Overview

The History of Geography

The moment that early humans first looked around the seasons. Eratosthenes is also famous for his
their world with inquiring minds was the moment mathematical calculations, in particular of the cir-
that geography was born. The history of geography cumference of Earth, using observations of the Sun.
is the history of human effort to understand the na- Hipparchus, who lived around 140 bce, used his
ture of the world. Through the centuries, people mathematical skills to solve geographic problems
have asked of geography three basic questions: and was the first person to introduce the idea of a
What is Earth like? Where are things located? How latitude and longitude grid system to locate places.
can one explain these observations? Such early Greek philosophers as Plato and Aris-
totle were also concerned with geography. They dis-
Geography in the Ancient World cussed such issues as whether Earth was flat or
In the Western world, the Greeks and the Romans spherical and if it was the center of the universe,
were among the first to write about and study geog- and debated the nature of Earth as the home of hu-
raphy. Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar who lived in mankind.
the third century bce, is often called the “father of Whereas the Greeks were great thinkers and intro-
geography and is credited with first using the word duced many new ideas into geography, the Roman
geography (from the Greek words ge, which means contribution was to compile and gather available
“earth,” and graphe, which means “to describe”). knowledge. Although this did not add much that was
The ancient Greeks had contact with many older new to geography, it meant that the knowledge of the
civilizations and began to gather together informa- ancient world was available as a base to work from
tion about the known world. Some, such as Heca- and was passed down across the centuries. Geogra-
taeus, described the multitude of places and
peoples with which the Greeks had contact and
wrote of the adventures of mythical characters in
strange and exotic lands. However, the ancient The earliest human beings, as they hunted and
gathered food and used primitive tools in order to
Greek scholars went beyond just describing the
survive, must have had detailed knowledge of the
world. They used their knowledge of mathematics geography of their part of the world. The environ-
to measure and locate. The Greek scholars also ment could be a hostile place, and knowledge of the
used their philosophical nature to theorize about world meant the difference between life and death.
Earth’s place in the universe. Human curiosity took them one step further. As
One Greek scholar who used mathematics in the they lived in an ancient world of ice and fire, human
beings looked to the horizon for new worlds, cross-
study of geography was Anaximander, who lived
ing continents and spreading out to all areas of the
from 610 to 547 bce. Anaximander is credited with globe. They learned not only to live as a part of their
being the first person to draw a map of the world to environment, but also to understand it, predict it,
scale. He also invented a sundial that could be used and adapt it to their needs.
to calculate time and direction and to distinguish

3
The History of Geography Regions

phy in the ancient world is often said to have ended fourteenth century. Al-Idrisi, at the command of
with the great work of Ptolemy (Claudius King Roger II of Sicily, wrote Roger’s Book, which sys-
Ptolemaeus), who lived from 90 to 168 ce. Ptolemy is tematically described the world. Information from
best known for his eight-volume Guide to Geography, Roger’s Book was engraved on a huge planisphere
which included a gazetteer of places located by lati- (disk), crafted in silver; this once was considered a
tude and longitude, and his world map. wonder of the world, but it is thought to have been
destroyed. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is best known
Geography in China for his written world history, but he also was a pio-
The study of geography also was important in an- neer in focusing on the relationship of human
cient China. Chinese scholars described their re- beings to their environment.
sources, climate, transportation routes, and travels,
and were mapping their known world at the same The Age of European Exploration
time as were the great Western civilizations. The Beginning in the fifteenth century, the isolation of
study of geography in China begins in the Warring Europe came to an end, and Europeans turned
States period (fifth century bce). It expands its their attention to exploration. The two major goals
scope beyond the Chinese homeland with the of this sudden surge in exploration were to spread
growth of the Chinese Empire under the Han dy- the Christian faith and to obtain needed resources.
nasty. It enters its golden age with the invention of In 1418 Prince Henry the Navigator established a
the compass in the eleventh century ce (Song dy- school for navigators and began to gather the tools
nasty) and peaks with fifteenth century ce (Ming dy- and knowledge needed for exploration. He was the
nasty) Chinese exploration of the Pacific under first of many Europeans to travel beyond the limits
admiral Zheng He during the treasure voyages. of the known world, mapping, describing, and
cataloging all that they saw.
Geography in the Middle Ages The great wave of European exploration brought
With the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth new interest in geography, and the monumental
century ce, Europe entered into what is commonly works of the Greeks and Romans—so carefully pre-
known as the Early Middle Ages. During this time, served by Muslim scholars—were rediscovered and
which lasted until the fifteenth century, the geo- translated into Latin. The maps produced in the
graphic knowledge of the ancient world was either Middle Ages were of little use to the explorers who
lost or challenged as being counter to Christian were traveling to, and beyond, the limits of the
teachings. For example, the early Greeks had theo- known world. Christopher Columbus, for example,
rized that Earth was a sphere, but this was rejected relied on Ptolemy’s work during his voyages to the
during the Middle Ages. Scholars of the Middle Americas, but soon newer, more accurate maps were
Ages believed that the world was a flat disk, with the drawn and, for the first time, globes were made. A
holy city of Jerusalem at its center. particularly famous map, which is still used as a base
The knowledge and ideas of the ancient world map, is the Mercator projection. On the world map
might have been lost if they had not been preserved produced by Gerardus Mercator (born Geert de
by Muslim scholars. In the Islamic countries of Kremer) in 1569, compass directions appear as
North Africa and the Middle East, some of the schol- straight lines, which was a great benefit on
arship of the ancient world was sheltered in libraries navigational charts.
and universities. This knowledge was extensively When the age of European exploration began,
added to as Muslims traveled and traded across the even the best world maps crudely depicted only a few
known world, gathering their own information. limited areas of the world. Explorers quickly began to
Among the most famous Muslim geographers gather huge quantities of information, making de-
were Ibn Battutah, al-Idrisi, and Ibn Khaldun. Ibn tailed charts of coastlines, discovering new continents,
Battutah traveled east to India and China in the and eventually filling in the maps of those continents

4
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands The History of Geography

with information about both the natural and human

features they encountered. This age of exploration is
often said to have ended when Roald Amundsen
planted the Norwegian flag at the South Pole in 1911.
In 1888 the National Geographic Society was
At that time, the world map became complete, and founded to support the “increase and diffusion of
human beings had mapped and explored every part geographic knowledge” of the world. In its first 110
of the globe. However, the beginning of modern ge- years, the society funded more than five thousand
ography is usually associated with the work of two expeditions and research projects with more than
6,500 grants. By the 1990s it was the largest such
nineteenth century German geographers: Alexander
foundation in the world, and the results of its
von Humboldt and Carl Ritter.
funded projects are found on television programs,
video discs, video cassettes, and books, as well as in
The Beginning of Modern Geography the National Geographic magazine, established in
The writings of Alexander von Humboldt and Carl 1888. Its productions are cutting-edge resources for
Ritter mark a leap into modern geography, because information about archaeology, ethnology, biology,
and both cultural and physical geography.
these writers took an important step beyond the
work of previous scholars. The explorers of the pre-
vious centuries had focused on gathering informa- the most prominent French geographer. He advo-
tion, describing the world, and filling in the world cated the study of small, distinct areas, and French
map with as much detail as possible. Humboldt and geographers set about identifying the many regions
Ritter took a more scientific and systematic ap- of France. They described and analyzed the unique
proach to geography. They began not only to com- physical and human geographic complex that was
pile descriptive information, but also to ask why: to be found in each region. An important concept
Humboldt spent his lifetime looking for relation- that emerged from French geography was
ships among such things as climate and topography “possibilism.” German geographers had intro-
(landscape), while Ritter was intrigued by the multi- duced the notion of environmental determin-
tude of connections and relationships he observed ism—that human beings were largely shaped and
within human geographic patterns. Both Humboldt controlled by their environments. Possibilism re-
and Ritter died in 1859, ending a period when infor- jected the concept of environmental determinism,
mation-gathering had been paramount. They asserting that the relationship between human be-
brought geography into a new age in which synthe- ings and the environment works in two directions:
sis, analysis, and theory-building became central. The environment creates both limits and opportu-
nities for people, but people can react in different
European Geography ways to a given environment, so they are not
After the work of Humboldt and Ritter, geography controlled by it.
became an accepted academic discipline in Europe, British geographers, influenced by the French
particularly in Germany, France, and Great Britain. approach, conducted regional surveys. British re-
Each of these countries emphasized different as- gional studies were unique in their emphasis on
pects of geographic study. German geographers planning and geography as an applied science.
continued the tradition of the scientific view, using From this work came the concept of a functional re-
observable data to answer geographic questions. gion—an area that works together as a unit based
They also introduced the concept that geography on interaction and interdependence.
could take a chorological view, studying all aspects,
physical and human, of a region and of the American Geography
interrelationships involved. Prior to World War II, only a small group of people
The chorological view came to dominate French in the United States called themselves geogra-
geography. Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918) was phers. They were mostly influenced by German

5
Mapmaking in History Regions

ideas, but the nature of geography was hotly de- to be performed on all kinds of geographic data, and
bated. Two schools of geographers were philosoph- geographers began to analyze a wide range of prob-
ical adversaries. The Midwestern School, led by lems using statistics. There was great enthusiasm for
Richard Hartshorne, believed that description of this new approach to geography at first, but begin-
unique regions was the central task of geography. ning in the 1970s, many people considered a purely
The Western (or Berkeley) School of geography, mathematical approach to be somewhat sterile and
led by Carl Sauer, agreed that regional study was thought it left out a valuable human element.
important, but believed it was crucial to go beyond In the 1980s and 1990s, many new ways to look at
description. Sauer and his followers included gene- geographic issues and problems were developed,
sis and process as important elements in any study. including humanism, behaviorism, Marxism, femi-
To understand a region and to know where it is go- nism, realism, structuration, phenomenology, and
ing, they argued, one must look at its past and how postmodernism, all of which bring human beings
it got to its present state. back into focus within geographical studies.
In the 1930s, environmental determinism was in-
troduced to U.S. geography but ultimately was re- Geography in the Twenty-first Century
jected. Although geography in both Europe and the Geography increasingly uses technology to analyze
United States was essentially an all-male discipline, global space and answer a wide range of questions
the United States produced the first famous woman related to a host of concerns including issues related
geographer, Ellen Churchill Semple (1863-1932). to the environment, climate change, population,
World War II illustrated the importance of geo- rising sea levels, and pollution. The Geographic In-
graphic knowledge, and after the war came to an formation System (GIS), in particular, provides a
end in 1945, geographers began to come into their powerful way for people trained in geography to
own in the United States. From the end of World understand geographic issues, solve geographic
War II to the early 1960s, U.S. geographers pro- problems, and display geographic information. Ge-
duced many descriptive regional studies. ographers continue to adopt a wide variety of phi-
In the early 1960s, what is often called the quanti- losophies, approaches, and methods in their quest
tative revolution occurred. The development of to answer questions concerning all things spatial.
computers allowed complex mathematical analysis Wendy Shaw

Mapmaking in History

Cartography is the science or art of making maps. ern preliterate peoples still use a variety of materi-
Although workers in many fields have a concern als to express themselves cartographically. For ex-
with cartography and its history, it is most often as- ample, the Marshall Islanders use palm fronds,
sociated with geography. fiber from coconut husks (coir), and shells to make
sea charts for their inter-island navigation. The
Maps of Preliterate Peoples Inuit use animal skins and driftwood, sometimes
The history of cartography predates the written re- painted, in mapping. There is a growing interest in
cord, and most cultures show evidence of mapping the cartography of early and preliterate peoples,
skills. The earliest surviving maps are those carved but some of their maps do not fit readily into a more
in stone or painted on the walls of caves, but mod- traditional concept of cartography.

6
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Mapmaking in History

Mapping in Antiquity known mainly through later translations and recon-

Early literate peoples, such as those of Egypt and structions, but he compiled maps from Greek and
Mesopotamia, displayed considerable variety in Phoenician travel accounts and proposed sectional
their maps and charts, as shown by the few maps maps of different scales in his Geographia. Ptolemy’s
from these civilizations that still exist. The early prime meridian (0 degrees longitude) in the Ca-
Egyptians painted maps on wooden coffin bases to nary Islands was generally accepted for a millen-
assist the departed in finding their way in the after- nium and a half after his death.
life; they also made practical route maps for their Roman cartography was greatly influenced by
mining operations. It is thought that geometry de- later Greeks such as Ptolemy, but the Romans them-
veloped from the Egyptians’ riverine surveys. The selves improved upon route mapping and survey-
Babylonians made maps of different scales, using ing. Much of the Roman Empire was subdivided by
clay tablets with cuneiform characters and stylized instruments into hundredths, of which there is a
symbols, to create city plans, regional maps, and cartographic record in the form of marble tablets.
“world” maps. They also divided the circle in the In Rome, a small-scale map of the world known to
sexigesimal system, an idea they may have obtained the Romans was made on metal by Marcus
from India and that is commonly used in Vipsanius Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus Cae-
cartography to this day. sar, and displayed publicly. This map no longer
The Greeks inherited ideas from both the Egyp- exists, however.
tians and the Mesopotamians and made signal con-
tributions to cartography themselves. No direct evi- Cartography in Early East Asia
dence of early Greek maps exists, but indirect As these developments were taking place in the
evidence in texts provides information about their West, a rich cartographic tradition developed in
cosmological ideas, culminating in the concept of a Asia, particularly China. The earliest survey of
perfectly spherical earth. This they attempted to China (Yu Kung) is approximately contemporane-
measure and divide mathematically. The idea of cli- ous with the oldest reported mapmaking activity of
matic zones was proposed and possibly mapped, the Greeks. Later, maps, charts, and plans accom-
and the large known landmasses were divided into panied Chinese texts on various geographical
first two continents, then three. themes. Early rulers of China had a high regard for
Perhaps the greatest accomplishment of the early cartography—the science of princes. A rectangular
Greeks was the remarkably accurate measurement grid was introduced by Chang Heng, a contempo-
of the circumference of Earth by Eratosthenes rary of Ptolemy, and the south-pointing needle was
(276-196 bce). Serious study of map projections be- used for mapmaking in China from an early date.
gan at about this time. The gnomonic, ortho- These traditions culminated in Chinese carto-
graphic, and stereographic projections were in- graphic primacy in several areas: the earliest
vented before the Christian era, but their use was printed maps (about 1155 ce), early printed atlases,
confined to astronomy in this period. With the pos- and terrestrial globes (now lost). Chinese cartogra-
sible single exception of Aristarchus of Samos, the phy greatly influenced that in other parts of Asia,
Greeks believed in a geocentric universe. They particularly Korea and Japan, which fostered inno-
made globes (now lost) and regional maps on vations of their own. It was only after the introduc-
metal; a few map coins from this era have survived. tion of ideas from the West, in the Renaissance and
Later Greeks carried on these traditions and ex- later, that Asian cartographic advances were
panded upon them. Claudius Ptolemy invented two superseded.
projections for his world maps in the second cen-
tury ce. These were enormously important in the Islamic Cartography
European Renaissance as they were modified in the A link between China and the West was provided by
light of new overseas discoveries. Ptolemy’s work is the Arabs, particularly after the establishment of Is-

7
Mapmaking in History Regions

lam. It was probably the Arabs who brought the France and England established new national ob-
magnetized needle to the Mediterranean, where it servatories, and by the middle of the seventeenth
was developed into the magnetic compass. century, the Low Countries had been eclipsed by
Some scholars have argued that the Arabs were France in surveying and making maps and charts.
better astronomers than cartographers, but the The French adopted the method of triangulation of
Arabs did make several clear advances in Mercator’s teacher, Gemma Frisius. Under four
mapmaking. Both fields of study were important in generations of the Cassini family, a topographic
Muslim science, and the astrolabe, invented by the survey of France more comprehensive than any pre-
Greeks in antiquity but developed by the Arabs, was vious survey was completed. Rigorous coastal sur-
used in both their astronomical and terrestrial sur- veys were undertaken, as well as the precise
veys. They made and used many maps, as indicated measurement of latitude (parallels).
by the output of their most famous cartographer, The invention of the marine chronometer by
al-Idrisi (who lived about 1100–1165). Some of his John Harrison made it possible for ships at sea to
work still exists, including a zonal world map and determine longitude. This led to the production of
detailed charts of the Mediterranean islands. charts of all the oceans, with England’s Greenwich
At about the same time, the magnetic compass eventually being adopted as the international
was invented in the coastal cities of Italy, which gave prime meridian.
rise to advanced navigational charts, including in- Quantitative, thematic mapping was advanced
formation on ports. These remarkably accurate by astronomer Edmond Halley (1656–1742) who
charts were used for navigating in the Mediterra- produced a map of the trade winds; the first pub-
nean Sea. They were superior to the European lished magnetic variation chart, using isolines; tidal
maps of the Middle Ages, which often were con- charts; and the earliest map of an eclipse. The Vene-
cerned with religious iconography, pilgrimage, and tian Vincenzo Coronelli made globes of greater
crusade. The scene was now set for the great over- beauty and accuracy than any previous ones. In the
seas discoveries of the Europeans, which were initi- German lands, the study of map projections was
ated in Portugal and Spain in the fifteenth century. vigorously pursued. Johann H. Lambert and others
In the next four centuries, most of the coasts of invented a number of equal-area projections that
the world were visited and mapped. The early, were still in use in the twentieth century.
projectionless navigational charts were no longer Ideas developed in Europe were transmitted to
adequate, so new projections were invented to map colonial areas, and to countries such as China and
the enlarged world as revealed by the European Russia, where they were grafted onto existing carto-
overseas explorations. The culmination of this ac- graphic traditions and methods. The oceanographic
tivity was the development of the projection, in explorations of the British and the French built on
1569, of Gerardus Mercator, which bears his name the earlier charting of the Pacific Ocean and its is-
and is of special value in navigation. lands by native navigators and the Iberians.

Early Modern Mapmaking Nineteenth Century Cartography

Europeans began mapping their own countries Cartography was greatly diversified and developed
with greater accuracy. New surveying instruments in the nineteenth century. Quantitative, thematic
were invented for this purpose, and a great mapping was expanded to include the social as well
land-mapping activity was undertaken to match the as the physical sciences. Alexander von Humboldt
worldwide coastal surveys. For about a century, the used isolines to show mean air temperature, a
Low Countries of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the method that later was applied to other phenomena.
Netherlands dominated the map and chart trades, Contour lines gradually replaced less quantitative
producing beautiful hand-colored engraved sheet methods of representing terrain on topographic
wall maps and atlases. maps. Such maps were made of many areas, for ex-

8
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Mapmaking in History

ample India, which previously had been poorly ambitious undertaking—an International Map of
mapped. the World (IMW). Cartography historically had
Extraterrestrial (especially lunar) mapping, had been a nationalistic enterprise, but Penck suggested
begun seriously in the preceding two centuries with a map of the world in multiple sheets produced co-
the invention of the telescope. It was expanded in operatively by all nations at the scale of 1:1,000,000
the nineteenth century. In the same period, regular with uniform symbols. This was started in the first
national censuses provided a large body of data that half of the twentieth century but was not completed,
could be mapped. Ingenious methods were created and was superseded by the World Aeronautical
to express the distribution of population, diseases, Chart (WAC) project, at the same scale, during and
social problems, and other data quantitatively, after World War II.
using uniform symbols. The WAC project owed its existence to flight in-
Geological mapping began in the nineteenth formation made available following the invention
century with the work of William Smith in England, of the airplane. Both photography and balloons
but soon was adopted worldwide and systematized, were developed before the twentieth century, but
notably in the United States. The same is true of the new, heavier-than-air craft permitted overlap-
transportation maps, as the steamship and the rail- ping aerial photographs to be taken, which greatly
way increased mobility for many people. Faster land facilitated the mapping process. Aerial photogra-
travel in an east-west direction, as in the United phy revolutionized land surveys—maps could be
States, led to the official adoption of Greenwich as made at less cost, in less time, and with greater accu-
the international prime meridian at a conference racy than by previous methods. Similarly, marine
held in Washington, D.C., in 1884. Time zone maps surveying was revolutionized by the advent of sonic
were soon published and became a feature of the sounding in the second half of the twentieth cen-
many world atlases then being published for use in tury. This enabled mapping of the floor of the
schools, offices, and homes. oceans, essentially unknown before this time.
A remarkable development in cartography in the Satellite imaging, especially continuous surveil-
nineteenth century was the surveying of areas newly lance by Landsat since 1972, allows temporal moni-
occupied by Europeans. This occurred in such places toring of Earth. The computer, through Geograph-
as the South American republics, Australia, and Can- ical Information Systems (GIS) and other
ada, but was most evident in the United States. The technologies, has greatly simplified and speeded
U.S. Public Land Survey covered all areas not previ- up the mapping process. During the twentieth cen-
ously subdivided for settlement. Property maps aris- tury, the most widely available cartographic prod-
ing from surveys were widely available, and in many uct was the road map for travel by automobile.
cases, the information was contained in county and Spatial information is typically accessed through
township atlases and maps. apps on computers and mobile devices; traditional
maps are becoming less common. The new media
Modern Mapping and Imaging also facilitate animated presentations of geograph-
Cartography was revolutionized in the twentieth ical and extraterrestrial distributions. Cartogra-
century by aerial photography, sonic sounding, sat- phers remain responsive to the opportunities pro-
ellite imaging, and the computer. Before those de- vided by new technologies, materials, and ideas.
velopments, however, Albrecht Penck proposed an Norman J. W. Thrower

9
Mapmaking and New Technologies Regions

Mapmaking and New Technologies

The field of geography is concerned primarily with the same thing because there are mathematical for-
the study of the curved surface of Earth. Earth is mulas for nearly all map projections.
huge, however, with an equatorial radius of 3,963
miles (6,378 km.). How can one examine anything Geometric Models for Map Projections
more than the small patch of earth that can be expe- One way to organize map projections is to imagine
rienced at one time? Geographers do what scien- what kind of geometric shape might be used to cre-
tists do all of the time: create models. The most ate a map. Like the paper (a plane surface) against
common model of Earth is a globe—a spherical the globe described above, other useful geometric
map that is usually about the size of a basketball. shapes include a cone and a cylinder. When the
A globe can show physical features such as rivers, rounded surface of any object, including Earth, is
oceans, the continents, and even the ocean floor. flattened there must be some stretching, or tearing.
Political globes show the division of Earth into Map projections help to control the amount and
countries and states. Globes can even present views kinds of distortion in maps. There are always a few
of the distant past of Earth, when the continents exceptions that cannot be described in this way, but
and oceans were very different than they are today. using geometric shapes helps to classify projections
Globes are excellent for learning about the distribu- into groups and to organize the hundreds of
tions, shapes, sizes, and relationships of features of projections.
Earth. However, there are limits to the use of globes. Another way to describe a map projection is to
How can the distribution of people over the en- consider what it might be good for. Some map pro-
tire world be described at one glance? On a globe, jections show all of the continents and oceans at
the human eye can see only half of Earth at one their proper sizes relative to one another. Another
time. What if a city planner needs to map every type of projection can show correct distances be-
street, building, fire hydrant, and streetlight in a tween certain points.
town? To fit this much detail on a globe, the globe
might have to be bigger than the town being Map Projection Properties
mapped. Globes like these would be impossible to When areas are retained in the proper size relation-
create and to carry around. Instead of having to hire ships to one another, the map is called an
a fleet of flatbed trucks to haul oversized globes, the equal-area map, and the map projection is called an
curved surface of the globe can be transformed to a equal-area projection. Equal-area (also called
flat plane. equivalent or homolographic) maps are used to
The method used to change from a curved globe measure areas or view densities such as a popula-
surface to a flat map surface is called a map projec- tion density.
tion. There are hundreds of projections, from simple If true angles are retained, the shapes of islands,
to extremely complex and dating from about two continents, and oceans look more correct. Maps
thousand years ago to projections being invented to- made in this way are called conformal maps or
day. One of the oldest is the gnomonic projection. conformal map projections. They are used for navi-
Imagine a clear globe with a light inside. Now imag- gation, topographic mapping, or in other cases
ine holding a piece of paper against the surface of when it is important to view features with a good
the globe. The coastlines and parallels of latitude representation of shape. It is impossible for a map
and meridians of longitude would show through the to be both equal-area and conformal at the same
globe and be visible on the paper. Computers can do time. One or the other must be selected based on
the needs of the map user or mapmaker.

10
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Mapmaking and New Technologies

One special property—distance—can only be

true on a few parts of a map at one time. To see how
far it is between places hundreds or thousands of
miles apart, an equidistant projection should be
Dr. Paula Messina studied the trails of rocks that
used. There will be several lines along which dis- slide across the surface of a flat playa in Death Valley,
tance is true. The azimuthal equidistant projection California. The sliding rocks have been studied in
shows true distances from the center of the map the past, but no one had been able to say for certain
outward. Some map projections do not retain any of how or when the rocks moved. It was unclear
whether the rocks were caught in ice floes during
these properties but are useful for showing compro-
the winter, were blown by strong winds coming
mise views of the world.
through the nearby mountains, or were moved by
some other method.
Modern Mapmaking Messina gave the mystery a totally digital treat-
Modern mapmaking is assisted from beginning to ment. She mapped the locations of the rocks and
end by digital technologies. In the past, the paper the rock trails using the global positioning system
(GPS) and entered her rock trail data into a geo-
map was both the primary means for communicat-
graphic information system (GIS) for analysis. She
ing information about the world and the database
was able to determine that ice was not the moving
used to store information. Today, the database is a agent by studying the pattern of the trails. She also
digital database stored in computers, and carto- used digital elevation models (DEM) and remotely
graphic visualizations have taken the place of the sensed imagery to model the environment of the
paper map. Visualizations may still take the form of playa. She reported her results in the form of maps
using GIS’ cartographic output capabilities. While
paper maps, but they also can appear as flashes on
she did not solve completely the mystery of the slid-
computer screens, animations on local television
ing rocks, she was able to disprove that winter ice
news programs, and even on screens within vehicles caused the rocks to slide along together in rafts and
to help drivers navigate. Communication of infor- that there are wind gusts strong enough to move the
mation is one of the primary purposes of making biggest rock on the playa.
maps. Mapping helps people to explore and
analyze the world. Will it be a paper map, a graphic file posted to the
Making maps has become much easier and the Internet, or a video?
capability available to many people. Desktop map- The answers to these questions will guide the car-
ping software and Internet mapping sites can make tographer in the design process. The design pro-
anyone with a computer an instant cartographer. cess can be broken down into stages. In the first
The maps, or cartographic visualizations, might be stage of map design, imagination rules. What map
quite basic but they are easy to make. The proce- type, size and shape, basic layout, and data will be
dures that trained cartographers use to make map used? The second stage is more practical and con-
products vary in the choice of data, software, and sists of making a specific plan. Based on the deci-
hardware, but several basic design steps should sions made in the first stage, the symbols, line
always take place. weights, colors, and text for the map are chosen. By
First, the purpose and audience for whom the the end of this stage, there should be a fairly clear
map is being made must be clear. Is this to be a gen- plan for the map. During the third stage, details
eral reference map or a thematic map? What image and specifications are finalized to account for the
should be created in the mind of the map reader? production method to be used. The actual software,
Who will use the map? Will it be used to teach young hardware, and methods to be used must all be taken
children the shapes of the continents and oceans, or into consideration.
to show scientists the results of advanced research? What makes a good map? Working in a digital en-
What form will the cartographic visualization take? vironment, a mapmaker can change and test vari-

11
Mapmaking and New Technologies Regions

ous designs easily. The map is a good one when it images based on the return of the signal. The entire
communicates the intended information, is pleas- world can be seen easily with weather satellites, and
ing to look at, and encourages map readers to ask other specialized satellite imagery can be used to
thoughtful questions. count the trees in a yard.
These great resources of data are all stored and
New Technologies maintained as binary, computer-readable informa-
Mapping technology has gone from manual to tion. Developments in laser technology provide
magnetic, then to mechanical, optical, photochem- large amounts of storage space on media such as
ical, and electronic methods. All of these methods optical disks and compact disks. Advances in mag-
have overlapped one another and each may still be netic technology also provide massive storage capa-
used in some map-making processes. There have bility in the form of tape storage, hard drives, and
been recent advances in magnetic, optical, and cloud storage. This is especially important for sav-
most of all, electronic technologies. ing the large databases used for mapping.
All components of mapping systems—data col- Computer hardware and software continue to be-
lection, hardware, software, data storage, analysis, come more powerful and less expensive. Software
and graphical output tools—have been changing continues to be developed to serve the specialized
rapidly. Collecting location data, like mapping in needs that mapping requires. Just as word process-
general, has been more accessible to more people. ing software can format a paper, check spelling and
The development of the Global Positioning System grammar, draw pictures and shapes, import tables
(GPS), an array of satellites orbiting Earth, gives and graphics, and perform dozens of other func-
anyone with a GPS receiver access to location infor- tions, specialized software executes maps. The most
mation, day or night, anywhere in the world. GPS common software used for mapping is called Geo-
receivers are also found in planes, passenger cars, graphic Information System (GIS) software. These
and even in the backpacks of hikers. systems provide tools for data input and for analysis
Satellites also have helped people to collect data and modeling of real-world spatial data, and pro-
about the world from space. Orbiting satellites col- vide cartographic tools for designing and
lect images using visible light, infrared energy, and producing maps.
other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Active Karen A. Mulcahy
sensing systems send out radar signals and create

12
 Australia

The only continent occupied by a single nation, Aus- mania, the only Australian state not on the main-
tralia is roughly the size of the forty-eight states of land. About the size of Scotland, Tasmania, even in
the continental United States. Located entirely in its interior, is green, whereas the Outback, as the in-
the Southern Hemisphere, it covers about 3 million terior of mainland Australia is called, is a vast desert.
square miles (7.8 million sq. km.). In the northwest, In 2020, Australia had nearly 25.5 million inhab-
it is about 250 miles (400 km.) from Timor across the itants. Except for Antarctica, it is Earth’s least-pop-
Timor Sea, and 500 miles (800 km.) from the tip of ulated and most-isolated continent. Along the coast
Indonesia across the Indian Ocean. Papua New of Queensland in the east runs the Great Barrier
Guinea is across the Coral Sea, 315 miles (500 hun- Reef, the largest such reef in the world. It extends
dred km.) north of Queensland’s Cape York Penin- more than 1,250 miles (2,000 km.) from south to
sula. Due south of the Australian state of Victoria, north and, in places, is more than 50 miles (80 km.)
380 miles (610 km.) across the Bass Strait, lies Tas- wide. It has more than 350 species of coral, the

Uluru at sunset. (Riley Boughten)

13
Australia Regions

AUSTRALIA

Timor Sea
Darwin Gulf
of Cape York Peninsula
Carpentaria
Indian NORTHERN Coral Sea
Derby TERRITORY Cairns
Ocean Broome
Port Hedland Tennant Creek Townsville
Mackay
QUEENSLAND Pa c i f i c
Carnarvon WESTERN
Alice Springs Gladstone Ocean
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH Brisbane
Geraldton AUSTRALIA
Cook Bourke
Kalgoorlie
Broken Hill
Port Augusta NEW SOUTH
Perth WALES
Great Port Lincoln Murra y R i ve
r
Australian Canberra Sydney
Adelaide
Bight Kangaroo Victoria Tasman Sea
Island Melbourne
AUSTRALIAN
CAPITAL TERRITORY
Indian Tasmania
Hobart
Ocean

world’s greatest variety, and teems with sea life, par- east and southeast coasts are more heavily popu-
ticularly shellfish. lated than those in the north and west. The uplands
that separate the coastal areas from the Outback are
The Geologic Past between 20 and 200 miles (32 and 320 km.) wide.
Australia’s geologic past is well documented. Long
ago, Earth was one huge landmass. Over millions of Australia’s Six States
years, enormous cracks developed, causing parts of Modern Australia consists of five contiguous
it to break off. The largest piece to separate from states—New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria,
the whole in this early break-up was Gondwana- South Australia, and Western Australia—and the is-
land, which became a supercontinent that, with var- land state of Tasmania. The country has two territo-
ious nearby islands, constitutes modern Australia, ries, the sprawling Northern Territory on the
geographically the sixth-largest country in the Timor and Coral seas, and the relatively small Aus-
world. Despite its proximity to Asia, Australia re- tralian Capital Territory, located within New South
sembles Europe more than Asia in its peoples’ Wales. The national capital is Canberra.
outlook and lifestyle. Although all five contiguous states except Victo-
Australia is the oldest, flattest, and driest conti- ria have considerable land in the Outback, 80 per-
nent. Because its interior is parched, the Outback cent of the total population lives near or along the
supports only a small population. The country’s coasts. Even in Tasmania, which has a lush, green

14
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Australia

interior, the majority of residents are centered in Australia’s highest point is New South Wales’s
Hobart and other coastal cities. Most Australians Mount Kosciuszko in the Australian Alps, which
live in cities, with the capital city of each state at- reaches about 7,310 feet (2,229 meters) at its sum-
tracting two-thirds of its total population. mit. In winter, between May and October, the Aus-
tralian Alps are generally covered with snow, draw-
Notable Geographic Features ing skiers to them.
The best known geographic feature in the Outback Other popular mountains are the Dandenongs of
is Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock. It is located in Victoria, less than an hour’s drive south of Mel-
the Northern Territory, not far from the desert out- bourne. Although the Dandenongs are less dra-
post of Alice Springs in Australia’s red center. In this matic than the Australian Alps, Dandenong Ranges
area are the MacDonnell Ranges, as well as Kings National Park attracts many tourists, particularly
Canyon, dramatic cliffs and gorges, and the during the summer (November to March), when it
rounded sandstone forms of Kata Tjuta. is much cooler than the surrounding lowlands.
Lake Eyre in South Australia, at 49 feet (15 me- The Nullarbor Plain in the southern part of
ters) below sea level, is Australia’s lowest point and South Australia and Western Australia is an enor-
is incredibly dry. It has an area of about 3,668 mous, arid plain. It is so flat that the Indian-Pacific
square miles (9,500 sq. km.), but fills only three or railroad, which runs from Sydney to Perth, a
four times each century. It is so flat and dry that au- 64-hour trip, has one stretch of track that is com-
tomobile races are held in its bed. pletely straight for more than 200 miles (320 km.)!

Mount Kosciuszko. (Lupo)

15
Australia Regions

Tjapukai in traditional garb. (Bgabel)

The Earliest Australians 30,000 bce. The early people moved from place to
When British explorer James Cook first landed on place in search of food. Their dwellings were usually
the Australian continent in 1770, it had been inhab- temporary, although some wooden structures ex-
ited for more than 50,000 years by nomadic people. isted in the coastal regions and particularly in Tas-
These indigenous Australians, or Australian mania, where the weather is cooler and rainier than
aboriginals presumably sailed primitive boats to the on the Australian mainland.
continent from the nearby Indonesian islands. These early people inhabited much of Australia.
They were hunters and gatherers, probably num- Those in the coastal regions, where fishing, hunt-
bering about 300,000 in 1788. They comprised an ing, and natural vegetation assured an ample food
estimated 650 groups. These earliest inhabitants of supply, had relatively comfortable lives. Because
Australia spoke more than 250 languages and some the inland areas could not support substantial pop-
800 dialects. About fifty the languages survived at ulations, the coastal groups were larger than those
the start of the twenty-first century, and by 2016, inhabiting the arid interior. Conservation and a rev-
only thirteen traditional indigenous languages erence for the land were common. They used con-
were being learned by children. trolled burning of brush to enrich the soil on which
The indigenous Australians inhabited both the grass would later flourish to provide food for the an-
main continent and Tasmania. Cave drawings and imals upon which these nomads depended for
other artifacts have been reliably dated to before sustenance.

16
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Australia

Hydrology ported to drier regions in the west. Unlike the drier

From the earliest days, water has been a major prob- parts of this state, the Cape York Peninsula of north-
lem for those in the interior. Australia has no natu- ern Queensland contains a tropical rain forest.
ral, permanent lakes. Even such large bodies of
water as Lake Eyre and Lake Frome are dry much of Growing as a Nation
the time. Artificial reservoirs, such as Lake Argyle in Life in Australia was rugged for the early European
Western Australia’s eastern extreme, have eased wa- settlers. A wool industry grew up as shepherds de-
ter shortages in their areas. Long rivers such as the veloped herds to graze on the grasslands of New
Darling (about 1,700 miles/2,740 km. long) and the South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and Tasmania.
Murray (about 1,600 miles/2,570 km. long), were Nevertheless, by 1840, only about 150,000 Europe-
once dry or reduced to a trickle much of the year, ans lived in Australia. The population grew rapidly
but now maintain a more steady flow through a in 1851, when gold was discovered in Victoria’s
series of dams and locks. Clune and Ballarat. Prospectors flooded into Victo-
Western Queensland’s semiarid plain extends ria. Soon eastern Australia had a population of
over half the state. Its Great Artesian Basin, at more than 400,000 Europeans and substantial
nearly 676,000 square miles (1.75 million sq. km.), numbers of Asians, including 40,000 Chinese.
is the largest artesian basin in the world. Rain that An anti-Asian sentiment soon grew among Aus-
falls into it trickles down and collects in subterra- tralia’s European inhabitants. This sentiment was
nean layers through which water is naturally trans- responsible for the White Australian Policy, in effect

The Great Barrier Reef. (nickj)

17
Australia Regions

The ruins of a prison settlement in Port Arthur, Tasmania. (Eli Duke)

for three-quarters of a century before its termina- 14 percent came from Europe, mostly from Italy,
tion in 1973. This policy not only discouraged Greece, Yugoslavia, Germany, Poland, and the
Asians from immigrating to Australia but also Netherlands. Another 5 percent came from Asia,
placed the indigenous Australians in a position of largely from Vietnam, Laos, the Philippines, and
second-class citizenship. Korea, and 5 percent came from North or South
Since 1973, Australia’s government has sought to America. In 2019, Australia had the ninth-largest
create a hospitable atmosphere for immigrants. Its immigrant population in the world. The largest
stated aim is to integrate immigrants into society sources of immigrants were England, China, India,
but not to encourage assimilation. Areas within cit- New Zealand, and the Philippines.
ies reflect the ethnicity of the people living in them. Australia has long needed outsiders to staff its in-
Every major Australian city has sections to which dustries, so an influx of foreigners creates few of the
Italians, Greeks, Vietnamese, Koreans, Chinese, problems it might in more populous nations. The
and persons from other national groups gravitate. country’s population has increased by nearly 62
These enclaves preserve the cultures of their percent since 2008. Approximately 533,500 new
inhabitants’ native countries. immigrants arrived in 2019; most found ready em-
Prior to World War II, 95 percent of Australian ployment. The country’s annual growth rate was
residents had British roots, and Australia was decid- about 1.4 percent in 2020.
edly British in its outlook. Between 1945 and 1975,
more than 3.5 million people immigrated to Aus- Major Industries
tralia. By 1990 about three-quarters of Australians Sheep and cattle stations have long existed
were native-born. Of those born elsewhere, about throughout Australia. The Spanish merino sheep

18
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Australia

A sheep rancher in Australia. (AzmanJaka)

that thrive in Australia provide high-quality wool. Queensland has deposits of silver, copper, zinc, and
Because much of the grazing land gets less than 15 lead. Both the Northern Territory and South Aus-
inches (381 millimeters) of rain annually, it often tralia have some of the world’s largest deposits of
takes up to 50 acres (20 hectares) to raise one sheep. uranium, much of it unmined. In 2019, Australia
Cattle stations spawn a prosperous beef industry. was the source of 95 percent of the world’s opals.
Agriculture is also important, with Australia rais- Valuable opal mines flourish around South Austra-
ing some 20 million tons (18 million metric tons) of lia’s Coober Pedy, a city constructed underground
wheat annually. New South Wales and Queensland so that its residents can escape the intense desert
produce considerable rice, and Queensland has the heat. Australia is the world’s leading exporter or
most productive sugarcane fields in Australia. Be- coal. Deposits of lignite or brown coal are mined in
cause of its isolation, Australia has flora and fauna Victoria. Black coal exists in enormous quantities in
found nowhere else in the world. New South Wales and Queensland.
Mining is a profitable enterprise in Australia. It Australia occupies an important role in the world
began in 1851 with the discovery of gold in Victoria. community. It was a signatory to the United Nations
Today, Australia is the world’s second-largest pro- charter in 1945, and is currently a member of the
ducer of gold, and the world’s largest producer of Commonwealth of Nations.
iron ore. Oil has been found off Australia’s coasts. R. Baird Shuman

19
Australia Regions

A Torres Strait Islander. (u-tern77)

20
 New Zealand

An isolated part of the world, New Zealand is lo- Physical Geography

cated in the southwest Pacific Ocean, midway be- Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, New Zealand sits on a
tween the equator and the icy Antarctic. Its closest collision zone between the Indo-Australian and Pa-
continental neighbor, Australia, lies more than cific tectonic plates. The grinding motion of these
1,000 miles (1,600 km.) to the northwest. Similar in two plates is responsible for New Zealand’s mostly
size to Great Britain or Ecuador, New Zealand con- rugged terrain. South Island is dominated by a large
sists of two main islands: North Island—44,010 mountain chain, the Southern Alps, which runs al-
square miles (113,985 sq. km.)—and South Island most the entire length of the island in a north-south
—58,084 square miles (150,437 sq. km.), which are direction. The Alps are home to the largest moun-
separated by the Cook Strait. A third, much smaller tain peak in Australasia, Aoraki/Mount Cook, at
island, Stewart Island, roughly the same size as the 12,218 feet (3,724 meters), as well as 3,000 glaciers.
Hawaiian island of Oahu, sits to the south of South Haupapa/Tasman Glacier, the largest glacier in
Island. New Zealand, flows down the eastern slopes of
New Zealand is long and narrow: more than Aoraki/Mount Cook. Glaciers from previous ice
1,000 miles (1,600 km.) in length and 280 miles ages carved out the great fjords, called “sounds” in
(450 km.) at its widest part. If positioned along the New Zealand, that make up Fiordland National
West Coast of the United States, New Zealand Park, located in the remote southwest corner of the
would stretch from Los Angeles, California, to Seat- island. Built by erosion, the Canterbury Plains, the
tle, Washington. No place in New Zealand is more country’s largest lowland area, stretch along the
than 75 miles (120 km.) from the ocean. midsection of the South Island’s east coast.

The Auckland Harbour Bridge with the Auckland skyline in the background. (georgeclerk)

21
New Zealand Regions

NEW ZEALAND

Auckland
Bay of Plenty

W
aik
Hamilton

ato
Whakaari /
White Island
Rotorua
New Plymouth
Lake Taupo
Ta s m a n S e a North Island

Westport
NEW ZEALAND
Picton
Wellington
Greymouth

Cook Strait

South Island
+

Aoraki / Mt. Cook Christchurch

Pa c i f i c
Timaru
Queenstown Ocean
Clutha River /
Mata-Au
Invercargill Dunedin

Stewart Island

Volcanoes and thermal activity are the main fea- In 1995 Mount Ruapehu erupted, sending ash,
tures of North Island. At the heart of the island is steam, and car-sized rocks into the atmosphere. All
Lake Taupo, an ancient volcanic crater. Today the three volcanoes are part of Tongariro National
country’s largest natural lake, Lake Taupo, sits in an Park. The site of geysers, boiling mud pools, and
active tectonic region called the Volcanic Plateau, hot springs, Rotorua, situated along the Volcanic
which runs in a line from the center of North Island Plateau between Lake Taupo and Whakaari/White
northeast to Whakaari/White Island off the Bay of Island, is the country’s prime geothermal hot spot.
Plenty. To the south of Lake Taupo lie three major In December 2019, the volcanic island Whakaari/
volcanoes: Mount Ruapehu, the highest peak in White Island erupted explosively, killing twenty-
North Island at 9,177 feet (2,797 meters); Mount one people, most of them tourists.
Ngauruhoe; and Mount Tongariro.

22
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands New Zealand

The Waikato, New Zealand’s largest river, flows

northward across central North Island. The Clutha
River/Mata-Au is New Zealand’s second-longest Maori legend tells of how New Zealand’s North Is-
river and the longest on South Island. land was a great fish hauled up from the ocean floor
by the Polynesian god Maui. The name given to
Human Geography North Island by the Maori was Te Ika a Maui—“the
The Maori, from Polynesia, were the first humans to Fish of Maui.” The canoe from which the fish was
caught was South Island, and Steward Island was the
occupy Aotearoa—the Maori word for New Zea-
anchor of Maui’s canoe. The two eyes of the fish
land, which means “long white cloud.” The Maori were located at the bottom of North Island, with one
arrived in New Zealand from eastern Polynesia in of its eyes at Wellington Harbor and the other at
several waves between 1320 and 1350 beginning Lake Wairarapa. The fins were Mount Taranaki on
around 700 to 1400. In 1642 the Dutch navigator the North Island’s west coast and East Cape on its
Abel Tasman was the first European to reach New eastern shore. The fish’s long tail was the Northland
Peninsula in the far north of North Island. A map of
Zealand. After a brief offshore incident with the
the North Island of New Zealand turned sideways
Maori, in which some of his men were killed, Tas- actually looks a bit like a great fish.
man sailed off without setting foot on land. Euro-
pean settlement of the country, mainly by the
British, occurred after 1769 with the rediscovery of 1893 New Zealand became the first country in the
New Zealand by the British naval explorer Captain world to grant women the right to vote. On Decem-
James Cook. In 1840, New Zealand became a Brit- ber 8, 1997, Jenny Shipley became the country’s
ish colony with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi first female prime minister. New Zealand has estab-
on the Bay of Islands on North Island. lished an extensive social welfare system, including
In 2020, of the 4.9 million people now living in public housing, universal health care, and support
New Zealand, 16.5 percent were Maori, with Euro- benefits—such as retirement pensions—which have
peans, mainly of British descent, making up 64 per- become a model for the rest of the world. Efforts in
cent of the entire population. Given the country’s recent years by the government to address griev-
rugged terrain, most of the population lives in com- ances by the Maori dating back to early European
munities along or near the coast. Thus, the country settlement of the country have had mixed results.
is highly urbanized, with 86.7 percent (2020) of the On the world stage, New Zealand has gained in-
population living in cities. More than three-quar- ternational recognition for its antinuclear policy.
ters of the New Zealand population lives on North With widespread support from the public, the
Island. In 2020, nearly one-third of the people (1.6 fourth Labour government declared New Zealand a
million) lived in Auckland, the largest city in New nuclear-free zone in 1984. Under New Zealand law,
Zealand, with 1.1 million people; Hamilton no nuclear-armed vessels or nuclear-powered ships
(169,300; 2019), located to the south of Auckland; are allowed in its waters. The country has neither
and Wellington (215,400; 2019), the capital. nuclear weapons nor nuclear power plants. Its
Christchurch, the third-largest city in New Zealand antinuclear policy, along with its natural beauty, low
with 377,200 people, is also the largest city on population, and rural-based economy, has earned
South Island. New Zealand a reputation as a “clean and green”
New Zealand has a long history of promoting country.
equal rights and social benefits for all its citizens. In Huia Richard Hutton

23
New Zealand Regions

A scenic view from the Banks Peninsula of New Zealand’s South Island. (Myriam Munoz)

The “Beehive” Parliament building in Wellington. (Nick-D.)

