
Example: A researcher with strong environmentalist beliefs might be more
inclined to focus on policies related to climate change, potentially overlooking
other political phenomena that might be equally important.
The first step towards objectivity is recognising these biases. By
understanding that no one is entirely free from bias, researchers can attempt to
mitigate its impact on their work. This involves self-awareness, acknowledging
the potential for bias, and actively working to ensure it does not skew research
outcomes.

Influence of Researchers’ Biases

Political inquiry is inherently influenced by the perspectives and biases of the
researchers conducting the study. Political scientists, just like any other scholars,
come with their own ideological leanings, cultural backgrounds, and personal
experiences that can shape their interpretations of data and political events. For
example, when researching voting behaviour, a researcher’s political preferences
may unintentionally shape the framing of questions or the interpretation of results.

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NOTES Even when researchers strive to remain neutral, their choice of research
topics, the framing of research questions, and the theories they apply can reveal
underlying biases. For instance, studies on political participation may be framed
from the perspective of social inclusion, while others might focus on the dynamics
of electoral systems, leading to differing interpretations of the same phenomena.

1.4.5.2 Reflective Practice

Acknowledging these biases is essential for political inquiry. Researchers must
practice ‘reflexivity’, which involves a conscious awareness of how their own
position influences their research process. Reflexivity encourages scholars to
critically examine their assumptions, values, and the context in which they are
conducting research. By being aware of these influences, political scientists can
take steps to mitigate bias and enhance the objectivity of their findings.
For instance, a researcher might ask:
“Am I interpreting this data in a way that aligns with my political beliefs?”
“How might my cultural background influence my understanding of this
political issue?”
Critical Self-Evaluation involves not just questioning one’s biases but also
actively seeking out alternative explanations or data that might contradict one’s
initial hypotheses.
Reflective practice is essential for:
• Maintaining Research Integrity: Ensuring that the research process
remains as unbiased as possible.
• Encouraging Openness: Being open to the idea that one’s initial
interpretations might be flawed, which fosters a culture of learning and
growth in the field.

1.4.6 Ethical Concerns in Political Inquiry

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for individuals and communities. These topics may include issues such as NOTES
electoral behaviour, governance, and the impacts of policy. As such, researchers
must navigate a range of ethical concerns to ensure their work is responsible,
respectful, and humane.

Handling Sensitive Political Topics Responsibly

When researching sensitive political topics, scholars must ensure that their
methods and findings do not harm or exploit vulnerable groups. For instance,
when researching political dynamics in specific communities, researchers must
respect the dignity and rights of the individuals they study.
Example: Researching Electoral Systems and Political Participation
An example of sensitive political research could involve examining voter
turnout and engagement in underrepresented communities. Researchers need
to ensure that their findings do not inadvertently reinforce negative stereotypes
or exclude certain groups from the analysis. Special care is needed in ensuring
that marginalised voices are included in research while avoiding reinforcing any
stigmas associated with their political participation.
Additionally, ethical dilemmas arise when political inquiry might have
broader societal impacts. For example, research examining public attitudes toward
government policies could influence policymaking, requiring the researcher to
consider how their findings might be used or interpreted by different stakeholders.
It is crucial for researchers to balance the need for transparency with the possible
effects of their work.
Overcoming the challenges of objectivity, subjectivity, and ethical dilemmas
significantly enhances the relevance and impact of political inquiry. While these
challenges are inherent to the study of politics, addressing them head-on allows
researchers to produce more reliable, insightful, and socially responsible work.
This approach not only ensures the integrity of the research process but also
fosters the credibility of political inquiry as a discipline.

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NOTES
1.5 POLITICAL INQUIRY IN CONTEMPORARY
CONTEXT

As political systems evolve and global dynamics shift, political inquiry must adapt
to new challenges and opportunities. In recent years, the scope of political research
has expanded beyond national borders to address global issues that transcend
traditional political boundaries. Globalisation, technological advances, and the
increasingly interconnected world have all contributed to the transformation of
political inquiry, making it more complex and multifaceted. In this section, we
will explore the impact of ‘globalisation’ on political research, as well as the role
of political inquiry in addressing pressing contemporary issues such as ‘climate
change’, ‘human rights’, and ‘international relations.’