24
 Pacific Islands

To understand the geographic setting of Oceania, lands in the southwest and central Pacific, the oc-
one must first appreciate the immensity of the Pa- currence of islands drops markedly. There are only
cific Ocean itself. The world’s largest ocean, the Pa- two significant sites—the Galápagos Islands on the
cific covers more than 60 million square miles (155 equator and Easter Island farther south—on the
million sq. km.), about 22 percent of Earth’s total eastern fringe of Oceania.
surface. Because the continents of Asia and North Geographers have identified three major subre-
America are closer to each other than Southeast gions of generally smaller to medium-size islands
Asia and South America are, the southern half of for concentrated study: Melanesia, Micronesia, and
the Pacific stands out as a particularly vast body of Polynesia. These terms mean “black islands,”
water. Its widest zone lies along the equatorial belt. “small islands,” and “many islands,” respectively.
Although the northern zones of the Pacific con-
tain a number of important islands, it is in the Melanesia
southern, and particularly the southwestern, zone Melanesia is the area of Oceania lying north and
of the Pacific that one finds not only the largest but northeast of Australia. It contains most of the is-
also the most numerous island formations. If one land land surface in the southern Pacific Ocean. In
follows the line of the equator or the Tropic of Cap- part this is because it includes Papua New Guinea,
ricorn eastward from the heavy concentration of is- the largest island of Oceania and the second-largest

A beach in American Samoa. (U.S. National Park Service)

25
Pacific Islands Regions

HAWAIIAN MEXICO
I C R O ISLANDS CUBA
M N
PH
E P
S
ILI

Philippine SAIPAN Caribbean Sea

I O
S e a GUAM FEDER A
PPI

MARSHALL
OF M TED ISLANDS A L
NES

ICR STA
PALAU ON T
ES ES
IA COLOMBIA
GALAPAGOS

Y
NAURU E Q U A T O R ISLANDS
PAPUA K
I R

N
NEW SO
ISL LOM I B A T I
GUINEA ECUADOR
I ND ON E S IA AN O

E
DS N TUVALU TOKELAU MARQUESAS
ISLANDS

PE
a f u ra Se a M ISLANDS
Ar WESTERN

FR

RU
Ti m o r Bougainville SAMOA AMERICAN
VA
A
E

EN
ND S
SAMOA
N

I
Sea Coral H

IV
L

C
UAT

I
Sea FIJI PO

BOL
LA
NIUE LY N
A

U Tahiti ES IA

IS
N

A
NEW TONGA K
AUSTRALIA CALEDONIA C OO
E

PITCAIRN CHILE
ISLANDS EASTER
S

ISLAND
Sou NA
I

A
Canberra th TI

N
Great Pa c i f

GE
Ta s

Australian ic Ocean

AR
Auckland
Bight
ma

n
Sea Wellington

NEW ZEALAND

in the world, after Greenland. The two halves of their new status: New Britain and New Ireland (Niu
New Guinea taken together cover approximately Briten and Niu Ailan in the traditional language).
305,000 square miles (790,000 sq. km.). Papua New Due west of the Bismarck Archipelago is
Guinea is the most densely populated island in Mel- Bougainville Island, named for the French naviga-
anesia. Its culturally diversified inhabitants are di- tor Louis Antoine de Bougainville who first ex-
vided into hundreds of different language groups plored it. Bougainville is the first and largest of the
and must rely on a form of New Guinea pidgin dia- long chain of the Solomon Islands, stretching more
lect to communicate with one another. Although a than 1,000 miles (1,600 km.) to the southeast. The
diversity of cultural groups live in Melanesia, the Solomons are geologically similar to the Bismarck
deep pigmentation of many inhabitants prompted Archipelago. Ten quite large islands and many
early observers of these islands to coin the term small islands make up the chain. The largest of the
“Melanesia.” Solomon Islands after Bougainville is Guadalcanal,
The modern nation state of Papua New Guinea is whose Spanish name is a reminder of the variety of
the eastern half of New Guinea island itself. The European maritime explorers who explored the
dominant geographical feature of Papua New South Pacific islands following Magellan’s ill-fated
Guinea is the long central mountain chain that runs but historic voyage westward across the Pacific early
almost the entire length of the country. The popula- in the sixteenth century.
tions north of the main mountain ridges are cultur- The Fiji islands, located on the westernmost
ally distinct from those living to the south of the fringe of Melanesia, number more than 300. Only
mountains, the Papuans. Western New Guinea about 100 of the islands are inhabited. Until they
came under Indonesian control in the 1970s, and came under British colonial administration in the
was named Irian Jaya. last quarter of the nineteenth century, they were
Several islands adjacent to New Guinea are still populated by a number of rival chieftaincies. Brit-
known as the Bismarck Archipelago, since their ear- ain chose Fiji’s main city, Suva, on the island of Viti
liest colonizers were German. After World War I, the Levu, as the seat of its colonial presence in the
biggest islands came under British and Australian South Pacific after World War II. Before then, the
control, gaining names that were appropriate to British already had begun encouraging Indian im-

26
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Pacific Islands

The volcano Mount Otemanu in Bora Bora. (Mlenny)

migration to the Fiji Islands as part of plans to ex- lands. No clear border marks the end of Micronesia
pand sugar production under a plantation system. to the east and the beginning of the vast zone of
Most of Fiji’s population is concentrated on its two Polynesia. Convention has drawn a line through
largest islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. Viti Levu is open Pacific Ocean waters between the Republic of
nearly as big as the island of Hawaii, itself a Polyne- Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands) and Tuvalu
sian island. Fiji’s main islands are high islands whose (formerly the Ellice Islands).
eastern slopes receive significant quantities of rain- Micronesia contains more than 2,000 islands
fall, while the western slopes are considerably drier. spread over a vast zone of more than 3 million
Viti Levu’s main peak, Mount Tomanivi, is more square miles (7.8 million sq. km.). Most of these are
than 4,344 feet (1,324 meters) high and is not a great small, low-lying atolls. Even taken together with a
distance from beautiful, although limited, zones of few larger islands, Micronesia’s total land surface is
untouched mahogany forest. only 0.30 percent of the Pacific islands’ land area.
One of the longer-term results of United Nations’
Micronesia recognition of newly independent states in South-
Micronesia lies within the broad zone due north of east Asia was an incentive for the United States to
Melanesia beyond the equator. As its name sug- group many of these small islands to form constitu-
gests, Micronesia consists of a multitude of small is- tional governments. This ended Washington’s
lands, some so tiny that they were never, or only very post-World War II trusteeship over the single “unit”
recently, named. Micronesia is bounded on the west of Micronesia (earlier controlled by Japan and, pre-
by the open seas next to the Philippine Islands and vious to that, Germany) and created four distinct
stretches northward to 20 degrees, which is about constitutional regimes, all with some form of contin-
the same latitudinal location as the Hawaiian Is- uing dependency on the United States. These in-

27
Pacific Islands Regions

clude Palau immediately north of Indonesia’s Irian

Jaya (western New Guinea), the Federated States of
Micronesia in the center of the region, and the re- The Hawaiian Islands, originally called the Sand-
publics of the Marshall Islands and Kiribati to the wich Islands after the British Earl of Sandwich, in-
northeast and southeast, respectively. clude eight major islands and a number of smaller
The island of Guam and the Commonwealth of islands, with a total area of nearly 6,500 square miles
the Northern Mariana Islands to the northwest (the (17,000 square km.). All the main islands are of vol-
canic origin and most are surrounded by coral reefs.
latter extending almost to the Tropic of Cancer due
Hawaii itself, the largest island, is notably younger
east of Taiwan) remain more formally tied to the geologically than the other islands. The capital city
United States. Beyond the Northern Marianas are of Honolulu is on the island of Oahu. The islands
the Ogasawara, or Bonin Islands, the southernmost were discovered in 1778 by the English sea captain
part of Japanese territory. James Cook. Apparently, growing U.S. concern
The largest and most heavily populated island in over British and French colonial interest in the Ha-
waiian Islands—even after a local independent
Micronesia is Guam, home to nearly half the people
monarchy was recognized in 1842—led to increas-
of Micronesia. In 2020, a substantial percentage of ing U.S. involvement. This involvement peaked in
Guam’s population consisted of military or military 1898 when the United States claimed the Hawaiian
support personnel from the United States. Islands as its territory, expanding sugarcane planta-
tions and establishing military bases. In 1941, the
Polynesia Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor thrust the United
States into World War II. The islands officially
The third geographical zone of Oceania is Polyne-
became the state of Hawaii in 1959.
sia, representing only about 1 percent of the total
land area of the Pacific island world. Nevertheless,
its dozen or more island groups are heavily popu- James Cook. They are nominally a self-governing
lated by comparison with the other areas. It is the unit, with New Zealand handling most external af-
largest subzone of Oceania, forming a vast triangle fairs. The entire region’s economy remains tied to
with its southwestern tip well below 40 degrees New Zealand, and recently, to a lesser extent, with
south latitude, midway through New Zealand and China. The Cook Islands, already rather sparsely
south of Australia. The sides of the Polynesian trian- populated, have lost many immigrants to the job
gle extend some 5,000 miles (8,000 km.) through market in New Zealand.
the central and southeastern Pacific. The northern Southwest of the Samoas is the complex of more
tip of Polynesia reaches the Hawaiian Islands (since than 100 islands known as Tonga. Tonga is a monar-
1959 a state of the United States), and its eastern chy comprising five island divisions: Tongatapu
point includes Easter Island (part of Chile’s (Sacred Tonga) with its capital, Nuku’alofa;
territory) near the Tropic of Capricorn. Ha’apai; Vava’u; Onga Niua; and Eua.
Although the Hawaiian Islands may be the best Since 2004, French Polynesia, although officially
known of the Polynesian island groups, several a French overseas collectivity, is also referred to as
other island complexes also enjoy widespread name an overseas country of France, owing to its consid-
recognition. Western Samoa, which is much larger erable level of autocracy. Among its more than 130
than the half dozen islands constituting the United islands, Tahiti is the largest, most populated, and
States territory of American Samoa, gained inde- best known, although Bora-Bora has the reputation
pendence in 1962 and, in 1997, was renamed as Sa- of being among the most beautiful islands of the en-
moa. It was the first independent island nation of tire Pacific. Bora-Bora combines the spectacular
Oceania. It consists of two medium-sized and seven profile of twin volcanic peaks with a surrounding
small islands. coral reef structure.
To the southeast of the Samoas are the seven There are a number of lesser-known islands in
Cook Islands, named after the British navigator the Polynesian group, including Wallis and Futuna,

28
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Pacific Islands

which in 2003 gained the status of French overseas and 6,000 feet (1,200 to 1,800 meters), with a diver-
collectivity; British-controlled Pitcairn Islands, sity of plant and animal life on the even higher
whose approximately fifty inhabitants in 2020 are slopes surrounding them.
descendants of mutineers from the famous ship The second category of islands in Oceania is re-
HMS Bounty; and Niue, a tiny self-governing coun- ferred to as “high islands.” These include fairly
try that is closely associated with New Zealand. large islands, most of which owe their geologic ori-
The most remote of the Polynesian islands is gins to volcanic eruptions. Because of their volcanic
Easter Island, 2,000 miles (3,200 km.) off the coast origins, most high islands have sharply sloping
of Chile. Easter Island became famous after Euro- mountainous features. Some high islands are a sin-
pean explorers discovered its mysterious great gle volcanic peak, like the visibly spectacular island
stone figures, the origin of which is still being de- of Mo’oréa in French Polynesia.
bated. A 2017 census counted 7,750 inhabitants. Other islands, like Bougainville in Melanesia
(where most of the high islands of Oceania are
Physical and Floral Diversity in Oceania found), have a series of volcanic peaks, or, in the
Islands in the different geographic subregions of case of New Caledonia, an extensive range of
Oceania show different physical characteristics, de- mountains forming the backbone of an elongated
pending on how they were formed geologically. island formation. Although the elevation of
One category, referred to as continental islands, ap- Bougainville’s peaks is impressive (reaching 10,000
plies to only one island of Oceania as defined here, feet/3,048 meters), the highest volcanic peaks in
namely Papua New Guinea. Continental islands Oceania, some reaching 13,000 feet (3,962 meters),
share not only geological origins with the large are found in the distant Hawaiian Islands at the
landmass next to them (in this case Australia), but northernmost fringe of Polynesia.
also a notable diversity of ecological features. These The vast majority of islands throughout Oceania
features may be the result of the broad ranges of al- are coral atolls. Coral atolls are composed of the
titudes found on such large islands, or differentia- long-term accumulation of skeletons of small marine
tions in soil composition produced by extensive animals (specifically, polyps) that become cemented
erosion. together by the partial breakdown of their calcareous
The case of Papua New Guinea in the Melanesian (calcium-rich) content. Atolls usually are found in
zone fits this observation quite well. The highlands relatively shallow waters close to an already existing
in the interior of New Guinea contain fertile moun- island. The neighbor island may owe its origins to to-
tain valleys whose elevations range between 4,000 tally different geologic causes. Its function is to pro-
vide an appropriate marine environment for polyps
to breed and multiply. Nearly all Pacific islands have
some form of coral reef nearby offshore. All reefs do
There are many theories concerning the origin of not necessarily emerge above the surface to become
Easter Island’s numerous carved volcanic, or tufa
atolls. It sometimes happens, however, that coral
stone, heads and the inscriptions on them. Some
have argued, unsuccessfully, that the petroglyphs
atolls survive as circularly shaped reefs rising above
found on Easter Island were derived from ancient the surface long after the original island at their core
Egyptian or Hindu writing systems, or hieroglyphs. has sunk beneath the waters.
The stone heads range in height from 10 to 40 feet Coral formations also can become islands as a re-
(3 to 12 meters) and weigh up to fifty tons. Most sult of tectonic uplifting, or upward pressures com-
scholars agree that the stones were carved by people
ing from Earth’s tectonic plates under the ocean
of Polynesian stock that arrived on the island from
the central Pacific. When Europeans first arrived in
floor. Uplifted coral islands are less common in
1722, the sparse population of the island was visibly Oceania than the typical flat, low-lying atoll forma-
of Polynesian origin. tions. Although the mass of coral material may have
been essentially a flat subsurface platform, the ef-

29
Pacific Islands Regions

fects of tectonic uplifting can produce varied results. tain slopes are covered by extensive rain forests.
There may be tilting slopes (not actual mountain Rain forest conditions are otherwise rather rare, oc-
chains) and fissures or faults, much like the effects of curring on the windward slopes of Fiji and on a few
uplifting of sections of the larger landmass on the islands in American Samoa. Another form of island
continents. In such cases, medium-sized coral is- forest in areas of high humidity, especially on the
lands have varied topographical features, ranging larger islands like New Guinea, occurs because of
from low-lying coastal fringes to fairly high moun- near-perpetual mist. Here the trees of the so-called
tainous elevations with valleys caused by erosion. moss, or cloud, forest never grow very high, and
Two of the most prominent examples of uplifted most of the misty humidity is absorbed by thick
coral islands appear in the Polynesian region of carpets of moss on the forest floor.
Oceania: Tongatapu, the main island of Tonga, and Savanna-like (drier and less dense) tree and scrub
Makatéa in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. vegetation is the prevailing characteristic of most is-
Because all three regions of Oceania are subject lands in Oceania. The nature of such vegetation de-
to high levels of precipitation and sometimes even pends on relative elevation and soil conditions.
major typhoons, one might expect plant life to be Larger islands, such as New Guinea, can have fairly
dense and varied. Both density and variation de- extensive grassland zones, especially at middle ele-
pend, however, on a host of factors that are unique vations (4,000 to 6,000 feet/1,200 to 1,800 meters)
to the Pacific island world. where rainfall is seasonal and moderate by
First, the heaviest rainfall accumulates mainly on comparison to higher forested areas.
the high islands that are characteristic of the Mela- The spread of different plant species also depends
nesian area. These include New Guinea, New Brit- on degrees of geographical isolation from other is-
ain, Bougainville, and Guadalcanal, where moun- lands. Wide expanses of ocean water separate the

A resort in Tahiti. (zelg)

30
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Pacific Islands

Coral reefs in Papua New Guinea. (Brocken Inaglory)

different island groupings, and this has served to occur—concentrations of endemic plant species
block transmission of plant species from one region that are found only in certain areas. This is the case
to another. In some places, the seeds of certain spe- on the Hawaiian Islands and on New Caledonia in
cies may have been carried considerable distances Melanesia, where up to 70 percent of plant species
across the water by birds. The spread of the coconut exist in isolation only in those subregions of
palm to almost all parts of Oceania is due in large Oceania. While volcanic soils in particular possess
part to the fact that coconuts have floated, some- high levels of fertility, other soils typical of Oceania
times for years, before washing up on distant shores do not contain adequate nutrients to support a di-
where soil conditions were conducive to their growth. versity of plants. This is particularly true of the
A similar pattern of dispersion by means of floating smaller coral island formations, due not only to
seeds has spread another typical Pacific island tree, their low elevations above sea level (and resultant
the pandanus (sometimes incorrectly called low rainfall “catch”), but also to the porous nature of
pandanus palm) throughout Oceania. Several the subsoils underlying thin layers of topsoil. Many
pandanus species are known as “screw pines.” such islands are completely barren, or support only
When vast distances or patterns of oceanic cur- a few species of grasses and bushes.
rents and winds have prevented the spread of plants Byron D. Cannon
across the Pacific, the opposite phenomenon may

31
Pacific Islands Regions

Q1. How is Australia unique compared to the

other continents? What role has its relatively re-
mote location played in its development? Into
what geopolitical divisions is modern Australia
comprised?

Q2. Where is New Zealand located? With which

nearby landmasses do the people of New Zea-
land most closely identify? How does New Zea-
land differ from Australia?

Q3. What criteria do geographers use to group

the Pacific islands? Into what three divisions are
they usually classified? What is meant by the
term “Oceania”?

32
Physical Geography
 Overview

Climate and Human Settlement

“Everyone talks about the weather,” goes an old say- Many equatorial areas were too hot and humid for
ing, “but nobody does anything about it.” If every- human and animal health and comfort, and too
one talks about the weather, it is because it is impor- infested with insect pests and diseases.
tant to them—to how they feel and to how their Improvements in technology allowed settlement
bodies and minds function. There is plenty they can to range more widely north and south. Sturdy
do about it, from going to a different location to cre- houses and stables, internal heating, and warm
ating an artificial indoor environment. clothing enabled people to survive and be active in
long cold winters. Some peoples developed no-
Climate madic patterns, moving with herds of animals to
The term “climate” refers to average weather con- adapt to seasonal variations.
ditions over a long period of time and to the varia- A major challenge in the evolution of settled ag-
tions around that average from day to day or month riculture was to adapt production to climate and soil
to month. Temperature, air pressure, humidity, conditions. In North America, such crops as cotton,
wind conditions, sunshine, and rainfall—all are im- tobacco, rice, and sugarcane have relatively re-
portant elements of climate and differ systemati- stricted areas of cultivation. Wheat, corn, and soy-
cally with location. Temperatures tend to be higher beans are more widely grown, but usually further
near the equator and are so low in the polar regions north. Winter wheat is an ingenious adaptation to
that very few people live there. In any given region, climate. It is sown and germinates in autumn, then
temperatures are lower at higher altitudes. Areas matures and is harvested the following spring. Rice,
close to large bodies of water have more stable tem- which generally grows in standing water, requires
peratures. Rainfall depends on topography: The special environmental conditions.
Pacific Coast of the United States receives a great
deal of rain, but the nearby mountains prevent it Tropical Problems
from moving very far inland. Seasonal variations in Some scholars argue that tropical climates encour-
temperature are larger in temperate zones. age life to flourish but do not promote quality of
Throughout human history, climate has affected life. In hot climates, people do not need much calo-
where and how people live. People in technologi- ric intake to maintain body heat. Clothing and
cally primitive cultures, lacking much protective housing do not need to protect people from the
clothing or housing, needed to live in mild climates, cold. Where temperatures never fall below freezing,
in environments favorable to hunting and gather- crops can be grown all year round. Large numbers
ing. As agricultural cultivation developed, popula- of people can survive even where productivity is not
tions located where soil fertility, topography, and high. However, hot, humid conditions are not fa-
climate were favorable to growing crops and raising vorable to human exertion nor (it is claimed) to
livestock. Areas in the Middle East and near the mental, spiritual, and artistic creativity. Some tropi-
Mediterranean Sea flourished before 1000 bce. cal areas, such as South India, Bangladesh, Indone-

35
Climate and Human Settlement Physical Geography

sia, and Central Africa, have developed large

populations living at relatively low levels of income.

Slavery
Mass migration from Europe to North America be-
Efforts to develop tropical regions played an im- gan in the 1840s after a serious blight destroyed a
portant part in the rise of the slave trade after 1500 large part of the potato crop in Ireland and other
ce. Black Africans were kidnapped and forceably parts of Northern Europe. The weather played a
transported to work in hot, humid regions. The part in the famine; during the autumns of 1845 and
1846 climatic conditions were ideal for spreading
West Indian islands became an important location
the potato blight. The major cause, however, was the
for slave labor, particularly in sugar production. On
blight itself, and the impact was severe on low-in-
the North American continent, slave labor was im- come farmers for whom the potato was the major
portant for producing rice, indigo, and tobacco in food.
colonial times. All these were eclipsed by the enor- The famine and related political disturbances
mous growth of cotton production in the early years led to mass emigration from Ireland and from Ger-
many. By 1850 there were nearly a million Irish and
of U.S. independence. It has been estimated that
more than half a million Germans in the United
the forced migration of Africans to the Americas in-
States. Combined, these two groups made up more
volved about 1,800 Africans per year from 1450 to than two-thirds of the foreign-born U.S. population
1600, 13,400 per year in the seventeenth century, of 1850. The settlement patterns of each group were
and 55,000 per year from 1701 to 1810. Estimates very different. Most Irish were so poor they had to
vary wildly, but at least 12 million Africans were work for wages in cities or in construction of canals
and railroads. Many Germans took up farming in
forced to migrate in this process.
areas similar in climate and soil conditions to their
homelands, moving to Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
European Migration the Dakotas.
Migration of European peoples also accelerated af-
ter the discovery of the New World. They settled
mainly in temperate-zone regions, particularly nological development. They argue that people are
North America. Although Great Britain gained co- invigorated by seasonal variation in temperature,
lonial dominion over India, the Netherlands over sunshine, rain, and snow. Storms—particularly
present-day Indonesia, and Belgium over a vast thunderstorms—can be especially stimulating, as
part of central Africa, few Europeans went to those many parents of young children have observed for
places to live. However, many Chinese migrated themselves.
throughout the Nanyang (South Sea) region, be- Climate has contributed to the great economic
coming commercial leaders in present-day Malay- productivity of the United States. This productivity
sia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines, has attracted a flow of immigrants, which averaged
despite the heat and humidity. British emigrants about 1 million a year from 1905 to 1914. Immigra-
settled in Australia and New Zealand, Spanish and tion approached that level again in the 1990s, as
Italians in Argentina, Dutch (Boers) in South large numbers of Mexicans crossed the southern
Africa—all temperate regions. border of the United States, often coming for jobs
as agricultural laborers in the hot conditions of the
Climate and Economics Southwest—a climate that made such work
Most of the economic progress of the world between unattractive to many others.
1492 and 2000 occurred in the temperate zones, Unpredictable climate variability was important
primarily in Europe and North America. Climatic in the peopling of North America. During the
conditions favored agricultural productivity. Some 1870s and 1880s, unusually favorable weather en-
scholars believe that these areas had climatic condi- couraged a large flow of migration into the grain-
tions that were stimulating to intellectual and tech- producing areas just west of the one-hundredth me-

36
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flood Control

ridian. Then came severe drought and much agrar- working-age adults who earn a living serving vaca-
ian distress. Between 1880 and 1890, the combined tioners and retirees. Since these locations are un-
population of Kansas and Nebraska increased by comfortably hot in summer, their attractiveness for
about a million, an increase of 72 percent. During residence had to await the coming of air
the 1890s, however, their combined population was conditioning in the latter half of the twentieth
virtually constant, indicating that a large out-mi- century.
gration was offsetting the natural increase. Much of
the area reverted to pasture, as climate and soil con- Human Impact on Climate
ditions could not sustain the grain production that Climate interacts with pollution. Bad-smelling fac-
had attracted so many earlier settlers. tories and refineries have long relied on the wind to
Climate variability can be a serious hazard. Freez- disperse atmospheric pollutants. The city of Los
ing temperatures for more than a few hours during Angeles, California, is uniquely vulnerable to atmo-
spring can seriously damage fruits and vegetables. spheric pollution because of its topography and
A few days of heavy rain can produce serious wind currents. Government regulations of automo-
flooding. bile emissions have had to be much more stringent
there than in other areas to keep pollution under
Recreation and Retirement control.
Whenever people have been able to separate deci- Human activities have sometimes altered the cli-
sions about where to live from decisions about mate. Development of a large city substitutes build-
where to work, they have gravitated toward pleas- ings and pavements for grass and trees, raising
ant climatic conditions. Vacationers head for Ca- summer temperatures and changing patterns of
ribbean islands, Hawaii, the Crimea, the water evaporation. Atmospheric pollutants have
Mediterranean Coast, even the Baltic coast. “The contributed to acid rain, which damages vegetation
mountains” and “the seashore” are attractive the and pollutes water resources. Many observers have
world over. Paradoxically, some of these areas (the also blamed human activities for a trend toward
Caribbean, for instance) have monotonous global warming. Much of this has been blamed on
weather year-round and thus have not attracted carbon dioxide generated by combustion, particu-
large inflows of permanent residents. Winter larly of fossil fuels. A widespread and continuing
sports have created popular resorts such as Vail rise in temperatures is expected to raise water levels
and Aspen in Colorado, and numerous older coun- in the oceans as polar icecaps melt and change the
terparts in New England. Large numbers of Amer- relative attractiveness of many locations.
icans have retired to the warm climates in Florida, Paul B. Trescott
California, and Arizona. These areas then attract

Flood Control

Flood control presents one of the most daunting the lands at greatest risk of experiencing devastat-
challenges humanity faces. The regions that human ing floods. Early civilization developed along river
communities have generally found most desirable, valleys and in coastal floodplains because those
for both agriculture and industry, have also been lands contained the most fertile, most easily irri-

37
Flood Control Physical Geography

gated soils for agriculture, combined with the away from populated areas, are also a common
convenience of water transportation. component of flood control systems. Areas that are
The Nile River in North Africa, the Ganges River particularly susceptible to flash floods have con-
on the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze River structed numerous flood channels to prevent flood-
in China all witnessed the emergence of civiliza- ing in the city. For example, for much of the year,
tions that relied on those rivers for their growth. Southern California’s Los Angeles River is a small
People learned quickly that residing in such areas stream flowing down the middle of an enormous,
meant living with the regular occurrence of life- 20- to 30-foot-deep (6–9 meters) concrete-lined
threatening floods. channel, but winter rains can fill its bed from bank
Knowledge that floods would come did not lead to bank. Flood channels prevent the river from
immediately to attempts to prevent them. For thou- washing out neighborhoods and freeways.
sands of years, attempts at flood control were rare. Engineers designed dams with reservoirs to pre-
The people living along river valleys and in vent annual rains or snowmelt entering the river
floodplains often developed elaborate systems of ir- upstream from running into populated areas. By
rigation canals to take advantage of the available the end of the twentieth century, extremely com-
water for agriculture and became adept at using plex flood control systems of dams, dikes, levees,
rivers for transportation, but they did not try to con- and flood channels were common. Patterns of
trol the river itself. For millennia, people viewed pe- flooding that had existed for thousands of years
riodic flooding as inevitable, a force of nature over ended as civil engineers attempted to dominate
which they had no control. In Egypt, for example, natural forces.
early people learned how far out over the river- The annual inundation of the Egyptian delta by
banks the annual flooding of the Nile River would the flood waters of the Nile River ceased in 1968 fol-
spread and accommodated their society to the lowing construction of the 365-foot-high (111 me-
river’s seasonal patterns. Villagers built their homes ters) Aswan High Dam. The reservoir behind the
on the edge of the desert, beyond the reach of the 3,280-foot-long (1,000-meter) dam forms a lake al-
flood waters, while the land between the towns and most ten miles (16 km.) wide and almost 300 miles
the river became the area where farmers planted (480 km.) long. Flood waters are now trapped be-
crops or grazed livestock. hind the dam and released gradually over a year’s
In other regions of the world, buildings were time.
placed on high foundations or built with two stories
on the assumption that the local rivers would regu- Environmental Concerns
larly overflow their banks. In Southeast Asian coun- Such high dams are increasingly being questioned
tries such as Thailand and Vietnam, it is common to as a viable solution for flood control. As human un-
see houses constructed on high wooden posts above derstanding of both hydrology and ecology have
the rivers’ edge. The inhabitants have learned to al- improved, the disruptive effects of flood control
low for the water levels’ seasonal changes. projects such as high dams, levees, and other engi-
neering projects are being examined more closely.
Flood Control Structures Hydrologists and other scientists who study the
Eventually, societies began to try to control floods behavior of water in rivers and soils have long
rather than merely attempting to survive them. known that vegetation and soil types in watersheds
Levees and dikes—earthen embankments con- can have a profound effect on downstream flood-
structed to prevent water from flowing into low-ly- ing. The removal of forest cover through logging or
ing areas—were built to force river waters to remain clearing for agriculture can lead to severe flooding
within their channels rather than spilling out over a in the future. Often that flooding will occur many
floodplain. Flood channels or canals that fill with miles downstream from the logging activity. Devas-
water only during times of flooding, diverting water tating floods in the South Asian country of Bangla-

38
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flood Control

desh, for example, have been blamed in part on had the unintended consequence of causing
clear-cutting of forested hillsides in the Himalaya waterborne silt to be carried farther out into the
Mountains in India and Nepal. Monsoon rains that Gulf of Mexico by the river, rather than its being de-
once were absorbed or slowed by forests now run posited in the delta region. This, in turn, has led to
quickly off mountainsides, causing rivers to reach the loss of shore land as ocean wave actions washes
unprecedented flood levels. Concerns about soil away, but no new alluvial deposits arrive to
cause-and-effect relationships between logging and replace it.
flood control in the mountains of the United States In any river system, some species of aquatic life
were one reason for the creation of the U.S. Forest will disappear and others replace them as the speed
Service in the nineteenth century. of flow of the water affects water temperature and
In populated areas, even seemingly trivial events the amount of dissolved oxygen available for fish.
such as the construction of a shopping center park- Warm-water fish such as bass will be replaced by
ing lot can affect flood runoff. When thousands of cold-water fish such as trout, or vice versa. Biolo-
square feet of land are paved, all the water from rain gists estimate that more than twenty species of
runs into storm drains rather than being absorbed freshwater mussels have vanished from the Tennes-
slowly into the soil and then filtered through the see River since construction of a series of flood con-
watertable. Engineers have learned to include catch trol and hydroelectric power generation dams have
basins, either hidden underground or openly visi- turned a fast-moving river into a series of
ble but disguised as landscaping features such as slow-moving reservoirs.
ponds, when planning a large paving project.
Future of Flood Control
Wetlands and Flooding By the end of the twentieth century, engineers in-
Less well known than the influence of watersheds creasingly recognized the limitations of human in-
on flooding is the impact of wetlands along rivers. terventions in flood control. Following devastating
Many river systems are bordered by long stretches floods in the early 1990s in the Mississippi River
of marsh and bog. In the past, flood control agen- drainage, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers recom-
cies often allowed farmers to drain these areas for mended that many towns that had stood right at the
use in agriculture and then built levees and dikes to river’s edge be moved to higher ground. That is,
hold the river within a narrow channel. Scientists rather than trying to prevent a future flood, the
now know that these wetlands actually serve as giant Corps advised citizens to recognize that one would
sponges in the flood cycle. Flood waters coming inevitably occur, and that they should remove them-
down a river would spread out into wetlands and be selves from its path. In the United States and a
held there, much like water is trapped in a sponge. number of other countries, land that has been
Draining wetlands not only removes these natu- zoned as floodplains can no longer be developed
ral flood control areas but worsens flooding prob- for residential use. While there are many things hu-
lems by allowing floodwater to precede downstream manity can do to help prevent floods, such as main-
faster. Even if life-threatening or property-damag- taining well-forested watersheds and preserving
ing floods do not occur, faster-flowing water signifi- wetlands, true flood control is probably impossible.
cantly changes the ecology of the river system. Dams, levees, and dikes can slow the water down,
Waterborne silt and debris will be carried farther. but eventually, the water always wins.
Trying to control floods on the Mississippi River has Nancy Farm Männikkö

39
Atmospheric Pollution Physical Geography

Atmospheric Pollution

Pollution of the Earth’s atmosphere comes from 7. Lead and other heavy metals: Generated by
many sources. Some forces are natural, such as vol- various industrial processes, lead is harmful to hu-
canoes and lightning-caused forest fires, but most man health even at very low concentrations.
sources of pollution are byproducts of industrial so- 8. Air toxics and radon: Examples include can-
ciety. Atmospheric pollution cannot be confined by cer-causing agents, radioactive materials, or asbes-
national boundaries; pollution generated in one tos. Radon is a radioactive gas produced by natural
country often spills over into another country, as is processes in the earth.
the case for acid deposition, or acid rain, generated All eight forms of pollution can have adverse ef-
in the midwestern states of the United States that fects on human, animal, and plant life. Some, such
affects lakes in Canada. as lead, can have a very harmful effect over a small
range. Others, such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides,
Major Air Pollutants can cross national boundaries as they enter the at-
Each of eight major forms of air pollution has an mosphere and are carried many miles by prevailing
impact on the atmosphere. Often two or more wind currents. For example, the radioactive dis-
forms of pollution have a combined impact that ex- charge from the explosion of the Chernobyl nuclear
ceeds the impact of the two acting separately. These plant in the former Soviet Union in 1986 had harm-
eight forms are: ful impacts in many countries. Atmospheric radia-
1. Suspended particulate matter: This is a mix- tion generated by the explosion rapidly spread over
ture of solid particles and aerosols suspended in the much of the Northern Hemisphere, especially the
air. These particles can have a harmful impact on countries of northern Europe.
human respiratory functions.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO): An invisible, colorless Impacts of Atmospheric Pollution
gas that is highly poisonous to air-breathing Atmospheric pollution not only has a direct impact
animals. on the health of humans, animals, and plants but
3. Nitrogen oxides: These include several forms also affects life in more subtle, often long-term,
of nitrogen-oxygen compounds that are converted ways. It also affects the economic well-being of peo-
to nitric acid in the atmosphere and are a major ple and nations and complicates political life.
source of acid deposition. Atmospheric pollution can kill quickly, as was the
4. Sulfur oxides, mainly sulfur dioxide: This case with the killer smog, brought about by a tem-
sulfur-oxygen compound is converted to sulfuric perature inversion, that struck London in 1952 and
acid in the atmosphere and is another source of led to more than 4,000 pollution-related deaths. In
acid deposition. the late 1990s, the atmosphere of Mexico City was
5. Volatile organic compounds: These include so polluted from automobile exhausts and indus-
such materials as gasoline and organic cleaning sol- trial pollution that sidewalk stands selling pure oxy-
vents, which evaporate and enter the air in a vapor gen to people with breathing problems became
state. VOCs are a major source of ozone formation thriving businesses. Many of the heavy metals and
in the lower atmosphere. organic constituents of air pollution can cause can-
6. Ozone and other petrochemical oxidants: cer when people are exposed to large doses or for
Ground-level ozone is highly toxic to animals and long periods of time. Exposure to radioactivity in
plants. Ozone in the upper atmosphere, however, the atmosphere can also increase the likelihood of
helps to shield living creatures from ultraviolet ra- cancer.
diation.

40
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Atmospheric Pollution

In some parts of Germany and Scandinavia in the Air pollution also has an impact on the quality of
1990s, as well as places in southern Canada and the life. Acid pollutants have damaged many monu-
southern Appalachians in the United States, certain ments and building facades in urban areas in Eu-
types of trees began dying. There are several possi- rope and the United States. By the late 1990s, the
ble reasons for this die-off of forests, but one poten- distance that people could see in some regions,
tial culprit is acid deposition. As noted above, one such as the Appalachians, was reduced drastically
byproduct of burning fossil fuels (for example, in because of air pollution.
coal-fired electric power plants) is the sulfur and ni- The economic impact of air pollution may not be
trous oxides emitted from the smokestacks. Once in as readily apparent as dying trees or someone with a
the atmosphere, these gases can be carried for respiratory ailment, but it is just as real. Crop dam-
many miles and produce sulfuric and nitric acids. age reduces agricultural yield and helps to drive up
These acids combine with rain and snow to pro- the cost of food. The costs of repairing buildings or
duce acidic precipitation. Acid deposition harms monuments damaged by acid rain are substantial.
crops and forests and can make a lake so acidic that Increased health-care claims resulting from expo-
aquatic life cannot exist in it. Forests stressed by sure to air pollution are hard to measure but are a
contact with acid deposition can become more sus- cost to society nevertheless.
ceptible to damage by insects and other pathogens. It is impossible to predict the potential for harm
Ozone generated from automobile emissions also from rapid global warming arising from green-
kills many plants and causes human respiratory house gases and the destruction of the ozone layer
problems in urban areas. by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), but it could be cata-

Air Quality Trends Show Clean Air Progress

While some pollutants continue to pose serious air quality problems in areas of the U.S.,
nationally, criteria air pollutant concentrations have dropped significantly since 1990
improving quality of life for many Americans. Air quality improves as America grows.

Declining National Air Pollutant Concentration Averages CO -74%

Pb (from 2010) -82%
NO2 annual -57%
NO2 1-hour -50%
O3 -21%
PM10 -26%
Percent Above or Below NAAQS (%)

PM2.5 annual (from 2000) -39%

PM2.5 24-hour (from 2000) -34%
SO2 -89%
Most Recent National Standard

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018

Pb (3-month) CO (8-hour) NO2 (annual) NO2 (1-hour) O3 (8-hour) PM2.5 (annual) PM2.5 (24-hour) PM10 (24-hour) SO2 (1-hour)

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Our Nation’s Air, Status and Trends Through 2018.

41
Disease and Climate Physical Geography

strophic. Rapid global warming would cause the sea of ozone and particles, the deposition of acids, and
level to rise because of the melting of the polar ice visibility impairment.
caps. Low-lying coastal areas would be flooded, or, Many industrialized nations are making efforts
in the case of Bangladesh, much of the country. to control air pollution, for example, the Clean Air
Global warming would also change crop patterns Act of 1970 in the United States or the international
for much of the world. Montreal Accord to curtail CFC production. Prog-
ress is slow and the costs of reducing air pollution
Solutions for Atmospheric Pollution are often high. Worldwide, bad outdoor air caused
Although there is still some debate, especially an estimated 4.2 million premature deaths in 2016,
among political leaders, most scientists recognize about 90 percent of them in low- and middle-in-
that air pollution is a problem that affects both the come countries, according to the World Health Or-
industrialized and less-industrialized world. In ganization. Indoor smoke is an ongoing health
their rush to industrialize, many nations begin gen- threat to the 3 billion people who cook and heat
erating substantial amounts of air pollution; their homes by burning biomass, kerosene, and
China’s extensive use of coal-fired power plants is coal.
just one example. In the year 2019 the record of the nations of the
The major industrial nations are the primary world in dealing with air pollution was a mixed one.
contributors to atmospheric pollution. North There were some signs of progress, such as reduced
America, Europe, and East Asia produce 60 percent automobile emissions and sulfur and nitrous oxides
of the world’s air pollution and 60 percent of its in industrialized nations, but acid deposition re-
food supply. Because of their role in supplying food mains a problem in some areas. CFC production
for many other nations, anything that damages has been halted, but the impact of CFCs on the
their ability to grow crops hurts the rest of the world. ozone layer will continue for many years. However,
In 2018, about 76 million tons of pollution were more nations are becoming aware of the health and
emitted into the atmosphere in the United States. economic impact of air pollution and are working
These emissions mostly contribute to the formation to keep the problem from getting worse.
John M. Theilmann

Disease and Climate

Climate influences the spread and persistence of eases will reemerge as a major health threat in the
many diseases, such as tuberculosis and influenza, near future.
which thrive in cold climates, and malaria and en-
cephalitis, which are limited by the warmth and hu- Scientific Findings
midity that sustains the mosquitoes carrying them. The question of whether the earth is warming as a
Because the earth is warming as a result of the gen- result of human activity was settled in scientific cir-
eration of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse cles in 1995, when the Second Assessment Report of
gases” from the burning of fossil fuels, there is in- the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a
tensified scientific concern that warm-weather dis- worldwide group of about 2,500 experts, was issued.
The panel concluded that the earth’s temperature

42
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Disease and Climate

had increased between 0.5 to 1.1 degrees Fahren- garding the safety of athletes and spectators at the
heit (0.3 to 0.6 degrees Celsius) since reliable world- 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro and led
wide records first became available in the late nine- to travel warnings and recommendations to delay
teenth century. Furthermore, the intensity of getting pregnant for those living or traveling in
warming had increased over time. By the 1990s, the areas where the mosquitoes are active.
temperature was rising at the most rapid rate in at The global temperature is undeniably rising. Ac-
least 10,000 years. cording to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
The Intergovernmental Panel concluded that Administration, July 2019, was the hottest month
human activity—the increased generation of car- since reliable worldwide records have been kept, or
bon dioxide and other “greenhouse gases”—is re- about 150 years. The previous record had been set
sponsible for the accelerating rise in global temper- in July 2017.
atures. The amount of carbon dioxide in the The rising incidence of some respiratory diseases
atmosphere has risen nearly every year because of may be related to a warmer, more humid environ-
increased use of fossil fuels by ever-larger human ment. The American Lung Association reported
populations experiencing higher living standards. that more than 5,600 people died of asthma in the
In 1998, Paul Epstein of the Harvard School of United States during 1995, a 45.3 percent increase
Public Health described the spread of malaria and in mortality over ten years, and a 75 percent in-
dengue fever to higher altitudes in tropical areas of crease since 1980. Roughly a third of those cases oc-
the earth as a result of warmer temperatures. Rising curred in children under the age of eighteen.
winter temperatures have allowed disease-bearing Asthma is now one of the leading diseases among
insects to survive in areas that could not support the young. Since 1980, there has been a 160 percent
them previously. According to Epstein, frequent increase in asthma in children under the age of five.
flooding, which is associated with warmer tempera-
tures, also promotes the growth of fungus and pro- Heat Waves and Health
vides excellent breeding grounds for large numbers A study by the Sierra Club found that air pollution,
of mosquitoes. Some experts cite the flooding which will be enhanced by global warming, could be
caused by Hurricane Floyd and other storms in responsible for many human health problems, in-
North Carolina during 1999 as an example of how cluding respiratory diseases such as asthma, bron-
global warming promotes conditions ideal for the chitis, and pneumonia.
spread of diseases imported from the Tropics. According to Joel Schwartz, an epidemiologist at
Harvard University, air pollution concentrations in
Heat, Humidity, and Disease the late 1990s were responsible for 70,000 early
During the middle 1990s, an explosion of termites, deaths per year and more than 100,000 excess hos-
mosquitoes, and cockroaches hit New Orleans, fol- pitalizations for heart and lung disease in the
lowing an unprecedented five years without frost. United States. Global warming could cause these
At the same time, dengue fever spread from Mexico numbers to increase 10 to 20 percent in the United
across the border into Texas for the first time since States, with significantly greater increases in coun-
records have been kept. Dengue fever, like malaria, tries that are more polluted to begin with, according
is carried by a mosquito that is limited by tempera- to Schwartz.
ture and humidity. Colombia was experiencing Studies indicate that global warming will directly
plagues of mosquitoes and outbreaks of the diseases kill hundreds of Americans from exposure to ex-
they carry, including dengue fever and encephali- treme heat during summer months. The U.S. Cen-
tis, triggered by a record heat wave followed by ters for Disease Control and Prevention have found
heavy rains. In 1997 Italy also had an outbreak of that between 1979 and 2014, the death rate as a di-
malaria. An outbreak of zika in 2015–16, related to rect result of exposure to heat (underlying cause of
a virus spread by mosquitoes, raised concerns re- death) generally hovered around 0.5 to 1 deaths

43
Disease and Climate Physical Geography

per million people, with spikes in certain years). uted to the severe outbreak of cholera that led to
Overall, a total of more than 9,000 Americans have thousands of deaths in Latin American countries.
died from heat-related causes since 1979, according Since 1981, the number of cases of dengue fever has
to death certificates. Heat waves can double or tri- risen significantly in South America and has begun
ple the overall death rates in large cities. The death to spread into the United States. According to
toll in the United States from a heat wave during health experts cited by the Sierra Club study, the
July 1999 surpassed 200 people. As many as 600 outbreak of dengue near Texas shows the risks that
people died in Chicago alone during the 1990s due a warming climate might pose. Epstein and the Si-
to heat waves. The elderly and very young have erra Club study concur that if tropical weather
been most at risk. expands, tropical diseases will expand.
Respiratory illness is only part of the picture. The In many regions of the world, malaria is already
Sierra Club study indicated that rising heat and hu- resistant to the least expensive, most widely distrib-
midity would broaden the range of tropical dis- uted drugs. According to the World Health Organi-
eases, resulting in increasing illness and death from zation (WHO), there were 219 million cases of ma-
diseases such as malaria, cholera, and dengue fever, laria globally in 2017 and 435,000 malaria deaths,
whose range will spread as mosquitoes and other representing a decrease in malaria cases and deaths
disease vectors migrate. rates of 18 percent and 28 percent since 2010. Of
The effects of El Niño in the 1990s indicate how those deaths, 403,000 (approximately 93 percent)
sensitive diseases can be to changes in climate. A were in the WHO African Region.
study conducted by Harvard University showed that Bruce E. Johansen
warming waters in the Pacific Ocean likely contrib-

44
 Physiography and Hydrology
of Antarctica

Antarctica is the fifth-largest of the earth’s seven con- Weddell Sea 3,000 miles (4,828 km.) to the north.
tinents. It is an enormous island with a network of Antarctica has a landmass of about 5.48 million
other islands along its 11,165-mile (17,968 km.) square miles (14.2 million sq. km.)—about the size
coastline and farther out in the three oceans that of the United States, Mexico, and Argentina com-
touch its shores: the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian bined. The Transantarctic Mountains run like a
oceans. Because about 98 percent of Antarctica is great spine from the Ross Sea to the Weddell Sea,
covered with ice and snow that has not melted for crossing the geographic South Pole at 90 degrees
thousands of years, most of the adjacent islands look south latitude. They divide Antarctica into East
from the air as though they belong to the mainland. (Greater) Antarctica and West (Lesser) Antarctica.
The Antarctic Peninsula, consisting of Palmer
Physical Dimensions Land and Graham Land, juts from the mainland and
The continent is roughly circular, with indentations extends north from about 85 degrees south latitude
for the Ross Sea on the western side and the to about 60 degrees south latitude and longitude 60

The McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica. (U.S. Department of State)

45
Physiography and Hydrology of Antarctica Physical Geography

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ANTARCTICA

L IA
RA

Pa c i f i c
ST
AU

Ocean

ircle
tic C
Arc
S ou t h er n O
c ea
n
Royal
Society

Tr
Mts.

an
Getz

san
Ice Shelf
Ross Marie

t ar
Ice Shelf Byrd

cti
Shackleton Land

c
Ice Shelf

M
Bentley

ou
Subglacial Trench

nt
East Antarctica in
s

a
West Antarctica
West South Pole Vinson Massif
Ice Shelf Ellsworth
Lambert Mts.
ANTARCTICA

+
Indian Glacier Ronne
Emery
Ocean Ice Shelf Prince Ice Shelf Palmer Land
An Graham Land
Charles ta r
Mountains cti Larson
cP
en Ice Shelf
Filchner ins
Queen ul
Ice Shelf a
Maud Land
We d d e l l
Sea
So

CA
ut
her
n O ce a n

ERI
AM
H
UT
AD
M

AG Atlantic Ocean

SO
A SC
AR

to 80 degrees west. Its mountains are part of the Antarctica rises to a height of 16,050 feet (4,892
range that includes South America’s Andes and the meters) at the Vinson Massif of the Ellsworth Moun-
submarine mountains of the South Atlantic Ocean. tains in Marie Byrd Land. Antarctica also has the
South Orkney, South Georgia, and Elephant Island lowest point on Earth: a canyon that descends some
are mountain peaks of that submerged range. 11,500 feet (3,500 meters) beneath the Denman
Antarctica has huge ice shelves, fed largely by gla- Glacier, nearly 2 miles (3.2 km.) lower than the
ciers, off its coasts. The largest of these is the Ross Dead Sea in Israel, the lowest point on any conti-
Ice Shelf, about the size of France. It is fed by six gla- nent. Much of Antarctica is below sea level, gradu-
ciers, the largest of which is the Beardmore, which ally having been sunk by the constant weight of an
starts at the South Pole and, attaining altitudes of ice cover, in many places 2 miles (3.2 km.) thick.
7,200 feet (2,200 meters), flows into the Ross Sea, Nevertheless, Antarctica’s average altitude is 7,546
depositing huge quantities of ice on the Ross Ice feet (2,300 meters), excluding its ice cover, whose
Shelf. average thickness of 7,086 feet (2,160 meters) in-
The Lambert Glacier, which runs through the creases the continent’s average altitude to 14,633
Prince Charles Mountains, feeds the Amery Ice feet (4,460 meters).
Shelf. Every year it discharges vast amounts of ice Antarctica has three major dry valleys—Taylor
into the Amery Ice Shelf. Valley, Wright Valley, and Victoria Valley—sheltered

46
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography and Hydrology of Antarctica

from the harsh climate by the Royal Society Range.

They were once filled with ice, but over time, the ice
dissipated, leaving the surface exposed. The cli-
mate is extremely dry—about 3.9 inches (100 milli- Unlike the other continents, Antarctica has no large
meters) of rainfall annually. Each of these dramatic cities, no towns or villages, and no permanent hu-
valleys amid the great ice fields of the continent is 3 man residents. The Transarctic Mountains, also
miles (5 km.) wide and about 25 miles (40 km.) known as the Great Antarctic Horst, divide the con-
long. tinent into East (Greater) Antarctica, the continent’s
Besides the Ross Ice Shelf, major ice shelves off larger land area, and West (Lesser) Antarctica, the
smaller. The Transarctic Mountains cut through the
the Antarctic coast include the Amery, at longitude
continent for a distance of more than 3,000 miles
70 degrees east and 70 degrees south latitude; the
(4,800 km.).
Filchner-Ronne, at longitude 40 degrees west and
79 degrees south latitude; and the Larsen, at longi-
tude 65 degrees west and 65 degrees south latitude. ate climate that sustained a broad range of plant
Global warming and climate change were at least and animal life. There is evidence that once trees
partially at play in 2017, when the calving of ap- grew in the area, it had swamps, and many varieties
proximately 10 percent of the Larsen Ice Shelf pro- of animals roved about in it. The Ice Age that cov-
duced one of the largest icebergs ever recorded, ered the continent with a coating of ice that grew to
comparable in size to the US state of Delaware. an average thickness of about 8,000 feet (2,440 me-
Other large ice shelves are the Shackleton, ters) changed the entire face of the continent, turn-
Voyeykov, Getz, and West. ing it into the frozen mass that it is now.
East Antarctica south of the Indian Ocean is a sin-
Geology gle landmass composed largely of igneous rock. It
The geologic history of Antarctica reveals that more appears to have been formed more than 1 billion
than 170,000 years ago, the continent had a moder- years ago during the Precambrian period. A deep

Drilling in Antarctica. (Alexyz3d)

47
Physiography and Hydrology of Antarctica Physical Geography

trough filled with 2 miles (3.2 km.) of ice runs along

the Great Antarctic Horst into West Antarctica,
which is a collection of islands, many below sea level The largest iceberg ever seen by humans was calved
because of the weight of the ice that has accumu- from the Ross Ice Shelf and first spotted in 1956. It
lated on them. They are covered by an ice cap that was 208 miles (335 km.) long and 60 miles (97 km.)
makes them look like a solid mass from the air. The wide, and its total area was six times the size of the
state of Delaware.
northern portion of West Antarctica, which resulted
from volcanic action, developed in the third period
of Antarctica’s geologic time. pennywort, lichens, and mosses—grow on the
The Ellsworth Mountains, located in West Antarctica Peninsula, but the continent is without
Antarctica and extending northward to the Antarc- the plant life that characterizes the other six conti-
tic Peninsula, are composed partly of granite and nents. Trees cannot grow anywhere on Antarctica.
sedimentary rock. The mountains on the Antarctic
Peninsula are part of the mountain chain that forms Volcanic Activity
the Andes in South America. Major parts of Antarctica were attached at one time
The Antarctic Peninsula, with oceans on its coast- to the South American continent. In prehistory,
line, has the most moderate climate in Antarctica. large segments of the landmass detached from the
In summer, it can reach temperatures of 50 degrees mainland and drifted slowly south to what is now
Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius). The all-time high Antarctica. Other parts of the continent, however,
temperature for Antarctica—69.3 degrees Fahren- appear to be of volcanic origin, particularly in the
heit (20.72 degrees Celsius)—was recorded in Feb- north reaches on the Antarctic Peninsula immedi-
ruary 2020. The lowest air temperature on Earth— ately below the Antarctic Circle, which lies at 65° 32¢
-128.6 degrees Fahrenheit (-89.2 degrees Celsius) south latitude. There also has been recent volcanic
—was recorded in Antarctica on July 21, 1983. activity near the Ross Sea: Mount Erebus, at an alti-
Some rudimentary plant life—types of grasses, tude of 12,448 feet (3,794 meters), still spews smoke

An iceberg in Antarctica. (PaoMic)

48
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography and Hydrology of Antarctica

and flame into the air to a height that Sir James

Clark Ross estimated in 1841 to reach 2,000 feet
(600 meters) above its cone.
It is indisputable that Mount Erebus underwent a Antarctica has the distinction of being the windiest
major eruption around 1500. Lava and volcanic ash place on Earth, although, in some areas of the Ant-
from such an eruption have been found by scientists arctic, the wind is no stronger than in parts of the
and dated with reasonable accuracy. Eight of the midwestern United States. Commonwealth Bay on
eleven South Sandwich Islands, north of the the George V Coast east of the Ross Sea, is the windi-
Weddell Sea, originated from volcanic action that est place in Antarctica. The wind speeds there some-
occurred an estimated 4 million years ago. Volcanic times reach 50 to 90 miles (80 to 145 km.) per hour
activity also is evidenced by major splits in rock for- for several consecutive days. Winds as high as 200
mations found in West Antarctica that date from be- miles (320 km.) per hour have been clocked in the
region. These winds reach their greatest intensity
tween 25 million and 30 million years ago.
during storms.
The Marie Byrd Land volcanic area shows evi-
dence of volcanoes from the Cenozoic period, dat-
ing back over sixty-five million years. The lower About 600,000 square miles (1.55 million sq.
beds of volcanic rock are overlaid with other layers km.) of ice shelves are found off the coastline of
of volcanic rocks that suggest continued volcanic ac- Antarctica. Ice shelves exist almost exclusively in
tivity in the period from sixty-five million to about Antarctica. The Arctic regions of Canada, Green-
thirty million years ago. land, and Russia have much smaller ice shelves, sev-
When what is now Antarctica broke loose from the eral of which have disappeared in recent years.
South American continent, vast amounts of heat and In 1986 the ice shelf on the northeastern side of
gas were released violently as blisteringly hot molten the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf calved, and the result-
rock from Earth’s core flowed into the cold waters to ing iceberg drifted into the Weddell Sea, carrying
the south. Scientists have speculated on the effect a with it two important research stations. This dem-
major contemporary eruption of either of onstrates how unstable the ice cover can be. Al-
Antarctica’s two active volcanoes might have upon though the ice cover looks like a solid mass, when
the surrounding environs. Some have speculated water is beneath it, it often is an enormous iceberg
that such eruptions might, over the next millions of rather than an ice cover over a land base. The area
years, make the continent habitable, as recent ar- that floated away from the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf
chaeological evidence indicates that it once was. totaled about 5,000 square miles (13,000 sq. km.),
about the size of the US state of Connecticut. Then,
Antarctica’s Ice Cover in September 2019, climate scientists were alarmed
Antarctica contains 90 percent of Earth’s perma- when a huge iceberg dubbed D-28 broke off from
nent ice, which amounts to hundreds of billions of the ice shelf. By early 2020, the iceberg, twice the
tons. This ice sheet, which has built up over at least size of New York City, was drifting slowly northward.
170,000 years without any substantial melting, is Icebergs extend far below sea level, so what one
the largest accumulation of freshwater on the can see with the naked eye might, depending on its
planet, holding 70 percent of Earth’s freshwater. It size and weight, be only 10 percent of the total
is estimated that this amounts to about 6.2 million mass. When ice cover forms on land, particularly on
cubic miles (25 million cubic km.) of freshwater. islands like those that lie beneath the ice of West
At times, it has been suggested that huge icebergs Antarctica, their great weight, which increases every
might be hauled to countries where water is in short year as more snow falls and more ice accumulates,
supply. Icebergs, some almost unimaginably large, depresses the land mass on which it rests, often forc-
are constantly calving from the huge ice shelves that ing it below sea level. As the ice cover overflows the
abound in Antarctica. land beneath it, it comes to rest on a less stable base

49
Physiography and Hydrology of Antarctica Physical Geography

than land provides. In time, fissures occur and large absence of predators and the abundance of food
portions of the ice shelf break away. from the sea combine to make Antarctica an envi-
ronment where these playful creatures can survive
The Antarctic Ocean and flourish.
The line of demarcation between warm and cold The four kinds of Antarctic penguins are the
water in the Antarctic Ocean is known as the Antarc- Adélie, chinstrap, emperor, and gentoo. Adélie and
tic Convergence. At the Antarctic Convergence, gentoo penguins seldom stray from the continent.
there is a drop of about 5 degrees Fahrenheit (2.8 Chinstraps are often found on the Antarctic mari-
degrees Celsius) in the surface temperature of the time islands and on the Antarctic Peninsula. The
water, and its salt content also drops appreciably. gentoo usually breeds on the sub-Antarctic islands.
Ocean currents running along the ocean’s floor The gentoos number about 600,000.
from the Northern Hemisphere to the Antarctic
Ocean carry small bits of sediment they encounter A Hydrologic Discovery
on their way south. This sediment, rich in nutrients, Russian scientists at the Vostok Research Station,
ends up in the upper layers of the frigid Antarctic 625 miles (1,000 km.) from the geographic South
between 50 degrees and 60 degrees south latitude. Pole, have done pioneering studies of the microor-
The warm water currents rise, as heat does, pushing ganisms found in deep ice core samples. They were
the colder Antarctic waters deep into the sea, where retrieved by instruments developed in Russia that
they continue as cold, deep-water currents. bring samples up with no contamination. Some of
the ice in these samples is more than 400 million
Hydrology and Animal Life years old and reveals extremely interesting infor-
Antarctica’s hydrology supports the animal life mation about the microorganisms that existed then
found on the continent. The Antarctic Ocean has an and the chemical composition of their environ-
abundance of plankton and crustaceans. The Ant- ments.
arctic Ocean’s murky, gray-green color is caused by Even more interesting is the discovery in 1996,
the presence of microorganisms that make its wa- while deep core ice samples were being taken, of a
ters nutritionally rich. Fish and mammals, particu- huge liquid lake that exists under 2 miles (3.2 km.)
larly seals and whales, abound in the Antarctic
waters, although whale hunting has brought some
species of whales to the verge of extinction. The
strong surface winds that blow from out of the west, Scientists use special drills to remove samples of ice
from deep within the Antarctic ice cap. These ice
often cyclonic in their speed and intensity, cause the
cores hold clues to the earth’s climate and environ-
surface water to move rapidly from west to east ment, dating from the present to hundreds of thou-
around the continent. sands of years ago. As each snowflake forms and
Antarctica has a variety of birds. Some, like the falls, it acquires a tiny sample of the atmosphere’s
blue-eyed shag and various species of gulls and al- chemistry and is compressed into ice by the weight
batrosses, come during the long summer to mate; a of successive snowfalls. The ice preserves a record of
the conditions that existed when it was formed, such
few, such as snow petrels, stay in Antarctica through
as traces of past volcanic eruptions, lightweight pol-
the long winter, sometimes continuing to sit on len grains blown by winds, and air bubbles. When
their eggs despite being covered by snow almost up the sources of the pollen can be identified, knowl-
to their beaks. The best-known animals of edge about the plants’ present requirements for
Antarctica are the penguins, which move about eas- growth give hints about past climates. When air bub-
ily on its slippery surfaces, dive into its frigid waters bles are analyzed, chemists can determine changes
in the percentages of different gases such as carbon
to catch the fish that constitute the major part of
dioxide and methane, both linked to possible
their diet, and generally delight people who watch climate change.
them. The penguin lacks the ability to fly, but the

50
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography and Hydrology of Antarctica

of glacial ice. This lake is presumably pristine, and

efforts are being made to keep it from contamina-
tion of any sort. The ice cover directly above it will
not be breached until there is evidence that the lake
can be opened without the risk of contamination.
Scientists involved in this project compare this
hydrologic find to the possibility of finding water or
ice on Mars or slush on Jupiter’s moon Europa,
which could be possible in the not-too-distant fu-
ture. The ice in a core drilled in Antarctica in 2017
was found to be 2.7 million years old, much older
French, Soviet, and American scientists in the Vostok team photo with
than the previous oldest specimen. The ice’s analy- unprocessed ice cores. (NOAA)
sis by scientists from Princeton University discov-
ered the presence of greenhouse-gas bubbles. our atmosphere in nearly the concentration found
These finding may help scientists determine how in the deep ice core samples.
the ice ages came to occur. Because of the harsh climatic conditions in
These and other experiments and discoveries Antarctica, scientists still know relatively little about
pose interesting puzzles to be solved. In the deep the continent’s composition and about what lies be-
ice core samples, along with the elements one neath its surface. With year-around research sta-
would expect to find—oxygen, nitrogen, and car- tions being operated by several countries on
bon—are large quantities of antimony, a highly Antarctica, this information gap could eventually
toxic heavy element that is not currently found in decrease or even disappear.
R. Baird Shuman

Q1. How do scientists describe the terrain of

Antarctica? How did the continent come to be covered
by ice? How much of Earth’s freshwater supply is con-
tained in Antarctic ice?

Q2. What are the dry valleys of Antarctica? Why do

they lack ice?

Q3. How do geographers define the Antarctic Ocean?

Why are its waters noted for their greenish color?
What is the significance of the Antarctic Circle?

51
 Physiography and Hydrology
of Australia

Australia is the only country in the world that occu- most tip, Cape York, reaches a point only 10 de-
pies an entire continent by itself. Australia’s area of grees south of the equator. Australia’s southern-
2.97 million square miles (7.7 million sq. km.), most point, located on the island of Tasmania, is
which includes the island of Tasmania, is about the South East Cape. It reaches 43 degrees south lati-
same size as the forty-eight contiguous states of the tude. Australia extends farther south than the Afri-
continental United States, making it the world’s can continent, but not as far south as South America
sixth-largest country. or New Zealand. The distance between Cape York
The Tropic of Capricorn runs through the center and South East Cape is 2,285 miles (3,680 km.).
of Australia, placing the northern half of the coun- Australia’s most easterly point is Cape Byron in
try within the tropics. The continent’s northern- New South Wales, at 153 degrees east latitude. Its

The Pinnacles Desert. (Iurii Ostakhov)

53
Physiography and Hydrology of Australia Physical Geography

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA

Torres Straight

Timor Sea Darwin Gulf Cape York G

Peninsula
of r
Arnhem Carpentaria

D rysd a l e

ea
Or
Land M i tc h

t
Lake ell

Ba
Argyle t
Indian

Gi

rr
Kimberley

a rd
ie
Fi

z r Plateau

lb
rt r R
Gr

L e ich
oy

No n
t

e
Ocean R iv e m
e e
Pa c i f i c

F li
r
r an
De

Mount Isa de
am re y Great Sandy

+
rs Ocean

at
G

ef
As

Great
H

b u Ran ers
Ri Desert Central

Di
ver Artesian Basin
h

g le
Ga s co y to n e y
r Lowlands

vid

ge
ne Tropic of Capricorn

e ange
Uluru

an
Mu r Western Gibson Desert (Ayers Rock)

ngland R
+
Steep ch i

ty G nge
so n

Ra rey R
Point Plateau Lake Eastern
ria D eser t Brisbane

Ra
Da

a t Victo Lake Eyre Highlands

e

ng
r
rlin

G Torrens r Cape Byron

ers
ive

wE
Plain Lake gR
gR

r bor ind
rlin

Ne
lla Gairdner
Nu
ange

Perth of
Fl

.L yRiver
Da
rra
Mt

s.
Great

Mt
Mu
Australian Sydney

lue
Adelaide Canberra

+B
Bight Australian
Alps Tasman Sea
Melbourne Mt. Kosciuszko
Mount Ossa
+

South East Cape

most westerly tip is Steep Point in Western Australia continent rises more than 3,281 feet (1,000 meters)
(113 degrees east). The east-to-west distance across above sea level.
Australia is 2,484 miles (4,000 km.)—roughly The history of Australian landscapes has been
equivalent to the distance between the East and traced back to the Permian period, over 280 million
West Coasts of the United States. years ago. At that time a huge ice cap covered most
of the continent. After the ice melted, central parts
Landforms and Physiographic Regions of the continent had sunk so much that they were
The landforms of Australia are millions of years old. covered by shallow seas. There sediments were laid
They have evolved as a result of unique physical cir- down that became sedimentary rocks. By the Creta-
cumstances and have influenced the patterns of ceous period, over 100 million years ago, seas rose
flora and fauna on the Australian continent. They over the flat land, separating Australia into three
continue to affect the human geography of this part distinct sections of land.
of the world. Australia is not only the world’s small- Many Australian rocks contain fossils of very
est continent, it is also the flattest. It has few moun- large animals, both land and marine creatures. In
tains, and those it does have are comparatively other basins, deposits developed that later formed
small. The continent’s average elevation is 1,085 coal, oil, and natural gas fields. These features show
feet (330 meters) above sea level. More than a third that the climate was warm and quite wet for long pe-
of the continent lies below 656 feet (200 meters) in riods of geologic history.
elevation. The low-lying regions are mostly narrow The extreme aridity now characteristic of interior
coastal plains and interior lowlands. Half of Austra- Australia is thought to be, in geologic terms, rela-
lia is between 650 and 1,640 feet (200 and 500 me- tively recent, occurring between 10 million and 55
ters) above sea level. Less than 1 percent of the million years ago, during the Tertiary period, as the

54
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography and Hydrology of Australia

continent moved northward from its earlier posi- More than half of the continent is part of the great
tion in the Antarctic. The Indo-Australian Plate is Western Plateau. This plateau covers all of Western
still moving northward, but very slowly—at a rate of Australia and most of South Australia and the
about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) per year. Northern Territory and has an average elevation of
984 feet (300 meters).
Volcanism The plateau contains great expanses of desert.
Queensland is an area of relatively recent volcanic ac- Some of the world’s oldest rocks—over 3 billion
tivity, as is the Western District of Victoria. Although years old—are found in western Australia in the
there are no active volcanoes in Australia, there are area known as the Australian Shield. The size and
lava flows and other signs of volcanic activity, dating shape of the continent have changed greatly
from the Tertiary period to as recently as 5,000 years throughout Earth’s history. Over 200 million years
ago at Mount Gambier. Australia’s island neigh- ago, it was part of the supercontinent Pangaea.
bors—New Zealand, New Guinea, and Indone- Around 100 million years ago, it started to separate
sia—all have active volcanoes, as they are located at from Antarctica and to move northward.
the boundaries of tectonic plates. Australia, by con- The Great Sandy Desert, the Gibson Desert, and
trast, is located centrally on the Indo-Australian Plate. the Great Victoria Desert occupy much of the West-
ern Plateau. Huge fields of longitudinal sand
Western Plateau dunes, aligned in the direction of the prevailing
Australia can be divided into three fairly distinct winds, cover parts of these deserts. A great part of
physiographic regions: the Western Plateau, the these deserts has a stony surface covering called
Central Lowlands, and the Eastern Highlands. reg, known in Australia as “gibber plains.”

The Bungle Bungle Range in the Purnululu National Park in Western Australia. (W. Bulach)

55
Physiography and Hydrology of Australia Physical Geography

Around the continent’s ocean edges the Western man, Gilbert, and Mitchell. In the center of the
Plateau is rimmed by escarpments. The most inter- Lowlands is the Lake Eyre basin, where the streams
esting of these is the Nullarbor Plain. The word of the western Queensland Channel Country drain
“Nullarbor” is from the Latin meaning “no trees” — to the lowest point on the Australian continent,
a fitting name for this treeless limestone area with Lake Eyre. That lake’s surface is 50 feet (15 meters)
no surface streams but many underground caves. Its below sea level and covers almost 3,861 square
rocks were a seafloor about 25 million years ago. miles (10,000 sq. km.). This salt lake is normally dry,
Since then the area has been uplifted to form the although it has filled occasionally during strong La
present landscape. Nina years. Other large salt pans, or salinas, in
At the southeastern edge of the Western Plateau South Australia are Lake Torrens and Lake
are the Flinders and Mount Lofty ranges, a series of Gairdner.
fault-block mountains. They have an unusually dis- Many Australian rivers are intermittent, contain-
tinctive appearance and are sometimes called the ing water only for a short period each year. In the
Shatter Belt. Most of these mountains are about dry period, they shrink to a series of waterholes, or
3,281 feet (1,000 meters) high and contain some billabongs, and sometimes a river is only a sandy
very old rocks. Two places in the Western Plateau bed for very long periods.
are rich in minerals—the goldfield area around The third basin of the Central Lowlands is occu-
Kalgoorlie in Western Australia and the Mount Isa pied by Australia’s largest and most important river
area in western Queensland, where copper and lead system, the Murray-Darling. The Murray River is
are mined. over 1,560 miles (2,500 km.) long and forms part of
A few mountains and smaller plateaus rise above the New South Wales-Victoria border. The Darling
the generally flat landscape of the Western Plateau. and its tributaries, known as the Upper Darling, are
In the west is the Hamersley Range, from which a another 1,767 miles (2,884 km.) in length. One
number of rivers flow west to the Indian Ocean: the tributary of the Darling, the Macintyre River, forms
De Grey, Fortescue, Ashburton, Gascoyne, and part of the New South Wales-Queensland border.
Murchison. Although the Murray-Darling drainage basin
In the northwest is the Kimberley Plateau, from covers 386,000 square miles (1 million sq. km.), or
which the Fitzroy River flows west, and the Drysdale about one-seventh of the continent, its discharge of
and Ord flow north to the Timor Sea. In the Northern water is small. Because of climatic variability, it is
Territory, the Victoria, Daly and Roper are important also extremely variable. Nevertheless, during the
rivers. The rugged areas of Arnhem Land and the nineteenth century the Murray River was used as a
MacDonnell Ranges are prominent higher areas, as waterway on which a steamboat trade flourished.
are the Musgrave Ranges in South Australia. Today, large dams, weirs, and barrages make water
In the center of Australia is one of the world’s fa- available for farming throughout the Murray-Mur-
mous landforms, Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock. rumbidgee agricultural area.
This sandstone monolith rises 1,132 feet (345 meters)
above the very flat surrounding plains, and covers 1.3 Artesian Water
square miles (3.3 sq. km.). To the east, the Western Although the interior of Australia is extremely arid,
Plateau slopes down into the Central Lowlands, a se- it contains a valuable resource in the form of
ries of three basins running from the Gulf of groundwater. This is the Great Artesian Basin, the
Carpentaria to the South Australia-Victoria border. world’s largest aquifer, or reservoir of underground
water. The Great Artesian Basin stretches under the
Central Lowlands Central Lowlands, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to
The northernmost basin of the Central Lowlands northern New South Wales and South Australia,
drains to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Long rivers here covering an area of 656,000 square miles (1.7 mil-
include the Leichhardt, Cloncurry, Flinders, Nor- lion sq. km.) and containing over 7 million acre feet

56
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography and Hydrology of Australia

An artesian bore in Queensland, Australia. (JohnCarnemolla)

(8,700 million megaliters) of water. The intake beds Eastern Highlands

for the basin are located along the western slopes of Running the length of the east coast, from Cape York
the Eastern Highlands. Because artesian water is in the north to Melbourne in the southeast, are the
under pressure, it rises to the surface without need- Eastern Highlands. These uplands also continue on
ing to be pumped via boreholes drilled to an aver- to the island of Tasmania. This area was uplifted dur-
age depth of about 1,640 feet (500 meters). ing the Tertiary period, between 2 million and 65
Artesian water is warm, contains minerals, and is million years ago. It is also known as the Great Divid-
suitable for animals to drink. ing Range, a misleading term, as much of the high-
The discovery of the Central Lowland’s artesian land consists only of tablelands and plateaus.
water in the 1870s prompted a great expansion of Moreover, there are many different ranges, ridges,
cattle and sheep farming, especially in Queensland. and mountains within the Eastern Highlands.
These developments created two new problems. The Eastern Highlands do, however, form a true
Native plant species began declining because of the divide, separating the short rivers flowing across
overgrazing of cattle and sheep. This in turn led to a the coastal plains to the Pacific Ocean from the
decline in the number of native animal species. The rivers that flow inland. Rainfall is plentiful, so these
drilling of thousands of bores to tap the under- streams are permanent, and they have provided the
ground water—many of which flow without restric- initial sites for the founding of Australia’s cities.
tion—severely decreased the water’s flow. Hun- Near their headwaters, waterfalls and gorges are
dreds of bores have dried up. Recharge is lower common. Some of the longer coastal rivers are the
than demand, so attempts are now being made to Burdekin and Fitzroy in Queensland and the
conserve the water of the Great Artesian Basin and Hunter River at Newcastle, which is the heart of a
to reduce or prevent environmental damage. wine-growing district.

57
Physiography and Hydrology of Australia Physical Geography

The steep cliffs and slopes on the eastern side of formidable barrier to the early European settlers in
this region form a long escarpment, running from the British colony of New South Wales. The explor-
Queensland to Victoria, with a gentle slope on the ers Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson, and Wil-
western side, down over the interior plains. The liam Charles Wentworth crossed the mountains in
coastal plains lying between the Pacific Ocean and 1813 and discovered the wonderful grasslands of
the Eastern Highlands are as narrow as 31 miles (50 the interior, which became sheep pastures. As later
km.) in some places and as wide as 497 miles (800 explorers ventured into the strange new environ-
km.) in others. In Queensland, the highest peak is ment they were often deceived by misinformation
Mount Bartle Frere, which rises only to 5,285 feet and preconceived ideas.
(1,611 meters). The New England Tableland of A myth that a great river flowed to a large inland
northern New South Wales is one of Australia’s sea persisted into the 1840s, when Thomas Mitch-
coldest environments. The Atherton Tableland in ell, the surveyor-general of New South Wales, trav-
north Queensland has a cool climate, enabling eled into central Queensland along what is now
dairying, even though it is within a tropical region. called the Barcoo River. In 1861 Robert Burke and
William John Wills died at Cooper Creek, after
Exploration crossing Australia from Melbourne to the Gulf of
The Blue Mountains, on the inland side of Sydney, Carpentaria without finding any major rivers or
are not a high escarpment, but are highly dissected lakes. Ludwig Leichhardt discovered the Burdekin
and quite rugged. For this reason, they presented a River in 1845 during an epic journey from the Dar-

The Murray River in Western Australia. (Calistemon)

58
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography and Hydrology of Australia

MAJOR WATERSHEDS OF AUSTRALIA

G r
Timor Sea Da Gulf
a

e
of

ly
Ri
Vict o v e r Carpentaria

t
Coral Sea

D rysd a l e
Or

B a
M i tc h

r ia
ell

d
Lake t

Gi
Indian

r r
Argyle

a rd
ie
Fi

lb
zr rt

No n

e
L e ich
oy
t

Ocean R iv e m r

F li
r
r an
De

de
Fo

rs
sc u re y R Great Pa c i f i c

R
G
As

rte

ee
bu e R ive Artisian Basin
h

r ive r Ocean

f
Ga s co yn t o n r Lake Eyre
Channel
e Western Plateau Basin
Mur (Desert) Country
ch Lake
is o
n Eyre
Lake
Torrens
r
Lake ive
Gairdner gR
rlin
yRiver
Da
Great rra
Mu
Australian

Snowy
Bight
Tasman Sea

Tasmania

ling Downs to Port Essington, near modern Darwin During the Quaternary period, over a million
in the Northern Territory. On another expedition, years ago, Earth experienced its most recent ice
three years later, his party vanished in the central age. Huge areas of North America, Asia, and Eu-
Queensland desert. rope were covered by ice, which advanced and re-
treated numerous times. Like the northern conti-
Mountains nents, Australia also experienced glaciation, which
Australia’s ten tallest mountains all stand in an area left glacial lakes and other typical features in Tas-
of the Eastern Highlands known as the Australian mania. A small part of the Australian Alps also was
Alps, near the border between New South Wales affected by this glaciation. At this time too, sea level
and Victoria. The tallest of these is Mount was some 330 feet (100 meters) lower than at pres-
Kosciuszko, which is only 7,310 feet (2,229 meters) ent; what is now the continental shelf was part of the
high. In comparison, the world’s highest mountain, mainland. The Great Barrier Reef now marks this
Mount Everest, is four times higher than outer edge. Three parts of the Eastern Highlands
Kosciuszko. Covered with snow during the winter have been designated World Heritage Sites—the
months, the alps are the source of important rivers. Wet Tropics of Queensland; the Central Eastern
Rainforest Reserves; and the Tasmanian Wilder-
Eastern Highlands and Tasmania ness. The Great Barrier Reef is a marine World
On Australia’s mainland, the Eastern Highlands end Heritage Site.
in the Grampians of western Victoria. The rugged
mountains of Tasmania form the southernmost por- Water Resources
tion of the Eastern Highlands. Much of the island is a The flat topography of Australia affects rainfall, be-
plateau, while the island’s tallest peak is Mount Ossa cause there are no high mountain barriers to block
which rises to 5,305 feet (1,618 meters). winds and produce what is called orographic rain-

59
Physiography and Hydrology of Australia Physical Geography

fall. Australia’s drainage patterns are clearly the re- practical. The availability of water resources has
sult of topography. The main divide of the Eastern been a major influence on human settlement pat-
Highlands separates the moist coastal plains from terns throughout Australia’s history, and has re-
the dry basin and plains of the interior. Most per- sulted in the concentration of population around
manent streams in densely populated areas have the moist east, southeast, and far southwest coastal
their flows regulated by dams, creating surface stor- areas. The percentage of the population living in
age in artificial lakes and reservoirs. A drawback to rural areas declined from 43 percent in 1911 to 14
this is that large amounts of water are lost to surface percent in 2020. Less than 4 percent of Australian
evaporation. workers were employed in agriculture, forestry, and
Permanent streams in the unpopulated north are fishing in 2020.
too remote for development to be economically Ray Sumner

Q1. How does Australia compare in size to the

United States? What island lies off Australia’s south-
east coast? What country lies closest to Australia?

Q2. What three distinct physiographic regions

make up Australia? Where are Australia’s vast
deserts? In what part of Australia are the highest
mountains found?

Q3. What is the Great Artesian Basin? How large is

it? What does it contain? Why has the Basin become
a matter of concern to Australian conservationists?

60
 Physiography of the
Pacific Islands

Most islands of the Pacific Ocean are located be- feet west. The north-to-south extent is from Midway
tween the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. While Islands in the north at 28 degrees 13 feet north lati-
there are some large islands, most are quite small in tude and longitude 177 degrees 22 feet west, to New
size and population and poor in natural resources, Zealand in the south, with the southernmost tip of
but thanks to beautiful tropical landscapes, are con- the southern island at 47 degrees south latitude and
ducive to travel and tourism. New Zealand is larger longitude 168 degrees east — more than 1,000
than all but Papua New Guinea, and is located south miles (1,600 km.) southeast of Australia.
of the main island region, yet its indigenous popu-
lation, the Maori, is similar to some island peoples Physiographic Regions
in cultural and physical characteristics; thus, it is Three physiographic regions define the Pacific Is-
included in the Pacific Island region. lands and New Zealand. The first is Melanesia
The west-to-east extent of the Pacific island re- (“dark islands” in Greek), which includes the cultur-
gion stretches from Palau in the west, at 7 degrees ally rich peoples of Papua New Guinea, the Solo-
30 feet north latitude and longitude 134 degrees 30 mon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and Fiji.
feet east, to Easter Island in the east, at 28 degrees These islands are diverse both physically and cul-
10 feet south latitude and longitude 109 degrees 30 turally. They are primarily mountainous, but differ

A volcanic island in Tonga, Polynesia. (Janos)

61
Physiography of the Pacific Islands Physical Geography

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

R HAWAIIAN
I C O N ISLANDS
M E
PH
P
NORTHERN S O
ILIP

Philippine MARIANAS I Caribbean Sea

Sea GUAM FEDERA MARSHALL A L
PINES

F MIC TED ISLANDS

O
RON ST
PALAU ESI ATE
A

Y
S
PAPUA NAURU EQUATOR

N
K
NEW SO I R
GUINEA I T I `
Galapagos
IS LOM B A

E
L
A O
INDONE IA N
TOKELAU MARQUESAS
S D TUVALU

N
ISLANDS ISLANDS

S
FR
S
ur a S ea
ra f M
A SAMOA AMERICAN

EN
Bougainville

ND S
Timor
VA

I
WALLIS
SAMOA
E

NU
AND FUTUNA

C
Sea Cora l S PO
L

ea
ATU

LA

A
FIJI NIUE LY
A

NES
Tahiti IA

IS
TONGA Tropic of Capricorn
N

NEW K
AUSTRALIA CALEDONIA O
CO PITCAIRN
E

ISLAND EASTER
S

I So ISLAND
A uth
Great Canberra
Sydney Pacifi
Australian c Ocea n
Ta

Auckland
Bight m
s

an Wellington
Sea
NEW ZEALAND

greatly in size. Papua New Guinea is by far the larg- only about 3,189 square miles (8,260 sq. km.). The
est at 178,704 square miles (462,840 sq. km.). All largest island is Tahiti at 402 square miles (1,041 sq.
Melanesian territories are large by Pacific stan- km.).
dards, which gives them relatively more regional
and international political influence. Landforms
The second region, Micronesia (from the Greek The landforms of the Pacific Islands and New Zea-
for “little islands”), consists of more than 2,000 land are divided into high islands and low islands or
coral atolls and volcanic islands scattered across the atolls. They are primarily volcanic in nature and
western Pacific, primarily north of the equator. The geologically fairly young. The high islands are
main island groups are the Federated States of Mi- mountainous and spectacularly scenic, with steep
cronesia; Palau; Kiribati; the Mariana Islands, in- slopes and peaks of 3,300 to 13,000 feet (1,000 to
cluding Guam; the Marshall Islands; and Nauru. 4,000 meters), but with great local variations in ele-
Although covering an ocean area larger than the vation, slope, soil, rainfall, and plant life. Papua
continental United States, the islands of Micronesia New Guinea, for example, is dominated by exten-
have a combined land area of only 271 square miles sive, east-west trending volcanic mountain ranges
(702 sq. km.) Fewer than 100 of these resource-poor separated by rugged, elevated plateaus and bor-
islands are inhabited. dered by coastal lowlands.
Polynesia (from the Greek for “many islands”), The Hawaiian Islands, on the other hand, con-
the third region, is vast in terms of sea area, cover- tain several more classic-looking shield volcanoes,
ing the largest expanse of ocean. A triangular shape relatively gently sloping mountains produced from
defines the area, with the Hawaiian Islands in the numerous fluid lava flows, and rimmed at the top by
north, New Zealand in the south, and Easter Island volcanic cones that reveal the inner core of the vol-
to the east. Polynesia also includes French Polyne- cano. All larger islands of Melanesia and several
sia, and the smaller political states of Tonga, Polynesian islands are volcanic high islands.
Tuvalu, Cook Islands, and Samoa. Excluding New The low islands are generally quite small and
Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the total land lacking in vital resources such as fertile soils and
area of these small island groups, or archipelagos, is drinking water; therefore, they are sparsely popu-

62
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography of the Pacific Islands

lated. Coral reefs, sandy beaches, and co-

conut palms, typical of a picturesque is-
land paradise, characterize the low
islands. These islands, called atolls, are
made of broken pieces of coral and usu-
ally form an irregular ring around a la-
goon, with the coral pieces separated by
channels leading into the lagoon.
The world’s largest atoll, Kwajalein, in
Micronesia’s Marshall Islands, is 75 miles
(120 km.) long and 15 miles (24 km.)
wide. Polynesia, Micronesia, and parts of
Melanesia are dotted with extensive atoll
systems. Some major archipelagos, such
as the Marshall Islands in Micronesia and
Tuamotu in Polynesia, are composed
entirely of atolls.
New Zealand consists of two large is-
lands, North Island and South Island,
plus several small islands. Cook Strait
separates North and South Island. The
two main islands are rugged in terrain.
North Island primarily comprises high
volcanoes, many exceeding 5,000 feet
(1,500 meters), and a central highland
plateau; South Island is formed of a
range of high mountains, called the
Southern Alps, and an eastern lowland The Waikite Geyser in New Zealand. (Janos)
plain.
The highest and most rugged moun- continental plate collided with the Pacific
tains are found on the western side of the South Is- continental plate, a series of mountain ranges
land. Aoraki/Mount Cook is New Zealand’s highest formed in Papua New Guinea, extending across the
peak, cresting at more than 12,000 feet (3,660 me- Solomon Islands to Vanuatu and New Caledonia,
ters). The Southern Alps/Ka Tiritiri o te Moana is and down to New Zealand to form a mountainous
one of the world’s most visually spectacular moun- island chain or arc.
tain ranges, complete with high mountain glaciers Most of the islands of Polynesia and Micronesia
and steep, narrow, fjord-like valleys that cut into originated from volcanic activity on the ocean floor
much of South Island’s isolated western coast. without any geologic connection to continental
landmasses. These volcanic islands are formed by
Geologic History oceanic crust sliding over a hot spot in Earth’s man-
Island geology varies across the Pacific Island re- tle where molten magma (hot liquid rock), relatively
gion. The high islands were formed by undersea close to the crust, rises and cools to form new volca-
volcanic or tectonic mountain-building activity. nic islands. The Hawaiian Islands, the largest and
The large islands of Melanesia, along with New Zea- youngest of the Pacific’s high islands, are an excel-
land, are composed of continental rock and are geo- lent example with several young, active, and re-
logically quite complex. When the Indian cently active volcanoes rising to more than 13,000

63
Physiography of the Pacific Islands Physical Geography

feet (3,960 meters). Many French Polynesian is- deposit the coral on adjacent sections of the reef to
lands are smaller examples of high volcanic islands. form narrow sandy islands. An atoll, therefore,
In tropical latitudes, most high islands are ringed comprises the combination of circular or
by coral reefs that quickly establish themselves in oval-shaped barrier coral reefs, narrow sandy is-
the shallow waters near the shore. lands, and shallow central lagoons. The nineteenth
High islands are limited in geologic lifespan. Vol- century scientist Charles Darwin was the originator
canic activity gradually decreases, and the volca- or this explanation for the geologic formation of
noes eventually become extinct. These high islands atolls.
slowly subside or sink, and erode away to begin for-
mation of low island atolls. After a few hundred Volcanism
years, only a few low peaks, called seamounts, or un- Most of the Pacific Islands have a volcanic core that
derwater volcanoes, may rise out of a shallow, developed from eruptions of lava deep beneath the
reef-rimmed lagoon. Eventually, even remnant ocean floor during tectonic movement of the Pacific
peaks erode away, leaving only the reef surrounding Plate. Much of Melanesia and Polynesia, including
the lagoon. Reefs tend to persist because they are New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, are part of
composed of living organisms that constantly create the seismically active Pacific Rim of Fire, so named
new coral, even as the island base subsides. Atoll for its geologic development through undersea
formation continues as large waves periodically mountain building from “hot spots” beneath the
break off and crush large pieces of coral, and then ocean crust. The North Island of New Zealand, for

An aerial view of the Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. (Matt Kleffer)

64
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Physiography of the Pacific Islands

Volcanic eruptions and related earthquakes and tsunamis, or seismically induced sea waves, are common events
across the Pacific Island region, and they impose major environmental hazards upon its inhabitants. A summary of
recent notable volcanic activity in the Pacific Islands region follows.

1774: Mount Yasur on Tanna Island, Vanuatu, erupts continually for centuries, into 2020.

1832-1984: Hawaii’s Mauna Loa erupts thirty-nine times.

1983-2018: Hawaii’s Mount Kilauea erupts continually during this period.

1994: Eruptions and earthquakes on Papua New Guinea’s island of New Britain force more than 100,000 people
from their homes, destroying Rabaul and nearby villages.

1995: New Zealand’s Mount Ruapehu erupts.

1995: Mariana Islands’ Mount Ruby, a prominent, active submarine volcano, erupts.

1995: Tonga’s Metis Shoal (also known as Lateiki) erupts, forming a new island.

1996: Mount Loihi, the youngest volcano in the Hawaiian chain, erupts, followed by a swarm of more than 4,000
earthquakes.

2000: Papua New Guinea’s Mount Bagana, on Bougainville Island, begins a continual eruption that lasts into 2020.

2005: Mount Manaro, on Vanuatu’s Ambae Island, erupts, leading to the relocation of 3,300 residents on the island.

2012: New Zealand’s Mount Tongariro erupts twice.

2014: Mount Manam, off the northern coast of Papua New Guinea, begins a continual eruption that includes explo-
sive eruptions in 2019.

2014: Papua New Guinea’s Mount Tavurvur, which destroyed Rabaul in 1994, erupts again.

2017: Tinakula in the Solomon Islands emits an ash explosion that drifts to nearby inhabited islands, covering crops
and contaminating water supplies. A small population around the volcano was previously evacuated in 1971.

2017: Vanuatu’s Mount Manaro erupts again, this time leading to the total evacuation of the island.

2018: The Vanuatu island of Ambrym erupts, draining active lava lakes in both the Benbow and Marum craters.

2018: Kadovar, an island volcano north of Papua New Guinea, erupts prompting the evacuation of residents and
changing the morphology of the south east side of the island.

2018: Tinakula in the Solomon Islands begins a continual eruption that lasts into 2020.

2019: Mount Ulawun in Papua New Guinea erupts, forcing the evacuation of more than 5,000 people.

2019: New Zealand’s Whakaari/White Island erupts with forty seven people on the island, killing twenty one.

2019: Tonga’s Metis Shoal (Lateiki) erupts again, forming a new island larger than the previous one.

example, contains several volcanic peaks and geo- structed of five major volcanoes: Kilauea, Mauna
thermal features as a result of volcanic formation. Loa, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, and Kohala.
The Hawaiian Islands were produced by the Ha-
waiian hot spot, presently located under the “Big Is- Hydrology
land” of Hawaii. Each island has at least one primary Many Pacific Islands are located in a tropical wet/dry
volcano, although many islands are composites of climate region where abundant rains and tropical cy-
more than one. The Big Island, for instance, is con- clones can bring heavy seasonal precipitation. High

65
Physiography of the Pacific Islands Physical Geography

islands are particularly noted for their heavy rainfall, abundant precipitation, with local variations within
with frequent snows on the higher peaks (13,000 the rain shadows of east-facing slopes. Moderate
feet/3,960 meters). Drainage patterns are estab- marine weather keeps year-round temperatures
lished in mountainous terrain according to rock type fairly warm, causing glaciers to flow on both islands.
and slope steepness. Steep, volcanic slopes erode The glaciers, lakes, and mountain streams of the
easily during heavy rains, developing deep drainage highland regions provide plenty of freshwater for
channels that transport rainwater to lands below. New Zealand’s population. Rugged terrain and
Major populations are located in the coastal lowland heavy precipitation in the Southern Alps and
regions and urban areas of the high islands where mountainous core of the North Island limit high-
freshwater is abundant. Inhabitants of the highlands land settlement. The well-populated areas are re-
have ample freshwater as well. stricted to the fringing lowlands of the North Island
Low-lying atolls have significantly less precipita- and along the drier east and south coasts of the
tion than high islands, and limited water storage ca- South Island where freshwater flows naturally from
pacity as well; thus, they often experience water the highlands.
shortages. When it does rain, small “lenses” of Island hydrology also provides transportation
freshwater often float above the salt water. In dry routes for human settlement. In some high islands,
periods, the salt water in the center of each sandy is- rugged terrain and lack of roads make canoe travel
land quickly depletes the stores of freshwater. Lim- by navigable river a necessity. The large and power-
ited availability of fresh water limits human settle- ful Fly and Sepik rivers of Papua New Guinea, for
ment on the low islands and atolls. Most freshwater example, are widely used as travel and trade routes
must be imported to support inhabitants of atolls. between villages in these southern and northern
New Zealand’s highlands lie in the Southern coastal regions, respectively.
Hemisphere belt of westerly winds and receive Laurie A. Garo

66
 Climatology of Antarctica

Antarctica is the coldest, windiest, driest continent around -22 degrees Fahrenheit (-30 degrees Celsius).
on Earth. The cold is so extreme that it is known as a By comparison, the temperature of the average
“heat sink,” because warm air masses flowing over home freezer is a mere +5 degrees Fahrenheit (-15
Antarctica quickly chill and lose altitude, affecting degrees Celsius).
the entire world’s weather. Most of Antarctica (98 The Antarctic Peninsula is the warmest part of
percent) is an ice cap with a few bare, rocky coastal ar- Antarctica. The summer temperature reached a
eas, dry valleys, and mountain peaks blown free of balmy 69.3 degrees Fahrenheit (20.72 degrees Cel-
snow by persistent winds. Annual precipitation on sius) in February 2020, though average tempera-
the ice cap is scant—between 1.25 and 3 inches (30 tures are much lower; the area received as much as
and 75 millimeters). The high-altitude central pla- 30 inches (760 millimeters) of annual precipitation.
teau is a frozen desert, with annual mean tempera- The temperatures of the islands ringing Antarctica,
tures between -58 and -76 degrees Fahrenheit (-50 warmed by the sea, range from a few degrees below
and -60 degrees Celsius)—identical to the average freezing up to around 37 degrees Fahrenheit (3 de-
surface temperature on the planet Mars. Even on a grees Celsius). These warmer regions are much
summer’s day at the South Pole, temperatures hover windier than the interior, however.