Globalisation and Political Inquiry

Globalisation, defined as the growing interconnectedness of the world’s
economies, cultures, and political systems, has had a profound impact on political
inquiry. Political scientists are increasingly tasked with studying not just the
politics of individual nations but also the interactions between countries, regions,
and global organisations. This expansion of focus has prompted political inquiry
to evolve and embrace a more ‘comparative’ and ‘international’ perspective.

Impact of Globalisation on the Scope of Research

Globalisation has expanded the horizons of political research, creating
opportunities for scholars to explore topics that were once considered peripheral
to traditional political studies. Issues such as transnational political movements,
global trade, and international governance now sit at the forefront of political
inquiry. The study of ‘global governance institutions’, such as the United Nations,
World Trade Organisation, and International Monetary Fund, has become critical
to understanding how power is distributed in a globalised world.

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Furthermore, political inquiry now involves cross-border comparisons, NOTES

allowing researchers to explore similarities and differences in political systems.
Comparative studies on democratic systems, for example, offer insights into how
different nations approach governance, electoral systems, and public policy. The
comparative analysis of liberal democracies, authoritarian regimes, and hybrid
systems provides a richer understanding of political systems in the context of a
rapidly changing global landscape.

Role in Addressing Current Issues

Political inquiry plays an essential role in addressing some of the most pressing
global challenges of the 21st century. From climate change to human rights
violations, political scientists are increasingly asked to engage with complex
issues that have broad political, social, and economic implications. Political
inquiry helps identify the root causes of these issues, understand their impact
on different populations, and propose potential solutions.

Climate Change and Political Inquiry

The politics of climate change is one area where political inquiry has proven
to be indispensable. Political scientists study the ‘policy responses’ to climate
change, the role of international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, and
the political obstacles that hinder effective action. The intersection of politics,
science, and economics is at the heart of climate change debates, and political
inquiry helps provide evidence-based solutions to mitigate its effects.
Political inquiry is also essential in examining ‘climate justice’, a concept
that seeks to address the disproportionate impact of environmental degradation
on vulnerable populations. Researchers focus on how different governments,
international organisations, and grassroots movements are working to address
climate change while promoting social and economic equity.

Human Rights and Political Inquiry

The study of human rights has long been a crucial area of political inquiry, and
this focus has intensified in the face of ongoing global human rights challenges. Self-Instructional
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NOTES Political scientists investigate issues such as ‘freedom of speech’, and ‘gender
equality’, seeking to understand how political systems protect or violate human
rights.
In particular, the role of international law and organisations like the United
Nations in safeguarding human rights has garnered significant attention. Political
inquiry into human rights is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of global
governance structures and understanding how political actions at the national
and international levels can uphold or undermine human dignity.

International Relations and Political Inquiry

As the world becomes more interconnected, political inquiry in ‘international
relations’ is increasingly important for addressing global challenges. Scholars
examine the dynamics of ‘diplomacy’, ‘conflict resolution’, ‘trade negotiations’,
and ‘international security’. Political inquiry in this domain helps to understand the
complex web of interactions between nation-states, transnational organisations,
and non-state actors.
For example, the rise of new global powers, such as India and China,
requires political inquiry to examine their impact on the existing world order.
Scholars analyse shifts in global power, economic integration, and the challenges
of managing multi-polarity in international relations.
As we have seen, political inquiry has adapted to the challenges and
opportunities of a rapidly changing world. The expanding scope of political
research, driven by globalisation and the urgent need to address contemporary
global issues, has elevated the importance of political inquiry in solving complex
problems. By providing critical insights into the workings of political systems,
addressing pressing issues like climate change and human rights, and fostering
greater understanding between nations, political inquiry serves as an essential
tool for creating informed policies and solutions.
In the final section, we will be summarising the importance of political
inquiry, emphasising its role in advancing knowledge, enhancing democracy,
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Recap of the Role and Scope of Political Inquiry NOTES