An icebreaker plying through Antarctic waters. (GentooMultimediaLimited)

67
Climatology of Antarctica Physical Geography

Antarctica holds the record for the coldest tem-

perature ever recorded on Earth: -128 degrees
Fahrenheit (-89 degrees Celsius), measured at the
Ozone is a molecule composed of three atoms of ox-
Russian research station of Vostok in July 1983. ygen instead of two. At the earth’s surface, it is one
Even colder temperatures could be measured at of the ingredients in smog. In the upper atmo-
higher elevations on mountain summits if record- sphere, however, ozone forms a protective chemical
ing devices were present, but Vostok is definitely the shield against deadly cosmic radiation. In 1981 at-
mospheric scientists became alarmed when Sep-
coldest inhabited place on Antarctica, partly be- tember and October (Antarctic springtime) ozone
cause of its location at what is called the Pole of Inac- readings over an area of Antarctica the size of the
cessibility, the point on the ice cap farthest inland continental United States registered 20 percent be-
from the ocean’s moderating influence. In addi- low normal. This drop in ozone coincided with the
increased presence in the upper atmosphere of arti-
tion, both its latitude (78 degrees south) and its ficial chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
altitude (11,320 feet/3,450 meters) are quite high. which contain chlorine, an element that destroys
Latitude and altitude both contribute to the con- ozone. The chlorine is released when ultraviolet
tinent’s extreme coldness. At such low tempera- light strikes CFC molecules in the upper atmo-
sphere. Each chlorine atom remains in the atmo-
tures, water sprayed into the air freezes before strik-
sphere an average of forty years, destroying tens of
ing the ground. Frozen water in the form of ice thousands of ozone molecules.
crystals suspended in the frigid atmosphere scatters The ozone hole began to develop over
light rays to create spectacular optical effects Antarctica because of the continent’s extremely cold
atmosphere. Polar stratospheric clouds, composed
unique to Antarctica. Among them are vertical sun
of ice particles containing water and nitrogen com-
pillars, ice and fog bows, haloes, arcs, multiple suns pounds, only occur when the air temperature drops
and moons, and mirages. During the Antarctic’s fall below -112 degrees Fahrenheit (-80 degrees Cel-
and winter months (March through September), sius). These clouds occur during the Antarctic win-
the sky is the scene of magnificent aurora displays ter when the cold air circulates in a swirling pattern
called the polar vortex at altitudes between 6 and 15
(aurora australis, or southern lights). miles (10 to 24 km.). The clouds persist throughout
Climate scientists have identified parts of central the long winter without any influx of air from
West Antarctica as among the fastest-warming areas warmer areas. The surfaces of their ice crystals store
on Earth. Some studies have linked ozone deple- chlorine compounds such as CFCs.
In the spring, the sun melts the ice crystals, free-
tion in the stratosphere over Antarctica as playing a
ing enormous amounts of chlorine to rapidly deplete
role in the continent’s climate change. At the same the ozone layer, thus creating the ozone hole. In the
time, it has been noted that in 2019, ozone deple- summer, warm air breaks up the polar vortex and re-
tion was at its lowest in thirty years. plenishes the ozone from other areas in the Southern
Hemisphere. Bubbles of the ozone hole can break
away, however, and drift north over populated areas.
High Latitude The long-term trend from 1980 to the early
The primary reason both polar regions are cold is 1990s was for the Antarctic hole to grow in both area
their high latitude. Earth is tilted on its axis, so the and depth. However, by the early 21st century the
annual holes stabilized, and scientists observed a 20
poles receive less of the Sun’s direct radiation than
percent decrease in ozone depletion from 2005 to
the lower latitudes do. Even in midsummer, the Sun 2016. The smallest hole recorded since 1982 was ob-
never rises very high above the horizon, so the air served in 2019, and models predict that the Antarc-
stays cool—like early morning or late afternoon in tic ozone layer will largely recover by 2040.
the temperate zones. The poles never experience
the heat of high noon. In addition, winters are long
and dark. At the Arctic Circle (66° 32¢ north lati- As latitude increases from the Arctic and Antarc-
tude) and the Antarctic Circle (66° 32¢ south lati- tic circles to the poles, the winter night lengthens
tude), the Sun does not rise above the horizon on until, at the poles, the Sun sets just once a year.
midwinter’s day. Once the last light fades, around March 21 at the

68
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Climatology of Antarctica

A dogsled team in the Antarctic. (ventdusud)

South Pole, the poles are left in darkness for half the that surround the Arctic Ocean heat up consider-
year with no direct solar warming at all. Although ably at that time of year and then radiate warm air
the Sun stays above the horizon for six months north. In addition, the dark waters absorb heat
when it finally returns in late September, the from the Sun, keeping them warmer than the sur-
warmth Antarctica receives in summer cannot make rounding snow-covered continents in winter. Warm
up for the heat it loses in winter. In fact, only at the currents flowing from the south also raise
height of summer (November and December in the temperatures there.
Southern Hemisphere) does the South Pole actually By contrast, the Antarctic is land surrounded by
gain heat by absorbing more solar radiation than it ocean. Land does not retain heat as well as water.
reflects away. The sea reflects back only about 5 percent of incom-
ing solar short-wave radiation into the atmosphere.
Solar Reflection Exposed land reflects between 15 and 35 percent
Antarctica actually receives about 7 percent more back. In the Antarctic, reflection from the land is in-
solar radiation annually than the Arctic because of tensified by the permanent mass of ice that covers
Earth’s elliptical orbit, bringing it closest to the Sun all but 2 percent of the surface. The ice cap reflects
in January, the height of the Southern Hemi- back up to 90 percent of the sunlight it receives in
sphere’s summer. However, the climate of the summer, so little heat can be absorbed. Because
Antarctica is much harsher and far colder than the it reflects away more total radiation than it absorbs,
climate of the Arctic. The Arctic is an ocean sur- it would get colder and colder if not for the struc-
rounded by land. The ice covering the Arctic Ocean ture of the atmosphere above Antarctica, which is
melts every summer, partly because the continents separated into three layers. The bottom and top

69
Climatology of Antarctica Physical Geography

layers transport cold air away from the continent. summer, but it is always there somewhere between
The middle layer is warm, moist air flowing in from 50 degrees and 60 degrees south latitude. These
temperate regions. As the water vapor in this layer ocean currents together form an effective barrier
condenses and freezes, it gives up its heat, provid- isolating Antarctica from the moderating influ-
ing a stabilizing influx of warm air. ences of currents and air masses from warmer
Like the Arctic Ocean, the ocean that surrounds latitudes.
Antarctica is warmer than the land, but it cannot act to
raise the land’s temperature much because it, too, is Wind and Altitude
blanketed most of the year by sea ice up to 6 feet (1.8 Another reason Antarctica is so cold is its high alti-
meters) thick, extending hundreds of miles out from tude. Higher altitudes are generally colder than
shore. About 6.2 million square miles (16 million sq. lower altitudes, and Antarctica has the highest aver-
km.) freeze and thaw every year, the biggest seasonal age altitude of any continent—8,039 feet (2,450
change to occur anywhere. When the southern ocean meters) because of its thick ice cap. By contrast,
freezes in winter, about 8 percent of the Southern most of the Arctic is at or near sea level.
Hemisphere is covered by ice. The pack ice almost Closer to shore, frigid winds are constantly blow-
doubles the size of the continent in winter and also re- ing down from the high altitudes of the ice cap be-
flects solar energy back into the atmosphere. cause the relatively warmer, lighter air flowing at
high altitudes over the interior quickly chills and
Ocean Currents sinks as it becomes colder and denser. These kata-
Pack ice around Antarctica deepens its frigid tem- batic, or gravity, winds gain power as they accelerate
peratures, not just by reflecting the Sun’s energy down the slopes of the ice cap toward the coast.
back into space but also by insulating the mainland Faster and stronger than any other winds on Earth,
as bags of ice do in a cooler. The sea ice also damp- they commonly travel at more than 50 miles (80
ens wave motion and creates downward-flowing km.) per hour and have been recorded reaching
ocean currents of cold, dense water that affect 186 miles (300 km.) per hour, more than twice the
ocean circulation. Powerful currents in the southern velocity of the average hurricane.
ocean flow around the entire globe unhindered by
land, generating huge waves, intense winds, and Aridity
powerful low-pressure weather systems. Antarctica Prevailing ocean currents and winds prevent moist
is surrounded by the planet’s stormiest seas — seas air masses from reaching Antarctica while the cold
so treacherous and wild that sailors call these lati- temperatures allow little evaporation to occur. As a
tudes the Roaring Forties, the Furious Fifties, and result, most of Antarctica experiences little precipi-
the Screaming Sixties. tation even though more than two-thirds of the
To add to the commotion, a current called the planet’s freshwater is locked in its frigid embrace.
Antarctic Convergence, a belt of water about 25 The explanation for this apparent contradiction is
miles (40 km.) wide, encircles Antarctica where the simply that the snow, too cold to melt, has been ac-
cold currents streaming away from the ice cap meet cumulating for millions of years. What appear to be
the warmer currents flowing south from the tropics, raging blizzards are actually like the sandstorms of
creating cold, wet, windy weather offshore. People the Sahara Desert. Most Antarctic snowfalls consist
sailing across the Antarctic Convergence can imme- not of flakes but of pellets of loose, already fallen
diately feel the difference when the air and sea tem- snow compacted into icy fragments that are then
peratures suddenly drop and mist appears. Its loca- blown about by the fierce winds.
tion shifts north every winter and south every Sue Tarjan

70
 Climatology of Australia

The dominant feature of Australia’s climate is its precipitation annually. Eighty percent of Australia
general aridity. Indeed, the continent is the world’s receives less than 23.6 inches (600 millimeters) of
driest. More than a third of its area has a hot desert rainfall annually.
climate. Another third has a semiarid climate. An-
nual precipitation throughout the continent aver- Sunshine and Heat
ages only 17.7 inches (450 millimeters). Thanks to The second important feature of the prevailing
the low rainfall, clear skies are characteristic of most Australian climate is its high temperatures. Indeed,
Australian weather. heat is such a pervasive part of Australian life that
virtually every Australian is familiar with Dorothea
Precipitation Zones McKellar’s poem “My Country,” which begins: “I
Australia’s precipitation zones can be visualized as love a sunburnt country.”
rings encircling the north, east, and south portions Almost all of Australia receives at least 3,000
of the continent. In the west the dry desert extends hours of sunshine every year. The central and west-
all the way to the coast. The outermost ring is the ern desert areas receive even more. Heat waves, or
wettest, receiving more than 31 inches (780 millime- successive days of temperatures over 104 degrees
ters) of rain a year. That ring encompasses the Fahrenheit (40 degrees Celsius), are frequent dur-
Kimberley, the northernmost region of Western Aus- ing summer months (December through March)
tralia; Arnhem Land, the northeastern corner of over much of inland Australia.
Northern Territory; and the entire east coast— from As a general rule, mean temperatures decrease as
Cape York to the South Australia border. It also in- one moves from the northwest to the southeast. Be-
cludes most of the island of Tasmania and a small tween Broome and Darwin on the west, average an-
section of the southwest corner of Western Australia. nual temperatures are around 82 degrees Fahren-
Inland, away from the imaginary outer rings, heit (28 degrees Celsius). Throughout the rest of
rainfall decreases sharply. A large area in the inte- tropical Australia (the northern half), annual aver-
rior receives less than 12 inches (300 millimeters) of age temperatures range between 70 and 79 degrees

A typically rainy scene in Tasmania. (Chris Ingham)

71
Climatology of Australia Physical Geography

CLIMATE REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA

Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical Savanna
Indian Steppe
Ocean

Tropic of Capricorn
Desert
Pa c i f i c
Ocean
Warm
Temperate

Great
Australian
Bight Marine West Coast
Mediterranean

Fahrenheit (21 and 26 degrees Celsius). Between above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees
Perth and Sydney, annual averages range between Celsius) on as many as 160 days a year.
59 and 68 degrees Fahrenheit (15 and 20 degrees
Celsius). Victoria and Tasmania experience annual Winds
average temperatures below 59 degrees Fahrenheit Because it straddles the Tropic of Capricorn, Aus-
(15 degrees Celsius). tralia is in the belt of subtropical highs, where dry
Australia’s coldest regions are in its southeastern descending air dominates the climate. During win-
corner: the Australian Alps—the only region where ter, large anticyclones, or highs, move across the
snow falls regularly—and in Tasmania. Frost is com- continent, from west to east. They move at a rate of
mon in winter in elevated areas of Australia, such as about 375 miles (600 km.) per day. Sometimes they
the Darling Downs and New England Tableland remain stationary over the interior for several days.
and throughout inland Victoria and Tasmania. At Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere, where
the opposite corner of the continent, in northwest- the direction of rotation of winds around subtropical
ern Australia, temperatures above 104 degrees cyclones is counterclockwise. This means that south-
Fahrenheit (40 degrees Celsius) are common east winds—the trade winds—influence northern
throughout the summer. The highest recorded tem- Australia, while the continent’s southern parts are af-
perature in Australia, 127.4 degrees Fahrenheit (53 fected by strong westerly winds. These winds are
degrees Celsius), was recorded at Cloncurry in west- called the “Roaring Forties” because they develop
ern Queensland, although this reading is now around 40 degrees south latitude. These cool, moist
widely disputed. The hottest inhabited place in winds and accompanying cold fronts and
Australia is the small settlement of Marble Bar in midlatitude cyclones deliver rainfall to the southern
Western Australia. There temperatures have risen part of Australia during the midyear winter.

72
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Climatology of Australia

The southwest corner of Western Australia re- droughts, as well as occasional flooding in the tropi-
ceives abundant winter rain—more than 23.6 cal parts, brought on by hurricanes.
inches (600 millimeters)—followed by intense sum- Temperatures vary greatly throughout this long
mer drought when the high pressure cells are far- region, from tropical conditions in the north to cool
ther south, producing dry easterly winds. This re- conditions in the south, where frosts are common
gion has a typical Mediterranean climate, similar to and winter precipitation falls as snow in the Austra-
southern California. Moving farther east, there is a lian Alps and in Tasmania, and even on the Blue
similar but drier region around Adelaide in South Mountains and the New England Tableland. Some
Australia, which also has a Mediterranean climate. patches of snow may remain through summer, but
In summer, when the highs move farther south- there are no permanent snowfields in Australia.
ward, the southern parts of Australia experience Seasonality of precipitation also varies, with north-
dry conditions, and heat waves are common. South- ern regions receiving more rain in summer, and the
east trade winds dominate the climate of southeast southernmost regions receiving a winter maximum.
and east Australia. This is the humid subtropical cli-
mate region, where temperatures are moderate and Rain Patterns
rain falls in every month. This type of climate is also Where the warm moist southeast trades meet
found in the eastern United States and in Western mountains close to the coast, orographic rainfall oc-
Europe, where most Australian immigrants came curs, making the small region of North Queensland
from in the nineteenth century. It is still the most from Ingham to Cooktown the wettest in Australia.
densely populated part of Australia, containing the This is a tropical wet or tropical rain forest climate.
two largest cities, Sydney and Melbourne. The rain- Annual rainfall totals exceed 157.2 inches (4,000
fall here is reliable, although there are occasional millimeters) in smaller towns like Tully and

An underground house in Coober Pedy, South Australia. (chameleonseye)

73
Climatology of Australia Physical Geography

Kids wearing Santa hats play on a beach in Australia. (Imgorthand)

Innisfail, while the tiny settlement of Deeral claims companied by dramatic thunderstorms to the
the record of over 275.1 inches (7,000 millimeters) northern coastal regions of Australia’s Northern
of rainfall per year. Only the mountainous western Territory, Queensland, and Western Australia.
coast of Tasmania has a similar rainfall, with around Darwin has more than seventy thunderstorm
137.6 inches (3,500 millimeters) annually. days per year. Since temperatures are high year-
The Snowy Mountains also receive over 117.9 round in the tropics, people of the Northern Terri-
inches (3,000 millimeters) of precipitation a year. tory describe their climate as having two seasons,
The record for the highest rainfall in Australia in a the wet and the dry. Tall tropical grasses thrive in
single year was recorded at Mount Bartle Frere in the wet summer, but dry out quickly during the rest
1979: 442 inches (11,227 millimeters). The weather of the year, when the wind comes from the opposite
station there also holds the record for the highest direction, bringing dry southwesterly winds from
rainfall in a twenty-four-hour period: 37.7 inches the arid heart of the continent. Evaporation is very
(960 millimeters). Temperature and humidity are high, and bushfires are common. These conditions
high in this region throughout the year. Tropical cy- are similar to those of Southern California’s Santa
clones are also common along all of the tropical Ana winds.
Queensland coast, bringing heavy rains in the sum-
mer months. Tropical Storms
The northernmost part of Australia has a tropical Hurricanes are referred to as tropical cyclones in
savanna climate and is part of the monsoon system Australia. These storms frequent northern and
which dominates life in India and Southeast Asia. eastern tropical Australia during the summer wet
Starting in October and continuing until April, season. They develop over the warm ocean waters
moist northwesterly winds bring heavy rainfalls ac- south of 5 degrees south latitude; on average, three

74
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Climatology of Australia

hurricanes affect the Queensland coast and three rainfall is very low. About half the continent has a
affect the Northern Territory coast during a season. desert climate, a belt extending from the west Aus-
Wind speeds exceed 46 miles (74 km.) per hour. tralian coast to western Queensland, and extending
The highest wind speed recorded in Australia was from the Great Australian Bight into the Northern
253 miles (407 km.) per hour, during Tropical Territory. The driest part of Australia, around Lake
Cyclone Olivia on April 10, 1996. Eyre, receives only 4.9 inches (125 millimeters) of
Every year, tropical cyclones inflict millions of rainfall annually.
dollars’ worth of damage on Australia. Fortunately, Surrounding the desert interior is a semiarid
because northern Australia has a very small popula- belt; the northern parts receive most of their scanty
tion, there is generally little loss of life during these rainfall in the summer, while the southern parts re-
storms, but severe flood damage is common. An ex- ceive their rainfall in the winter. Many towns in the
ception to this was Tropical Cyclone Tracy, which south of Australia experience an interesting
struck the city of Darwin around midnight on De- weather pattern in the summer: a low pressure
cember 24, 1974, killing sixty-five people and injur- trough causes hot dry winds from the center to
ing 500. Because of health problems in the devas- bring very high temperatures that persist for sev-
tated city, most of the inhabitants were evacuated eral days. These winds are sometimes called
within a week. Many never returned, even though brick-fielders. The situation can even affect coastal
Darwin was rebuilt using strict building codes to areas.
lessen wind damage should another tropical Sydney and Melbourne have recorded January
cyclone occur. temperatures above 113 degrees Fahrenheit (45 de-
grees Celsius). City-dwellers suffer the scorching
Desert Interior heat and dusty conditions until a cold front brings
The interior of Australia is a true desert, where tem- welcome relief with thunderstorms and a very rapid
peratures are high, evaporation rates are high, and drop in temperatures. This abrupt and dramatic

Lake Eyre. The striking pink coloration is from an algal bloom. (Hiltonj)

75
Climatology of Australia Physical Geography

change is common in summer in Melbourne, where

it is called a “cool change.”
Because Australia lies in the Southern Hemisphere,
Unpredictable Weather summer runs from December to February; autumn
With rainfall and temperature data that have been from March to May; winter from June to August;
collected over a long period of time, climatologists and spring from September to November. For most
have come to understand that rainfall seasonality and of the country the hottest month is January, and the
variability are themselves important climatic factors coldest months are July and August. Because this
pattern of seasons is opposite to that of the North-
in Australia. Australia is a country of climate ex-
ern Hemisphere, people who live in the Northern
tremes: Droughts have long alternated with great
Hemisphere might find it difficult to imagine a
floods, and both have seemed unpredictable. Thanks
winter with sweltering heat.
to technology advances, scientists have begun to un-
derstand and even predict years of flood or drought.
The extreme variability of precipitation over added danger from fires. During periods of neutral
much of the continent is linked to what is called the El Niño—Southern Oscillations, as occurred in
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenome- 2018-2019, rainfall in Australia is far below normal
non, which affects large parts of the planet. The while temperatures are near or at record-breaking
term “El Niño” relates to times when unusually levels. Such were the conditions that led to Austra-
warm waters prevail in the southwestern Pacific lia’s catastrophic wild fires in many parts of
Ocean, off the coast of Peru. “Southern Oscillation” Australia during 2019 and 2020.
relates to changes in atmospheric pressure in the Global warming, climate change, and long-term
western Pacific region, from Tahiti to Indonesia—a climate forecasting are areas of research with great
large region that includes Australia. interest and significance for Australians. Much of
During the 1980s scientists realized, for the first the Australian environment is vulnerable to signifi-
time, that El Niño and Southern Oscillation are cant climate variation. The Great Barrier Reef, for
linked. Moreover, they affect large parts of the instance, has sustained severe damage as a result of
world—not just regions around the Pacific Ocean. warmer waters. A better understanding of the rele-
For example, when California experiences excep- vant climate processes can help protect people and
tionally heavy El Niño rains, lands on the opposite resources, especially when extreme events occur.
side of the Pacific experience severe droughts, with Ray Sumner

76
 Climatology of the
Pacific Islands

The Pacific Islands stretch from Palau in the west to lagoon, they are called atolls. Low islands include
Pitcairn in the east and from the Hawaiian Islands the Marshall and Gilbert islands. Their relatively
in the north to New Zealand in the south. The is- small size and their dispersion across the ocean
lands generally fall into two types, high and low. means that none of them has a truly continental cli-
The high islands consist of hills and mountains, mate; rather, their climates are governed by the
some of which are active volcanoes. They are the ocean waters that surround them and the trade
larger islands, such as New Zealand and New winds that blow over them.
Guinea, and the main islands in groups such as the
Hawaiian Islands, the Solomons, and the Marianas. Temperatures and Rainfall
The low islands are formed of coral reefs and are Most of the Pacific islands are within the tropics and
generally small, some rising only a few feet above thus are warm, humid, and temperate the entire
sea level. When a number of low islands surround a year. The temperature in the islands ranges from

A beach resort in Polynesia. (courtneyk)

77
Climatology of the Pacific Islands Physical Geography

The St. Joseph Cathedral in Neiafu, Vavau, Tonga with its whitewashed exterior. (Donyanedomam)

about 70 degrees to 80 degrees Fahrenheit (21.1 de- States of Micronesia can reach 390 inches (10,000
grees to 26.7 degrees Celsius). However, the climate millimeters) per year. The amount of rain received
in parts of New Zealand, which lies on the fortieth in a particular area also depends on whether it is ex-
parallel of south latitude, can be termed temperate posed to the trade winds or is on the leeward side.
oceanic. In New Zealand, average temperatures For example, the southeastern slopes of the main
range from 56 degrees to 66 degrees Fahrenheit Fiji islands, on which the trade winds blow, receive
(13.3 degrees to 18.9 degrees Celsius) in January more than 117 inches (3,000 millimeters) of rain
and from 42 degrees to 50 degrees Fahrenheit (5.6 per year.
degrees to 10.0 degrees Celsius) in July. The moun- Many islands have wet and dry seasons. In Mela-
tain areas in New Guinea, New Zealand, and some nesia (the larger, mountainous islands from New
other high islands are somewhat cooler; the tallest Guinea to Fiji) and Polynesia (the islands within the
mountains on the largest islands retain their triangle formed by Hawaii, New Zealand, and
snowcaps all year. Easter Island), the wet season is from December to
In general, the Pacific islands near the equator March and the dry season is from April to Novem-
experience high humidity and abundant rainfall ber. In Micronesia (the small islands and atolls
distributed evenly through the year; islands more reaching from Palau and the Marianas toward
distant from the equator and more affected by Kiribati), the wet season is from May to December
winds have greater seasonal fluctuations in rainfall. and the dry season is from January to April.
In the Marshall Islands, where the climate is equa-
torial, rain falls year-round, surpassing 117 to 156 Effect of the Winds
inches (3,000 to 4,000 millimeters) annually. Rains Most of the Pacific islands lie in the intertropical
in the interior of Pohnpei Island in the Federated zone, between the trade winds—air currents that

78
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Climatology of the Pacific Islands

flow from the subtropical high-pressure zones

found between the thirtieth and fortieth parallels
both north and south of the equator. North of the
equator, the trade winds, diverted by Earth’s rota- Tropical cyclones are called either hurricanes or ty-
tion from their southward path, turn to the south- phoons, depending on where they occur. Tropical
east; south of the equator, the northbound winds cyclones are low-pressure systems over tropical or
turn to the northeast. In the eastern Pacific, the subtropical waters, with organized convection, such
as thunderstorm activity and surface winds that ro-
southeast trade winds lie between the twenty-fifth
tate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
parallel south and slightly north of the equator, and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. These
moving slightly farther north in summer. The storms are termed tropical depressions until the
northeast trade winds lie between the fifth and maximum sustained (for one minute) surface winds
twenty-fifth parallels north. reach 39 miles (62.9 km.) per hour, at which point
they are called tropical storms. Once the winds
Overall, the climatic conditions in the Pacific is-
reach 74 miles (119.3 km.) per hour, the storm be-
lands are uniform, lacking a great deal of seasonal comes either a hurricane or typhoon, depending on
variation, thanks to the steadiness of the trade where it occurs. Tropical storms in the North Atlan-
winds. The trade winds carry relatively cool air, tic Ocean, in the Northeast Pacific Ocean east of the
moving at an average wind speed of 13 knots (15 International Dateline, or in the South Pacific
Ocean east of longitude 160 degrees east are called
miles or 24 km. per hour). They become increas-
hurricanes; those in the Northwest Pacific Ocean
ingly moisture-laden and warm as they near the west of the dateline are called typhoons. Those that
equator and produce light to moderate showers, al- occur in the southwest Pacific Ocean west of longi-
though the weather is generally fine in these areas. tude 160 degrees east or in the Southeast Indian
The windward sides of the higher islands tend to be Ocean east of longitude 90 degrees east are called
severe tropical cyclones. Those in the North Indian
cloudy and wet, with the leeward side relatively dry.
Ocean are severe cyclonic storms, and those in the
In the intertropical zone, the winds become gen- Southwest Indian Ocean are tropical cyclones.
erally easterly, particularly in the east Pacific, where
the zone diminishes to a width of only 200 to 300
miles (322 to 483 km.). In the part of the equatorial From July to November, typhoons frequently oc-
region known as the doldrums, where the trade cur in western Micronesia. Typhoons produce gale
winds converge, the wind is generally calm or light force winds, torrential rains, and sometimes storm
and variable. The doldrums are over the equator, surges, which can damage the low islands. Tropical
which receives the most heat from the Sun of any cyclones also occur in the southern Pacific islands.
place on Earth. This heat causes the air to expand, Just below the trade winds, from the latitudes of
creating a belt of low pressure. In the doldrums, the about 30 degrees south to 40 degrees south,
sky is often cloudy and humidity is particularly high-pressure zones known as anticyclones occur.
high. Thunderstorms or showers are common, and They rotate and move, either toward the subpolar
rainfall is abundant in the western Pacific although latitudes or in the same direction as the trade winds.
much scarcer in the east. In these high-pressure areas, known as the horse
In the far western Pacific islands, the effect of the latitudes, the weather is generally fair.
trade winds is mitigated by that of the monsoon Below the fortieth parallel south, where part of
winds. The seasonal heating and cooling of the New Zealand lies, the winds are generally westerly.
Asian continent produces a reversal of winds that These warmer westerly winds converge with cold
blow across the islands. From November to March, easterly winds from the polar regions, producing
northwest monsoonal winds bring rain to Papua tropical depressions noted for their gale-force
New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and the western winds. This phenomenon is most pronounced in
Caroline Islands; in the summer, the monsoonal winter, when the contrast in air humidity and
winds reverse, becoming southeast winds. temperature is greatest.

79
Climatology of the Pacific Islands Physical Geography

The Ocean’s Effect and feeds the north Pacific drift, while the other part
The climate of the Pacific islands is also influenced turns eastward through the doldrums to create the
by the movement of the waters of the ocean, partic- Equatorial Countercurrent.
ularly the tides, currents, wind-generated waves,
and the rising and sinking waters produced by dif- Climate and Culture
ferences in water temperature. The temperature of The trade winds and currents of the Pacific islands are
the water affects that of the air above it, producing believed to have carried people to the islands from
changes in atmospheric pressure. Cold surface wa- southeastern Asia. However, experts do not know how
ter tends to produce high-pressure zones, and groups as diverse as the Asiatic Micronesians and
warmer water produces low-pressure zones. Polynesians developed. The early islanders survived
The trade winds and westerlies create drifts of by fishing, agriculture, and hunting, but their ways of
warm ocean water. In the northern Pacific, the north- life differed greatly, reflecting the climatic differences
east trade winds create a drift that splits at Hawaii to among the islands, which produced flora and fauna
form two clockwise circulating drifts, the western of that were often unique to a particular island. The Pa-
which is the larger. In the South Pacific, trade winds cific islands are far from Europe, small, and spread
produce a similar, counterclockwise-moving drift out across the ocean; they also had varying climatic
that flows around many of the Pacific islands. The conditions, such as heat and humidity, that required
trade winds also produce an equatorial current that adaptations in Western life-styles and few easily
flows in a westerly direction on both sides of the dol- tapped resources. Therefore, European exploration
drums. These two currents meet around Palau and and colonization came fairly late. Although the is-
the Carolines, where part of the current heads north lands were discovered by Europeans in the sixteenth

A Polynesian man shades himself while he relaxes in a hammock. (oversnap)

80
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Climatology of the Pacific Islands

Average Temperature, January Average Temperature, July

Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees
City/Country Fahrenheit Celsius Fahrenheit Celsius

Suva, Fiji 80.0 26.5 73.0 23.0

Tarawa, Kiribati 83.0 28.5 83.0 28.5
Yap, Federated States of Micronesia 80.0 27.0 80.5 27.0
Auckland, New Zealand 68.0 20.0 51.5 10.5
Wellington, New Zealand 64.0 17.5 48.5 9.5
Madang, Papua New Guinea 81.5 27.5 80.0 26.5
Apia, Samoa 79.5 26.5 77.5 25.5
Honiara, Solomon Islands 80.5 27.0 79.5 26.5
Vava’u, Tonga 81.0 27.0 75.0 24.0
Fongafale, Tuvalu 83.0 28.5 83.5 28.5
Port Vila, Vanuatu 79.5 26.5 71.5 22.0
Source: National Centers for Environmental Information, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

century, colonization did not take place on a large the rise in sea levels had contaminated drinking wa-
scale until the late nineteenth century. Fishing and ag- ter on its central and northern islands. Strong winds
riculture still play a large part in the lives of the accompanied by salt-water spray had reduced farm
inhabitants of the Pacific islands. production, warmer waters had reduced the supply
of fish, and beaches had experienced erosion, mak-
Climate Change ing them less attractive to tourists. Vanuatu re-
For more than two decades, scientists have empha- ported that rising seas had ruined low-lying
sized and re-emphasized their grave concerns coconut plantations, and Palau blamed global
about the effects of climate change on the low is- warming for the damage to its coral reefs.
lands of the Pacific. Large parts of these islands are In 2018, the Pacific Island Forum (PIF)adopted
not far above sea level, and rising ocean levels the Niue Declaration on Climate Change and coor-
caused by the melting of glacial ice may severely re- dinated with the United Nations to help Pacific is-
duce the landmass above water, disrupting residen- land nations mitigate the effects of climate change
tial patterns and interfering with how people make on the region. In July 2019, the PIF expressed deep
their living. A number of Pacific islands have re- concern about the impact of greenhouse-gas emis-
ported detrimental effects believed to stem from sions on coral atoll nations, cautioning that damage
global warming. Fiji and Samoa, for instance, have from such emissions could ultimately render the
seen substantial recession of their shorelines. islands uninhabitable.
Tonga, a group of 175 small islands, reported that Rowena Wildin

81
Biogeography and
Natural Resources
 Overview

Minerals

Mineral resources make up all the nonliving matter Some deposits of gold or platinum are found in
found in the earth, its atmosphere, and its waters elemental (native) form as nuggets or powder and
that are useful to humankind. The great ages of his- may be isolated by alluvial mining—using running
tory are classified by the resources that were ex- water to wash away low-density impurities, leaving
ploited. First came the Stone Age, when flint was the dense metal behind. Most metal ores, however,
used to make tools and weapons. The Bronze Age are obtained only after extensive digging and blast-
followed; it was a time when metals such as copper ing and the use of large-scale earthmoving equip-
and tin began to be extracted and used. Finally ment. Surface mining or strip mining is far simpler
came the Iron Age, the time of steel and other fer- and safer than underground mining.
rous alloys that required higher temperatures and
more sophisticated metallurgy. Safety and Environmental Considerations
Metals, however, are not the whole story—eco- Underground mines can extend as far as a mile into
nomic progress also requires fossil fuels such as the earth and are subject to cave-ins, water leakage,
coal, oil, natural gas, tar sands, or oil shale as energy and dangerous gases that can explode or suffocate
sources. Beyond metals and fuels, there are a host of miners. Safety is an overriding issue in deep mines,
mineral resources that make modern life possible: and there is legislation in many countries designed
building stone, salt, atmospheric gases (oxygen, ni- to regulate mine safety and to enforce practices that
trogen), fertilizer minerals (phosphates, nitrates, reduce hazards to the miners from breathing dust
and potash), sulfur, quartz, clay, asbestos, and or gases.
diamonds are some examples. In the past, mining often was conducted without
regard to the effects on the environment. In econom-
Mining and Prospecting ically advanced countries such as the United States,
Exploitation of mineral resources begins with the this is now seen as unacceptable. Mines are expected
discovery and recognition of the value of the depos- to be filled in, not just abandoned after they are
its. To be economically viable, the mineral must be worked out, and care must be taken that rivers and
salable at a price greater than the cost of its extrac- streams are not contaminated with mine wastes.
tion, and great care is taken to determine the proba-
ble size of a deposit and the labor involved in Iron, Steel, and Coal
isolating it before operations begin. Iron, alumi- Iron ore and coal are essential for the manufacture
num, copper, lead, and zinc occur as mineral ores of steel, the most important structural metal. Both
that are mined, then subjected to chemical pro- raw materials occur in many geographic regions.
cesses to separate the metal from the other ele- Before the mid-nineteenth century, iron was
ments (usually oxygen or sulfur) that are bonded to smelted in the eastern United States—New Jersey,
the metal in the ore. New York, and Massachusetts—but then huge he-
matite deposits were discovered near Duluth, Min-

85
Minerals Biogeography and Natural Resources

nesota, on Lake Superior. The ore traveled by ship Much of the bauxite in the United States comes
to steel mills in northwest Indiana and northeast Il- from Arkansas. After purification, the bauxite is
linois, and coal came from Illinois or Ohio. Steel combined with the mineral cryolite at high temper-
also was made in Pittsburgh and Bethlehem in ature and subjected to electrolysis between carbon
Pennsylvania, and in Birmingham, Alabama. electrodes (the Hall-Héroult process), yielding pure
After World War II, the U.S. steel industry was aluminum. Because of the enormous electrical en-
slow to modernize its facilities, and after 1970 it had ergy requirements of the Hall-Héroult method, alu-
great difficulty producing steel at a price that could minum can be made economically only where
compete with imports from countries such as Japan, cheap power (preferably hydroelectric) is available.
Korea, and Brazil. In Europe, the German steel in- This means that the bauxite often must be shipped
dustry centered in the Ruhr River valley in cities long distances—Jamaican bauxite comes to the
such as Essen and Düsseldorf. In Russia, iron ore is United States for electrolysis, for example.
mined in the Urals, in the Crimea, and at Krivoi
Rog in Ukraine. Elsewhere in Europe, the French Copper, Silver, and Gold
“minette” ores of Alsace-Lorraine, the Swedish These coinage metals have been known and used
magnetite deposits near Kiruna, and the British he- since antiquity. Copper came from Cyprus and
matite deposits in Lancashire are all significant. takes its name from the name of the island. Copper
Hematite is also found in Labrador, Canada, near ores include oxides or sulfides (cuprite, bornite,
the Quebec border. covellite, and others). Not enough native copper
Coal is widely distributed on earth. In the United occurs to be commercially significant. Mines in
States, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania Bingham, Utah, and Ely, Nevada, are major sources
are known for their coal mines, but coal is also in the United States. The El Teniente mine in Chile
found in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Montana, and is the world’s largest underground copper mine,
other states. Much of the anthracite (hard coal) is and major amounts of copper also come from Can-
taken from underground mines, where networks of ada, the former Soviet Union, and the Katanga re-
tunnels are dug through the coal seam, and the coal gion mines in Congo-Kinshasa and Zambia.
is loosened by blasting, use of digging machines, or Silver often occurs native, as well as in combina-
human labor. A huge deposit of brown coal is mined tion with other metals, including lead, copper, and
at the Yallourn open pit mine west of Melbourne, gold. Famous silver mines in the United States in-
Australia. In Germany, the mines are near Garsdorf clude those near Virginia City (the Comstock lode)
in Nord-Rhein/Westfalen, and in the United King- and Tonopah, Nevada, and Coeur d’Alene, Idaho.
dom, coal is mined in Wales. South Africa has coal Silver has been mined in the past in Bolivia (Potosi
and is a leader in manufacture of liquid fuels from mines), Peru (Cerro de Pasco mines), Mexico, and
coal. There is coal in Antarctica, but it cannot yet be Ontario and British Columbia in Canada.
mined profitably. China and Japan both have coal Gold occurs native as gold dust or nuggets, some-
mines, as does Russia. times with silver as a natural alloy called electrum.
Other gold minerals include selenides and
Aluminum tellurides. Small amounts of gold are present in sea
Aluminum is the most important structural metal af- water, but attempts to isolate gold economically
ter iron. It is extremely abundant in the earth’s crust, from this source have so far failed. Famous gold
but the only readily extractable ore is bauxite, a hy- rushes occurred in California and Colorado in the
drated oxide usually contaminated with iron and sil- United States, Canada’s Yukon, and Alaska’s
ica. Bauxite was originally found in France but also Klondike region. Major gold-producing countries
exists in many other places in Europe, as well as in include South Africa, Siberia, Ghana (once called
Australia, India, China, the former Soviet Union, In- the Gold Coast), the Philippines, Australia, and
donesia, Malaysia, Suriname, and Jamaica. Canada.

86
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Minerals

On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez, with a cargo of 53 million gallons of crude oil, ran aground on Bligh
Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Approximately 11 million gallons of oil were released into the water, in the
worst environmental disaster of this type recorded to date. Despite immediate and lengthy efforts to contain and
clean up the spill, there was extensive damage to wildlife, including aquatic birds, seals, and fish. Lawsuits and calls
for new regulatory legislation on tankers continued a decade later. Such regrettable incidents as these are the almost
inevitable result of attempting to transport the huge oil supplies demanded in the industrialized world.

Petroleum and Natural Gas North Slope) in the 1960s, a pipeline was built
Petroleum has been found on every continent ex- across Alaska, ending at the port of Valdez. The
cept Antarctica, with 600,000 producing wells in pipeline is heated to keep the oil liquid in cold
100 different countries. In the United States, petro- weather and elevated to prevent its melting
leum was originally discovered in Pennsylvania, through the permanently frozen ground (perma-
with more important discoveries being made later frost) that supports it. From Valdez, tankers reach
in west Texas, Oklahoma, California, and Alaska. Japan or California.
New wells are often drilled offshore, for example in Drilling activities occasionally result in discovery
the Gulf of Mexico or the North Sea. The United of natural gas, which is valued as a low-pollution
States depends heavily on oil imported from Mex- fuel. Vast fields of gas exist in Siberia, and gas is
ico, South America, Saudi Arabia and the Persian piped to Western Europe through a pipeline. Alge-
Gulf states, and Canada. rian gas is shipped in the liquid state in ships
Over the years, the price of oil has varied dramat- equipped with refrigeration equipment to maintain
ically, particularly due to the attempts of the Orga- the low temperatures needed. Britain and North-
nization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) ern Europe benefit from gas produced in the North
to limit production and drive up prices. In Europe, Sea, between Norway and Scotland.
oil is produced in Azerbaijan near the Caspian Sea, Shale oil, a plentiful but difficult-to-exploit fossil
where a pipeline is planned to carry the crude to the fuel, exists in enormous amounts near Rifle, Colo-
Mediterranean port of Ceyhan, in Turkey. In Africa, rado. A form of oil-bearing rock, the shale must be
there are oil wells in Gabon, Libya, and Nigeria; in crushed and heated to recover the oil, a more ex-
the Persian Gulf region, oil is found in Kuwait, Qa- pensive proposition than drilling conventional oil
tar, Iran, and Iraq. Much crude oil travels in huge wells. In spite of ingenious schemes such as burning
tankers to Europe, Japan, and the United States, the shale oil in place, this resource is likely to remain
but some supplies refineries in Saudi Arabia at largely unused until conventional petroleum is used
Abadan. Tankers must exit the Persian Gulf through up. A similar resource exists in Alberta, Canada,
the narrow Gulf of Hormuz, which thus assumes where the Athabasca tar sands are exploited for
great strategic importance. heavy oils.
After oil was discovered on the shores of the John R. Phillips
Beaufort Sea in northern Alaska (the so-called

87
Renewable Resources Biogeography and Natural Resources

Renewable Resources

Most renewable resources are living resources, such ucts. Some industrial wood is chipped to produce
as plants, animals, and their products. With careful such products as subflooring and sheathing board
management, human societies can harvest such re- for home and other building construction. Most
sources for their own use without imperiling future roundwood harvested in Africa, South America,
supplies. However, human history has seen many and Asia is used for fuel. In contrast, roundwood
instances of resource mismanagement that has led harvested in North America, Europe, and the for-
to the virtual destruction of valuable resources. mer Soviet Union generally is produced for indus-
trial use.
Forests It is easy to consider forests only in the sense of
Forests are large tracts of land supporting growths the useful wood they produce. However, many for-
of trees and perhaps some underbrush or shrubs. ests also yield valuable resources such as rubber, ed-
Trees constitute probably the earth s most valuable, ible nuts, and what the U.S. Forest Service calls spe-
versatile, and easily grown renewable resource. cial forest products. These include ferns, mosses,
When they are harvested intelligently, their natural and lichens for the florist trade, wild edible mush-
environments continue to replace them. However, rooms such as morels and matsutakes for domestic
if a harvest is beyond the environment’s ability to re- markets and for export, and mistletoe and pine
store the resource that had been present, new and cones for Christmas decorations.
different plants and animals will take over the area. There is growing interest among the industrial-
This phenomenon has been demonstrated many ized nations of the world in a unique group of forest
times in overused forests and grasslands that re- products for use in the treatment of human disease.
verted to scrubby brushlands. In the worst cases, the Most of them grow in the tropical rainforests. These
abused lands degenerated into barren deserts. medicinal plants have long been known and used by
The forest resources of the earth range from the shamans (traditional healers). Hundreds of phar-
tropical rainforests with their huge trees and broad maceutical drugs, first used by shamans, have been
diversity of species to the dry savannas featuring derived from plants, many gathered in tropical
scattered trees separated by broad grasslands. Cold, rainforests. The drugs include quinine, from the
subarctic lands support dense growths of spruces bark of the cinchona tree, long used to combat ma-
and firs, while moderate temperature regimes pro- laria, and the alkaloid drug reserpine. Reserpine,
duce a variety of pines and hardwoods such as oak derived from the roots of a group of tropical trees
and ash. The forests of the world cover about 30 and shrubs, is used to treat high blood pressure (hy-
percent of the land surface, as compared with the pertension) and as a mild tranquilizer. It has been
oceans, which cover about 70 percent of the global estimated that 25 percent of all prescriptions dis-
surface. pensed in the United States contain ingredients de-
Harvested wood, cut in the forest and hauled rived from tropical rainforest plants. The value of
away to be processed, is termed roundwood. Glob- the finished pharmaceuticals is estimated at
ally, the cut of roundwood for all uses amounts to US$6.25 billion per year.
about 130.6 billion cubic feet (3.7 billion cubic me- Scientists screening tropical rainforest plants for
ters). Slightly more than half of the harvested wood additional useful medical compounds have drawn
is used for fuel, including charcoal. on the knowledge and experience of the shamans.
Roundwood that is not used for fuel is described In this way, the scientists seek to reduce the search
as industrial wood and used to produce lumber, ve- time and costs involved in screening potentially
neer for fine furniture, and pulp for paper prod- useful plants. Researchers hope that somewhere in

88
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Renewable Resources

the dense tropical foliage are plant products that technique of fishing progressed from a lone fisher
could treat, or perhaps cure, diseases such as cancer with a baited hook and line, to small steam-powered
or AIDS. boats towing large nets, to huge diesel-powered
Many as-yet undiscovered medicinal plants may trawlers towing monster nets that could cover a
be lost forever as a consequence of deforestation of football field. Some of the largest trawlers were
large tracts of equatorial land. The trees are cut floating factories. The cod could be skinned, the ed-
down or burned in place and the forest converted to ible parts cut and quick-frozen for market ashore,
grassland for raising cattle. The tropical soils can- and the skin, scales, and bones cooked and ground
not support grasses without the input of large for animal feed and oil. A lone fisher was lucky to be
amounts of fertilizer. The destruction of the forests able to catch 1,000 pounds (455 kilograms) in one
also causes flooding, leaving standing pools of wa- day. In contrast, the largest trawlers were capable of
ter and breeding areas for mosquitoes, which can catching and processing 200 tons per day.
spread disease. In the 1990s, the world ocean population of
swordfish had declined dramatically. With a world-
Marine Resources wide distribution, these large members of the bill-
When renewable marine resources such as fish and fish family have been eagerly sought after as a food
shellfish are harvested or used, they continue to re- fish. Because swordfish have a habit of basking at
produce in their environment, as happens in forests the surface, fishermen learned to sneak up on the
and with other living natural resources. However, swordfish and harpoon them. Fishermen began to
like overharvested forests, if the marine resource is catch swordfish with fishing lines 25 to 40 miles (40
overfished—that is, harvested beyond its ability to to 65 kilometers) long. Baited hooks hung at inter-
reproduce—new, perhaps undesirable, kinds of vals on the main line successfully caught many
marine organisms will occupy the area. This has swordfish, as well as tuna and large sharks. Whereas
happened to a number of marine fishes, particu- the harpoon fisher took only the largest (thus most
larly the Atlantic cod. valuable) swordfish, the longline gear was indis-
When the first Europeans reached the shores of criminate, catching and killing many swordfish too
what is now New England in the early seventeenth small for the market, as well as sea turtles and
century, they encountered vast schools of cod in the dolphins
local ocean waters. The cod were so plentiful they As a result of the catching and killing of both sex-
could be caught in baskets lowered into the water ually mature and immature swordfish, the repro-
from a boat. ductive capacity of the species was greatly reduced.
At the height of the New England cod fishery, in Harpoons killed mostly the large, mature adults
the 1970s, efficient, motor-driven trawlers were that had spawned several times. Longlines took all
able to catch about 32,000 tons. The catch began to sizes of swordfish, including the small ones that had
decline that year, mostly as a result of the impact of not yet reached sexual maturity and spawned. The
fifteen different nations fishing on the cod stocks. decline of the swordfish population was quickly ob-
As a result of overfishing, rough species such as dog- vious in the reduced landings. But things have
fish and skates constitute 70 percent of the fish in changed remarkably, thanks to a 1999 international
the local waters. Experts on fisheries management plan that rebuilt this stock several years ahead of
decided that fishing for cod had to be stopped. schedule. Today, North Atlantic swordfish is one of
The decline of the cod was attributed to two the most sustainable seafood choices.
causes: a worldwide demand for more fish as food Albert C. Jensen
and great changes in the technology of fishing. The

89
Nonrenewable Resources Biogeography and Natural Resources

Nonrenewable Resources

Nonrenewable resources are useful raw materials portation, and compaction or cementation act on
that exist in fixed quantities in nature and cannot be existing rocks.
replaced. They differ from renewable resources, Metamorphic rocks are created when the other
such as trees and fish, which can be replaced if man- two types of rock are changed by heat and pressure.
aged correctly. Most nonrenewable resources are The availability of nonrenewable resources from
minerals—inorganic and organic substances that these rocks varies greatly, because it depends not
exhibit consistent chemical composition and prop- only on the natural distribution of the rocks but also
erties. Minerals are found naturally in the earth’s on people’s ability to discover and process them. It
crust or dissolved in seawater. Of roughly 2,000 dif- is difficult to find rock formations that are covered
ferent minerals, about 100 are sources of raw mate- by the ocean, material left by glaciers, or a rain-
rials that are needed for human activities. Where forest. As a result, nonrenewable resources are dis-
useful minerals are found in sufficiently high con- tributed unevenly throughout the world.
centrations—that is, as ores—they can be mined as Some nonrenewable resources, such as construc-
profitable commercial products. tion materials, are found easily around the world
Economic nonrenewable resources can be di- and are available almost everywhere. Other
vided into four general categories: metallic nonrenewable resources can only be exploited prof-
(hardrock) minerals, which are the source of metals itably when the useful minerals have an unusually
such as iron, gold, and copper; fuel minerals, which high concentration compared with their average
include petroleum (oil), natural gas, coal, and ura- concentration in the earth’s crust. These high con-
nium; industrial (soft rock) minerals, which provide centrations are caused by rare geological events and
materials like sulfur, talc, and potassium; and con- are difficult to find. For example, an exceptionally
struction materials, such as sand and gravel. rare nonrenewable resource like platinum is
Nonrenewable resources are required as direct or produced in only a few limited areas.
indirect parts of all the products that humans use. No one country or region is self-sufficient in pro-
For example, metals are necessary in industrial sec- viding all the nonrenewable resources it needs, but
tors such as construction, transportation equip- some regions have many more nonrenewable re-
ment, electrical equipment and electronics, and sources than others. Minerals can be found in all
consumer durable goods—long-lasting products types of rocks, but some types of rocks are more
such as refrigerators and stoves. Fuel minerals pro- likely to have economic concentrations than others.
vide energy for transportation, heating, and electri- Metallic minerals often are associated with shields
cal power. Industrial minerals provide ingredients (blocks) of old igneous (Precambrian) rocks. Impor-
needed in products ranging from baby powder to tant shield areas near the earth’s surface are found
fertilizer to the space shuttle. Construction in Canada, Siberia, Scandinavia, and Eastern Eu-
materials are used in roads and buildings. rope. Another important shield was split by the
movement of the continents, and pieces of it can be
Location found in Brazil, Africa, and Australia.
When minerals have naturally combined together Similar rock types are in the mountain forma-
(aggregated) they are called rocks. The three gen- tions in Western Europe, Central Asia, the Pacific
eral rock categories are igneous, sedimentary, and coast of the Americas, and Southeast Asia. Minerals
metamorphic. Igneous rocks are created by the for construction and industry are found in all three
cooling of molten material (magma). Sedimentary types of rocks and are widely and randomly distrib-
rocks are caused when weathering, erosion, trans- uted among the regions of the world.

90
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Nonrenewable Resources

The fuel minerals—petroleum and natural protect and work the production sites, towns always
gas—are unique in that they occur in liquid and gas- spring up near the sites. Examples of such towns
eous states in the rocks. These resources must be can be found near the quarries used to provide the
captured and collected within a rock site. Such a site material for the great monuments of ancient Egypt
needs source rock to provide the resource, a rock and in the Rocky Mountains of North America near
type that allows the resource to collect, and another gold and silver mines. These towns existed because
surrounding rock type that traps the resource. Sedi- of the nonrenewable resources nearby and the
mentary rock basins are particularly good sites for needs of the people exploiting them; once the re-
fuel collection. Important fuel-producing regions source was gone, the towns often were abandoned,
are the Middle East, the Americas, and Asia. creating “ghost towns,” or had to find new
purposes, such as tourism.
Impact on Human Settlement More important to human settlement is the con-
Nonrenewable resources have always provided raw trol of the trade routes for nonrenewable re-
materials for human economic development, from sources. Such controlling sites often became re-
the flint used in early stone tools to the silicon used gions of great wealth and political power as the
in the sophisticated chips in personal computers. residents taxed the products that passed through
Whole eras of human history and development their community and provided the necessary ser-
have been linked with the nonrenewable resources vices and protection for the traveling traders. Just
that were key to the period and its events. For exam- one example of this type of development is the
ple, early human culture eras were called the Stone, great cities of wealth and culture that arose along
Bronze, and Iron Ages. the trade routes of the Sahara Desert and West Af-
Political conflicts and wars have occurred over rica like Timbuktu (in present-day Mali) and
who owns and controls nonrenewable resources and Kumasi (in present-day Ghana) based on the trade
their trade. One example is the Persian Gulf War of of resources like gold and salt.
1991. Many nations, including the United States, Even with modern transportation systems, own-
fought against Iraq over control of petroleum pro- ership of nonrenewable resources and control of
duction and reserves in the Middle East. their trade is still an important factor in generating
Since the actual production sites often are not at- national wealth and economic development. Mod-
tractive places for human settlement and the out- ern examples include Saudi Arabia’s oil resources,
put is transportable, these sites are seldom impor- Egypt’s control of the Suez Canal, South Africa’s
tant population centers. There are some gold, Chile’s copper, Turkey’s control over the
exceptions, such as Johannesburg, South Africa, Bosporus Strait, Indonesia’s metals and oil, and
which grew up almost solely because of the gold China’s rare earth element.
found there. However, because it is necessary to Gary A. Campbell

91
 Natural Resources of
Antarctica

Antarctica, the most isolated of the seven conti- ing activity by the British, beginning in 1778 and
nents, generally is not considered by scientists and continuing with the arrival of American sealers into
mineralogists as a place for productive mining and the area shortly afterward. The hunters sought seals
drilling. Its natural resources fall into three catego- mostly for their fur, for which ready European, Chi-
ries: animal, mineral, and hydrologic. The first has nese, and American markets existed. They hunted
been overexploited. The other two have not yet the elephant seal for its oil as well. By the 1850s,
been developed significantly. seals were almost extinct in the southern polar
What is known about the continent’s mineral re- regions.
sources is largely speculative. The conclusions Whaling was not a major activity in the Antarctic
reached are based upon comparisons with mineral until the whale population in more climatically hos-
deposits in other parts of the world, but one cannot pitable areas had been depleted almost to the point
easily or relevantly compare Antarctica with any of extinction by the nineteenth century. In 1892
other place on Earth. It is the only continent that Christen Christensen, a Norwegian, sent a whaling
has no cities and towns, no conventional infrastruc- expedition into Antarctic waters. By 1904 a whaling
ture, and no permanent human inhabitants. Its se- station had been established on South Georgia Is-
vere climate and isolation make it unique. Strides land. This lucrative industry prospered and grew
have been made, however, in assessing the during World War I, when whale oil was in great
hydrologic resources underlying Antarctica. It has demand.
long been known that the continent holds approxi- The blue whale, the largest known creature on
mately 70 percent of the world’s freshwater in its Earth, was plentiful in Antarctic waters until the
glaciers and ice shelves. 1950s. The International Whaling Commission, es-
tablished in 1946, introduced zero-catch quotas for
Animal Resources all commercial whaling so that the whale popula-
The animal resources of Antarctica begin with tion could replenish itself. Some nations, however,
plankton and krill in the waters around the conti-
nent’s 11,165-mile (17,968-km.) coastline. These
creatures at the lower end of the food chain nourish,
directly or indirectly, the fish, birds, penguins, seals,
and whales that constitute part of Antarctica’s trea-
sure of animal resources.
The exploitation of Antarctica’s animal resources
began not with whaling, which was a major, world-
wide industry in the eighteenth century, but with
sealing. The English navigator James Cook, who
sailed into southern waters, wrote about the abun-
dance of seals there. This launched a period of seal- A scientist performs measurements on an ice core. (Tenedos)

93
Natural Resources of Antarctica Biogeography and Natural Resources

SELECTED RESOURCES OF ANTARCTICA

Oil

Fresh Water

Gold Silver
Lead Nickel
Molybdenum
ANTARCTICA Manganese
Coal
Iron Ore Fresh Water

Antimony Zinc
Copper Cobalt Chromium
Uranium
Plankton
Krill

failed to honor their quota agreements and hunted their conclusions on comparative data from other
the blue whale almost to extinction. areas where mining and drilling take place. Such
In 1912-1913, an official catch of 10,670 whales conclusions are drawn at least in part by analyzing
in Antarctic waters was documented. In 1930-1931, what is in the rocks that constitute that landmass.
a record 40,000 whales were taken from the Ross Ninety-eight percent of Antarctica is under an ice
Sea and the South Atlantic Ocean bordering sheet whose thickness averages 8,000 feet (2,440
Antarctica. With the depletion of the whale popula- meters). The conjectures that have been made are
tion, the South Georgia Whaling Station closed in based upon what has been found in a sampling of
1965, giving way to ship-based processing plants. rocks from the 2 percent of the continent that is ex-
By 1990 seal hunting and whaling were no longer posed and accessible.
commercially profitable in Antarctica and its From this small sample, it has been established
adjacent waters. that the continent probably has coal and iron ore in
significant quantities. Among the minerals found in
Mineral Resources much smaller quantities are gold, silver, lead,
Most of what is known about the mineral resources nickel, molybdenum, antimony, zinc, copper, co-
of Antarctica is based on informed speculation by balt, and chromium. Nodules on the seafloor off
mineralogists and other scientists who must base Antarctica contain iron, manganese, copper, nickel,

94
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Natural Resources of Antarctica

and cobalt, but in quantities too small to consider Getting to such reserves is hindered by three major
them viable mineral resources. factors: Antarctica’s lack of cities, towns, and con-
In 1909, during the Ernest Shackleton expedi- ventional infrastructure; its lack of permanent in-
tion to the Ross Sea, one of Shackleton’s party habitants; and the rough seas with their frigid cy-
found in the sedimentary rock of the Beardmore clonic winds that surround the continent. As long as
Glacier that terminates in the Ross Sea the first coal petroleum reserves exist in parts of the world that
deposits ever discovered in Antarctica. Some scien- are more accessible, reserves that lie beneath
tists cite geologic evidence suggesting that Antarctica’s surface or beneath its adjacent waters
Antarctica has no significant petroleum resources, will likely remain untapped.
although the waters off the continent apparently Technology does not currently exist for making
have considerable reserves of oil beneath them. mining and drilling in Antarctica and off its shores

A satellite image of Antarctica. (Dave Pape)

95
Natural Resources of Antarctica Biogeography and Natural Resources

a profitable enterprise. From a long-term perspec- In 1996, while drilling through an ice cover 2
tive, it is likely that many of the problems currently miles (3.2 km.) deep, scientists uncovered evidence
related to climate and lack of a permanent popula- of a huge underground lake, perhaps one of many,
tion will be overcome. As shortages of various min- resting beneath the surface and the deep ice cover
erals develop, the technology needed to unlock above it. To date, this newly discovered lake has not
Antarctica’s mineral resources will be developed. been breached because the scientific community
When the necessity arises, it is even possible that does not wish to risk contaminating it in any way.
the means will be found for controlling the climate Research is now under way to determine how this
to the point that workers can spend extended peri- resource can best be studied without compromising
ods of time in Antarctica and possibly even live its pristine qualities.
there. It has been suggested that huge icebergs that are
One restraint on exploiting Antarctica’s mineral calved from Antarctica’s many ice shelves might, in
resources in the immediate future is the Antarctic time, be hauled to parts of the world that have water
Treaty’s Protocol on Environmental Protection, en- shortages. Some speculate that it would be possible
acted in 1991 and enforceable as of 1998. This le- not only to do this but also to create electrical power
gally binding international act, which can be modi- in the process by converting the ocean’s thermal en-
fied by the Consultative Parties, imposes an ergy to electrical power. At present, the technology
indefinite ban on all activities involving mining or to accomplish this does not exist, but once the idea
drilling for minerals in Antarctica’s fragile ecosys- was articulated, creative minds began to work on its
tem. The act will be reviewed in 2048. It is unlikely possible implementation.
that any substantial mining or drilling activities will Among the problems to be solved before such an
occur in Antarctica before that review. undertaking could occur is that of keeping the ice-
bergs from melting as they move into warmer waters
Hydrological Resources and from breaking apart as they are subjected to the
With 70 percent of the world’s total supply of fresh relentless pounding of waves in rough seas before
water, Antarctica could supply other parts of the they reach the processing plants. The hydrologic re-
world with water for agriculture, drinking, bathing, sources of Antarctica are greater than those of any
and industry. Recent developments at Russia’s other continent. It is inconceivable that they would
Vostok Research Station have suggested that even not one day be put to use, regardless of the difficul-
more fresh, liquid water may lie beneath ties involved in accomplishing this objective.
Antarctica’s surface than was originally suspected. R. Baird Shuman

96
 Natural Resources of
Australia

Although the smallest continent, Australia is rich in Australia is not so blessed when it comes to water
mineral and hydrocarbon (petroleum and natural resources. The continent is dry except for the tropi-
gas) resources. Since the gold rushes in the middle cal north. True rivers are few. Australia’s water sup-
of the nineteenth century, Australia has maintained ply consists mostly of fossil water that has lain un-
its proud tradition as one of the world’s major min- derground for millions of years and is seldom or
ing nations. It is in the top six producing countries never replaced. Problems with salinity—the salt
for bauxite, gold, iron ore, lead, zinc, mineral content of the water and soil—are becoming com-
sands, uranium, copper, diamond, lithium, manga- mon. More than 6 million acres (2.4 million hect-
nese, nickel, silver, tantalum, tin, and vanadium. ares) of soil have been damaged by salinity.
New discoveries of mineral resources and hydrocar- Increasing population, urbanization, agricul-
bon resources happen frequently, but the new finds tural production, and mining have placed pressure
sometimes are located in remote areas and thus are on limited resources, causing land and water degra-
difficult to exploit. dation and loss of biodiversity. Australia’s twenty

A hillside stripped from mountaintop removal. (Ryan Hagerty)

97
Natural Resources of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

SELECTED RESOURCES OF AUSTRALIA

Oil

Timor Sea Rare Gulf Aluminum

G
Metals of

re
Carpentaria
Coral Sea

at
Oil Diamonds
Uranium

Ba
Indian Natural Gas rr
Bauxite ie
Ocean r
Black Coal
Oil

R
Lead Mineral Sands Pa c i f i c

ee
Iron Ore Zinc Silver

f
Vanadium Ocean
Nickel
Black Opals Sapphires Topaz
Bauxite Diamonds
Gold
Uranium Gold Mineral Sands Geothermal
Uranium Power
Timber
Timber Great
Oil
Australian Brown Hydro-
Coal electric Natural Gas
Bight Power Gold
Oil Tasman Sea
Natural Gas Tungsten
Iron Lead
Zinc Silver
Copper Tin

largest cities have about 86 percent of the popula- tralia’s electricity is generated by natural gas. This
tion of 22.5 million. About 54 percent of Australia’s percentage is expected to rise in the decades to
vegetation has been cleared or disturbed. Farmers come as greater plant capacity comes on-line. In the
use 50-70 percent of Australia’s water, 90 percent of near term, Australia is expected to replace Qatar as
it for irrigation. In 2016, approximately 17,300 the world’s leading exporter of liquefied natural
square miles (44,800 sq. km.) of land were irrigated. gas (LNG). Already, Australia is a vital source of
LNG for many countries, especially Japan (the larg-
Hydrocarbon Resources est importer of Australian gas), China, and South
In 2017-2018, mineral fuels and lubricants ac- Korea, as well as Taiwan, Malaysia, and India.
counted for 24.3 percent of the value of Australia’s
exports. Commercial oil reserves in 2020 were Renewable Energy Resources
1,821 million barrels; gas reserves (2019) were 70.2 In 2019, Australia achieved its goal of deriving 23.5
trillion cubic feet (1.989 trillion cubic meters). Aus- percent of its electricity generation from renewable
tralia’s oil production peaked in 2000 and has been energy sources by 2020. Leading the way is
in decline ever since, although recent discoveries hydropower, which accounted for 32.5 percent of
have improved the production outlook. For exam- renewable electricity generation, or 7.5 percent of
ple, the Dorado-1 well, discovered in 2018 off the the country’s overall electricity generation. Some of
coast of Western Australia, is expected to yield this energy is produced by Tasmania’s thirty
approximately 450 million barrels of oil. hydropower stations and fifteen dams. A more sub-
Australia’s rich natural gas reserves ensure the stantial source is the Snowy Mountain Scheme, a
country’s energy independence for at least the next massive hydroelectric and irrigation complex in
fifty years. Today, approximately 22 percent of Aus- New South Wales, and Australia’s single largest en-

98
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Natural Resources of Australia

gineering project to date. A proposed expansion of But currently, apart from a small plant in Birdsville,
the complex, dubbed “Snowy 2.0,” would increase Queensland, Australia has barely begun to exploit
the hydropower output by upwards of 50 percent. its geothermal potential.
A close second to hydro in Australia is wind
power, which in 2018 supplied about a third of Aus- Mineral Reserves
tralia’s renewable electricity generation and 7.1 The mineral industry generates a high proportion
percent of the country’s total electricity. Australia of Australia’s export income. In 2016, mineral ex-
has dozens of wind farms, with most facilities in the ports and scrap metal accounted for 35 percent of
states of South Australia and Victoria. Solar power the value of Australia’s exports. Australia’s greatest
capacity is growing rapidly, and given Australia’s mineral reserves are located in Western Australia
sunny weather, holds great potential going forward. (iron ore, nickel, bauxite, diamonds, gold, and min-
In 2019, Australia’s more than 2 million so- eral sands), Queensland (bauxite, bituminous or
lar-power installations accounted for approxi- black coal, lead, mineral sands, zinc, and silver),
mately 5.2 percent of the country’s electricity. New South Wales (bituminous coal, lead, zinc, sil-
Geothermal energy holds great potential for ver, and mineral sands), and Victoria (brown coal or
Australia, possibly providing up to 7 percent of the lignite and offshore oil and natural gas).
country’s electricity generation by 2030. Particu- In 2016, Australia was home to 29 percent of the
larly promising are areas of South Australia where world’s proven uranium reserves. The largest re-
exploratory wells have yielded encouraging results. serves are in northern and northwestern Queens-

The Snowy Mountains Scheme hydroelectricity and irrigation complex. (Cmh)

99
Natural Resources of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

land, the Northern Territory, Western Australia,

and South Australia. Australia was the world’s larg-
est producer of iron ore in 2019. Some is destined
for domestic iron and steel production, but most
production is for export, mainly to China, Japan,
Taiwan, and South Korea. Western Australia’s
Hamersley iron province contains billions of tons of
iron ore, but the ore’s location in an isolated area is
an impediment to full-scale exploitation. Tungsten
has been mined in Queensland since colonial times
and is a major export. The rich Kambalda nickel de-
posits, 35 miles (56 km.) southeast of Kalgoorlie,
were discovered in 1964. Other nickel deposits are
at Greenvale (Queensland) and in the Musgrave re-
gion on the borders of Western Australia, South
Australia, and the Northern Territory. In 2019,
Australia was the source of 6.7 percent of the world’s Australian opals. (oxign)
nickel.
Enormous deposits of bauxite have made Austra- amounts of platinum and palladium have also been
lia the world’s leading producer of bauxite and the located.
second-largest producer of alumina (after China). Australia has rich deposits of industrial minerals
Australia ranks as the world’s second-largest gold such as clays, mica, salt, dolomite (limestone),
producer and sixth-largest silver producer. Small refractories, abrasives, talc, and asbestos. Gem min-
erals include unique black opals, sapphires and to-
paz. Australia is the world’s third-leading source of
diamonds, mostly of industrial quality. The island
The tiny island of Nauru is an extreme example of state of Tasmania has some important mineral de-
how the Pacific nations tend to rely for major export
posits, including iron, high-grade lead-zinc-silver,
earnings on a few primary natural resource prod-
ucts that support their economies. Nauru based its copper, tin and tungsten.
industry and wealth on the mining and processing
of phosphate, the product of thousands of years of Water
accumulation of seabird excrement, called guano. The average annual rainfall is approximately 18
Raw phosphate was mined and processed into fertil- inches (450 millimeters), and more than one-third
izer on the island, and then exported. Because of
of the mainland, principally the interior, receives
the phosphate industry, Nauru had one of the high-
est per capita incomes in the developing world, less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) per year. Arid-
peaking in the mid-1970s. However, by the turn of ity or semiaridity prevails over most of Australia,
the century phosphate reserves had been exhausted and evaporation rates are extremely high. Due to
and the nation found itself under crushing debt, the high evaporation rates, less than 2 inches (50
leaving its economy to rely largely on foreign aid, in- millimeters) of the average annual rainfall actually
come from an offshore Australian detention center,
contributes to usable water for natural and artificial
and its status as a tax haven. On top of that, phos-
phate mining stripped the island of soil and vegeta- systems.
tion, making the interior of the island uninhabit- Permanently flowing rivers are found only in
able. New mining initiatives began in 2005, tapping eastern Australia, southwestern Australia, and Tas-
into leftover phosphate from previously inefficient mania. The major exception is the Murray River, a
techniques, but it is estimated that only thirty years’ stream that rises in the Mount Kosciuszko region in
worth of revenue will be generated.
the Eastern Uplands and is fed by melting snows. It

100
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Natural Resources of Australia

acquires a volume sufficient to survive the passage misleading. Many of the “lakes” depicted in the in-
across the arid and semiarid plains that bear its terior areas are now salt lakes that often contain no
name and to reach the Indian Ocean southeast of water for years at a time.
Adelaide. Nevertheless, the combined discharge The Great Artesian Basin, a huge underground
from all Australian rivers, including the principal aquifer, is the largest of its type in the world and
river system, the Murray-Darling, is only about provides water security to one-fifth of mainland
one-quarter that of the Mississippi River. Australia’s population. Groundwater systems ex-
There are wide regional disparities in the avail- tend over 40 percent of Australia’s land and in
ability of water. In the sparsely populated northern many cases, more water is being extracted than is
sector, runoff draining into the Timor Sea and the replenished naturally. In some areas of Australia,
Gulf of Carpentaria accounts for half the national people are using three to four times more water
total. The tropical north as a whole contributes than is being recharged, so the aquifer is in danger
about two-thirds of the national total water runoff. of running out.
Much of Australia’s population, however, is concen- Scientists have warned that the quality of Austra-
trated in New South Wales and Victoria in the south- lia’s inland water is increasingly at risk. The two
eastern sector of the country. main causes are toxins produced by blue-green al-
Many areas, such as the Nullarbor Plain, which is gae and agricultural chemical residues. Some of the
underlain by limestone, and the sand ridge deserts algae in Australia produce unique toxins, which can
are without surface drainage. There are, however, be long-lived and potentially toxic to humans and
underground streams. A map of Australia can be animals. The algal toxins, known as paralytic shell-

Tuckers Creek in Scottsdale, Tasmania. (Thouny)

101
Natural Resources of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

fish poisons, could accumulate in the food chain, af-

fecting human health, the rural industries, and
Australia’s plant and animal life.
Soil and dryland salinity has become a serious
Percentage of
problem in Australia. Much of the dryland salinity Mineral World Resources
is due to low rainfall and high evaporation rates.
Salts in groundwater originate either from minute Bauxite 17
quantities dissolved in rainwater, from the chemical Black coal 10
breakdown of rocks, or from direct contact with sea- Brown coal 24
water. The salinity issues are greatly exacerbated by Copper 11
land clearance to accommodate agriculture and Diamond 2
worsened further by irrigation. Western Australia, Gold 19
one of the most affected states, has more than 5 mil- Ilmenite (oxide of iron 19
and titanium)
lion acres (2 million hectares) of salt-affected land.
Iron ore 29
Biologists estimate that 75 percent of the water-bird
Lead 38
species are in decline as a result.
Lithium 30
In South Australia, at least 20 percent of surface
Manganese Ore 13
water resources were sufficiently saline to be above
Nickel 23
desirable limits for human consumption. In the
Rutile 50
Northern Territory, which is relatively well watered,
Silver 16
the groundwater in the southern half of the state is
Tantalum 67
too saline for most uses. In the northern half of the
Uranium 34
Northern Territory, groundwaters are mainly fresh
Vanadium 20
because the high rainfall tends to flush away salt be-
Zinc 29
fore it is concentrated by evaporation. It has been
Zircon 63
estimated that soil salinity in Australia could ex-
pand to 95 percent of total irrigated lands and to
one-third of dryland arable area by 2050. ber supplies are derived from sustainable
Tasmania is well watered and thus the opposite of production activities in forests throughout the
mainland Australia. It has two major river systems, country. Forestry and its products contributed ap-
the Derwent in the southeast and the South Esk in proximately 0.5 percent to Australia’s economy and
the northeast. There are many small systems flowing employed some 52,000 people in 2019. Australia is
to the west coast and innumerable lakes. The Central the world’s largest exporter of woodchips and the
Plateau is studded with more than 4,000 lakes in a eighth-largest exporter of logs.
landscape similar to northern Canada and Finland. In Tasmania, there are softwood plantations in
the Fingal and Scottsdale areas and inland from the
Forests northwest coast. The main types of trees are the eu-
Approximately 16 percent of Australia’s land is for- calyptus, an evergreen genus providing timbers of
ested. The chief commercial forests are in great strength and durability, and a great variety of
high-rainfall areas on the coast or in the coastal rain forest trees such as coachwood, crab apple, and
highlands of Tasmania and the southeastern and yellow carabeen. Several regions both on the main-
eastern mainland, and along the southwestern land and in Tasmania are intensively exploited for
coast of Western Australia. Approximately 80 per- wood pulp, partly for export to China and Japan.
cent of the industry’s plantation and native log tim- Dana P. McDermott

102
 Natural Resources of the
Pacific Islands

Resources are the part of the natural environment form a basis for the countries’ economies. These re-
that is given value by human knowledge and percep- sources include minerals, water, forests, cash crops
tion. The Pacific Islands and New Zealand vary and plantation agriculture, and ocean fishing. The
greatly in the availability of renewable and tourism industry has developed on several islands
nonrenewable natural resources. These, in turn, influ- where the natural resources provide activities and at-
ence settlement patterns and local economies, includ- tractions of interest to visitors. Some of the smaller is-
ing exports, industry, and tourism. The Pacific region lands, however, have virtually no natural resources
is rich in a number of natural resources that often apart from those in the ocean surrounding them.

The Ok Tedi Mine in southwestern Papua New Guinea. (Ok Tedi Mine CMCA Review)

103
Natural Resources of the Pacific Islands Biogeography and Natural Resources

Minerals
The Melanesian countries located along the Pacific
and Indian tectonic plate collision zone are well en-
dowed with mineral resources; the extraction of The Samoan tropical rain forest is useful for more
minerals that are desired by industrial nations has than timber: The indigenous people of Samoa use
provided significantly for the national wealth of many rain forest plants to treat disease. Samoan
these countries. In Papua New Guinea, one of the medicine women use dozens of plant species to treat
human ailments and pass down their knowledge of
most resource-rich countries in the region, mineral
this folk medicine from mother to daughter.
resources account for two-thirds of the country’s to- There are some seventy remedies or cures using
tal exports. Two of the world’s largest copper and rain forest plants, including the polo leaf, used for
gold mines are found in Papua New Guinea. The fighting infections; the ulu ma’afala root, for diar-
copper deposits on Bougainville Island, an offshore rhea; and the bark of a local tree, used to combat
island that is part of the country, contain one of the hepatitis. Another plant species is being tested for
its effectiveness against AIDS. Although these
world’s largest reserves and were intensively mined
plants are termed “folk medicines,” they are not
until terrorist activities closed the mine in the early merely local cures. At least twenty-five percent of the
1990s; the mines remained closed as of 2020. Gold prescription drugs made in the United States are
and petroleum are found in Papua New Guinea as extracted from flowering plants, many of which
well, especially along the Fly River. Gold is also grow in tropical rain forests.
However, during the 1990s the Samoan rain for-
mined in Fiji, Palau, and the Solomon Islands.
est reached a crisis point. By 1999, commercial log-
New Caledonia is the world’s fourth-largest pro- ging operations had cut down more than eighty per-
ducer of nickel ore, and also contains chrome, iron, cent of the coastal rain forest, and logging
cobalt, manganese, copper, silver, and lead. The continued despite bans and designated conserva-
Solomon Islands also have bauxite, lead, zinc, and tion areas. Ethnobotanist Paul Alan Cox, noted for
nickel. Manganese was mined in Vanuatu, but is his research on the use of tropical plants for health
remedies, won the Goldman Environmental Prize
now depleted. Phosphate, useful in producing fer-
in 1997 for his efforts to save the Samoan rain forest
tilizer, was formerly contained on five great phos- during this time. In honor of his work, the Samoan
phate rock islands in the Pacific region: Banaba Islanders gave him the name Nafanuna, after one of
(part of Kiribati), Makatea in French Polynesia, the their traditional protective gods. A 2014 report to
Solomon Islands, the Marshall Islands, and Nauru. the Convention on Biological Diversity noted that
The phosphate deposits on all these islands have Samoa’s native merchantable forests were no longer
profitable for logging due to depletion, and there-
been either seriously depleted or are no longer eco-
fore only small-scale operations remained. That
nomically feasible to exploit. same report also emphasized the importance of
preserving native vegetation for herbal medicine.
Water
Fresh water is a necessary resource for any area with
human settlement. The Pacific islands are split in plants that supply city dwellers and much of the ru-
terms of water resources. Because of their location ral population with water and electricity. Low-lying
in a tropical wet/dry climatic region, heavy seasonal atolls are deficient in precipitation and limited in
precipitation is common. The high islands are water-storage capacity; thus, they must import most
richly endowed with water, as the mountainous ter- of their water to support their populations.
rain provides conditions conducive to heavy, fre- New Zealand’s highland glaciers, lakes, and
quent rainfall, and snow on the higher peaks. Water mountain streams supply its people with abundant
in these countries can be tapped for energy as well. freshwater as well as with hydroelectric power. In-
The steep terrain and heavy rains in the highlands creasing urbanization, however, continues to place
of Papua New Guinea, for example, enable the de- greater demands on domestic water use. To deal
velopment of reservoirs and hydroelectric power with this problem, storage lakes and treatment

104
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Natural Resources of the Pacific Islands

A logger unloads timber taken from New Zealand’s plantation forests. (Benchill)

plants have been built to increase the country’s wa- Some of the world’s most biologically diverse en-
ter storage capacity, and water conservation mea- vironments are being threatened in these opera-
sures are in effect in Wellington and Auckland, New tions, but landowners see the quick cash sales to log-
Zealand’s two largest cities. gers as attractive in the short term, even though the
long-term practice will damage their traditional
Tropical Rain Forests lifestyles. The global expansion of commercial lum-
Tropical rain forests are botanically complex. At bering also threatens nearby portions of the Solo-
lower elevations, they consist of several layers of mon Islands and many unique environmental set-
canopy (different heights of plants) and a wide vari- tings in Polynesia. Much of the subalpine
ety of plant and tree species. At higher elevations, mountainous region of New Zealand is covered with
the lower canopy is absent but several tree species rain forest. This country, too, has a significant forest
can be found. Sizable expanses of tropical rain for- products industry that involves the logging and
est still exist on most of the larger islands of Melane- processing of its rain forest.
sia, but some of the drier, flatter islands in the Tropical rain forests contribute greatly to the
Pacific have only sparse vegetation. Rain forests still world’s oxygen supply; thus, the cutting of the rain
cover about 60 percent of Papua New Guinea (the forests depletes the supply of this vital element of
third-largest natural tropical rain forest in the air that helps humans breathe. Many plants from
world), although deforestation as the result of ille- rain forests are used for medicinal purposes as well.
gal logging is destroying about 1.4 percent of the The cutting of forest, therefore, reduces the avail-
forest per year. ability of medicinal plants.

105
Natural Resources of the Pacific Islands Biogeography and Natural Resources

Cash Crops and Plantation Agriculture is far more complex and expensive than that for co-
The tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Pacific conut; therefore, these operations are limited to
islands provide year-round warm temperatures, large-scale, often foreign-owned, operations. Small
fertile soils, and adequate rainfall, making these is- farmers cannot compete as they do with coconuts.
lands ideal for tropical agriculture for both subsis- Pineapples are grown, processed, and exported
tence use and for export. As with minerals, specific from the Hawaiian Islands as well. Bananas grow in
crops have become the primary export products in the Hawaiian Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, and
certain Pacific island countries. Coconut, sugar, other islands of Micronesia. Other cash crops ex-
pineapple, and bananas are grown on small local ported from the region include rubber, tea, and cof-
farms and on large, foreign-owned plantations for fee in Papua New Guinea; coffee in Vanuatu; cocoa
mass production and export to industrial nations. in Samoa, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands,
Other tropical crops and livestock provide and Vanuatu; palm oil in the Solomon Islands and
additional export income. Papua New Guinea; rice in Fiji and the Solomon Is-
Coconuts are the most widespread plantation lands; and vanilla in Tonga. Samoa also produces
crop in the region. Coconuts require year-round taro and passion fruit.
warm temperature, well-drained soil, and plenty of New Zealand is too far south for tropical agricul-
moisture and sunlight; they grow best in low alti- ture but its climate and terrain are ideal for raising
tudes near the coast. The coastal lowland areas of livestock. Sheep are the main animal raised in the
the tropical Pacific islands are therefore ideal for country. Export products from sheep farming in-
large and small-scale coconut plantations. Products clude wool, lamb, mutton, cheese, and other dairy
from the coconut include copra, the dried meat ex- products. Cattle are raised in New Zealand, Vanuatu,
tracted from the nut; desiccated (finely grated) co- and Samoa, for export of beef. Poultry and pork are
conut for cooking and baking; milk and cream to produced in Samoa and Papua New Guinea.
drink or use in cooking; oil used in cooking and for
producing margarine, fine soap, and cosmetics; Ocean Fishing
and fiber from the husk of the nut, used to manufac- Saltwater fish are another important resource for
ture rugs and cord. In addition, the timber from the much of the Pacific islands. This should be no sur-
tree is used as a building material and to make fur- prise, given the huge expanse of ocean within the Pa-
niture and utensils. cific region. Fishing of tuna and other ocean fish
Coconuts are grown in Tonga, Samoa, American occurs from Papua New Guinea, Fiji, the Solomon Is-
Samoa, Papua New Guinea, Guam, the Cook Is- lands, Vanuatu, Kiribati (sent for canning to American
lands, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa), Tonga, Samoa (though largely untapped),
Vanuatu, Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands, and the
Marshall Islands. Copra, extracted from the meat
of coconuts, is processed in Samoa, Papua New
Guinea, the Solomon Islands (where it is the major
source of income for small-scale farmers), Vanuatu,
Fiji (where coconuts are the second-largest crop),
Kiribati, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, and Tonga.
Coconut cream and oil are processed in Samoa,
American Samoa, and the Marshall Islands;
coconut oil is processed in Tonga.
Sugar is the main plantation crop processed in
and exported from the Hawaiian Islands, Fiji, Easter
Island, and the Marianas. While sugarcane grows Statue of “Charlie the Tuna” at the Starkist cannery in Atu’u, Amer-
naturally in these countries, the processing industry ican Samoa. (Eric Guinther)

106
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Natural Resources of the Pacific Islands

New Zealand, Vanuatu, the Federated States of Micro- nue in the Pacific islands has increased markedly in
nesia, Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, Palau, Pitcairn, the twenty-first century ($1.4 billion in 2013 alone),
French Polynesia, Niue, and the Midway Islands. although the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 put at
As with plantation agriculture, fishing influences least a temporary end to all nonessential travel to the
industrial development in some Pacific island coun- region.
tries. There are fish canneries, for example, in Pa-
pua New Guinea, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Resource-Poor Areas
Vanuatu, and American Samoa. The low islands and atolls are all poor in natural re-
sources. Tuvalu, Wake Atoll, and the Marshall Is-
Tourism lands, for example, have no streams or rivers, and
Tourism can be considered a resource in that the groundwater is not potable. All water needs must be
tourist industry uses a country’s natural resources to met by catchment systems with storage facilities or
attract visitors. This builds the economy as tourist-re- by desalination plants. Nauru has limited natural
lated infrastructure (the communication structures freshwater resources, with roof storage tanks to col-
that make it possible for the activity to take place, lect rainwater. Intensive phosphate mining during
such as roads and public transportation), facilities most of the twentieth century left the central 90 per-
(hotels, resorts, restaurants, sporting centers, muse- cent of Nauru a wasteland and threatens the limited
ums), and activities (swimming, camping, and other remaining land resources. Few other resources exist
recreation) are set up to make tourism possible. The in Nauru and most necessities, including freshwa-
Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand have the most ter, must be imported from Australia. Kiribati is an-
well-developed tourist industries, including urban other resource-poor area. With the exception of the
and environmental attractions. Papua New Guinea, island of Banaba, which is of limestone origin, these
Fiji, Tahiti, the Cook Islands, New Caledonia, Tonga, islands are coral atolls with shallow topsoil and low
Kiribati, Vanuatu, and the Samoas have invested in water-absorption capacity that prevent cultivation
airport and hotel facilities and tourist activities to at- of most crops.
tract visitors to their islands. Overall, tourism reve- Laurie A. Garo

Q1. Why do scientists dismiss Antarctica as a poten-

tial locale for productive mining? How might the
continent’s water resources be exploited? What
challenges would be inherent in such an endeavor?

Q2. How much of Australia’s energy is derived

from renewable sources? What factors make Aus-
tralia a prime candidate for solar power? What role
might geothermal resources play in Australia’s en-
ergy future?

Q3. Compare and contrast the so-called high Pa-

cific islands and the low Pacific islands. Which type
of island is likely to have a greater abundance of
mineral resources? How are the water supplies be-
tween the two types of islands likely to differ?

107
 Flora and Fauna of Antarctica

The harsh climate of Antarctica makes it one of the United States, Russia, Belgium, Australia, and sev-
most inhospitable places on Earth, allowing only a eral other countries signed another in an ongoing
relatively small number of organisms to live there. series of treaties to preserve Antarctica and keep it
Most animals associated with Antarctica, such as for peaceful international uses such as scientific re-
penguins, seals, and whales, are actually seasonal search and ecotourism. The agreement, known as
visitors or live on the ice and in the ocean surround- the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the
ing the continent. Permanent terrestrial (land) ani- Antarctic Treaty, will remain in effect at least
mals and plants are few and small. There are no through 2048.
trees, shrubs, or vertebrate land animals. Native or-
ganisms are hardy, yet the ecosystem is fragile and Terrestrial Flora
easily disturbed by human activity, pollution, global There are only two types of flowering plants in
warming, and ozone-layer depletion. Antarctica, a grass and a small pearlwort. These are
The Antarctic continent has never had a native or restricted to the more temperate Antarctic Penin-
permanent population of humans. In 1998 the sula. Antarctic hairgrass forms dense mats and

Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) is one of only two flowering plants found in Antarctica. (Liam Quinn; CC BY-SA 2.0)

109
Flora and Fauna of Antarctica Biogeography and Natural Resources

grows fairly rapidly in the Southern Hemisphere

summer (December, January, and February). At the
end of summer, the hairgrass’s nutrients move un- Found nowhere else on earth, Antarctica’s dry val-
derground and the leaves die. Pearlwort forms leys are cold, ice-free areas in which nearly all the
snow sublimates, or vaporizes, without melting.
cushion-shaped clusters and grows only 0.08 to 0.25
They are some of the driest areas in the world, but
inch (2 to 6 millimeters) per year. some organisms—such as pockets of bacteria living
Numerous species of primitive plants, such as li- underground and lichens and algae living inside
chens, mosses, fungi, algae, and diatoms, live in rocks—manage to survive. Tiny nematode worms
Antarctica. Lichens are made up of an alga and a can tolerate being frozen solid and even survive the
fungus in a symbiotic (interdependent) relation- complete loss of body water: They can be
freeze-dried and reconstituted. The nematodes lie
ship. They can use water in the form of vapor, liq-
dormant for long periods of time, then breed wildly
uid, snow, or ice. Lichens grow as little as 0.04 inch when water and warmth become available. Some re-
(1 millimeter) every 100 years, and some patches searchers believe that life in dry valleys may resem-
may be more than 5,000 years old. Mosses are not as ble what life could be like on other, very cold astral
hardy as lichens but also grow slowly; a bootprint in bodies such as Europa, a moon of Jupiter.
a moss carpet may be visible for years. Fungi are
found on the more temperate peninsula and most
(tiny crustaceans), and microscopic protozoans.
are microscopic.
The largest is an insect, a long wingless midge only
Algae grow in Antarctic lakes, runoff near bird
0.47 inch (1.2 centimeters) long. The invertebrates
colonies, moist soil, and snowfields. During the
have adopted various methods of dealing with the
summer, algae form spectacular red, yellow, or
cold: Some dry out; others avoid freezing by mak-
green patches on the snow.
ing antifreeze chemicals in their blood; others do
Bacteria are not plants, but they are also found in
freeze but ice crystals form between cells, not inside
lakes, meltwater, and soils. As elsewhere on the
them. Many avoid the cold by attaching themselves
Earth, bacteria play a role in decomposition. Be-
as parasites to a warm-blooded host.
cause of the extreme cold, they are not always as ef-
ficient in Antarctica, and animal carcasses may lay
Marine Life
preserved for hundreds of years.
Unique in the world’s oceans, the marine ecosystem
of Antarctica is based on shrimplike crustaceans
Terrestrial Fauna
called krill, tiny animals that live in open water and
Terrestrial animals in Antarctica are limited to in-
under sea ice and grow up to 2 inches (5 centime-
vertebrates. There are more than 100 species, in-
ters) long. Nearly all Antarctic vertebrates, such as
cluding insects, mites, nematode worms, copepods
whales, seals, birds, and fish, depend directly or in-
directly on krill. Masses of krill covering 300 square
miles (775 sq. km.) and 328 feet (100 meters) thick
have been seen. Other protozoans, small crusta-
ceans, and larval fish float with the krill to form
plankton.

Whales
Among the creatures that feed on plankton are the
largest animals in the world, the baleen whales,
which have sievelike plates instead of teeth. Seven
species feed in the southern ocean in the austral
A whale breaching the Antarctic waters. (heckepics) summer. A whale can eat thousands of pounds of

110
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flora and Fauna of Antarctica

Two elephant seals fighting. (Michael L. Baird)

krill per day. All the larger baleen whales have been the edge of the Antarctic ice. They travel in groups
hunted by whalers, and most species are still recov- called pods and prey on seals, penguins, and other
ering despite decades of protection. whales. Since 1986, all commercial whaling has
The blue whale is the largest animal ever to live been prohibited in Antarctic waters.
on Earth, growing up to 100 feet (30 meters) long
and weighing 150 tons (136,000 kilograms). The Seals
most common large whale, the fin whale, grows up Five species of true seals live and breed on or near
to 85 feet (27 meters) long. The fastest whale, the Antarctica. Weddell seals and crabeater seals are the
sei whale, grows up to 65 feet (20 meters) long. The most abundant. Weddell seals are found on fast ice
southern right whale was named by whalers because (sea ice that is attached to land) and eat squid and
it was the “right” whale to catch: They are fat, very fish. They spend much of the winter under the ice
slow, float when killed, and grow up to 56 feet (17 through which they must chew breathing holes.
meters) long. Their numbers were reduced almost Their teeth can become so severely worn that they
to extinction by whaling. Humpback whales, up to are unable to catch food or keep their breathing
62 feet (19 meters) long, have recovered most suc- holes open, and some die from being trapped un-
cessfully from whaling. They are known for their der the ice. Despite their name, crabeater seals feed
haunting songs and unique feeding habits. The almost exclusively on krill and live on the pack ice
minke is the smallest baleen whale, at 26 feet (8 me- (sea ice not attached to shore).
ters) long, and was not hunted extensively. Leopard seals, named for their spotted coats,
There also are toothed whales in the Southern usually appear on the continent only in summer.
Ocean. Sperm whales are occasionally found south About half their diet is krill, but they are impressive
of 70 degrees latitude. Killer whales are found up to predators and will eat penguins, fish, squid, and the

111
Flora and Fauna of Antarctica Biogeography and Natural Resources

Human activities have major impacts on Antarctica.

Some are as obvious as whaling, some are less so.
Adélie penguins nest on low earth mounds, often
less than one foot (thirty centimeters) high. If the
mounds are bulldozed flat, the penguin colony may
not recover, even after the humans have gone. Even
so-called green activities such as eco-tourism can in-
troduce foreign bacteria and cause wear and tear.
Strict regulations require tourists’ clothing to be
A pair of wandering albatrosses. (mzphoto11)
cleaned before they set foot on the continent, and
there are high fines for littering. Research stations
must burn or carry away all trash. Some impacts are
invisible: climate change may raise the temperature
of Antarctica. Warming such a frozen land might
seem like a good thing, but native organisms are
adapted to the cold environment, and warming
could impact them in negative ways.

Emperor penguins and Adélie penguins are the

only species that breed on the continent. Emperors
A group of penguins in Antarctica. (NicoElNino) are the largest penguin, at 4 feet (1.2 meters) tall.
Adélie penguins are very sensitive to physical and
young of other seals. The Ross seal is one of the least environmental disturbance, and may serve as bio-
known of the Antarctic seals. It lives on the pack ice logical indicators of the health of the Antarctic eco-
and eats mainly squid. The elephant seal is one of system. Other penguin species, the king, gentoo,
the most recognizable seals, and is found on the rockhopper, royal, and macaroni, breed on
continent in summer. It is named for the large pro- sub-Antarctic islands and occasionally on the
boscis (enlarged snout) of the male seals. Pups peninsula itself.
suckle for about three weeks, during which time the The majority of the flighted seabirds are alba-
mother does not feed and may lose over 660 trosses and petrels. The wandering albatross has the
pounds (300 kilograms) in weight. largest wingspan in the world (11.5 feet/3.5 meters),
and actually raises its chick during the Antarctic
Birds winter. Other albatrosses, storm petrels, diving pe-
The most familiar creatures associated with trels, terns, skuas, cormorants, and gulls also live on
Antarctica are penguins, flightless birds well- or visit Antarctica. Virtually all seabirds feed on fish,
adapted to the cold. As many as 35 million to 40 squid, or krill. A few land birds are found on the
million penguins live on Antarctica and the sub- Antarctic Peninsula and sub-Antarctic islands, in-
Antarctic islands. They are excellent swimmers and, cluding sheathbills, pintails, and pipits.
depending on the species, eat fish, squid, and krill. Kelly Howard

112
 Flora of Australia

Many species of plants in Australia are found no- mass, where new immigrant species changed the
where else on Earth, except where they have been ecology. Australian fauna (animals) are mostly mar-
introduced by humans. Such species are known as supials, and Australian flora (vegetation) is domi-
endemic species. This distinctiveness is the result of nated by two types of plants—the eucalyptus and
the long isolation of the Australian continent from the acacia. Nevertheless, a great deal of botanical
other landmasses. Australia broke off from the diversity exists throughout this large continent,
supercontinent Pangaea more than 50 million years with more than 800 known species of eucalypts and
ago, and the species of plants and animals living at more than 900 species of acacias.
that time continued to change and adapt to condi- Climate is a major influence on Australian flora,
tions on the isolated island. This led to distinctive and the most striking feature of the Australian envi-
plants and animals, differing from those of the in- ronment as a whole is its aridity. Nutrient-poor soils
terconnected Eurasian-African-American land- also affect the nature of Australia’s vegetation, espe-

E. camaldulensis, immature woodland trees, showing collective crown habit, Murray River, Tocumwal, New South Wales. (Mattinbgn)

113
Flora of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

cially in arid areas. Half of the continent receives

less than 12 inches (300 millimeters) of rainfall per
year; small parts of Australia receive annual rainfall In 1988 Australia proclaimed the golden wattle to
of 75 inches (1,900 millimeters). Therefore, forests be its official national floral emblem. Appropriately,
cover only a small percentage of Australia. A close the colors worn by Australian sporting teams—
correlation exists between rainfall and vegetation green and gold—are reminiscent of the wattle’s
green leaves and gold flowers. Australia has many
type throughout Australia. Small regions of tropical
beautiful wildflowers, and seven of the states and
rain forest grow in mountainous areas of the north-
territories chose a flower as their state floral em-
east, in Queensland. In the cooler mountains of blem; Tasmania chose a flowering tree, the
New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania, extensive Tasmanian blue gum. The waratah, a gorgeous red
temperate rain forests thrive. flower chosen by New South Wales, was once favored
More extensive than rain forest, however, is a to be Australia’s national flower, before the wattle
was selected.
more open forest known as sclerophyllous forest,
Queensland’s floral emblem, the striking purple
which grows in the southern part of the Eastern
Cooktown orchid, is a reminder of that state’s tropi-
Highlands in New South Wales and Victoria, in cal rain forests. South Australia’s flower, Sturt’s
most of Tasmania, and in southwest Western Aus- desert pea, is a bright red and black plant found
tralia. Elsewhere—throughout northern Australia, throughout a wide area of central Australia. Victo-
the eastern half of Queensland and the inland ria’s emblem is the common heath, a tiny pink
flower. The distinctive kangaroo paw of Western
plains of New South Wales, and to the north of the
Australia grows along the southwestern coasts of
Western Australian sclerophyllous forest—extends
that state. The Tasmanian blue gum is a tall tree,
a huge crescent-shaped region of woodland vegeta- 230 feet (70 meters) in height, making it difficult to
tion—an open forest of trees of varying height with see up close the tree’s beautiful cream-colored flow-
an open canopy. Beyond this region, the climate is ers. The tree grows naturally in eastern Tasmania
arid, and nontree vegetation is dominant. The trop- and a small area of Victoria and is also abundant in
California.
ical north of inland Queensland, Northern Terri-
Sturt’s desert rose, the flower of the Northern
tory, and a smaller part of Western Australia have
Territory, is found in central Australia. The small
extensive areas of grassland. Much of Western Aus- shrub produces flowers with mauve petals, a stylized
tralia and South Australia, as well as interior parts representation of which is on the territory’s flag.
of New South Wales and Queensland, are shrub- The Australian Capital Territory was the last admin-
land, where grasses and small trees grow sparsely. In istrative division to choose a floral emblem—the
royal bluebell, a small perennial herb with violet
the center of the continent is the desert, which has
flowers. Its natural habitat is restricted to the region
little vegetation, except along watercourses.
of the ACT.