Political inquiry, as we studied, is a dynamic and evolving field that plays
an essential role in understanding and improving political systems. From its
foundations in human behaviour and political ideologies to its adaptation
in a globalised world, political inquiry provides invaluable insights into the
mechanisms that drive political decisions, social movements, and governmental
structures. It is through rigorous political inquiry that we are able to address
complex questions, ranging from democratic governance and electoral processes
to human rights and international relations.

Political Inquiry: A Tool for Understanding and Solving Political Problems

Political inquiry is not merely a scholarly pursuit; it is a tool for solving real-
world problems. By providing evidence-based analysis, political inquiry equips
policymakers, activists, and citizens with the knowledge they need to address
the political challenges they face. Whether it is formulating policies that mitigate
the impacts of climate change, safeguarding human rights in a globalised world,
or fostering peace in conflict-prone regions, political inquiry serves as a critical
foundation for creating meaningful and lasting change.

Enhancing Democratic Governance

At its core, political inquiry is a pillar of democracy. By studying political systems,
electoral processes, and public policies, political inquiry helps identify strengths
and weaknesses in governance. It encourages transparency, accountability, and
informed decision-making, all of which are essential for the health of a democracy.
Political inquiry also provides tools for the ‘critical evaluation’ of government
actions, helping to ensure that leaders act in the public interest and adhere to
democratic principles.

Strengthening Global Cooperation

In the context of globalisation, political inquiry is equally important in promoting
international cooperation. By examining global issues such as trade, security,
and climate change, political inquiry provides a deeper understanding of the Self-Instructional
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NOTES interconnectedness of nations and the shared challenges they face. Through
comparative and international research, political inquiry fosters dialogue and
collaboration among nations, creating pathways for mutual understanding and
cooperation.

Political Inquiry in the Future

The future of political inquiry is bright and filled with new challenges. As the
world continues to evolve, so too will the nature of political research. The rise
of digital technologies, the emergence of new global power dynamics, and the
ongoing fight for social justice will all shape the future of political inquiry. In this
new era, political inquiry will be essential in helping us navigate the complexities
of an increasingly interconnected and fast-changing world.
Political inquiry’s role in addressing the ‘climate crisis, ‘human rights’
issues, and the ‘political implications of technological advancements will only
grow in importance. As researchers continue to confront these challenges, they
will rely on innovative methodologies and interdisciplinary approaches to answer
questions that will define the future of global politics.

Final Thoughts
Political inquiry is not only a vital academic pursuit but also a crucial tool for
understanding and shaping the world in which we live. By providing insights
into political behaviour, governance, and global issues, political inquiry helps
to promote a more just, equitable, and peaceful world. Whether addressing the
complexities of modern democracy or seeking solutions to global crises, political
inquiry remains indispensable in advancing both knowledge and practice in the
realm of politics.
As we move forward, the continued evolution of political inquiry will
remain central to addressing the political challenges of the 21st century, helping
societies make informed choices that ensure justice, peace, and prosperity for all.

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NOTES
1.6 TRANSPARENCY AND SUBJECTIVITY VS.
OBJECTIVITY

Transparency
Transparency in research is not just about sharing results but also about detailing
the entire research process:
• Methods: Clearly explaining the research methodology, including how
data was collected, analysed, and interpreted.
• Data Sources: Providing comprehensive information about where the data
came from, allowing others to assess the quality and relevance of the data.
• Potential Biases: Outlining any known biases or conflicts of interest that
might affect the research. This transparency helps in:
o Critique: Allowing others to critically evaluate the research for potential
biases or methodological flaws.
o Replication: Enabling other researchers to replicate the study, which
is fundamental to the scientific process. Replication can either confirm
or challenge the original findings, contributing to the robustness of
political science research.