The Eucalypts
Many people familiar with the song “Kookaburra a tree collected in Tasmania during Captain James
Sits in an Old Gum Tree” may not realize that “gum Cook’s third voyage in 1777. The French botanist
tree” is the common Australian term for a eucalyptus chose the Greek name because he thought that the
tree. When the bark of a eucalyptus tree is cut, sticky bud with its cap (operculum) made the flower “well”
drops of a transparent, reddish substance called (eu) “covered” (kalyptos). The hard cases are com-
“kino” ooze out. The British William Dampier no- monly called gum nuts. Early in the twentieth cen-
ticed kino coming from trees in Western Australia in tury, a series of children’s books was written about
1688, and called it “gum dragon,” as he thought it Gumnut Babies, tiny imaginary beings who lived
was the same as commercial resin. Kino is technically among the eucalyptus leaves and wore the
not gum, as it is not water-soluble. operculum as a cap.
The scientific name Eucalyptus was chosen by the The more than 800 species of eucalyptus in Aus-
first botanist to study the dried leaves and flowers of tralia range from tropical species in the north to al-

114
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flora of Australia

Eucalyptus tereticornis buds, capsules, flowers and foliage, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia. (Ethel Aardvark)

pine species in the southern mountains. Rainfall, Gums have smooth bark, which is sometimes shed;
temperature, and soil type determine which partic- bloodwoods have rough, flaky bark; ironbarks have
ular eucalypt will be found in any area. Large euca- very hard bark with deep furrows between large
lyptus trees dominate the Australian forests of the pieces; stringybarks have fibrous bark that can be
east and south, while smaller species of eucalypts peeled off in long strips; peppermints have mixed
grow in the drier woodland or shrubland areas. It is but loose bark; and boxes have furrowed bark,
easier to mention parts of Australia where eucalypts firmly attached. This system was devised in 1859 by
do not grow: the icy peaks of the Australian Alps, Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, the first Government
the interior deserts, the Nullarbor Plain, and the Botanist of the Colony of Victoria, and the father of
rain forests of the Eastern Highlands, both tropical Australian botany. After emigrating from Germany
and temperate. in 1847 for his health, he was appointed to the Vic-
The scientific classification of the eucalypts torian position in 1853 and served until his death in
proved difficult to European botanists. Various ex- 1896. He was an eccentric and controversial figure,
perts used flowers, leaves, or other criteria in their but devoted to botanical exploration and research.
attempts to arrange the different species into a Many of the native plants of Australia show typi-
meaningful and useful taxonomy, or classification cal adaptations to the arid climate, such as deep
scheme. British botanist George Bentham eventu- taproots that can reach down to the water table. An-
ally chose the shape of the anthers—the tiny stems other common feature is small, shiny leaves, to re-
that hold pollen—together with fruit, flowers, and duce transpiration. Eucalyptus leaves are tough or
nuts as differentiating factors. leathery, described as sclerophyllous. Sclerophyllus
A simpler classification of the eucalypts, com- forests of eucalypts cover the wetter parts of Austra-
monly used by foresters, gardeners, and naturalists, lia, the Eastern Highlands, or Great Dividing
arranges them into six groups based on their bark: Range, and southwest Western Australia. The hard-

115
Flora of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

wood from these forests is generally not of a quality

suitable for building, so areas are cleared and the
trees made into woodchips that are exported for
manufacture of newsprint paper. This has been a
controversial use of Australian forests, especially
where the native forest has been cleared and
replaced with pine plantations.
The southwest corner of Western Australia has
magnificent forests featuring two exceptional spe-
cies with Aboriginal names, karri (Eucalyptus
diversicolor) and jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata). Karri
is one of the world’s tallest trees, growing to 295 feet
(90 meters) tall. This excellent hardwood tree is
widely used for construction. The long straight
trunks are covered in smooth bark that is shed each
year, making a colorful display of pink and gray.
These forests are now protected. Jarrah grows to
120 feet (37 meters) in height and is a heavy, dura-
ble timber. It was used for road construction in the
nineteenth century, but now the deep red timber is
prized for furniture, flooring, and paneling. A giant cycad. (Bruno Dupont)
During the nineteenth century, Australia could
also claim to be home to the world’s tallest tree—a branches provide wide shade and habitat for many
mountain ash that purportedly stood 433 feet (132 animals. Koalas eat leaves from this tree. In the song
meters). Today, the height of the tallest ash tree is “Waltzing Matilda,” Australia’s unofficial national
confirmed to be only 374 feet (114 meters). anthem, a man camps “under the shade of a coola-
The most widely distributed of all Australian bah tree.” This word might apply to any eucalypt, but
eucalypts is the beautiful river red gum. These trees is most likely a river red gum.
grow along riverbanks and watercourses throughout In drier interior areas, and in some mountain ar-
Australia, especially in inland areas; their spreading eas, there are more than 100 hundred smaller spe-
cies of eucalypts that are known by the
Aboriginal name “mallee.” These
many-trunked shrubs have an under-
ground root that stores water. Much
of this marginal country was cleared
for farming, creating a situation simi-
lar to the Dust Bowl in the United
States. In the dry Australian summers
bushfires are a great danger, in the
mallee and in any eucalyptus forest.
The volatile oils of the eucalyptus
trees can lead to rapid spread in the
tree crowns, jumping across hu-
man-made firebreaks. On the other
hand, several Australian trees can not
Red river gums in Australia. (Ken Griffiths)

116
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flora of Australia

only can survive fires but actually require fire to ger-

minate.
Eucalypts have been introduced to many countries,
including Italy, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, China, and
Brazil, and they are common in California, where
they were introduced more than 170 years ago.

The Acacias
These plants are usually called “wattles” in Austra-
lia, because the early European convicts and settlers
used the flexible twigs of the plant for wattling, in
Acacias as seen at Royal National Park in Sydney, Australia.
which twigs are woven together, making a firm (KarenHBlack)
foundation for a thatched roof or for walls, which
then are covered inside and out with mud. This style contains thousands of species of trees, as well as
of building, known as wattle-and-daub, was com- lianas, lawyer vine, and the fierce “stinging tree”
mon throughout Australia in pioneering days. (Dendrocnide moroides) whose touch could kill an
Wattles frequently have masses of colorful flow- unwary explorer. Toward the north of New South
ers, usually bright yellow. One species is the na- Wales, a kind of subtropical to temperate rain forest
tional flower of Australia. Other interesting acacias grows. Cool, wet Victoria and Tasmania have exten-
include the mulga (Acacia aneura), which has an sive areas of temperate rain forest, where only a few
attractive wood. species dominate the forests. Arctic beech are
found, as well as sassafras and tall tree ferns.
The Rain Forests
Although rain forest vegetation covers only a small Sclerophyllus Forest
area of Australia, it is exceptionally varied and of This is the typical Australian bush, which grows
great scientific interest. Neither of the two general close to the coast of New South Wales, Victoria, and
types of rain forest found in Australia has eucalypts. Tasmania. The bright Australian sunshine streams
Rain forests are located along the Eastern High- down through the sparse crowns and narrow leaves
lands, or Great Dividing Range, where rainfall is of the eucalypts. As the climate becomes drier, far-
heavy. In small areas of tropical Queensland, where ther inland from the coast, the open forest slowly
rainfall is also heavy, true tropical rain forest is changes to a shrubbier woodland vegetation.
found. The flora are similar to that in Indonesian
and Malaysian rain forests. The tropical rain forest Grasslands
Moving farther inland, to still drier regions, wood-
lands give way to grasslands, where cattle are raised
for beef in the tropics, and sheep are raised for wool in
the temperate areas. Before Europeans came to Aus-
tralia, there were native grasslands in the inte-
rior—tropical grasslands in the monsoonal north,
and temperate grasslands in the south and southwest.
Kangaroo grass and wallaby grass grew in the temper-
ate interior of New South Wales, but much of this has
been cleared for agriculture, especially for wheat
farming. Mitchell grass is another tussock grass,
Spinifex grass clumps in South Australia. (Galumphing Galah) which grows in western Queensland and into the

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Flora of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

In northwest Australia, a single species of baobab

tree (Adansonia gregorii), locally known as the boab, is
found in the Kimberley region of Western Australia
and in parts of Northern Territory. This fat-trunked
tree collects water in its tissue. The only other baobabs
are found in Africa, a reminder that these continents
were once joined. Bottlebrush is an Australian shrub
with colorful flowers that has become popular with
gardeners in many parts of the world.

A row of baobab trees. (madmatrix) Extinct and Endangered Plant Species

Human activities on Australia have led to the ex-
Northern Territory; cattle and sheep graze tinction of more than ninety species of plants, and
extensively on this excellent native pasture. the list of threatened and endangered plants con-
The most-common grassland type in Australia is tains more than 1,000 species. Many non-native
spinifex, a spiky grass clump that grows in the arid species have been introduced to Australia by Euro-
interior and west. Even cattle cannot feed on spinifex peans; some have become pests, such as the black-
grass, so this environment is less threatened than berry in Victoria, the lantana in north Queensland,
most other grasslands. The northern grasslands are and the water hyacinth throughout the continent.
dotted with tall red termite mounds; those that are In 2020, there were 681 national parks in Australia,
aligned north-south for protection from the hot Sun as well as other conservation areas where native
are built by so-called “magnetic” termites. flora are protected.

Other Trees and Plants Aboriginal Plant Use

Many people think that macadamia nuts are native The indigenous Australians used plants as sources
to Hawaii, which produces 90 percent of the world’s of food and for medicinal purposes. Food plants in-
crop, but in fact, the tree is native to Australia. It was cluded nuts, seeds, berries, roots, and tubers. Nec-
discovered by Ferdinand von Mueller in 1857 on an tar from flowering plants, the pithy center of tree
expedition in northern Australia. Mueller named ferns, and stems and roots of reeds were eaten. Fi-
the tree after his Scottish friend, John Macadam. brous plants were made into string for weaving nets
The trees were introduced to Hawaii in 1882. or making baskets. Weapons such as spears, clubs,
Cycads belong to an ancient plant species they and shields, as well as boomerangs, were made from
still thrive in Australia. The Macrozamia of North hardwoods such as eucalyptus. The bunya pine
Queensland is a giant fernlike plant. Similarly an- (Araucaria bidwillii) forests of southeast Queensland
cient are the Xanthorrhoea grass-trees, a fire-resis- were a place of great feasting when the rich bunya
tant species in which a single spearlike stem rises nuts fell.
from a delicate green skirt. Ray Sumner

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 Fauna of Australia

Many scientists theorize that until about 300 mil- Gondwanaland continued to fragment and drift
lion years ago, Earth had one supercontinent or apart. Once-related flora and fauna began to evolve
landmass, called Pangaea, that covered about 40 separately.
percent of the planet’s surface. During that time, When Gondwanaland broke apart some 60 mil-
animal and plant species multiplied and inter- lion years ago, Australia became Earth’s only island
mixed freely across the great land. Then, nearly 200 continent—completely surrounded by oceans and
million years ago, many factors caused Pangaea to seas. Isolated from the other major landmasses, Aus-
split into two smaller continents, Laurasia and tralian plants and animals evolved on their own. Fau-
Gondwanaland. Laurasia evolved from what had nal adaptations took place as special habitats de-
been the northern part of Pangaea and included manded change for survival, especially habitats such
North America, Europe, and Asia. Gondwanaland, as the tropical rain forests of North Queens- land;
formed from the southern part of Pangaea, com- the mangrove swamps along the coast; the moun-
prised Antarctica, South America, Africa, India, tainous Alps of southeast Australia; and the gorges,
and Australia. Over millions of years, Laurasia and caves, and deserts of central Australia. Frogs, for ex-

Kangaroo with young in pouch. (Stephen Lynn)

119
Fauna of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

HABITATS AND SELECTED VERTEBRATES OF AUSTRALIA

Cassowary
Arboreal
Phalanger
Saltwater Crocodile
Bird of Paradise
Wallaby TROPICAL
Indian Echidna RAIN FOREST
Ocean Dingo Crocodile
Emu GRASSLANDS Wombat
Rat Kangaroo Echidna
Sheep Pa c i f i c
Frilled Death TEMPERATE Ocean
Lizard DESERT
Adder SCRUB AND
FOREST
Phascogale Thorny Devil Red
Great Gray Kangaroo
Wallaby
Kangaroo
Honey-Eating Fairy Penguin
Possum Great
Australian Koala
Bight Echidna

Platypus
Tasmanian
Devil

ample, learned to burrow for water. Female kanga- back and other whale species, the dugong (or sea
roos can “pause” a pregnancy during times of cow), and a variety of Australian fur seal species.
drought. The platypus developed electroreception, Marsupials are the most common mammals na-
a sixth sense that helps it detect food. tive to Australia. They give birth to live immature
Some mammals adapted to the lack of drinking (fetal) young that are then carried in the mother’s
water by metabolizing food differently. All success- pouch until fully developed. Marsupials date back
ful species made adjustments in order to survive. As thousands of years and have adapted to many habi-
a result, the Australian continent is now home to a tats related to their preferred foods. These include
rich, varied, and often unique flora and fauna. plants, eaten by the kangaroo and the koala; nectar,
Nearly 95 percent of its mammals, 70 percent of its eaten by the pygmy possum; and insects and meat,
birds, 88 percent of its reptiles, and 94 percent of its eaten by the quoll and Tasmanian devil. Some mar-
frogs are found nowhere else in the world in the supials, such as bandicoots, are omnivorous, eating
wild. both plants and small animals.
The second group of mammals, the mono-
Australian Mammals tremes, are the most puzzling of nature’s animal
Australia’s distinctive wildlife includes more than species. Sometimes referred to as “living fossils,”
350 species of native mammals. All three groups of these mammals lay eggs, then nurse their hatched
modern mammals—marsupials, monotremes, and young. Scientists believe that monotremes may rep-
placentals—are represented. Monotremes (egg- resent the stage of evolution between reptilian and
laying mammals) are perhaps the most unusual; placental mammals. Australia has two types of
two of the three known species (the platypus and monotremes: the platypus and the echidna. Best-
the echidna) exist on the island continent. Australia known is the platypus, with its duck bill, beaver-like
also has several sea mammals, including the hump- tail, webbed feet, and furry body. Once hunted for

120
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Fauna of Australia

its rich pelt, the platypus is now protected from cially parrots and cockatoos. Australia is also home
poaching by law. The echidna, also known as the to the smallest penguin species, the little blue or
spiny anteater, resembles the porcupine. This rab- fairy penguin found on Phillip Island in Victoria.
bit-sized mammal has no teeth and uses its long Australia’s emu and cassowary are the largest
sticky tongue to penetrate ant and termite nests birds in the world; both are flightless. The emu
that it has torn open with its sharp claws. When in stands nearly 6 feet (2 meters) tall and weighs more
danger, it burrows straight into the ground. than 100 pounds (45 kilograms). Covered with
Echidnas are common in Australia and are not a feathers and having a ferocious beak, its wings are
protected species. only prehistoric remnants. Its long legs can cover
The third group of mammals, the placentals, are the ground at nearly 30 miles (50 km.) per hour.
those species that give birth to fully developed live The emu is also a good swimmer. Its image (along
young. Many Australian species fall into this group, with that of the kangaroo) is found on the Austra-
including varieties of native mice. lian coat-of-arms. The cassowary is also distinctive
Most Australian land mammals are nocturnal in appearance. Smaller than the emu (around 5
(active only at night). Australia abounds with wild- feet/1.5 meters), it has coarse, hairlike feathers, red
life parks and zoos that allow visitors to observe fleshy wattles, a bony helmet, and three-toed feet
these animals in their own habitats. designed for running. Both the cassowary and emu
have distinctive, throaty calls.
Birds Parrot species abound in Australia. The budgeri-
Australia has more than 800 bird species of many gar (often called budgies) is a common pet. The
types. Some major categories include birds of prey galah (rose-breasted cockatoo), crimson rosella,
(owls, eagles, hawks/kestrels), songbirds, and espe- and rainbow lorikeet are among the most colorful

Emu. (tracielouise)

121
Fauna of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

and commonly seen species. There are ten native swamp tortoise saw its numbers drop to a few dozen
species of kingfishers and kookaburras, famous for in the wild, but thanks to a highly successful cap-
taking plunging dives to catch prey. The laughing tive-breeding program at the Perth Zoo, more than
kookaburra has a distinct call and is the largest rep- 700 of the tiny tortoises have been bred and
resentative of Australia’s kingfisher families. Partic- released into the wild.
ularly unusual is the lyrebird, the largest Australian Australia is also home to the freshwater crocodile
songbird. Sooty brown and the size of a hen, the and the saltwater (estuarine) crocodile. The latter is
lyrebird’s tail feathers are nearly 2 feet (0.6 meter) the biggest reptile in the world. Found along the
long. When raised, the tail feathers take the shape country’s northern coastline, from Rockhampton in
of the lyre, a stringed instrument from antiquity. Queensland to Broome in Western Australia,
“saltys” live mainly where tidal rivers meet the sea.
Reptiles and Amphibians They are a protected species and are often caught
There are 869 reptile species in Australia; 93 per- and relocated for their own survival.
cent do not exist anywhere else in the world. Of the Australia’s large population of amphibians in-
2,400 species of snakes recognized in the world, 172 cludes about 230 frog species. One of the most strik-
of them are found on the island continent. Austra- ing features of Australian frog fauna is their lack of
lian snakes are grouped into five families: pythons dependence on permanent bodies of water for re-
and boas; blind snakes; colubrid snakes; file snakes; production. Species have adapted to breeding in
and elapids and sea snakes. Many of the land snakes temporary pools of water by shortening their peri-
are venomous, such as the taipan, brown snake, and ods of larval development.
red-bellied black snake.
Australian reptiles include hundreds of species of Sea Mammals and Marine Life
lizards. The main families are geckos; legless or Australia is famous for its 1,250-mile (2,000-km.)-
snake lizards; dragon lizards (such as the long Great Barrier Reef and the countless species of
frilled-neck lizard found on Australia’s old two-cent fish and other sea creatures that coexist in that habi-
coin); iguana-like monitor lizards or goannas; and tat. These include anemones, sponges, worms, gas-
skinks. Australia’s critically endangered western tropods, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp and prawns,

Saltwater crocodile. (DianaLynne)

122
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Fauna of Australia

Frilled-neck lizard. (Kaan Sezer)

crabs, and starfish. One starfish species in particu- dragonflies, and spiders are included in the count.
lar, the crown-of-thorns, has caused much destruc- Many invertebrate species have Pangean origins or
tion to the reef by eating most of the living coral. can be traced back to Gondwanan times.
Sharks, such as the fearsome great white, also live
along the Australian coast. These waters are home Introduction of Destructive Nonnative Fauna
to many sea mammal species, including whales With the passage of time and the mobility of human
(humpback, sei, and fin, among others); dolphins; populations, foreign plants and animals have been
Australian fur seals, and dugongs. Australia has the introduced into Australia, and many of them
largest dugong population in the world, most living thrived. The indigenous Australians, the first hu-
in the Torres Strait and in the northern Great Bar- mans to inhabit the Australian continent, arrived
rier Reef. A slow-moving mammal with little protec- there nearly 40,000 years ago. With them they
tion against sharks, saltwater crocodiles, or human brought the dingo, a wild dog originally from Asia,
predators, it is now a protected species in Australia. possibly Thailand. When Europeans began settling
in Australia in the late eighteenth century, hoofed
Invertebrates species such as horses, cattle, goats, sheep, and deer
Australia’s invertebrate fauna is estimated at be- were introduced into the faunal mix. Domestic cats
tween 275,000 and 300,000 species, most of them were imported as well.
endemic to Australia. These include families of in- Many of these introduced animals had a disas-
sects (beetles, wasps and bees, stick insects, praying trous impact on the Australian ecology, causing
mantis, grasshoppers, termites) and nearly 4,000 much damage and loss of native species. Without
species of ants. Snails, earthworms (including some native predators or diseases to control their grow-
of the world’s largest worms), moths and butterflies, ing populations, imported species have often

123
Fauna of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

Koala. (Freder)

Red-belly black snake. (Lakeview_Images)

124
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Fauna of Australia

Echidna. (Andrew Haysom)

Cassowary. (BirdImages)

125
Fauna of Australia Biogeography and Natural Resources

Common Name Scientific Name Range Status

Bandicoot, desert Perameles eremiana Australia endangered

Kangaroo, Tasmanian forester Macropus giganteus tasmaniensis Australia endangered
(Tasmania)
Koala Phascolarctos cinerus Australia threatened
Marsupial, eastern jerboa Antechinomys laniger Australia endangered
Mouse, Australian native Notomys aquilo Australia endangered
Numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus Australia endangered
Possum, mountain pygmy Burramys parvus Australia endangered
Rat-kangaroo, desert Caloprymnus campestris Australia endangered
Tiger, Tasmanian Thylacinus cynocephalus Australia endangered
Wallaby, western hare Lagorchestes hirsutus Australia endangered
Wombat, Queensland hairy-nosed Lasiorhinus krefftii Australia endangered
Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior

caused great destruction by preying on native ani- feed on them. Rabbits are also considered pests. In
mals and devouring native plants. Examples of 1859, Thomas Austin imported twenty-four rabbits
harmful species include the rabbit, camel, cat, from England and released them on his property in
dingo, water buffalo, and cane toad. The dingo, a Victoria for sport hunting. Today the total wild rab-
carnivore, competed for the same food sources as bit population exceeds 200 million and is highly
the native Tasmanian tiger, leading to the extinc- destructive to crops and native plants.
tion of that species. Feral domestic cats have killed The loss of so many of Australia’s native animal
off native rodent species. species cannot be blamed entirely on competitive
Camels are another example. Originally brought interaction with imported species. Humans also
to Australia from Afghanistan, they were well-suited have caused losses through poaching practices, use
to carrying cargo across central Australia’s vast arid of poisonous herbicides, destruction of habitats
deserts. With the advent of railroads and automo- through increased building and urbanization, and
biles, however, their use ended. Now, descendants the commercial use of indigenous animal species.
of the original camels roam the Outback. Issues concerning the preservation of native plants,
Cane toads were first introduced by farmers in animals, and habitats remain of the utmost impor-
1935, despite warnings from scientists, to protect tance to Australians. They have great pride in the
Queensland’s sugarcane fields from the cane bee- country’s unique faunal heritage. To this end, Austra-
tle. The experiment failed; today they are a major lia continues to establish safeguards and pass legisla-
nuisance. The highly poisonous amphibians multi- tion aimed at protecting the natural environment, the
ply rapidly, often live up to twenty years, and have destruction of which would be tragic and apt to have
no natural enemies in Australia. They are especially wide-reaching economic and other consequences.
deadly to native animal populations that attempt to Cynthia Beres

126
 Flora and Fauna of
the Pacific Islands

The vast region of the Pacific, collectively called some of the strangest creatures on Earth are endemic
Oceania, comprises thousands of islands. Oceania (found nowhere else) to particular islands. Most of
spreads across the Pacific Ocean from 20 degrees the world’s flightless birds developed on islands,
north latitude to 50 degrees south latitude and from where there originally were no large land predators.
longitude 125 degrees east to 130 degrees west. The Island ecosystems are sensitive to disturbances,
major groupings are Melanesia, Micronesia, Polyne- whether from natural causes such as severe storms,
sia, and New Zealand. Melanesia is a group of large or human activities such as construction, agriculture,
islands immediately north and east of Australia, logging, and introduced species.
from New Guinea to New Caledonia. Micronesia is Introduced species (exotics), both accidental and
made up of hundreds of tiny atolls in the western Pa- deliberate, are a serious problem. Rats and feral an-
cific. Polynesia covers a huge region in the central Pa- imals (domestic animals that have gone wild) can
cific. New Zealand lies east and south of Australia. devastate island ecologies. Pigs, cats, rats, and goats
For biological purposes, these islands can be catego- are particularly devastating—goats devour vegeta-
rized by climate and formation type. Climates range tion, cats eat birds and small animals, and rats and
from tropical to sub-Antarctic, dry to very rainy. pigs eat anything. Introduced plants may overgrow
Types include volcanic (Fiji, Guam, and Hawaii), tec- native ones. Exotics also carry diseases to which na-
tonic (New Zealand and New Guinea), and low coral tive plants and animals have no resistance. Humans
atolls (nearly all of Micronesia’s islands). have tried to deal with exotics, with mixed results.
For example, the mongoose was intentionally
Endemic and Exotic Plants and Animals brought to Fiji to control accidentally introduced
Organisms have difficulty reaching the islands across rats. No one considered that rats are active at night
the broad expanses of the Pacific Ocean. This isola- and mongooses during the day. The mongoose did
tion leads to trends in the number of species found not control the rats, but it did prey on seven native
on any given island: Bigger islands have more spe- Fijian bird species, causing their extinction.
cies; those farthest from continents have fewer spe-
cies. To reach the islands, plants must be carried by
animals or rely on wind or water currents. Animals
must fly (birds and bats), float on logs, or be carried
in by humans. Birds are usually the first visitors,
bringing with them hitchhiking insects and plant
seeds in their digestive tracts. Bats are the only mam-
mals to reach many islands without human help.
Island plants and animals evolve together, af-
fected by difficult conditions; soil is often poor and
food limited. Harsh environments and isolation con-
tribute to the formation of new and unique species; A mangrove swamp. (Fanny Schertzer)

127
Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands Biogeography and Natural Resources

Another strange example occurred in Hawaii. A

Hawaiian bee crawls headfirst into native, bar-
rel-shaped flowers, gathers the nectar, and then Easter Island (Rapa Nui) lies in the South Pacific
backs out. A plant that was introduced by landscap- 2,400 miles (3,862 km.) from Chile, South America.
ers attracted bees, but the flowers were smaller than It is best known for its huge, mysterious stone stat-
the native plants. Once a bee crawled in, it became ues. Archeological evidence proves that Easter Is-
land once was densely forested and supported many
stuck like a cork in a bottle. There are thousands of
animal and bird species. The inhabitants burned or
these plants, each with hundreds of flowers cut down the forests before Europeans discovered
stoppered with dead bees. the island in the 1700’s. The only plants now living
Many tropical and temperate islands have on the island are sparse grasses, a few shrubs, and
coastal wetlands and mangrove swamps growing at two species of trees. There are almost no land ani-
mals larger than insects. The approximately 8,000
the edge of the sea. Mangroves are low-growing,
people who live on the island must import nearly all
salt-tolerant trees whose dense tangles are virtually their food. In 2018, the island took the step of limit-
impenetrable to humans. Wetlands and mangrove ing tourist visits from 90 to 30 days, citing social and
swamps are important breeding grounds for many environmental concerns. The devastation of Easter
types of fish and crabs, and also trap sediment, sta- Island is an extreme example of what can happen to
island ecologies when human development exceeds
bilize shorelines, and protect coastlines from
natural capacity.
storms. Humans often fill in the wetlands and cut
down the mangroves, causing coastal erosion and
the loss of food fish. There are nearly 1,500 endemic Fijian plant spe-
cies, including ten species of palm tree on the island
Fiji Islands of Viti Levu alone. Endemic animals include birds
The Fiji Islands are mostly volcanic in origin and such as lorikeets (parrots that eat flowers or nectar),
lie in the South Pacific Ocean between longitudes the Fiji goshawk, spectacularly colored pigeons and
175 degrees east and 178 degrees west and 15 de- parrots, and a pigeon that barks like a dog. The
grees and 22 degrees south latitudes, about 1,300 Vanikoro flycatcher, which holds its mossy nest to-
miles (2,100 km.) north of Auckland, New Zea- gether with spider webs, is one of the few native
land. Some parts of the islands receive up to 13 feet birds that has adapted to forest clearing. It is com-
(4 meters) of rain per year, while other parts re- monly seen in town gardens and suburbs.
main dry. A range of volcanic peaks divides the is- Other creatures native to Fiji are snakes, includ-
lands; the highest, Mount Tomanivi (formerly ing a rare, tiny cobra, two species of frog, and sev-
Mount Victoria), stands 4,341 feet (1,322 meters). eral species of geckoes and skinks (small lizards).
These differences in weather and elevation create The critically endangered Fijian crested iguana was
a variety of habitats—dense rain forests, grassy sa- not discovered until 1978 and lives only on the is-
vanna, and mangrove swamps—and a large land of Yadua Taba. Yadua Taba is now a preserve,
diversity of species. and the crested iguana is more likely to survive since
Human disruption on Fiji has been moderate. feral goats were removed from the island.
About half the total area is still forested, and less Grassy savannas are found higher on the volcanic
than one-fourth of the land is suitable for agricul- slopes and in the dry zones. They are often planted
ture. Trees include mahogany, pine, pandanus, co- with coconut palms and taro, a plant with po-
conut palms, mangoes, guava, and figs. Banyan figs tato-like roots that is grown on many Pacific islands.
are difficult to cut down and are responsible for Several of the reserve areas in the Fijian islands
some of the lack of forest clearing. The figs are an are being logged and provide little sanctuary to na-
important food for many birds and animals. Other tive plants and animals. The government is inter-
rain- forest plants include orchids, ferns, and ested in increased logging of mahogany and pine.
epiphytes (plants that grow upon other plants). The Fiji Pine Commission hopes to remove pres-

128
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands

sure from logging native forest trees such as mahog-

any by encouraging the development of pine for-
ests. Pines grow quickly and could form a The brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) vividly illus-
sustainable logging industry, unlike the valuable trates the dangers of introducing an exotic species
but slow-growing mahogany trees. Increased world to an island ecosystem. The brown tree snake, a na-
interest in herbal remedies has created a market for tive of Australia, was accidentally introduced to
Guam after World War II. It reproduced in incredi-
Fiji’s traditional crop, kava root, and for ginger
ble numbers and reached the highest density of any
processing.
snake population on Earth, with up to sixteen to
The University of the South Pacific is located in twenty thousand snakes per square mile. In the late
Fiji and is a source of important research into South 1970’s biologists noticed that birds were disappear-
Pacific species. Tourism is important to Fiji’s econ- ing from Guam. Of the fourteen bird species en-
omy and, with management, could represent a demic to the island, at least nine had become extinct
by the 1990’s. Many small animal species, as well as
source of income to Fijians while still preserving na-
chickens raised by the island’s inhabitants, also dis-
tive wildlife.
appeared. The snakes harm humans as well; they
bite viciously and cause frequent power outages by
New Guinea climbing on power lines. Millions of dollars have
The world’s largest tropical island, New Guinea is been spent on attempts to control the brown tree
located north of Australia and just south of the snake, and by 2017 officials reported a slight de-
crease in the snake population. Measures include
equator. It is tectonic in origin, with great changes
traps, the use of trained dogs to search for and re-
in elevation and many different habitats. Because of
move snakes before vessels leave the island, and
its size and varied terrain, New Guinea has a greater air-dropping poisoned bait for snakes to consume,
variety of habitats than any similar-sized land area in the form of dead mice filled with acetaminophen.

in the world. In fact, New Guinea is so rugged that it

is one of the least explored and least developed
places on Earth. It provides the best remaining ex-
ample of the types of organisms that can develop in
island isolation.
New Guinea habitats include cold tundra, tropi-
cal rain forests, grassy savannas, coastal zones,
montane rain forests, cloud forests, and bogs.
There are at least 20,000 species of flowering
plants, including more than 2,500 species of or-
chids, and hundreds of birds and animals. Many
New Guinea species are unusual. Endemic Klinki
pines (Araucaria hunsteinii) are the tallest tropical
trees in the world, reaching 295 feet (90 meters)
tall.
Native birds range from the beautiful to the bi-
zarre. There are several species of birds of paradise,
some of the most beautiful birds in the world. They
have long, brilliantly colored feathers with metal-
lic-looking feather disks which they wave and trem-
ble to attract mates. The bowerbird builds large,
A klinki tree in Papua New Guinea. (Phil Markey) complicated structures and decorates them with

129
Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands Biogeography and Natural Resources

A mahogany forest. (aldarinho)

colorful flowers, feathers, or trash, and even uses tailed possums, ringtails, and land wallabies that
berry juice as paint. The megapode tunnels into the look like small, dainty kangaroos.
soil near volcanic hot springs with huge, powerful Other odd New Guinea animals are the echidnas,
feet. It lays its eggs in the warm tunnel so that it does perhaps the most primitive mammal in the world.
not have to sit on them. Echidnas lay eggs and are related to the duck-billed
New Guinea has several parrots, including the en- platypus. There are several echidna species; the
dangered Pesquet’s parrot, whose face is completely largest is the giant spiny anteater, which has long
devoid of feathers, allowing it to stick its head into spines, dense fur, thick claws, and a long, slender
fruit without getting its plumage sticky. Lorikeets are snout. Despite its name, it eats mostly earthworms,
colorful, nectar-eating parrots. New Guinea is also which it reels into its mouth using spines on its
home to the flightless cassowary, a large bird up to tongue.
6.6 feet (2 meters) tall and weighing up to 130 New Guinea has many types of fruit bats. One
pounds (60 kilograms). Other bird species include large species, the flying fox, roosts in colonies. In
feathery crowned pigeons, kingfishers (twenty-two Madang and several other New Guinean communi-
species), ducks, herons, hawks, and egrets. ties, thousands of bats roost overhead, causing sig-
As in Australia, primates and large mammals nificant problems in street cleaning and for pedes-
never arrived in New Guinea. Marsupials (animals trians without hats.
with pouches) took their ecological places. There Reptiles and amphibians on New Guinea consist
are several species of tree-living kangaroos. The ba- of snakes, lizards, frogs, and toads. The Salvadori
sic kangaroo shape is modified in the tree species; monitor lizard is one of the longest in the world,
they have larger forearms and smaller hind legs. growing up to 16 feet (5 meters) long, most of which
Other marsupials include striped and feather- is tail. Crocodiles live in many rivers and are endan-

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands

gered from hunting and demand for their hides. Many forests host “ant-plants,” warty looking
Some locals have begun crocodile ranches, where epiphytes that have hollow mazes inside their tis-
they breed and raise the crocodiles for meat and sues. Ants live in the maze, safe from predators. The
hides without damaging wild populations. Snakes ants provide nutrition for the plant in the form of
include adders and pythons (eight species), and the droppings, scraps of food, and dead ants.
deadly taipan and Papuan black snakes. There are Even though New Guinea is rugged and isolated,
many species of frogs, including several odd human impact is increasing. The population is ris-
rain-forest species, whose metamorphosis no ing, leading to more forests being cut and grass-
longer includes a tadpole stage. lands being plowed for agriculture, roads, and de-
New Guinea’s insects include the largest moth in velopment. Humans have brought in food plants
the world and the largest butterfly, the Queen such as the sago palm, which can be cultivated in ar-
Alexandra’s birdwing. This species is endangered eas where more traditional crops will not survive.
due to collecting and loss of habitat. In recent years, They also cultivate pandanus trees, several varieties
special butterfly museums have stepped in to raise of fruiting vine, breadfruit, fungi, tubers, sugar-
the insects, and sell them to collectors and muse- cane, bananas, taro, and yams. Gold, silver, and
ums, and in doing so help preserve the species. New copper have been discovered, which encourages
Guinea is also home to giant millipedes, stick in- destructive mining.
sects 12 inches (30 centimeters) long, and a fly with It has proven difficult to develop New Guinea
its eyes on stalks. Several species of flies have antlers economically without destroying the unique flora
on their heads, which they use to fight in defense of and fauna of the island. It is hoped that lessons
egg-laying territory. learned on other islands, such as Guam and New

Tree kangaroo. (CraigRJD)

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Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands Biogeography and Natural Resources

Flying foxes roosting in Madang, Papua New Guinea. (Ianm35)

Zealand, may be applied to New Guinea. Incentives land communities. Now, half is pasture for grazing
have been introduced to keep wild areas wild, such and a quarter is forest, mostly comprised of intro-
as encouraging ecologically friendly businesses like duced species. Much of the remaining native forest
crocodile and butterfly farms and ecotourism. The is maintained as national parks and reserves.
National Park reserve that includes Puncak Jays Pastureland usually consists of a single species of
(Mount Jaya), the highest point between the Hima- grass and does not support the wide variety of bird
layas and the Andes, is the only place in the world and animal life of the original grassland
where it is possible to visit a glacier and a coral reef communities.
in the same park. It is sometimes said that the dominant mammal
in New Zealand is the sheep. Sheep are vital to the
New Zealand economy, but their grazing lands have displaced
Located off the eastern edge of Australia, New Zea- native plants and animals from their natural habi-
land has a fairly moderate climate that comes from tats. Today, more than 600 species native to New
conflicting warm, humid Pacific air interacting with Zealand are threatened and several are extinct, in-
colder Antarctic weather. It is similar to New cluding 43 percent of New Zealand’s frogs and
Guinea, with rugged terrain, high mountains, and more than 40 percent of its native birds.
habitats from grassy open plains to dense forests, Like New Guinea and Australia, New Zealand did
wet areas to near-deserts. Unlike New Guinea, how- not originally have any large mammals or carni-
ever, New Zealand has been occupied and devel- vores. Fourteen flightless or weak-flying birds de-
oped by humans for hundreds of years. Before veloped there. The native Maori people hunted the
large-scale agriculture, about half of New Zealand large, flightless moa to extinction before the Euro-
was covered with forests and one-third with grass- peans arrived, one of the few known instances in re-

132
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands

cent history when humans not from a Western cul- as an adult and one that bypasses the tadpole stage.
ture were responsible for a species’ extinction. Some frog species have been introduced, but have
Flightless birds that still survive in New Zealand had little impact. Reptiles include geckoes, skinks,
are the kiwi and the kakapo parrot. The introduc- and the extremely primitive, lizard-like tuatara.
tion of cats, dogs, rats, and pigs has severely endan- Invertebrate species include such oddities as a gi-
gered both species, although by 2019, intensive ant carnivorous land snail. There are more than
captive-breeding efforts had restored the popula- 4,000 species of beetles, 2,000 species of flies, and
tion to approximately 200 juvenile or older birds. 1,500 species of butterflies and moths. In a reversal
All had been moved to predator-free, offshore is- of the usual ecological scenario, some native insects
lands. The kiwi is New Zealand’s state bird and ef- are destroying introduced pasture grasses.
forts are being made to save it as well. Two species of
another flightless bird, the penguin, breed on the Coral Atolls
south and east coasts. There are more than 200 spe- The Federated States of Micronesia consists mainly
cies of flying birds, at least forty of them introduced, of small atolls. Coral atolls are found only in tropi-
including tropic birds, gulls, hawks, harriers, skuas, cal latitudes because coral (small, colonial animals)
spoonbills, and pheasants. grows only in warm water. Coral reefs support a tre-
The only original endemic mammals were two mendous variety of fish, crabs, and mollusks. Atolls
species of bats. In the past 200 years, many exotic tend to have porous, infertile soil and to be very low
marsupials and mammals have appeared, includ- in elevation; the inhabited state of Tokelau, three
ing rabbits, rats, mice, weasels, otters, cats, pigs, cat- small islands located at 9 degrees south latitude,
tle, deer, goats, and sheep. Domestic cattle, sheep, longitude 172 degrees west, has a maximum eleva-
and pigs are economically important. tion of only 16 feet (5 meters). Due to the low pro-
Amphibians and reptiles are interesting but not file, poor soil, and occasional scouring by typhoons,
numerous. Among them is a frog that retains its tail flora are mostly limited to hardy root crops and

Penguin in New Zealand. (TerryJLawrence)

133
Flora and Fauna of the Pacific Islands Biogeography and Natural Resources

fast-growing trees such as coconut and pandanus.

Other vegetation may include native and intro-
duced species such as papaya, banana, arrowroot, New Zealand’s strikingly beautiful and diverse land-
taro, lime, breadfruit, and pumpkin. Fauna usually scape contains thirteen national parks: four on
consists of lizards, rodents, crabs, and other small North Island and nine on South Island. These
parks, comprising thirty percent of New Zealand’s
creatures. Pigs, ducks, and chickens are raised for
land area, are set aside to preserve spectacular scen-
food, and dogs and cats are kept as pets. ery, rare and endangered flora and fauna, and ar-
Human disturbances on coral atolls often have cheological sites. These parks offer various outdoor
been particularly impactful; several nuclear test activities, such as golfing, walking, mountaineering
and climbing, snow sports, exploring archeological
bombs were exploded on Bikini Atoll and other is-
and mining sites and old volcanic landforms, geyser
lands in the 1940s and 1950s. Kwajalein, the largest watching, swimming, diving, sailing, and camping.
atoll in the world, is leased by the US military from Many parks contain features of historic and spir-
the Marshall Islands as a ballistic missile defense itual significance to the Maori. In 1887 the Maori
test site. Johnston Atoll, a US territory about 820 chiefs of the Tuwharetoa tribe dedicated their an-
cestral North Island volcanic peaks of Tongariro,
miles (1,320 km.) southwest of Honolulu, Hawaii, Ruapehu, and Nguaruhoe to all people of New Zea-
was formerly a military base and storage facility for land. This area, named Tongariro National Park, is
radioactive and toxic substances; today, it is under- the country’s first—and the world’s fourth—na-
going environmental remediation. The atoll is ad- tional park. It is one of three World Heritage sites
within the country. Te Wahipounamu, on South Is-
ministered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service as a
land, includes parts of Westland, Fiordland, Mount
protected area and bird-breeding ground, and is Cook, and Mount Aspiring National Parks. The
closed to visitors. New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands, in the Southern
Ocean, consist of five island groups (the Snares,
Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, Auckland Is-
Future Prospects
lands and Campbell Island) and are nesting
Island ecologies are unique and fragile. Some, like grounds for 126 species of birds.
those in Guam and New Zealand, can never be re-
turned to their original state, but with extensive
wildlife management, many native species can be which wildlife destruction can still be controlled.
saved from extinction. Ironically, people in the de- Conservationists sometimes do not realize that is-
veloped world who visit zoos see more native Pacific lands are not small, geographical zoos; people live
island species than those who live on those islands. there and want to improve their lives. Development
Some endemic species have been wiped out or had cannot be stopped, but it can be managed so that
their habitat destroyed, making zoos the final the humans can improve their standard of living as
refuge for many creatures. they wish, and the original, amazing island dwellers
New Guinea, Fiji, and many smaller islands are in can still survive.
earlier stages of modern development during Kelly Howard

Q1. What types of flowering plants Q2. Why are Australia’s and New Q3. What impact have introduced
grow in Antarc tica? Why is Zealand’s flora and fauna so differ- species had on the flora and fauna
Antarctica’s mammal life limited to ent from those of the rest of the of the Pacific islands? Why are is-
sea-dwelling creatures? What char- world? What are monotremes? land ecologies considered fragile?
acteristics of the Antarctic environ- How are they unique among mam-
ment make it ideal for penguins? mals? Which marsupial is most
closely associated with Australia?

134
Human Geography
 Overview

The Human Environment

No person lives in a vacuum. Every human being shape it increased. Humans have always had a di-
and community is surrounded by a world of exter- rect impact on Earth. Even 10,000 years ago,
nal influences with which it interacts and by which it Neolithic people cut down trees, scratched the
is affected. In turn, humans influence and change earth’s surface with simple plows, and replaced di-
their environments: sometimes intentionally, verse plant forms with single crops. From this basic
sometimes not, and sometimes with effects that are agricultural technology grew more complex human
harmful to these environments, and, in turn, to hu- communities, and people were freed from the need
mans themselves. Humans have always shaped the to hunt and gather. The alteration of the local eco-
world in which they live, but developments over the systems could have deleterious effects, however, as
past few centuries have greatly enhanced this gardens turned eventually to deserts in places like
capacity. North Africa and what later became Iraq. Those
Many people feel a sense of alarm about the con- who kept herds of animals grazed them in areas rich
sequences of widespread adoption of modern tech- in grasses, and animal fertilizer helped keep them
nology, including artificial intelligence (AI) and ac- rich. If the area was overgrazed, however, destroy-
celerating human population growth in the world. ing important ground cover, the herders moved on,
Travel and transportation among the world’s re- leaving a perfect setup for erosion and even deserti-
gions have been made surer, safer, and faster, and fication. Today, people have an even greater ability
global communication is virtually instantaneous. to alter their environments than did Neolithic peo-
The human environment is no longer a matter of ple, and ecologists and other scientists as well as cit-
local physical, biological, or social conditions, or izens and politicians are increasingly concerned
even of merely national or regional concerns—the about the negative effects of modern alterations.
postmodern world has become a true global
community. The Physical Environment
Students of human geography divide the human The earth’s biosphere is made up of the atmo-
environment into three broad areas: the physical, sphere—the mass of air surrounding the earth; the
biological, and social environments. The study of hydrosphere—bodies of water; and the litho-
ecology describes and analyzes the interactions of sphere—the outer portion of the earth’s crust. Each
biological forms (mainly plants and animals) and of these, alone and working together, affect human
seeks to uncover the optimal means of species coop- life and human communities.
eration, or symbiosis. Everything that humans do Climate and weather at their most extreme can
affects life and the physical world around them, and make human habitation impossible, or at least ex-
this world provides potentials for and constraints tremely uncomfortable. Desert and polar climates
on how humans can live. do not have the liquid water, vegetation, and animal
As people acquired and shared ever-more knowl- life necessary to sustain human existence. Humans
edge about the world, their abilities to alter and can adapt to a range of climates, however. Mild vari-

137
The Human Environment Human Geography

ations can be addressed simply, with clothing and Through perhaps the first 99 percent of human
shelter. Local droughts, tornadoes, hurricanes, history, people harvested the bounty of nature in its
heavy winds, lightning, and hail can have devastat- native setting, by hunting and gathering. Domesti-
ing effects even in the most comfortable of climates. cation of plants and animals, beginning about
Excess rain can be drained away to make habitable 10,000 years ago, provided humans a more stable
land, and arid areas can be irrigated. Most people and reliable food supply, revolutionizing human
live in temperate zones where weather extremes are communities. Being omnivores, people can use a
rare or dealt with by technological adaptation. wide variety of plants and animals for food, and
Heating and, more recently, air conditioning can they have come to control or manage most impor-
create healthy microclimates, whatever the external tant food sources through herding, agriculture, or
conditions. Food can be grown and then mechanized harvesting. Which plants and animals
transported across long distances to supply are chosen as food, and thus which are cultivated,
populations throughout the year. bred, or exploited, are matters of human culture,
The hydrosphere affects the atmosphere in not, at least in the modern world, of necessity.
countless ways, and provides the water necessary for Huge increases in human population worldwide
human and other life. Bodies of water provide have, however, put tremendous strains on provision
plants and animals for food, transportation routes, of adequate nourishment. Areas poorly endowed
and aesthetic pleasure to people, and often serve to with foodstuffs or that suffer disastrous droughts or
flush away waste products. People locate near water blights may benefit from the importation of food in
sources for all of these reasons, but sometimes suf- the short run, but cannot sustain high populations
fer from sudden shifts in the water level, as in tidal fostered by medical advances and cultural
waves (tsunamis) or flooding. Encroachment of salt considerations.
water into freshwater bodies (salination) is a prob- Human beings themselves are also hosts to myr-
lem that can have natural or human causes. iad organisms, such as fungi, viruses, bacteria, eye-
The lithosphere provides the solid, generally dry lash mites, worms, and lice. While people usually
surface on which people usually live. It has been can coexist with these organisms, at times they are
shaped by the atmosphere (especially wind and rain destructive and even fatal to the human organism.
that erode rocks into soil) and the hydrosphere (for Public health and medical efforts have eradicated
example, alluvial deposits and beach erosion). It some of humankind’s biological enemies, but oth-
serves as the base for much plant life and for most ers remain, or are evolving, and continue to baffle
agriculture. People have tapped its mineral depos- modern science.
its and reshaped it in many places; it also reshapes The presence of these enemies to health once
itself through, for example, earthquakes and volca- played a major role in locating human habitations
nic eruption. Its great variations—including vege- to avoid so-called “bad air” (mal-aria) and the
tation—draw or repel people, who exploit or enjoy breeding grounds of tsetse flies or other pests. The
them for reasons as varied as recreation, military use of pesticides and draining of marshy grounds
defense, or farming. have alleviated a good deal of human suffering.
Human efforts can also control or eliminate biolog-
The Biological Environment ical threats to the plants and animals used for food,
Humans share the earth with over 8 million differ- clothing, and other purposes.
ent species of plants, animals, and microorgan-
isms—of which only about 2 million have been Social Environments
identified and named. As part of the natural food Human reproduction and the nurturing of young
chain, people rely upon other life-forms for require cooperation among people. Over time,
nourishment. people gathered in groups that were diverse in age
if not in other qualities, and the development of

138
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands The Human Environment

towns and cities eventually created an environment soil to erosion and 30 million acres (12 million hect-
in which otherwise unrelated people interacted on ares) of grazing land to desertification each year.
intimate and constructive levels. Specialization, or These negative effects not only jeopardize other
division of labor, created a higher level of material species of terrestrial life, but also humans’ ability to
wealth and culture and ensured interpersonal live comfortably, or perhaps at all.
reliance.
The pooling of labor—both voluntary and Globalization
forced—allowed for the creation of artificial living Humankind’s ability to affect its natural environ-
environments that defied the elements and met hu- ments has increased enormously in the wake of the
man needs for sustenance. Some seemingly basic Industrial Revolution. The harnessing of steam,
human drives of exclusivity and territoriality may chemical, electrical, and atomic energy has enabled
be responsible for interpersonal friction, violence people to transform life on a global scale. Economi-
and, at the extreme, war. Physical differences, such cally, the Western world still to dominates global
as size, skin, or hair color, and cultural differences, markets despite effort of China to capture the
including language, religion, and customs, have of- crown, and computer and satellite technology have
ten divided humans or communities. Even within made even remote parts of the globe reliant on
close quarters such as cities, people often separate Western information and products. Efficient trans-
themselves along lines of perceived differences. portation of goods and people over huge distances
Human social identity comes from shared charac- has eliminated physical barriers to travel and com-
teristics, but which things are seen as shared, and merce. The power and influence of multinational
which as differentiating, is arbitrary. corporations and national corporations in
People can affect their social environment for international markets continues to grow.
good and ill through trade and war, cooperation Human environmental problems also have a
and bigotry, altruism and greed. While people still global scope: Extreme weather, changes in ocean
are somewhat at the mercy of the biological and temperatures and sea level rise, global warming,
physical environments, technological develop- and the spread of disease by travelers have become
ments have balanced the human relationship with planetary concerns. International agencies seek to
these. Negative effects of human interaction, how- deal with such matters, and also social and political
ever, often offset the positive gains. People can seed concerns once left to nations or colonial powers,
clouds for rain, but also pollute the atmosphere such as population growth, the provision of justice,
around large cities, create acid rain, and perhaps or environmental destruction within a country. Pes-
contribute to global warming. simists warn of horrendous trends in population
Human actions can direct water to where it is and ecological damage, and further deterioration
needed, but people also drain freshwater bodies of human life and its environments. Optimists dis-
and increase salination, pollute streams, lakes, and miss negative reports as exaggerated and alarmist,
oceans, and encourage flooding by modifying or expect further technological advances to
riverbeds. People have terraced mountainsides and mitigate the negative effects of human action.
irrigated them to create gardens in mountains and Joseph P. Byrne
deserts, but also lose about 24 billion metric tons of

139
Population Growth and Distribution Human Geography

Population Growth and Distribution

The population of the world has been growing History of Human Population Growth
steadily for thousands of years and has grown more Ancient ancestors of humans, known as hominids,
in some places than in others. On November 2019, were alive in Africa and Europe around 1 million
the total population of the earth had reached 7.7 years ago. It is believed that modern humans (Homo
billion people. The population of the United States sapiens sapiens) coexisted with the Neanderthals
in August 2019 was approximately 329.45 million. (Homo sapiens neandertalensis) about 100,000 years
India’s population in November 2019 was 1.37 bil- ago. By 8000 bce (10,000 years ago) fully modern
lion, making it the world’s second most populous humans numbered around 8 million. If the pres-
country. China’s population was about 1.45 bil- ence of archaic Homo sapiens is accepted as the be-
lion—about 1 in 5 people on the planet. ginning of the human population 1 million years
ago, then the first 990,000 years of human exis-
How Populations Are Counted tence are characterized by a very low population
The U.S. Constitution requires that a census, or growth rate (15 persons per million per year).
enumeration, of the population of the United Around 10,000 years ago, humans began a prac-
States be conducted every ten years. The U.S. Cen- tice that dramatically changed their growth rate:
sus Bureau mails out millions of census forms and planting food crops. This shift in human history,
pays thousands of people (enumerators) to count called the Agricultural Revolution, paved the way
people that did not fill out their census forms. This for the development of cities, government, and civi-
task cost about US$5.6 billion in the year 2010, and lizations. Before the Agricultural Revolution, there
estimates for the 2020 census have risen to over were no governments to count people. The earliest
US$15 billion. Despite this great effort, millions of censuses were conducted less than 10,000 years ago
people are probably not counted in every U.S. cen- in the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Babylon,
sus. Moreover, many countries have much less China, Palestine, and Rome. For this reason, histor-
money to spend on censuses and more people to ical estimates of the earth’s total population are dif-
count. Therefore, information about the popula- ficult to make. However, there is no argument that
tion of many poor or less-developed countries is human numbers have increased dramatically in the
even less accurate than that for the population of past 10,000 years. The dramatic changes in the
the United States. growth rates of the human population are typically
Counting how many people were alive a hun- attributed to three significant epochs of human
dred, a thousand, or hundreds of thousands of years cultural evolution: the Agricultural, Industrial, and
ago is even more difficult. Estimates are made from Green Revolutions.
archaeological findings, which include human skel- Before the Agricultural Revolution, the size of
etons, ruins of ancient buildings, and evidence of the human population was probably fewer than 10
ancient agricultural practices. Historical records of million people, who survived primarily by hunting
births, deaths, taxes paid, and other information and gathering. After plant and animal species were
are also used. Although it is not possible to estimate domesticated, the human population increased its
the global population 1,000 years ago with great ac- growth rate. By about 5000 bce, gains in food pro-
curacy, it is a fascinating topic, and many people duction caused by the Agricultural Revolution
have participated in estimating the total popula- meant that the planet could support about 50 mil-
tion of the planet through the ages. lion people. For the next several thousand years,
the human population continued to grow at a rate
of about 0.03 percent per year. By the first year of

140
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Population Growth and Distribution

the common era, the planet’s population sea level created land bridges that facilitated many
numbered about 300 million. of the major human migrations across the world.
At the end of the Middle Ages, the human popu- Patterns of human settlement are not random.
lation numbered about 400 million. As people lived People generally avoid living in deserts because
in densely populated cities, the effects of disease in- they lack water. Few humans are found above the
creased. Starting in 1348 and continuing to 1650, Arctic Circle because of that region’s severely cold
the human population was subjected to massive de- climate. Environmental factors, such as the avail-
clines caused by the bubonic plague—the Black ability of water and food and the livability of cli-
Death. At its peak in about 1400, the Black Death mate, influence where humans choose to live. How
may have killed 25 percent of Europe’s population much these factors influence the evolution and de-
in just over fifty years. By the end of the last great velopment of human societies is a subject of debate.
plague in 1650, the human population numbered The domestication of plants and animals that re-
600 million. sulted from the Agricultural Revolution did not
The Industrial Revolution began between 1650 take place everywhere on the earth. In many parts
and 1750. Since then, the growth of the human of the world, humans remained as hunter-gatherers
population has increased greatly. In just under 300 while agriculture developed in other parts of the
years, the earth’s population went from 0.5 billion world. Eventually, the agriculturalists outbred the
to 7.7 billion people, and the annual rate of in- hunter-gatherers, and few hunter-gatherers remain
crease went from 0.1 percent to 1.1 percent. This in the twenty-first century. Early agricultural sites
population growth was not because people were have been found in many places, including Central
having more babies, but because more babies lived and South America, Southeast Asia and China, and
to become adults and the average adult lived a along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what is
longer life. now Iraq. The practice of agriculture spread from
The Green Revolution occurred in the 1960s. these areas throughout most of the world.
The development of various vaccines and antibiot- By the time Christopher Columbus reached the
ics in the twentieth century and the spread of their Americas in the late fifteenth century, there were
use to most of the world after World War II caused millions of Native Americans living in towns and vil-
big drops in the death rate, increasing population lages and practicing agriculture. Most of them died
growth rates. Feeding this growing population has from diseases that were brought by European colo-
presented a challenge. This third revolution is nists. Colonization, disease, and war are major
called the Green Revolution because of the technol- mechanisms that have changed the composition
ogy used to increase the amount of food produced and distribution of the world’s population in the
by farms. However, the Green Revolution was really last 300 years.
a combination of improvements in health care, The last few centuries also produced another
medicine, and sanitation, in addition to an increase change in the geography of the human population.
in food production. During this period, the concentration of industry in
urban areas and the efficiency gains of modern ag-
Geography of Human Population Growth ricultural machinery caused large numbers of peo-
The present-day human race traces its lineage to ple to move from rural areas to cities to find jobs.
Africa. Humans migrated from Africa to the Middle From 1900 to 2020 the percentage of people living
East, Europe, Asia, and eventually to Australia, in cities went from 14 percent to just about 55 per-
North and South America, and the Pacific Islands. cent. Demographers estimate that by the year 2025,
It is believed that during the last Ice Age, the more than 68 percent of the earth’s population will
world’s sea levels were lower because much of the live in cities. Scientists estimate that the human
world’s water was trapped in ice sheets. This lower population will continue to increase until the year

141
Global Urbanization Human Geography

2050, at which time it will level out at between 8 and about the earth’s carrying capacity must account for
15 billion. variations in human behavior. For example, the
earth could support more bicycle-riding vegetari-
Earth’s Carrying Capacity ans than car-driving carnivores. Questions about
Many people are concerned that the earth cannot carrying capacity and the environmental impacts of
grow enough food or provide enough other re- the human race on the planet are fundamental to
sources to support 15 billion people. There is great the United Nations’ goals of sustainable develop-
debate about the concept of the earth’s carrying ca- ment. Dealing with these questions will be one of
pacity—the maximum human population that the the major challenges of the twenty-first century.
earth can support indefinitely. Answers to questions Paul C. Sutton

Global Urbanization

Urbanization is the process of building and living in street lighting and sanitary facilities. The faster
cities. Although the human impulse to live in pace of life, and the exchange of ideas from diverse
groups, sharing a “home base” probably dates back people interacting, made city life more interesting
to cave-dweller times or before. The creation of and speeded up the processes of social change and
towns and cities with a few hundred to many thou- invention. Writing, law, and money all evolved in
sands to millions of inhabitants required several the earliest cities.
other developments.
Foremost of these was the invention of agricul- Ancient and Medieval Cities
ture. Tilling crops requires a permanent living Cities seem to have appeared almost simulta-
place near the cultivated land. The first agricultural neously, around 3500 bce, in three separate re-
villages were small. Jarmo, a village site from c. gions. In the Fertile Crescent, a wide curve of land
7000 bce, located in the Zagros Mountains of pres- stretching from the Persian gulf to the northwest
ent-day Iran, appears to have had only twenty to Mediterranean Sea, the cities of Ur, Akkad, and
twenty-five houses. Still, farmers’ crops and live- Babylon rose, flourished, and succeeded one an-
stock provided a food surplus that could be stored other. In Egypt, a connected chain of cities grew,
in the village or traded for other goods. Surplus soon unified by a ruler using Memphis, just south of
food also meant surplus time, enabling some peo- the Nile River’s delta, as his strategic and ceremo-
ple to specialize in producing other useful items, or nial base. On the Indian subcontinent,
to engage in less tangible things like religious Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa oversaw about a hun-
rituals or recordkeeping. dred smaller towns in the Indus River valley. Similar
Given these conditions, it took people with fore- developments took place about a thousand years
sight and political talents to lead the process of city later in northern China.
formation. Once in cities, however, the inhabitants These first city sites were in the valleys of great
found many benefits. Walls and guards provided river systems, where rich alluvial soil boosted
more security than the open country. Cities had reg- large-scale food production. The rivers served as a
ular markets where local craftspeople and traveling “water highway” for ships carrying commodities
merchants displayed a variety of goods. City gov- and luxury items to and from the cities. They also
ernments often provided amenities like primitive furnished water for drinking, irrigation, and waste

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Global Urbanization

disposal. Even the rivers’ rampages promoted civi- In the Early Middle Ages after the western Ro-
lization, as making flood control and irrigation sys- man Empire collapsed, feudalism, based on land
tems required practical engineering, an organized holdings, eclipsed urban life. Cities never disap-
workforce, and ongoing political authority to direct peared, but their populations and services declined
them. drastically. Urban life still flourished for another
Eurasia was still full of peoples who were not ur- millenium in the eastern capital of Constantinople.
banized, however, and who lived by herding, pirat- When Islam spread across the Middle East, it
ing, or raiding. Early cities declined or disap- caused the growth of new cities, centered around a
peared, in some cases destroyed by invasions from mosque and a marketplace.
such forces around 1200 bce. Afterward, the cities In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, life re-
of Greece became newly important. Their sur- vived in Western Europe. As in the Islamic cities, the
rounding land was poor, but their access to the sea driving forces were both religious—the building of
was an advantage. Greek cities prospered from fish- cathedrals—and commercial—merchants and arti-
ing and trade. They also developed a new idea, the sans expanding the reach of their activities. Medi-
city-state, run by and for its citizens. eval cities were usually walled, with narrow, twisting
Rome, the Greek cities’ successor to power, streets and a lack of basic sanitary measures, but
reached a new level of urbanization. Its rise owed they drew ambitious people and innovative forces
more to historical accident and its citizens’ political together. Italy’s cities revived the concept of the
and military talents than to location, but some geo- city-state with its outward reach. Venice sent its mer-
graphical features are salient. In some ways, the fer- chant fleet all over the known world. Farther north,
tile coastal plain of Latium was an ideal site for a Paris and Bologna hosted the first universities. The
great city, central to both the Italian peninsula and feudal system slowly gave way to nation-states ruled
the Mediterranean Sea. There, the Tiber River by one king.
becomes navigable and crossable.
In other ways, Rome’s site was far from ideal. Its Modern Cities
lower areas were swampy and mosquito-ridden. Modern cities differ from earlier ones because of
The seven hills, with their sacred sites later filled changes wrought by technology, but most of today’s
with public buildings and luxury houses, imposed a cities arose before the Industrial Revolution. Until
crazy-quilt pattern on the city’s growth. Romans the early nineteenth century, travel within a city was
built cities with a simple rectangular plan all over by foot or on horse, which limited street widths and
Europe and the Middle East, but their home city city sizes. The first effect of railroads was to shorten
grew in a less rational way. travel time between cities. This helped country resi-
At its peak, Rome had a million residents, a pop- dents moving to the cities, and speeded raw materi-
ulation no other city reached before nineteenth als going into and manufactured goods coming out
century London. It provided facilities found in of the factories that increasingly dotted urban ar-
modern cities: a piped water supply, a sewage dis- eas. Rail transit soon caused the growth of a subur-
posal system, a police force, public buildings, enter- ban ring. Prosperous city workers could live in more
tainment districts, shops, inns, restaurants, and tav- spacious homes outside the city and ride rail lines to
erns. The streets were crowded and noisy; to control work every day. This pattern was common in
traffic, wheeled wagons could make deliveries only London and New York City.
at night. Fire and building collapse were constant Factories, the lifeblood of the Industrial Revolu-
risks in the cheaply built apartment structures that tion, were built in pockets of existing cities. Smaller
housed the city’s poorer residents. Still, few wanted cities like Glasgow, Scotland, and Pittsburgh, Penn-
to live anywhere but in Rome, their world’s sylvania, grew as ironworking industries, using
preeminent city. nearby or easily transported coal and ore resources,
built large foundries there. Neither industrialists

143
Global Urbanization Human Geography

nor city authorities worried about where the people

working there would live. Workers took whatever
housing they could find in tenements or subdivided
old mansions. The urban population, or number of people living
Beginning in the 1880s, metal-framed construc- in cities, in North America accounts for about 75
tion made taller buildings possible. These skyscrap- percent of its total population. In Europe, about 90
ers towered over stately three- to eight-story struc- percent of the population lives in cities. In develop-
tures of an earlier period. Because this technology ing countries, the urban population is often less
than 30 percent. The term “urbanization” refers to
enabled expensive central-city ground space to
the rate of population growth of cities. Urbaniza-
house many profitable office suites, up through the tion mainly results from people moving to cities
1930s, city cores became quite compacted. Many from elsewhere. In developing countries, the urban-
people believed such skyward growth was the wave ization rate is very high compared to those of North
of the future and warned that city streets were be- America or Europe. The high rate of urbanization
coming sunless, dangerous canyons. of these countries makes it difficult for their govern-
ments to provide housing, water, sewers, jobs,
Automobiles kept these predictions from fully
schools, and other services for their fast-growing
coming true. As car ownership became widespread, urban populations.
more roads were built or widened to carry the traf-
fic. Urban areas began to decentralize. The car, like
rail transit before it, allowed people to flee the ur- cumstances. Today, 55 percent of the world’s popu-
ban core for suburban living. Because roads could lation lives in urban areas, and that percentage is
be built almost anywhere, built-up areas around cit- expected to rise to 68 percent by 2050. Projections
ies came to resemble large patches filling a circle, show that urbanization combined with the overall
rather than the spokes-of-a-wheel pattern intro- growth of the world’s population could add another
duced by rail lines. Cities born during the automo- 2.5 billion people to urban areas by 2050, with close
tive age tend to have an indistinct city center, sur- to 90 percent of this increase taking place in Asia
rou n d e d by l a rg e a re a s of di f f u s e u r ba n and Africa, according to a United Nations data set
development. The prime example is Los Angeles: published in May 2018.
It has a small downtown area, but a consolidated
metropolitan area of about 34,000 square miles Megacities and the Future
(88,000 sq. km.). In the year 2019 the world had thirty-three
Almost everywhere, urban sprawl has created sat- megacities, defined as urban areas with a popula-
ellite cities with major manufacturing, office, and tion of 10 million or more. The largest was Tokyo,
shopping nodes. These cause an increasing portion with an estimated 37.5 million people in 2018,
of daily travel within metropolitan areas to be be- predicted to grow to around 37 million by 2030.
tween one edge city and another, rather than to and Second-largest was Delhi, with more than 28.5 mil-
from downtown. Since these journeys have an al- lion in 2018 and predicted to grow to around 38.94
most limitless variety of start points and destina- million by 2030. Megacities in the United States
tions within the urban region, mass transit is only a include New York-Newark with a population of
partial solution to highway crowding and air 18.8 million and Los Angeles at 12.5.
pollution problems. Megacities profoundly affect the air, weather, and
The above trends typify the so-called developed terrain of their surrounding territory. Smog is a fea-
world, especially the United States. Many cities in ture of urban life almost everywhere, but is worse
poor nations have grown even more rapidly but where the exhaust from millions of cars mixes with
with a different mix of patterns and problems. How- industrial pollution. Some megacities have slowed
ever, the basic pattern can be detected around the the problem by regulating combustion technology;
globe, as urban dwellers seek to better their own cir- none have solved it. Huge expanses of soil pre-

144
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Global Urbanization

empted by buildings and pavements can turn heavy

rains into floods almost instantly, and the ambient
Large cities have distinctly different climates from heat in large cities stays several degrees higher than
the rural areas that surround them. The most impor- in comparable rural areas. Recent engineering
tant climatic characteristic of a city is the urban heat studies suggest that megacities create instability in
island, a concentration of relatively warmer tempera- t h e grou n d be n e a t h , co m p re s s i n g a n d
tures, especially at nighttime. Large cities are fre- undermining it.
quently at least 11 degrees Fahrenheit (6 degrees Cel-
How will cities evolve? Barring an unforeseen
sius) warmer than the surrounding countryside.
The urban heat island results from several fac- technological or social breakthrough, the current
tors. Primary among these are human activities, growth and problems will probably continue. The
such as heating homes and operating factories and process of megapolis—metropolitan areas blend-
vehicles, that produce and release large quantities ing together along the corridors between them—is
of energy to the atmosphere. Most of these activities well underway in many areas. Predictions that the
involve the burning of fossil fuels such as oil, gas,
computer will so change the nature of work as to
and coal. A second factor is the abundance of
heat-absorbing urban materials, such as brick, con- cause massive population shifts away from cities
crete, and asphalt. A third factor is the surface dry- have not been proven correct. Despite its draw-
ness of a city. Urban surface materials normally ab- backs, increasing numbers of people are drawn to
sorb little water and therefore quickly dry out after a urban life, seeking the economic opportunities and
storm. In contrast, the evaporation of moisture wider social world that cities offer.
from wet soil and vegetation in rural areas uses a
Emily Alward
large quantity of solar energy—often more than is
converted directly to heat—resulting in cooler air
temperatures and higher relative humidities.

145
 People of Australia

In 2020, Australia had about 25.5 million people, Aboriginal peoples) were immigrants long ago.
the smallest population of any continent except About 55 percent of Australia’s people are of British
Antarctica. Although it is about the same size as the and Irish ancestry, reflecting colonial ties to the
continental United States, Australia has only about United Kingdom. The number of migrants from
one-fourteenth the number of inhabitants. The size other regions—especially Asia—has increased as
of the population is the result of two major pro- Australia weaves closer bonds with its Pacific Rim
cesses: migration from outside of the country and neighbors.
natural increase. The ancestors of the indigenous Australians
came to the continent at least 60,000 years ago and
Migration perhaps as early as 120,000 years ago. Apparently,
Australia is a multiethnic country. Its population, they traveled from Southeast Asia through the In-
like those of the United States and Canada, is com- donesian islands during periods of lower sea levels.
posed of descendants of the original native peoples In the Pleistocene geologic epoch, much of Earth’s
plus migrants from many other regions of the water was locked in ice caps, which reduced sea lev-
world. Even the indigenous Australians (also called els by 600 feet (180 meters) or more below current

An indigenous Australian festival. (chameleonseye)

147
People of Australia Human Geography

depths. The shallow straits between New Guinea cal remains and evidence of food supplies, but no
and Australia were often dry during this period, one knows exactly how many people descended from
and the seas that separated the continent from In- those initial immigrants. The arrival of European
donesia were narrower than they are now. These colonists proved devastating; their numbers shrank
conditions reduced Australia’s isolation and al- rapidly as they suffered from warfare, diseases for
lowed humans to enter its pristine environments for which they possessed no immunity, and disruption
the first time. of their traditional cultures and economies. Until the
It is not known how many of these early settlers mid-twentieth century, the indigenous Australian
arrived in northern Australia or how they traveled. people were denied citizenship rights and many
They may have paddled simple rafts or canoes. other Australians believed that they were a dying
Much of the evidence of their earliest settlement is race. In 2016, people descended from indigenous
presumed to be submerged on the drowned conti- Australians comprised about 2.8 percent of the
nental shelf. In any event, their descendants gradu- Australian population, or nearly 650,000 people.
ally spread over the entire continent, even reaching
Tasmania before it became an island isolated by Convict Colonies
rising sea levels. The first British settlers in Australia were mostly de-
The new arrivals probably distributed them- ported convicts and their guards. The English judi-
selves in patterns somewhat resembling the mod- cial system typically sent prisoners to serve their
ern population, with larger numbers along the sentences in the colonies instead of building expen-
coastlines and in the wetter environments of the sive prisons in the British Isles. North America
east, south, and north, and fewer in the arid inte- stopped accepting British prisoners after the Amer-
rior. The central interior may not have been settled ican Revolution, so a new penal colony was needed.
until as recently as 10,000 years ago. The groups The east coast of Australia, explored by Captain
learned to use the varied plant and animal re- James Cook in 1770, was selected by the British
sources of Australia to support their hunting and government for this purpose.
gathering economies. The present city of Sydney was the site of the ini-
By the time Europeans reached Australia, the in- tial prison camp established by the First Fleet in
digenous population was probably about 500,000, 1788. From that year until 1858, over 160,000 con-
although estimates range from 300,000 to as high as victs were transported to Australia. Most were Eng-
1 million. These estimates are based on archaeologi- lish, but Scottish, Welsh, and Irish prisoners also ar-

A cricket match in Melbourne, Australia. (danieldep)

148
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands People of Australia

rived; roughly 20 percent were women. The from becoming citizens, thus effectively barring
convicts were usually sentenced to serve seven- to them from property ownership and professional oc-
fourteen-year terms for crimes such as robbery, bur- cupations. Despite these restrictions and the Immi-
glary, or fraud. Prison colonies were established in gration Restriction Act of 1901, Chinese communi-
Tasmania, Queensland, Victoria, and Western Aus- ties persisted in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, and
tralia, as well as in New South Wales. When their Perth.
terms expired, most of the convicts stayed in Aus- The other major non-European migration in the
tralia as emancipated settlers. nineteenth century was the movement of South Pa-
The convicts were joined by a trickle of free set- cific islanders called Kanakas into Queensland.
tlers who wanted to take advantage of agricultural Young men were recruited from Vanuatu, the Solo-
and business opportunities in the new colonies. The mon Islands, and other western Pacific islands to
British government began to pay the costs of pas- work for low wages in the sugar and cotton planta-
sage for some migrants, mainly single women seek- tions of the tropical Queensland coast. Humanitar-
ing marriage partners and skilled workers needed ian groups and labor unions protested that this ar-
in specific industries. A few thousand Germans ar- rangement was little better than slavery; others
rived in the 1830s and 1840s, fleeing political up- deplored the fact that a large number of nonwhites
heaval in their homeland. By 1850 the total Euro- had been admitted to Australia. Importation of
pean population of Australia was about half a Kanaka laborers was prohibited in 1901, and most
million. These people clustered in the growing port were sent back to their homelands by 1908.
towns of Sydney, Melbourne, Hobart, Brisbane,
Adelaide, and Perth, and in nearby agricultural ar- Later Migrations
eas, displacing the indigenous Australians who had Australia became an independent state within the
once lived along the coastlines. British Commonwealth in 1901. Isolated by dis-
tance from Great Britain and fearing the growing
Other Settlers
From 1850 to 1860, Australia’s population doubled
from about 500,000 to 1 million as a result of the
discovery of gold in the colonies of Victoria and
New South Wales. Fortune seekers arrived from the
British Isles, other European countries, the United
States, and China. Although some miners returned
to their homelands at the end of the gold rush de-
cade, most stayed to take up new occupations in the
booming cities and towns. Since most of the new mi-
grants were relatively unskilled male laborers, the
British government continued to pay moving costs
for young women and skilled workers who wished to
make the long journey to Australia. By assisting po-
tential brides and small business owners, the gov-
ernment helped create a more balanced colonial
economy and society.
Chinese gold miners formed the first large group
of Asian migrants to Australia. By 1860 there were
at least 40,000 Chinese in the gold fields of Victoria.
Discrimination against the Chinese was legalized
through state laws that prevented non-Europeans The Chinatown neighborhood in Melbourne, Australia. (brightsea)

149
People of Australia Human Geography

A diverse classroom in Australia. (JohnnyGreig)

power of Asian countries, the new Australian fed- After World War II ended in 1945, about 250,000
eral government developed a “White Australia” European displaced persons moved to Australia. In
policy aimed at excluding non-European immi- the 1950s and 1960s, the refugees were joined by
grants. This policy, implemented by the aforemen- thousands of people from the less-prosperous Med-
tioned Immigration Restriction Act of 1901, gave iterranean countries, which suffered from high un-
the government the ability to prohibit “undesir- employment and lack of economic opportunities.
able” migrants without specifying which groups Groups from countries such as Italy, Greece, the for-
were to be rejected or how this goal would be accom- mer Yugoslavia, and Lebanon created ethnic neigh-
plished. In practice, Asian migrants usually could borhoods that have become important features of
be rejected by an English literacy test. This law im- the cultural landscape of Melbourne, Sydney, and
peded Asian migration into the 1970s. other cities.
Although migration from the British Isles contin- The number of Asian migrants increased in the
ued, the twentieth century brought people from last quarter of the twentieth century. Australia’s in-
other areas as well. Political and economic turmoil volvement in the Vietnam War resulted in a strong
caused by World War I created a major surge of new- flow of refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia in the
comers. At least 200,000 migrants, including for- 1970s and 1980s. When Australia discarded the Im-
mer British soldiers and other Europeans, received migration Restriction Act in 1973 and reoriented its
assisted passages to Australia in the aftermath of economic ties to Asia, migrants began to arrive
World War I. In 1938, Australia agreed to accept from Malaysia, the Philippines, Hong Kong, India,
15,000 refugees from Nazi persecution, many of and China, among other places. Large numbers of
them Jewish. These humane acts marked the open- the Asian migrants were well-educated people with
ing of a new era of migration from Europe. professional or skilled occupations.

150
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands People of Australia

Now, in the third decade of the twenty-first cen-

tury, more than 30 percent of Australia’s population
is made up of immigrants. Proportionally, this The White Australia Policy and the Immigration Re-
ranks Australia as having the eighth-largest immi- striction Act were based on attitudes of racial superi-
grant population in the world. The majority of the ority that were common in Australia, as well as in Eu-
newcomers bring with them specific skills, though a rope and North America, during the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These
significant number are admitted as refugees or fam-
policies also reflected concern about Japan’s grow-
ily members. In 2019, England was the leading
ing economic and military power and China’s large,
source of immigrants, followed by China, India, land-hungry population. In 1901 many Australians
New Zealand, the Philippines, and Vietnam. believed that their new country must “populate or
perish.” Their fear was that if there were not enough
Natural Increase British or other European settlers to occupy the en-
tire continent, they would risk losing it to the rising
Although a simple timeline shows that the popula-
Asian forces. In the second half of the twentieth cen-
tion has grown steadily since Europeans arrived in
tury, however, Australia realized that its closest
the region, the rate of increase has varied substan- neighbors were Asian-Pacific countries, not Great
tially. Natural increase is the surplus of births over Britain and Europe. Trade, investment, and tour-
deaths in an existing population. In general, both ism now tightly link Australia to Japan and other Pa-
migration and natural increase rates have helped cific Rim states. Anti-Asian immigration policies
were largely abandoned by the Australian
Australia grow during periods of economic pros-
government in the 1970s.
perity and social stability. Birth rates rose after both
Current immigration policies focus on individ-
world wars, for example, as returning soldiers mar- ual migrants’ qualifications, such as their educa-
ried and the peacetime economies stabilized. In pe- tional level and specific skills, rather than their
riods of war and economic depression, however, country of origin. Family reunification and refugee
population growth leveled off. For a few short peri- status also are considered. Ongoing debate about
migration policies centers on environmental, eco-
ods, the population actually declined. Marriage
nomic, and political concerns, including the man-
rates and birth rates plummeted during the world
datory immigration detention for all arrivals
wars and the major depressions of the 1890s and deemed unlawful.
1930s, when few could afford to start a family. Since
both depressions also prevented potential migrants
from reaching Australia and caused some people to Although rates of natural increase are compara-
seek work in other countries, the population ble to those of other developed nations, Australia
declined slightly during these decades. historically has not been able to attract as many mi-
grants as North America or South America. Isolated
Australia’s Population Future from potential migrants by vast distances and ex-
In 2020, Australia’s rate of natural increase aver- pensive transportation Australia’s economic op-
aged about 5.5 per 1,000 per year. Assuming that portunities generally could not compete with those
this rate stays about the same and immigration lev- in many other regions. Still, by 2020, Australia of-
els also do not change, it can be extrapolated that fered a stable democratic society with opportunities
another million people will be added to the popula- to participate in the global economy.
tion every three years for the next few decades. Susan P. Reynolds

151
 People of the Pacific Islands

The Pacific is the world’s largest ocean, covering were narrow, making travel from one land to the
about 64 million square miles (165 million sq. km.) other possible.
between Singapore and Panama—more than 30 The Pacific islands were probably the last place
percent of Earth’s surface. While most of the Pacific on Earth to be inhabited by humans. It is also the
is devoid of land, it does have a large number of is- last major region of the world, except for the North
lands stretching from Southeast Asia to the coast of and South Poles, to be explored and settled by Euro-
South America. peans. The majority of islands in the South Pacific
are grouped together under the name Oceania.
Prehistory The three groups within Oceania are Melanesia,
Several hundred million years ago, the world’s con- Micronesia, and Polynesia.
tinents were linked together in one landmass that
geologists have called Pangaea. After the Ice Age, The Voyage
rising waters separated the land into two sections, Prevailing winds and currents in the South Pacific
Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the follow east-to-west patterns. Therefore, voyagers
south. Water spaces between these new continents from Southeast Asia to the Pacific islands would

Native Hawaiian schoolchildren. (Henry Wetherbee Henshaw)

153
People of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

have had to sail hundreds, even thousands, of miles

against the currents to their new homes. The immi-
grants had no navigational tools and depended
solely upon skills they learned from their ancestors. Norwegian ethnologist Thor Heyerdahl developed
They followed the Sun, clouds, the Moon and stars, a theory that Polynesia may have been settled by in-
the waves and winds, and flights of migratory birds. digenous people from South America, specifically
It is probable that some vessels drifted off course Bolivia. He reasoned that most of the European voy-
agers took routes from east to west. He believed
during cloudy days or storms.
west-to-east travel would have been too difficult
The canoes within which the voyagers traveled
against the prevailing winds and currents.
were made of hollowed-out tree trunks. The sides Heyerdahl also reasoned that the first settlers did
were built up with planks and lashed together with not come from Indonesia because Sanskrit words,
coconut fibers. They were made watertight with found in Indonesian languages, was absent from
vegetable gum or a mix of charcoal and soil. To pro- Polynesian languages. There are, however, some
similarities between the Polynesian languages and
vide stabilization, a smaller canoe often was con-
the Inca language. Heyerdahl also pointed out that
nected to the side by a wooden boom. This canoe
the sweet potato, native to South America, was also
was called an outrigger. Some double canoes had found in the South Pacific. Heyerdahl believed that
small shelters built over the connections, which the the original settlers traveled from Asia to North
travelers used for protection during longer voy- America through the Bering Strait, down to South
ages. These vessels were paddled by oars or America, then across to Polynesia. In 1947, to prove
his theory, Heyerdahl and a crew constructed a balsa
powered by triangular sails.
raft called the Kon-Tiki and set sail from Peru, South
America. They sailed 101 days, following winds and
Melanesia currents until they crash-landed on the atoll of
Situated northeast of Australia, the island group Raroia in the Tuamotus, thus proving that South
known as Melanesia was settled as early as 50,000 American Indians could have reached Polynesia by
years ago by Austronesian tribes who left their this route.
homeland of Southeast Asia, traveling south and
east in dugout canoes. These hunters and gatherers are the direct ancestors of the indigenous peoples
of Australia, the highland people of Papua New
Guinea, and peoples still living in the interior of the
Philippines and Malaysia.
Easter Island lies 2,400 miles (3,862 km.) from
About 5,000 years ago, another wave of immi-
Chile and 1,500 miles (2,414 km.) from the nearest
grants left Southeast Asia. These people, known as
inhabited island. It was discovered by Dutch ex-
plorer Jacob Roggeveen on Easter Sunday, April 15, Proto-Malay, spoke a language far different than
1722. It is not known exactly how the first inhabit- that of the Austronesians. Later groups of
ants reached Easter Island, but it is generally agreed Proto-Malay sailed from Southeast Asia directly to
that people of Polynesian stock arrived on the island western Melanesia.
from the central Pacific. When Europeans first ar-
About 8,000 years ago, more settlers arrived.
rived in 1722, the sparse population of the island
These people, were of a different racial background
was visibly of Polynesian origin. The inhabitants of
Easter Island carved huge stone statues, weighing than the first group and are known to anthropolo-
more than fifty tons and standing as tall as 40 feet gists as Papuans. They eventually traveled north
(12 meters) on stone platforms, line the shore with and east into Micronesia.
their backs to the sea. Some of the statues have
“hats.” Although Roggeveen noted that the island-
Micronesia
ers often bowed to these statues, he did not ask them
At about the same time the Proto-Malay were mi-
how they had managed to move these massive
monuments. grating to Melanesia, another group from South-
east Asia headed for the islands of Micronesia.

154
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands People of the Pacific Islands

A Maori family in New Zealand. (MollyNZ)

Predominately farmers, the immigrants found life New Zealand in the southwest, and Easter Island, in
on these atolls—small islands composed of coral the southeast. It is believed to be the last region to
reefs—very different from what they were used to. have been settled. The first Polynesians were tall,
They had to change their methods of farming, los- and comparatively advanced culturally and techno-
ing old skills but learning new ones. They became logically. Since most Polynesians speak closely re-
expert boat builders and navigators and developed lated languages, it is believed they must have come
their outrigger canoes into the fastest and most ma- from one direction in a short period of time, possi-
neuverable long-distance vessels in the Pacific. bly through Micronesia or Melanesia, or both. Poly-
Migration from one island group to another was nesians eventually traveled farther east to New
slow, usually being spread over several generations. Zealand.
After a group had settled on an island for some Uninhabited longer than any major landmass,
length of time, a new sailing party would continue New Zealand is the southernmost point of the Poly-
eastward to the next group of islands. This migra- nesian triangle and consists of three major islands:
tion accounts for the similarity in languages, cul- North, South and Stewart. The first human inhabit-
tures, traditions, and appearance of the peoples of ants were Polynesian. The first phase of migrants,
the Pacific. Some islanders stayed at home, inter- who arrived approximately 1,200 years ago, can be
marrying with Melanesians and other Asian identified by their archaeological remains and are
travelers. known as Archaic Maori. The second phase, Classic
Maori, is probably the culture encountered by Euro-
Polynesia pean explorers. British explorer Captain James
The largest island group of the region, Polynesia Cook noted the similarity in the languages of New
forms a triangle bounded by Hawaii in the north, Zealand Maori and Polynesians. It is not yet clear

155
People of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

how the first phase evolved into the second. It is be- Languages and Cultures
lieved that the first Maori may have reached New Language, folklore, and culture were, and still are,
Zealand by accident, being blown off course on individual to each region. This indicates that immi-
fishing expeditions. grants probably did not originate from the general
A self-sufficient people, the Maori easily adapted place. Migrations were probably made as a result of
to the temperate climate of their new home. They changes on their home islands, including changes
had no concept of culture, nationhood, or race. in environment, economics, or war. Languages spo-
They were a tribal people, protective of their ances- ken in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia all de-
try, often living in the same place from birth to rive from one basic language group, the
death. Their culture was the same throughout the Austronesian family. Melanesia alone has more
islands, with slight regional differences. Languages than 1,200 different languages. In Micronesia, the
spoken on North Island differed in dialect from that people in the west speak differently than those in
spoken on South Island. By the end of the eigh- the east. Languages from eastern Micronesia have
teenth century, the Maori had to make room for new similarities to those in eastern Melanesia. Polynesia
immigrants: explorers, whalers, escaped convicts, is the only region whose languages, nearly thirty,
and traders. The British began their colonization of are alike enough that one islander can understand
the islands in the 1830s. what another from a different area is saying.

A boy on the beach in Kiribati (Vladimir Lysenko)

156
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands People of the Pacific Islands

A New Zealander of Anglo descent eats breakfast in Auckland with the Sky Tower in the background. (chameleonseye)

European Explorers European explorers, the populations of the islands

Additional migrations to the South Pacific were ini- were threatened by diseases and social and political
tiated by Europeans, beginning with the Spanish issues that were introduced. By the early nineteenth
and Portuguese in the sixteenth century, followed century, missionaries were spreading through the
by the Dutch in the seventeenth century and the area converting a proud people who were now re-
English and French in the eighteenth century. The garded as savages. Respect for the Polynesian cul-
explorers were followed by whalers and traders, ture was gone. Bans were put on dancing and
missionaries, planters and merchants, soldiers and singing, and European-style dress was enforced.
sailors, and slave traders. With the appearance of Maryanne Barsotti

Q1. Who were the ancestors of the Q2. How do anthropologists de- Q3. How did the Maori come to in-
indigenous people of Australia? scribe the populating of the Pacific habit New Zealand? What have an-
Where did they come from? When islands? Over how long a period thropologists surmised from study-
do scientists think the first humans did it last? How did early peoples ing the Maori language and its
arrived in Australia? travel from one island to the next? dialects?

157
 Population Distribution
of Australia

The vast majority of Australia’s population of 25.5 communities holds the rest of the Australian
million people is concentrated in a core region that people.
stretches along the eastern and southeastern coast-
line of the continent. From Cairns in northern Physical and Historical Factors
Queensland through the states of New South Wales The map of population distribution clearly reveals
and Victoria and beyond to Adelaide in the state of the peripheral location of Australia’s settlement.
South Australia, this core region contains the larg- This spatial pattern reflects the constraints of the
est cities and the industrial and agricultural heart- physical environment. The eastern plains and high-
land of the country. Much smaller secondary con- lands, including Tasmania, contain the best agricul-
centrations of population lie in Western Australia tural lands and receive sufficient rainfall
around the city of Perth and on the northern and year-round for crop production.
southern coasts of the island state of Tasmania. Be- The western slopes of the Great Dividing Range
yond these core regions, a scattering of small in New South Wales and Victoria are drier, but pro-
vide enough moisture for grain farming. Along the

The Australian Outback. (Timothy Ball)

159
Population Distribution of Australia Human Geography

boundary between these two states, the Murray

River basin offers irrigated lands for specialty
crops. The southern and western margins of the
continent around Adelaide and Perth also have The first British immigrants who settled in Australia
good soils and a Mediterranean-type climate with during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
adequate winter rainfall. The agricultural popula- turies had no idea how dry their new land was. When
Captain James Cook first reached Australia during
tion of these regions is fairly dense. Beyond these
the 1770’s, he landed at Botany Bay on the temper-
areas, the arid interior is suitable mainly for grazing ate and comparatively moist east coast. As his voyage
sheep and cattle on huge pastures; the human pop- of discovery continued northward, Cook crossed the
ulation is sparse. The driest areas are virtually unin- Tropic of Capricorn, which neatly divides the north-
habited, because they lack enough surface water ern and southern portions of the continent, and
found a region where rainfall was abundant.
and vegetation for even a grazing economy.
It was not until after the British began settling the
Other natural resources, especially minerals, at- region that the continent’s dry interior was penetrated
tract people to specific locations. Beginning in the by explorers, some of whom perished in the harsh
gold rush days of the 1850s, the settlement frontier desert interior. After that time, climate played a major
advanced into the harsher environments of the Aus- role in determining the pattern of the continent’s
population distribution. The vast majority of Austra-
tralian interior in response to new mineral discov-
lia’s people now live in coastal cities in the temperate
eries. Rich deposits of silver, copper, lead, and zinc midlatitudes, particularly in the southeast.
brought miners to places such as Broken Hill, New
South Wales, and Mount Isa, Queensland. Recent
developments are even more remote from the pop- ern Queensland and the Hamersley Range iron
ulation core: The bauxite mines at Weipa in north- mines in Western Australia are good examples.