1.6.1 Subjectivity vs. Objectivity

This debate in political research is about:

• The Feasibility of Objectivity: Can political scientists ever be truly
objective, or is all research inherently subjective?
• Balancing Act: Many argue that while absolute objectivity might be
unattainable, striving for it through rigorous methods, transparency, and
reflective practice is crucial. Political scientists must strive for objectivity
while being aware that their work will always carry some degree of
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NOTES This balance is achieved through:

• Methodological Rigour: Ensuring that research methods are as unbiased
as possible.
• Reflective Practice: Continuously questioning one’s own interpretations
and assumptions.
• Openness to Critique: Welcoming and engaging with criticism to refine
and improve research.
While the quest for complete objectivity in political enquiry might be an
ongoing challenge, the commitment to this ideal through transparent, rigorous,
and reflective research practices is what pushes political science forward. It
allows for a deeper understanding of political phenomena, enriches democratic
discourse, and contributes to the development of policies that are both informed
and effective. Students and researchers alike must engage with these issues,
not as barriers, but as part of the dynamic process of learning and discovery in
political science.

1.7 EPISTEMOLOGICAL DEBATE – QUANTITATIVE

AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Political science, like all social sciences, grapples with how to best study and
understand the complex world of politics. At the heart of this inquiry lies an
epistemological debate: how do we know what we know about politics? This
debate centres around two primary research methodologies – Quantitative and
Qualitative Analysis. Each approach has its roots in different philosophical
traditions, offering unique perspectives on the nature of political phenomena.
Here, we will explore:
• Foundations: How quantitative and qualitative research differ in their
focus, methods, and underlying philosophies.

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• Epistemological Commitments: Why the choice of method is not just NOTES

about technique but reflects fundamental beliefs about knowledge and
reality.
• Methodological Critiques: The limitations and strengths of each approach,
including critiques from scholars.
• Integration of Methods: The emerging trend towards combining these
methods to achieve a more holistic understanding of politics.

1.7.1 Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin,
and scope of knowledge. Ontology and epistemology are often related, asking
questions like what exists and how we can know about it.
For example, Ontology is like asking, “What is out there in the world?” It
is the study of what things actually exist or are real whereas epistemology deals
with “how we come to know what exists or what is true.” It is about understanding
the process of gaining knowledge.
Think of ontology as the map of what is out there, and epistemology as
the guidebook on how to read and understand that map.
For example, if you are trying to understand if democracy exists (ontology),
you might look at how we define democracy, observe elections, or study political
systems (epistemology) to verify its existence.
Epistemology addresses questions about:
• What is knowledge? - What does it mean to know something? How
do we distinguish between knowledge, belief, and opinion?
• How is knowledge acquired? - What are the sources of knowledge? Is it
through sensory experience (empiricism), rational thought (rationalism),
intuition, or other means?

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NOTES • What are the limits of knowledge? - Can we know everything, or are
there limits to what we can know? How do we account for scepticism,
which questions the possibility of certain knowledge?
• What constitutes justified belief? - What makes a belief justified or
true? How do we validate or verify our claims to knowledge?
• Structure of Knowledge: How are different pieces of knowledge
related to each other?
• Role of Language and Meaning: How does language shape our
understanding and the limits of what we can know?
Epistemology seeks to understand:
• Criteria for Truth: What makes something true? Theories like
correspondence (truth corresponds to reality), coherence (truth is
consistent with a set of beliefs), and pragmatic (truth is what works in
practice) are explored.
• Belief, Justification, and Truth: The tripartite theory of knowledge,
often summarised as “justified true belief,” posits that for someone to
know something, they must believe it, have justification for it, and it
must be true.
• Different Perspectives: Various philosophical traditions offer different
epistemological views:
o Empiricism emphasises the role of sensory experience in acquiring
knowledge.
o Rationalism highlights reason and innate ideas as the foundation of
knowledge.
o Constructivism suggests that knowledge is constructed by individuals
or societies rather than discovered.
o Social Epistemology focuses on how knowledge is produced,
disseminated, and validated in social contexts.
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Epistemology is crucial for understanding the foundations of any field of NOTES

inquiry, including political science, where it influences how researchers approach
their subject, what methods they use, and how they interpret their findings. It
underpins debates about objectivity, the nature of scientific inquiry, and the
validity of different research methodologies.

1.7.2 Quantitative vs. Qualitative

1.7.2.1 Quantitative Research

This method emphasises the collection and analysis of numerical data. Here is
how it works:
• Data Collection: Through surveys, polls, experiments, or analysis of
existing datasets, researchers gather quantifiable information about political
behaviours, attitudes, or outcomes.
• Analysis: Statistical tools are employed to analyse this data, looking for
patterns, correlations, or causations. Techniques like regression analysis,
factor analysis, or time-series analysis are common.
• Aims for Generalisability: The goal is to draw conclusions that can be
applied to larger populations or generalised across different contexts, often
seeking to predict or explain political phenomena.
• Positivist Approach: Quantitative research is often linked with positivism,
which believes that social phenomena can be studied in the same rigorous,
scientific manner as natural phenomena, aiming for objectivity and
replicability.

1.7.2.2 Qualitative Research

Instead of numbers, qualitative research delves into the richness of human
experience and context:
• Data Collection: This involves methods like in-depth interviews,
participant observation, focus groups, or content analysis of texts (e.g.,
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NOTES • Interpretation: The analysis here is interpretive, looking for themes,

narratives, or meanings within the data. It seeks to understand the ‘how’
and ‘why’ behind political behaviours.
• Contextual Understanding: It values the unique contexts in which
political actions occur, recognising that meanings are not universally fixed
but can vary widely.
• Interpretivist Approach: Linked with interpretivism, this method
acknowledges that reality is socially constructed, and knowledge is
subjective. It embraces the complexity of human behaviour and the
importance of cultural and historical contexts.

1.7.3 Epistemological Underpinnings

The choice between quantitative and qualitative methods is not merely about
which tools to use but about what we believe constitutes knowledge:
• Quantitative: Assumes that knowledge can be measured and quantified,
that reality can be understood through observable, measurable facts.
• Qualitative: Posits that knowledge is constructed through interpretations,
narratives, and the lived experiences of individuals, emphasising the
subjective nature of understanding.
Scholars have critiqued methodologies that overlook:
• Socio-Historical Contexts: Quantitative methods, with their focus on
numbers, might miss the nuanced socio-historical contexts that shape
political phenomena. Qualitative methods, with their emphasis on context,
might better capture these nuances.
• Danger of Over-Simplification: Quantitative research can sometimes
reduce complex political realities to simplistic variables, potentially losing
the depth and richness of political life.

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1.7.4 Integration of Methods NOTES

There is a growing recognition, that both quantitative and qualitative approaches

have their strengths:
• Triangulation: Using both methods to verify findings. If both approaches
lead to similar conclusions, it strengthens the validity of the research.
• Comprehensive Understanding: Combining numerical data with
contextual descriptions provides:
o Breadth: Quantitative data gives us the scope and scale of political
phenomena.
o Depth: Qualitative data offers insights into the motivations, experiences,
and nuances behind these phenomena.
Understanding research methods in politics is not just about mastering
techniques; it is about engaging with fundamental questions about knowledge,
truth, and how we understand the political world. The debate between quantitative
and qualitative analysis reflects the broader epistemological discussions in
political science, pushing researchers to think critically about how best to capture
the complexity of political life. This ongoing dialogue ensures that political
science remains a vibrant and evolving field, where students and scholars can
explore, critique, and contribute to our collective understanding of politics in
ways that are both challenging and profoundly rewarding.

1.8 SUMMARY

• Nature of Human Inquiry: Driven by curiosity to understand political

dynamics, policies, and societal structures.
• Curiosity: Fundamental to political research, prompting questions about
why political events occur.
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