Bondi, Australia, a suburb of Sydney. (Searsie)

160
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Population Distribution of Australia

Population Population
State (millions) Capital City (millions)

New South Wales 7.4 Sydney 4.8

Victoria 5.9 Melbourne 4.4
Queensland 4.7 Brisbane 2.2
Western Australia 2.4 Perth 1.9
South Australia 1.6 Adelaide 1.2
Tasmania 0.5 Hobart 0.2
Australian Capital Territory 0.3 Canberra 0.3
Northern Territory 0.2 Darwin 0.1

Modern mechanized mining requires few workers, compromise between the two largest cities, each of
and the extreme climates of these newer resource which had hoped to become the national capital.
regions are not attractive to the average Australian.
Thus, these mining towns have remained relatively Urbanization
small. Australia is a highly urbanized society. About 86
Each of the largest cities was the focus of early co- percent of the population is urban and more than
lonial settlement in its region. The initial settlements 40 percent live in Sydney or Melbourne, the two
were located on the coast to facilitate transportation largest metropolitan centers. In several states, the
and communication with Great Britain and the other majority of people live in the capital city and its sub-
Australian colonies. These small port towns grew by urbs. For example, about 71 percent of the New
consolidating government functions, trade, indus- South Wales population lives in Sydney and 83 per-
try, and services, and developed into Australia’s ma- cent of Victorians live in the Melbourne metropoli-
jor cities. Sydney, for example, was the first convict tan area. About 80 percent of South Australians
settlement and from the beginning was the adminis- cluster in Adelaide, while Perth and its suburbs con-
trative capital of New South Wales. Its beautiful bay tain 83 percent of Western Australia’s inhabitants.
offered deep water to accommodate ships, and rail- As in North America and other economically de-
roads were built there to bring agricultural products veloped countries, Australia’s cities attract those
and natural resources to the port. Once Sydney es- who are searching for new opportunities. Urban
tablished a large enough population base, it at- manufacturing and service businesses, universities
tracted manufacturing industries and consumer ser- and cultural organizations, and entertainment fa-
vices. The first British settlement in Australia, cilities offer jobs and leisure activities. Former rural
Sydney has always remained the largest. residents and new immigrants alike are drawn to
The national capital city, Canberra, is the only join those who were born and raised in the cities.
exception to the rule that all large Australian cities Recent migrants, especially those from non-English
are located on the coast. Canberra was established speaking homelands, tend to cluster in ethnic
after the individual Australian colonies federated as neighborhoods. Approximately 79 percent of the
an independent state within the British Common- indigenous population also lives in urban settings.
wealth in 1901. The new city was deliberately situ- Within the larger cities, sprawling residential ar-
ated in the Eastern Highlands midway between eas surround the skyscraper-studded central busi-
Sydney and its major rival Melbourne, capital of the ness districts. Single-family houses and apartment
state of Victoria. Canberra represents a geographic buildings are linked by multilane highways and

161
Population Distribution of Australia Human Geography

A shopping district in Melbourne, Australia. (kokkai)

served by shopping malls in a suburban landscape hunting and gathering lifestyles in isolated regions
that resembles the cities of the western United States. of the Outback.
Although many agricultural districts face declin-
Rural Population ing numbers as economic reorganization continues,
About 14 percent of the Australian population lives some small towns and rural areas attract new resi-
in small towns and rural areas. Most farmers live on dents. Growth areas include pleasant towns within
individual farmsteads at some distance from their commuting distance of urban jobs and coastal
closest neighbors; livestock grazers often live on beach communities that draw retired persons. The
huge pastoral stations (ranches) that may be hun- expansion of international tourism has also created
dreds of miles from the nearest large city. Approxi- resort settlements on Great Barrier Reef islands, in
mately 20 percent of the indigenous Australians are the Red Center near Uluru (Ayers Rock), and in
rural dwellers, some of whom live and work on live- other remote places.
stock stations, while a few maintain their traditional Susan P. Reynolds

162
 Population Distribution
of the Pacific Islands

The Pacific islands region, including New Zealand, On less-developed islands, rising population and
has approximately 16 million people, which is loss of soil fertility and forestland in rural areas are
roughly equivalent to the combined populations of spurring a migration from the countryside to urban
the US states of Michigan and Wisconsin. The obvi- areas. Consequently, the population of urban areas
ous difference is that Oceania’s population is dis- is growing faster than that of rural areas, urban
tributed on islands that are spread out over a vast housing and health and transportation services are
area of ocean. Hawaii and New Zealand have highly not keeping pace with the rate of population
urbanized populations and advanced economies. growth, and squatter populations have become per-
Most of the remaining islands have large rural pop- manent fixtures around the edges of many cities
ulations, because many of their inhabitants depend and large towns. Migration to the United States (es-
on farming, fishing, and, until recently, mining for pecially Hawaii and California), Canada, Australia,
their livelihoods. and New Zealand serves as a safety-valve to lessen

A rural village in Papua New Guinea. (dane-mo)

163
Population Distribution of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

A busy street in Auckland, New Zealand. (AsianDream)

the impact of overpopulation occurring on many Fiji (2020 population, 935,974) has an area 1.5
islands. times the size of Washington, D.C. Its capital is
There are two true metropolitan centers: Hono- Suva. Most of the land (86 percent) and people (87
lulu, Hawaii, with a metro population of about percent) are on the two largest islands—Viti Levu
950,000 (2019 estimate), and Auckland, New Zea- and Vanua Levu. Cities have grown rapidly on these
land, with about 1.47 million people (2020). New two islands, and today, 57 percent of Fiji’s popula-
Zealand has six other cities with populations ex- tion has become urbanized. Fiji’s economy is rela-
ceeding 100,000: Christchurch, Wellington, Hamil- tively advanced, and its annual growth rate was 3
ton, Tauranga, Lower Hutt, and Dunedin. Other percent in 2017.
cities with populations of more than 100,000 in- New Caledonia (2020 population, 290,009), a
clude Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea special collectivity of France, has an area slightly
(364,000;2011), Suva in Fiji (185,913; 2017 metro), smaller than that of New Jersey. The capital,
Noumea in New Caledonia (182,341; 2019 metro), Noumea, is the principal center on the island.
and Papeete in French Polynesia (136,771; 2017 Slightly more than 71 percent of its population is
metro). urbanized. New Caledonia Island, the largest oce-
anic island in the Pacific basin, is home to a majority
Melanesia of the territory’s population.
This subregion has about 9.47 million inhabitants Papua New Guinea (2020 population, 7.25 mil-
(2020), about 55 percent of the total population of lion) has an area slightly larger than California. It is
the Pacific islands. More than three-fourths of the the most populous nation in the Pacific islands. The
population is in Papua New Guinea. Melanesia has capital, Port Moresby, located on the southern
one of the highest proportions of rural population coast, is one of the fastest growing urban centers in
in the world. the region. The highest proportion of population

164
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Population Distribution of the Pacific Islands

Country Population Area in sq. mi. Persons/sq. mi.

Fiji 935,974 7,055 132.67

Kiribati 111,796 313 357.18
Marshall Islands 77,917 70 1,113.10
Micronesia, Federated States of 102,436 271 377.99
Nauru 11,000 8 1,375.00
New Zealand 4,925,477 102,138 48.22
Palau 21,685 177 122.51
Papua New Guinea 7,259,456 174,850 41.52
Samoa 203,774 1,089 187.12
Solomon Islands 685,097 10,805 63.41
Tonga 106,095 277 383.01
Tuvalu 11,342 10 1,134.20
Vanuatu 298,333 4,706 63.39
Source: The World Factbook.

lives in the five central highland provinces and the Most of the people in American Samoa (2020
coastal region; less than 14 percent of the popula- population, 49,437) live on the island of Tutuila,
tion lives in urban areas. where the capital, Pago Pago, (2010 population,
The Solomon Islands (2020 population, 685,097) 3,656) is located. Thanks to many years of a high ur-
has an area slightly smaller than Maryland. The cap- ban growth rate, more than 87 percent of the popu-
ital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal lation is urbanized. The population has dropped by
and had a population of 84,520 in 2017. Only 17 25 percent in the past two decades, largely owing to
percent of the inhabitants live in urban areas, and of the migration of American Samoans to Hawaii and
those, two-thirds reside in Honiara. California.
Vanuatu (2020 population, 298,333) has an area The Cook Islands (2020 population, 8,574) has
slightly smaller than Connecticut. About 25 percent an area 1.3 times the size of Washington, D.C.
of the population is urbanized. The main urban Fifty-nine percent of the population is urbanized.
center is Port Vila (2011 population, 51,437) on the Most of the people live on the island of Raratonga,
island of Efate. A scarce supply of water and defor- where the capital, Avaru (2016 population, 4,906),
estation are forcing rural people to move to cities. is located. More than half of Cook Island residents
Consequently, Vanuatu has a high urban growth have migrated to New Zealand in the past twenty
rate (about 2.55 percent). years.
Easter Island has an area three-fourths the size of
Polynesia Washington, D.C. About 7,750 people lived on the
This subregion’s 7.05 million inhabitants account island in 2017, nearly all in the town of Hanga Roa.
for 41 percent of the total population of the Pacific The island has one of the lowest population densi-
islands. Most of the people of Polynesia live in New ties in Polynesia. Nevertheless, there is some
Zealand and Hawaii. Together, these countries ac- out-migration. A small number of Easter Islanders
count for 90 percent of this subregion’s total popu- —known as Rapa Nuis—live in Chile, French Poly-
lation and most of the urban population. nesia, and the United States.

165
Population Distribution of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

French Polynesia (2020 population, 295,121) has Tokelau has an area about three times the size of
an area slightly less than one-third the size of Con- New York City’s Central Park. The population of
necticut. Sixty-two percent of the people live in cit- 1,647 (2019) has been decreasing slightly as a result
ies. The island of Tahiti makes up about one-fourth of emigration to New Zealand.
the total land area and is home to about half of the Tonga (2020 population, 106,095) has an area
total population. Tahiti includes the capital city of four times the size of Washington, D.C. Twenty-
Papeete, with a metro population of 136,771 three percent of the population is urbanized. Ap-
(2017). proximately two-thirds of the people live on the
Hawaii (2018 population, 1.42 million) is orga- main island of Tongatapu, where the capital,
nized into five counties: Honolulu, Hawaii, Kauai, Nuku’alofa (2016 population, 23,221), is located.
Maui, and Kalawao. Honolulu, the state capital, is The negative annual population growth rate (-0.16
the largest city (2019 metro population, 953,207), percent in 2020) is due in part to a steady emigra-
with two-thirds of the state’s population. Honolulu tion of Tongans to New Zealand and Australia.
County’s population density is far greater than that Tuvalu (2020 population, 11,342) has an area
of the next most populous county, and the highest one-tenth the size of Washington, D.C. Sixty-four
population density for a single island in the entire percent of the population is urbanized. Its capital,
Pacific islands region. Funafuti, had 6,320 residents in 2017. The annual
New Zealand (2020 population, 4.92 million) is population growth rate is fairly low (0.87 percent).
the second-most populous country in the Pacific is- Wallis and Futuna (2020 population, 15,854) has
lands. Eighty-seven percent of its population is ur- an area 1.5 times the size of Washington, D.C. The
banized. More than three-fourths of all New Zea- principal town, Mata-Utu, had 1,029 residents in
landers live on North Island, primarily in the 2018. A low population growth rate (0.28 percent in
Auckland region. Due to its historical ties to other 2020) is partly caused by the fact that, as French citi-
Pacific Islands, New Zealand is an important desti- zens, its inhabitants can legally migrate to France to
nation of emigrants from Samoa, the Cook Islands, find employment.
Tonga, Niue, Fiji, and Tokelau.
Niue (2019 population, 2,000) consists of a sin- Micronesia
gle island 1.5 times the size of Washington, D.C. This subregion had 544,752 inhabitants in 2020.
Alofi, the capital, had only 597 residents in 2017. All the islands in this region are small and conse-
The island is losing population due to migration of quently the population density (persons per unit
Niueans to New Zealand. area) is substantially greater than ten times greater
Pitcairn Islands has an area twice the size of here than in Melanesia and Polynesia. The percent-
Washington, D.C. In 2020, the entire population of age of rural population (59 percent) is similar to
about four dozen people lives in the settlement of many countries in Africa and Latin America. Popu-
Adamstown. This sparse population, which has lation pressures are relieved somewhat because citi-
been stable for years, depends on a small tourist zens of most of these islands can travel to the
trade, the sale of limited-edition postcards and United States to seek employment.
stamps, and honey production. Guam (2020 population, 168,485) has an area
Most of the population of Samoa (2020 popula- three times the size of Washington, D.C. Nearly 95
tion 203,774) lives on the islands of Savai’i and percent of the population is urbanized. Agana, the
Upolu. Apia, the capital, is the largest town (2016 capital, has 1,051 residents. The island is the site of
population, 37,391). Nearly 18 percent of the pop- a large US Air Force base, and more than one-third
ulation is urbanized. The minuscule (0.6 percent) of the island’s population is from the US mainland,
annual growth rate would be higher were it not for a principally military personnel and dependents.
steady flow of emigrants to New Zealand and the The Republic of Kiribati (2020 population,
United States. 111,796) has an area four times the size of Washing-

166
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Population Distribution of the Pacific Islands

ton, D.C. Fifty-five percent of Kiribatians live in cit- Nearly all its workforce was employed in phosphate
ies, most in the city of Tarawa (2015 population, mines until 2006, when the phosphate mines were
63,017), located on the island of Tarawa. The gov- exhausted. A deeper layer of phosphates is being
ernment of Kiribati had planned to move its surplus exploited, but the economy is holding together
population from Tarawa Island to Kiritimati Island, barely, and then only thanks to Australian support.
but it was decided that such a move would devastate Farming is impossible because most of the island is
the ecosystem of the latter. an environmental wasteland due to intensive
The Republic of the Marshall Islands (2020 pop- mining and limited water supply.
ulation, 77,917) has an area the size of Washington, The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Is-
D.C. Seventy-eight percent of the people live in cit- lands (2020 population, 51,433) has an area 2.5
ies. Majuro Island and Kwajalein atoll are impor- times the size of Washington, D.C. Nearly 92 per-
tant population centers. cent of the total population resides in Saipan, the
The Federated States of Micronesia (2020 popu- largest city. The commonwealth had a negative
lation, 102,436) has an area four times the size of population growth rate (-0.55 percent) in 2020.
Washington, D.C. Twenty-three percent of this The Republic of Palau (2020 population, 21,685)
country’s population is urbanized. The capital city has an area 2.5 times the size of Washington, D.C. It
of Palikir, has 6,647 residents. Approximately half has an urban population of 81 percent. The popula-
the population is in the state of Chuuk. About tion is concentrated on two islands: Babeldaob, the
15,000 Micronesians reside in the United States. larger island and site of Ngerulmud, the capital
The Republic of Nauru (2019 population, since 2006 and smallest nation capital city by popu-
102,436) consists of just a single island, which is lation in the world, and Koror, the smaller island
about one-tenth the size of Washington, D.C. but with a far larger population.

An arts and crafts fair in Papua New Guinea. (Kirsten Walla)

167
Population Distribution of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

Wake Island has an area eleven times the size of century. Overall, by 2050,the growth rate in the Pa-
the Mall in Washington, D.C. There is no indige- cific islands is projected to drop to no more than
nous population; it is a United States military and 0.80 percent. At the same time, the urbanization
commercial base. rate should average 72 percent. The US territory of
Guam, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu are pre-
Future Projections dicted to have the greatest population growths at
Population growth and urbanization in this region least through 2050.
are expected to continue, albeit at a slower pace Richard A. Crooker
than during the first two decades of the twenty-first

168
 Culture Regions of Australia

Most Australians live in the coastal regions. The New South Wales has approximately one-third of
center part of the continent is largely desert unable the country’s population, with more than 8 million
to support many people, although there are cattle residents. Victoria has about 6.6 million residents,
and sheep stations in the so-called Outback. East- and Queensland, north of New South Wales, has
ern Australia, from Cairns in Queensland to just over 5 million people. Western Australia has
Adelaide in South Australia, is more heavily popu- about 2.6 million residents. South Australia has
lated than the west coast. The southern coast west of slightly more than 1.75 million people. Tasmania
Adelaide has few residents. Although the north has just over half a million. The Northern Territory
coast has a concentration of residents in and around has a population of about 244,000, most of them
Darwin, this coast also is sparsely populated. concentrated in the capital, Darwin.

Protestors march for indigenous rights in Brisbane, Australia. (David Jackmanson)

169
Culture Regions of Australia Human Geography

Regionality
Various regions of the United States are typified by
speech patterns, cuisine, music, and other such Australia’s high rate of immigration, mainly from
characteristics, but such is not the case in Australia. Europe and Asia, has the potential to change voting
Australian dialect differences are largely based on patterns. Asian immigration, particularly, has been
socioeconomic status and educational level rather used by right-wing groups to arouse nativist resent-
ment, as in the racially tinged late-1990’s One Na-
than location. A university graduate from rural
tion movement that flourished briefly in
Georgia or coastal South Carolina usually has dif-
Queensland. Most Australian political parties wel-
ferent speech patterns from a university graduate come all races, affirming multiculturalism and rec-
from Maine or Massachusetts. In Australia, univer- onciliation with Australia’s often-oppressed aborig-
sity graduates from Sydney or Melbourne have inal population, which represent 3.3% of the
speech patterns similar to those of university country’s total population. Indigenous Australian
land rights and cultural recognition continue to be a
graduates from Perth or Darwin.
dominant issue. As of 2020, 40 per cent of Austra-
Cuisine from one end of Australia to the other is
lia’s land mass formally recognizes Aboriginal and
quite similar. Musical tastes and cultural offerings Torres Strait Islander peoples’ rights and interests.
also tend to be very much alike across the country.

Earliest Inhabitants The indigenous Australians were hunters and

When the first Europeans reached Australia in gatherers who lived a nomadic existence. Tribes
1788, indigenous peoples had lived in the area for lived throughout Australia, with the largest concen-
more than 50,000 years. Cave paintings discovered trations in the coastal regions, particularly in the
throughout mainland Australia and in the island north and east. The Outback, mostly desert, could
state of Tasmania are more than 30,000 years old. support few people. Hunting in the Outback was
Although estimates vary, most scholars conclude much less productive than it was closer to the coast,
that about 300,000 indigenous Australians (also whose oceans were important sources of food.
called Australian aboriginals) lived on the conti- Fruits, vegetables, and nuts were also more plentiful
nent when the first Europeans arrived. They were in the coastal regions.
divided into tribes and clans (extended families). Early European immigrants drove the indige-
Some 650 groups were formed by these people, who nous Australians from their property and de-
spoke about 250 languages, many mutually under- meaned them as primitive, despite their sophisti-
standable to people from different tribes or clans. cated art forms and notable conservation measures.
Currently, about fifty of these indigenous languages These included the controlled burning of brush in
survive. the Outback to enrich the soil and to provide
grasses to feed livestock in the unforgiving environ-
ment. Their reverence for nature was similar to that
of the Anasazi in the southwestern United States.
Driven from their land, the indigenous Austra-
lians endured for more than two centuries on the
fringes of society, an impoverished group, who, in
some instances, assimilated into mainstream Aus-
tralian society through intermarriage. Those with
indigenous roots often sought to obscure their
backgrounds, denying any indigenous connections.
The 1991 census recorded 257,333 Aboriginal Aus-
tralians; this number had increased to nearly
The campus of the University of Western Australia in Perth.
(CUHRIG) 650,000 by 2016, an indication that many, who had

170
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Culture Regions of Australia

been reluctant to openly recognize their origins,

were beginning to acknowledge their indigenous
heritage.
Legislation in 1967 and afterward recognized
Aboriginal property claims. Although they and the
Torres Strait islanders off Australia’s northeastern
tip comprise about 3 percent of Australia’s popula-
tion, they now hold claim to 9.6 percent of the land,
most of it in Western Australia, the Northern Terri-
tory, and South Australia, where the largest concen-
trations of indigenous Australians live. Substantial
numbers also live in all of Australia’s major cities. An Anglican church in Tasmania. (Ruben Ramos)

Population Shortage ployment and poverty engulfed Britain between

From the time of its earliest European settlement, 1830 and 1850, the British government agreed to
Australia had a shortage of people. Originally colo- pay the passage of those who wished to emigrate to
nized by prisoners from Britain’s overcrowded jails, Australia.
Australia at first had a Caucasian population in With the discovery of gold in Victoria during the
which men outnumbered women by about six to 1850s, many Asians flocked into the area. About
one. Although the transportation of criminals to 40,000 Chinese lived in eastern Australia during
New South Wales and Tasmania ended officially in the 1880s. Melanesians were imported as field
the 1840s, it resumed in Western Australia in 1850 workers, but in 1904, three years after the forma-
and continued for an additional eighteen years. tion of the first Australian parliament, the Melane-
By 1868, 137,000 men but only 25,000 women sians were expelled to their native countries. A con-
had been transported to Australia, 80 percent of siderable anti-Asian bias had become apparent
both sexes having been incarcerated in Britain for among Australians.
crimes against property—theft, larceny, bur-
glary—rather than crimes against persons. Most of Modern Immigration Patterns
the convicts worked for free settlers who had volun- At the beginning of World War II in 1939, 98 per-
tarily relocated in Australia in search of a better life cent of Australia’s 7 million people were of British
there. These convicts usually had a seven-year work origin. Between the end of that war and 1970, some
obligation, after which they were freed. As unem- 3 million people immigrated to Australia from Brit-
ain, Italy, Greece, Germany, the Netherlands, and
the Middle East. The White Australian Policy, which
precluded Asians from immigrating, was repealed
in 1973, after which many refugees from Vietnam,
Laos, and Cambodia settled permanently in the
country. By 2019, the country was 76 percent
Caucasian and 12 percent Asian.
The official aim of the Australian government is
to build a multicultural society in which those from
other cultures will be integrated but not assimi-
lated. In other words, people from other cultures
are discouraged from abandoning the cultures from
An Arab neighborhood in Sydney, Australia. (Australian Lifestyle
Images) which they came. As a result, ethnic neighborhoods

171
Culture Regions of Australia Human Geography

have grown up in all of Australia’s cities as well as in Italian, Greek, and Hindi. The languages declining
many of its small towns. the most are Italian, Greek, Croatian, Polish, and
Data from 2016 revealed that 240 different lan- Maltese. These figures indicate the direction in
guages, about fifty of which are Aboriginal, are cur- which population growth through immigration is
rently spoken in Australian homes. After English, taking place.
the most common languages are, in descending or- R. Baird Shuman
der, Mandarin, Arabic, Cantonese, Vietnamese,

172
 Culture Regions of
the Pacific Islands

The Pacific islands traditionally are divided into their own way of living, which many islanders,
three cultural and geographic areas: Melanesia, Mi- particularly those who live in the larger cities, have
cronesia, and Polynesia. Melanesia contains the adopted.
larger, hilly, mountainous islands, including New
Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand and Hawaii
Vanuatu, and Fiji. Micronesia comprises more than Two of the larger islands—New Zealand, an inde-
2,000 small islands, many of which are atolls pendent nation, and Hawaii, part of the United
formed from coral reefs that rise just a few feet States—are highly developed economies and re-
above sea level. These islands include Palau, the flect strong European influences. New Zealand was
Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, Kiribati, the populated originally by people who arrived by ca-
Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Is- noe from eastern Polynesia. These people became
lands, and Nauru. Polynesia is the largest of these known as the Maori. They fished, hunted, farmed,
geographic areas, covering a triangular area de- and engaged in warfare. Individuals specialized in
fined by Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island. It
includes Midway Island, the Cook Islands, Samoa,
American Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu, French Polynesia,
and Pitcairn.
The people who populate the Pacific islands are
believed to have arrived from southeastern Asia in a
series of migratory waves. However, the pattern of
their distribution across the islands and their subse-
quent development into such highly differentiated
groups as the dark-skinned Melanesians, Asi-
atic-featured Micronesians, and lighter-skinned
Polynesians is unknown. Many experts believe that
the newcomers gradually spread across the Pacific
islands, traveling from west to east using prevailing
winds and currents. After settling in separated and
physically distant islands, they gradually came to
differ in appearance and culture. The three cultural
and geographic groupings were evident when the
first Europeans arrived in the sixteenth century and
are described in the writings of European explorers
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These
explorers noted that the regions had distinct reli-
gions, languages, and customs. Europeans brought A woman weaves a basket in Fiji. (Nnehring)

173
Culture Regions of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

arts such as creating poetry, tattooing, and carving

wood, bone, and stone. Their religion had a num-
ber of nature-based deities, as well as spirits that
performed magical spells and punished those who
broke taboos. Many religious concepts, including
taboos and personal prestige, were similar to other
Polynesian beliefs.
The Maori fiercely resisted settlement by Europe-
ans, engaging in a number of wars after being colo-
nized by the British in 1840. The wars and European
diseases reduced the numbers of the Maori from
about 120,000 in 1769 to 42,000 in 1896. By 1996 A religious ceremony in Papua New Guinea. (Joel Carillet)
the number of Maori had grown to 500,000, about
14 percent of New Zealand’s population. By 2018, influence marks the culture of Fiji and the outlying
the Maori population had increased by more than 50 islands to the northwest. Many languages are spo-
percent, or 16.5 percent of New Zealander. Some ken in Melanesia, with 740 spoken in Papua New
Maori in rural areas maintain their traditions; how- Guinea alone.
ever, a large number in urban areas have become as- Many islanders (although not those in New Cal-
similated into the dominant, British-derived culture. edonia or Fiji) use Pidgin English (Neo-Melane-
The Hawaiians, like the Maori, are a minority sian), a combination of indigenous and English
presence in their native lands. The first Europeans words, as their common language. Although Chris-
arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in the late eigh- tianity is the main religion in many of the Pacific is-
teenth century. In the nineteenth century, the is- lands, in the Melanesian islands of New Guinea, the
lands developed a plantation economy, and thou- Solomons, and Vanuatu, many island religions—
sands of Japanese and Filipino immigrants came predominantly animistic beliefs combining magic,
seeking work. According to 2015 estimates, about sorcery, and ancestor worship—still survive, and
10 percent of Hawaii’s population consisted of na- many islanders continue to believe in magic and
tive Hawaiians, and other Pacific islanders, 37.3 witchcraft. Cannibalism, once practiced in a few Pa-
percent were of Asian origin, and 26.7 percent were cific islands, is thought to persist only in remote
white. Although most Pacific islanders live in rural areas of New Guinea.
areas, about 89 percent of all Hawaii residents live Although considerable variation exists among
in urban areas. Native Hawaiians retain some tradi- groups, Melanesian traditional society relies on kin-
tional practices, but the culture in Hawaii is basi- ship systems, usually with clan membership de-
cally American, with considerable Asian influence. pendent on descent from some common ancestor.
The predominant religion in Hawaii is Christianity, Traditional society has been described as class-free
although Buddhism also has a large following. The because power and status are not inherited or at-
native Hawaiian religion was a form of nature tained by membership in a group, but must be
worship, which was abolished by Kamehameha II in earned by the individual. To gain a position of lead-
1819. ership (to be a “big man”), the Melanesian must ac-
cumulate wealth or acquire a skill such as oratory.
Melanesia Traditional arts include the production of bark
Melanesians exhibit a wide cultural diversity: those cloth, basket weaving, and pottery.
who dwell along the beaches tend to be less tradi-
tional because of prolonged contact with other cul- Micronesia
tures; those who live inland in relative isolation In comparison with Melanesians, Micronesians are
have retained their traditions. A definite Polynesian somewhat fair-complexioned and are taller, and

174
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Culture Regions of the Pacific Islands

many have Asiatic features such as

high cheekbones and straight hair.
Micronesians speak about thirteen In 2018, the Fiji Islands were home to about 926,276 people, spread out
languages, including English, over more than 330 islands covering 7,095 square miles (18,375 sq.
French, and Japanese, the languages km.). About 57 percent of the population live in urban areas, including
the capital, Suva.
of their colonizers. Micronesians tra-
Native Fijians (legally known as iTaukei since 2010), who comprise
ditionally believed in the stability of about 57 percent of the population, are ethnically Melanesian but cul-
society and culture. Living in small turally are more similar to the Polynesians. The next largest group of
communities on small islands, they people, 37.5 percent of the population, is Indian (Indo-Fijian). From
1879, five years after Fiji became a British colony, until 1916, the British
valued harmony and good manners,
brought more than sixty thousand Indians to work as indentured labor-
preferring to settle disagreements by ers on the sugarcane and cotton plantations. After their five years of ser-
negotiating rather than fighting. vitude were up, about 60 percent of the Indians remained in Fiji, farm-
Micronesians often lived in extended ing leased land or opening shops in urban areas. The remaining 5
family groups, separate from other percent of Fiji’s population consists of Europeans, Chinese, other Pacific
Islanders, and people of mixed ethnicity. The population of the Fiji Is-
families, and often on the lagoon side lands is 64 percent Christian (Anglican, Assembly of God, Catholic,
of the atolls, making fishing and ca- Methodist, 7th Day Adventist, and Other), 28 percent Hindu, and six
noeing easier. Low-island cultures percent Muslim. The iTaukei are primarily Christian, and Indo-Fijians
(Marshalls, Kiribati) tended to ven- are Hindu or Muslim. The official language is English, although the
iTaukei also speak Fijian and Indo-Fijians speak Hindi.
ture farther away from shore, while
The iTaukei tend to discriminate against Indo-Fijians, whose sheer
high-island (Northern Marianas, numbers at one time threatened the iTaukei traditional way of life. The
Palau) residents tended to stay near Indo-Fijians’ economic success in sugarcane farming and other key in-
their own islands. Islands with higher dustries also produced tension between the two groups. Racial clashes
between the iTaukei and Indo-Fijians first erupted in 1959 and broke
levels of social stratification included
out again in 1970, just before Fiji gained its independence from Great
Yap (an island of the Federated States Britain. From 1970 to 1987 Fiji was part of the Commonwealth, ruled by
of Micronesia), Palau, the Marshalls, Prime Minister Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. Mara lost the elections of April,
and Kiribati. 1987, to a coalition of iTaukei and Indo-Fijians. A perception that the
new government was dominated by Indo-Fijians led to racial violence
The indigenous polytheistic reli-
and two military coups by Lieutenant Colonel Sitiveni Ligamamada
gions of Micronesia continued to be Rabuka in 1987, after which Rabuka declared Fiji to be a republic.
practiced until the mid-twentieth cen- Fiji’s 1990 constitution increased native Fijian representation in the
tury on Yap and parts of Palau, Chris- government, mandated that the prime minister be iTaukei, and gave
tianity largely supplanted these beliefs. hereditary clan chiefs a role in the government. In 1997 the govern-
ment eliminated preferential treatment for iTaukei. In May, 1999,
Micronesian traditional culture has Mahendra Chaudhry, an ethnic Indian, became prime minister. How-
been influenced greatly by European ever, the rift between the iTaukei and Indo-Fijians had not healed. In
colonizers; several traditional crafts, May of 2000, iTaukei businessman George Speight took Chaudhry and
such as weaving and pottery, have dis- his entire cabinet hostage, demanding iTaukei control of the country.
Speight released the hostages after fifty six days and later was charged
appeared. Other traditional arts and
with treason. A new government excluding Indo-Fijians from positions
crafts are matwork, tattooing, shell or- of power was installed, with Ratu Josefa Iloilo as president and Laisenia
naments, body painting, and the re- Qarase as prime minister. Tensions continued to simmer until late 2005,
cital of poetry and tales. The only is- when then-Commodore Frank Bainimarama escalated his verbal at-
tacks on the government for, among other grievances, showing leniency
land with substantial numbers of
towards the perpetrators of the 2000 coup. By late 2006, tensions boiled
non-Micronesians is Guam, part of the over and another coup took place when the government failed to meet a
United States since 1898. Despite the list of demands issued by Bainimarama. His military forces overthrew
presence of many Americans, the the government and, in early 2007, he became interim prime minister,
Chamorros (the indigenous people of with Iloilo reinstated as president. Bainimarama and the FijiFirst Party
went on to win democratic elections held in 2014 and 2018.
the Mariana Islands) have maintained
political influence.

175
Culture Regions of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

Polynesia tended family groupings, and their kinship pat-

Of the Pacific islanders, Polynesians are the tallest terns made distinctions among the grandparents’,
and have the lightest pigmentation and straight or parents’, one’s own, and children’s generations, as
wavy hair. The Tongans, Hawaiians, and Samoans might be expected in a highly stratified society.
tend to be large-boned and heavier. Because of in- Traditional Polynesian religion was polytheistic,
termarriages with Europeans and Asians, many with sometimes malevolent gods that required wor-
Polynesians have characteristics typical of those ship through sacrifices, feasting, sexual acts, chants,
groups. Polynesians speak about twenty languages, and various elaborate rituals. Animals, people, and
most of which are related. even inanimate objects were endowed with mana, a
English is the official language of Hawaii, Samoa, supernatural power that had to be guarded so that it
and Tonga, as well as those islands controlled by would not be diminished through various acts. For
English-speaking nations. Polynesians are more ho- example, stepping over a person’s head would de-
mogeneous in custom than the Melanesians or stroy the mana of that person. This belief created
Micronesians. Traditionally, Polynesians were gar- many prohibitions (tapu), violation of which meant
deners and fishers whose lifestyles were remarkably harsh and violent punishment, even death. Lesser
in tune with the ocean environment. Polynesian lan- violations received spiritual punishment such as
guages contain many words for winds, currents, illness.
stars, and directions, all useful for life on and near Polynesians also believed in magic; people prac-
the ocean. ticed rituals designed to guarantee success in vari-
Traditional Polynesian culture was conservative, ous endeavors or to bring bad luck upon others,
dedicated to preserving its complicated social eti- sometimes visiting practitioners of magic. Al-
quette and rituals. Polynesians defined a person’s though many indigenous religious beliefs have
relation to society and nature, creating elaborate faded and been replaced by Christianity, many
mythologies and genealogies. Society was arranged Polynesians still believe in magic. Introduction of
by hierarchical, branching descent groups based on Europeans and European culture to Polynesia
kinship. The main lines in the hierarchy were be- brought disease and social and political instability
lieved to be closest to the gods. Alternatively, societ- to the islands. Missionaries also altered and de-
ies were arranged around a direct descent line from stroyed the indigenous cultures. Contemporary
a mythological ancestor. These descent lines Polynesia can sometimes be described as an uneasy
handed down titles that gave their holder societal combination of European and indigenous culture.
positions such as chief. Polynesians lived in ex- Rowena Wildin

Q1. How do scholars characterize Q2. What factors led to an increase Q3. How might the cultural aspects
the relationship between the indig- in Australia’s population in the late of traditional Melanesians,
enous Australians and the Euro- 1800s? How were Asians and Pa- Micronesians, and Polynesians be
pean settlers? How does the indige- cific islanders treated during that described? What role did Western
nous Australian experience differ period? When did Australia em- missionaries play in the prevailing
from that of Native Americans? brace a liberal immigration policy? indigenous cultures? To what de-
gree have traditional cultures sur-
vived in the Pacific islands?

176
 Exploration

The aboriginal Australians were not only the first William Dampier, a crew member of an English
residents of Australia, but also its first explorers. expedition that briefly touched the Australian coast
They crossed into Australia when there was still a in 1688, returned there eleven years later as captain
land bridge connecting Australia with the Eurasian of his own ship. Dampier had little formal educa-
landmass. These early people then branched out tion, but he had instinctive scientific curiosity. His
over every area of the continent. They established expeditions made accurate geographical observa-
c o m p l ex s y s t e m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n — t h e tion a top priority in future Pacific voyaging.
“songlines”—that helped map the continent. Simi- Dampier became the first Englishman to set foot in
larly, most of Polynesia was settled by voyagers Australia, landing on the north coast. Although
plunging eastward and, in the case of the Maoris equipment damage to his ship prevented Dampier
who settled New Zealand, southward. They pad- from exploring the east coast of Australia, his narra-
dled in large canoes (waka) in search of new lands. tive of his travels, published in 1703, helped spur
In classical European culture, ancient geogra- interest in further South Pacific exploration.
phers such as Ptolemy had postulated the existence British explorer Captain James Cook brought
of a great southern landmass to counterbalance the Australia, New Zealand, and Melanesia fully within
known areas of land in the Northern Hemisphere.
These ideas of a Great Southern Land (terra australis
in Latin, thus eventually “Australia”) were revived
after Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magel-
lan empirically proved the roundness of the world
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Captain Pedro Fernandes de Queiros, a Portu-
guese navigator who captained a Spanish ship, is
thought to be the first European to sight the Austra-
lian mainland, but he did not set foot ashore.
Queiros wanted to establish a Spanish empire in the
South Pacific. He thought New Guinea was the
Great Southern Land, but his lieutenant, Luis Vaz
de Torres, established that it was not by discovering
the strait to the south of New Guinea. This body of
water is now called the Torres Strait.
In 1642 Dutch navigator Abel Tasman became
the first explorer to circumnavigate Australia. Iron-
ically, during the entire voyage he never actually
sighted the continent. However, his expedition did
glimpse a small island to the south of the continent
that was later called Tasmania in Tasman’s honor.
Another Dutch expedition headed by Willem
Schouten had sailed east of Fiji in 1616. Abel Tasman. (National Library of Australia)

177
Exploration Human Geography

the orbit of Western exploration. Cook commanded

ships built for the rough North Sea currents off his
native Yorkshire, sailing them tens of thousands of
miles away from home. In a short ten-year se-
quence, from 1769 to 1779, Cook vastly expanded
Europe’s knowledge of the globe.

Australia
By Cook’s time, the motives for geographic expedi-
tions had become less economic and more scientific
in nature. This was to the benefit of South Pacific ex-
ploration, because the trading possibilities in these
areas were less financially lucrative than in other ar-
eas of the globe. Nevertheless, there were extraordi-
nary possibilities for the gain of scientific knowledge,
both of these regions and the globe itself.
Cook’s expedition included a botanical scientist,
Joseph Banks, who named many of the new species
he encountered, classifying them within the systems
recently developed as a result of the European En-
lightenment. Banks was so enthusiastic about the Joseph Banks. (National Portrait Gallery)

expedition that he helped finance it, contributing a

Daniel Carl Solander, had actually studied under
considerable amount of his own funds to assist in
Carl Linnaeus, who established the taxonomic clas-
sponsoring the voyage. Another scientist on board,
sifications of genera and species still used for ani-
mals and plants today.
Cook was not a trained scientist, although he was
knowledgeable about astronomy. Nevertheless, his
voyages were the first in which exploration ceased
to be primarily a search for spoils and instead be-
came a search for knowledge. Cook’s expeditions
not only brought back geographic data, but also
made advances in geographic practice. Cook per-
fected precise calculations of longitude, which over-
came the final barrier to reliable mapping of what
were, to Europeans, distant, and unknown areas.
Cook’s explorations marked what has been termed
“the closing of the global circle.” Before Cook’s
travels, there were still mysterious, unexplored
places on Earth. After his voyages, every significant
inhabited portion of the world had been mapped
and surveyed, and only hidden corners remained
for future explorers to discover.
This scientific orientation made it no accident
that, when Cook’s ship, the Endeavor, landed near
James Cook. (National Maritime Museum) what is now Sydney in 1770, the inlet the ship came

178
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Exploration

A replica of James Cook’s ship, the HMS Endeavor. (Dennis4trigger)

upon was named Botany Bay after the many notable Along with the much earlier voyage of Captain
plant specimens Banks observed and classified Pedro Fernandes de Queiros, it seemed to be an al-
along shore. Botany Bay is one of the few places on ternative, non-British genesis for European Austra-
Earth named after a scientific field. The British fol- lia. The Spanish and French voyages were never fol-
lowed up Cook’s expedition in 1788 by sending a lowed up by actual colonization. The British
fleetload of convicts (transported prisoners) to a expedition, led by Arthur Phillip, appeared to be
place near Botany Bay that was to become known as just a solution to prison overcrowding, and the loss
Sydney Harbor of another site for the relocation of prisoners after
At nearly the same time, a French expedition the successful American rebellion. Australia, how-
headed by Jean-François La Perouse had reached ever, quickly developed into a full-fledged British
Australia. Its goal was to research the feasibility of colony. Australia was now not just a point on the
whale and fur trading in the South Pacific. A relief globe to be explored, but a land to be settled.
voyage headed by Bruni d’Entrecasteaux was later
sent out to look for La Perouse, who, with his entire Into the Interior
expedition, mysteriously vanished. La Perouse’s ex- The first quarter-century of European settlement of
pedition occurred contemporaneously with the Australia was confined to the coastline, whose lush
French Revolution and at the height of the influ- vegetation and superb harbors offered little chal-
ence of the French Enlightenment. It has always lenge to the continent’s new residents. Soon, how-
fascinated Australians. ever, they realized that an entire continent was

179
Exploration Human Geography

before them. In 1813 Gregory Blaxland became the

first European to probe beyond the Blue Moun-
tains, breaking out of the confines between the
mountains and the Pacific coast and plunging into The German explorer Ludwig Leichhardt came to
the interior. This opened up much of the long but, Australia in 1841, his scientific curiosity stirred by
in terms of water resources, sparse Murray-Darling the exotic land and its strange flora, fauna, and ge-
river system to exploration by men such as Charles ology. He achieved celebrity when he crossed from
Brisbane, in Queensland, over thousands of miles of
Sturt.
barren land to discover the Burdekin River and
The fringes of this inland area proved hospitable reach the area of the present-day Northern Terri-
to agriculture and, especially, cattle and sheep graz- tory. In his next, ill-fated, expedition, Leichhardt at-
ing. It soon became clear that most of the Australian tempted to cross the entire Australian continent,
interior was barren and contained, at best, only but he and his entire party disappeared without a
trace. Their remains have never been found. Leich-
mineral resources. Settlement could not continue
hardt’s earlier success had made him famous, but
along the same lines as in the lands near Botany his failure turned him into an Australian legend. An
Bay. echo of Leichhardt’s story is found in Patrick
The goal then became to find what was at the cen- White’s novel Voss (1957), which is considered the
ter of Australia, as the coasts had by now been well single greatest work of Australian fiction. The novel
raised the tale of the doomed explorer in the
charted. The goal once again became scientific and
desolate continent to the status of myth.
geographic, this time tinged with a kind of romantic
quest for knowledge and great deeds. As with the
eighteenth century explorers, the trekkers across victimized by the explorations, they also played a
nineteenth-century Australia, whatever their for- crucial role in aiding and guiding the European-led
mal education, were intensely knowledgeable about expeditions. They not only knew the lay of the land
the landscape, and what they did not know they but also how to survive upon it. Without the help of
sought to learn. The seat of exploration now be- the indigenous people, many of the most famous
came Adelaide in South Australia, and efforts were explorations of the Australian interior, particularly
made to find a giant inland lake or a sizable river in the passage beyond the Blue Mountains, would
the center of the continent, some form of oasis in never have been viable.
the inhospitable, arid land. Instead, all the explorer
Edward John Eyre found was the Nullarbor Plain, New Zealand
whose name is Latin for “no trees.” New Zealand first was sighted by Europeans in
Although explorers of Australia showed great 1642, when a part of its coast was observed by Tas-
courage, their stories do not have the heroic ring as- man in his two ships, the Heemskerck and the
sociated with explorers of North America such as Zeehaen. Tasman named the islands after the Dutch
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa or Henry Hudson. In fact, province of Zeeland; the Maori name for the coun-
some of the most prominent figures in Australian try is Aotearoa, meaning Land of the Long White
exploration lore are men who failed, such as Ludwig Cloud. Tasman’s crew did not land, but they did en-
Leichhardt, who died trying to traverse the conti- gage a group of Maori in battle at sea, in which four
nent, or Robert Burke and William Wills, who tried of Tasman’s men were killed.
to fulfill Leichhardt’s vain quest. Burke and Wills The events that led to New Zealand’s permanent
had little geographic knowledge or wilderness European settlement began on October 7, 1769,
know-how, and died of hunger, not having neared when Cook and his crew arrived at what they later
their goal. named Poverty Bay. The crew of the Endeavor was
One of the possible reasons for Burke and Wills’ thrilled to see such a sizable landmass after a long
failure was their lack of indigenous Australian voyage filled with only specks of islands, but they
guides. Although the indigenous people were often soon realized that New Zealand was not the Great

180
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Exploration

Southern Land. The crew remained in the area tive island peoples did not always go so smoothly,
through March, 1770, and circumnavigated both however. Cook himself was killed by Hawaiians in
the North and South Islands, making accurate 1779, in circumstances still hotly debated among
charts and establishing that the islands were not historians. Also, his expedition spread disease that
peninsular outgrowths of an interior landmass. The often decimated indigenous communities.
hungry crew often waded ashore to pilfer the tasty As with the indigenous peoples in Australia and
sweet potato (kumara), which led to several skir- the Maoris in New Zealand, the Pacific islanders
mishes with angry Maori. Expeditions after Cook’s were subjugated and displaced by the European
were largely mounted by whalers; along with a wave colonists. Sometimes the cultural interaction was
of British missionaries, the whalers laid the founda- happier. When one of Cook’s subordinates, William
tions, in the early nineteenth century, for New Zea- Bligh, led his own Pacific expedition on the ship
land’s European settlement. HMS Bounty in 1789, his men mutinied. This was
the famous “Mutiny on the Bounty.” The mutineers
Other Pacific Islands married Tahitian women and set up their own do-
The first Pacific island group to gain a foothold on main on remote Pitcairn Island.
Western consciousness was Tahiti, or, as the early Cook affected geography as much as any other in-
explorers spelled it, Otaheite. When Captain Cook dividual since Columbus. By showing that the South-
landed there in the Endeavor in April, 1769, he initi- ern Hemisphere did not have the same amount of
ated an era of cultural contact that would see Poly- landmass as the Northern Hemisphere, he paved
nesian and Melanesian people become conscious of the way for accurate measurement of the world.
the wider globe. Cook was well-received by the Tahi-
tians and dealt judiciously with them. Antarctica
Cook’s main agenda there was neither economic The exploration of Antarctica—Earth’s only unin-
nor military, but scientific: The Royal Society (a sci- habited continent—does not include the scenes of
entific group in Britain) had commanded him to cultural encounter that made exploration in other
observe the transit of Venus on June 3, 1769, and areas so dramatic. Indeed, one might say that the
the British Admiralty (navy department) had ad- exploration of Antarctica is still continuing. As in
vised him to watch for any promising areas of land other areas still unknown in the eighteenth century,
he might encounter on his voyage. (It was in recog- Cook was the pioneering figure. Cook had estab-
nition of the astronomical purpose to Cook’s voy- lished that neither Australia nor New Zealand con-
age that one of the US space shuttles was named En-
deavor). On this and his two subsequent voyages,
Cook sailed around numerous Polynesian islands.
He made informed Pacific navigation possible.
Englishman John Harrison’s invention of the chro- In 1958 British scholar Sir Vivian Fuchs led the first
nometer, a mode of measuring longitude, was cru- successful overland crossing of Antarctica. Fuchs’
cial to Cook in this task. When native peoples, ap- expedition took place in the context of the Interna-
tional Geophysical Year, a worldwide research effort
parently as a joke, stole Cook’s chronometer on one
extending through 1957 and 1958, which deter-
island he visited, it was a moment of great crisis. mined the mineral composition of Antarctica and
Fortunately, the instrument was returned. Also im- surveyed the thickness of the Antarctic ice cap. This
portant was Cook’s solution to the problem of international cooperation led to the Antarctic
shipboard disease. He encouraged his sailors to eat Treaty in 1961. This treaty, renewed in 1991, de-
fruit, which kept them healthy. ferred all national claims to Antarctica and in effect
made the continent into a giant world research sta-
Cook made friends with a chief called “Tioony”
tion. The Antarctic Treaty System, which includes
on Tonga. Therefore, he called that island group related agreements, currently has 54 parties.
the Friendly Islands. Cook’s interaction with the na-

181
Exploration Human Geography

stituted the Great Southern Land for which

explorers had been searching for the past two cen-
turies, and that the only remaining possibility was
the uttermost south. Cook’s voyage on the ship Res-
olution in 1773 was the first human expedition
known to cross the Antarctic Circle. Its progress was,
unsurprisingly, blocked by ice. Cook was the first
known explorer to set foot on the sub-Antarctic
South Sandwich Islands; although he turned back
north, he was able to verify that any southern
continent would be completely icebound.
In 1821 US explorer John Davis became the first
human being known to have set foot on Antarctica.
Two years later, British explorer James Weddell
sailed into a large bay in the outer fringes of West
Antarctica, which was named the Weddell Sea in his
honor. Unspurred by any hunger for resources be-
yond offshore whaling and sealing, further nautical Robert Scott. (Wikimedia Commons)
explorations continued at a leisurely pace until a
Norwegian expedition brought people to the conti- found in the area, the race to the pole became its
nent again in 1895. Once it was determined that hu- own reward. The Norwegian Borge Ousland be-
mans could survive on Antarctica and that the came the first person to travel across all of
South Pole rested on this giant landmass, the main Antarctica alone in January 1997.
goal of exploration was to reach the Pole. The continent today serves as a base for research
From 1908 to 1912, the famous expeditions to into weather, climate, oceanography, and especially
the South Pole of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and fossil research, as the ice preserved prehistoric re-
British explorers Ernest Shackleton and Robert Fal- mains not found on other continents. For some, the
con Scott took place. Shackleton narrowly failed to most exciting area of Antarctic research is astro-
reach the South Pole as a result of a shortage of sup- physics. Indeed, many in the scientific community
plies. Scott fell short once but reached it later on his believe that the conditions in Antarctica are the
second attempt. However, he and all his party per- closest to what can be expected if humans seek to
ished on the journey. Amundsen became the first to settle permanently in outer space.
reach the South Pole in 1911. Although there were Nicholas Birns
initially hopes that mineral deposits would be

Q1. What were the main accom- Q2. Why were the Pacific islands Q3. When was Antarctica discov-
plishments of British explorer Cap- relatively late to be discovered by ered? When and by whom was the
tain James Cook? How did the European explorers? What impact South Pole reached? Why are there
goals of his voyages differ from did the Europeans have on the in- no permanent human settlements
those of previous explorers? What digenous populations? on Antarctica?
contributions did he make to the
science of navigation?

182
 Urbanization of Australia

To many people, including Australians themselves, olution, the British, needing a place to send their
typical “Aussies” are strong, lanky, suntanned per- criminals, turned their attention to the southern
sons from the Outback, wearing a broad-brimmed continent discovered and mapped by Captain
hats and speaking slowly, with a distinctive accent James Cook in 1770. A new penal colony was estab-
and a dry sense of humor. Their world is thought to lished in New South Wales, at Botany Bay, in 1788.
be one of kangaroos, horses, and sheep traveling on Thus, immigrants to Australia were initially con-
dusty and deserted plains. In reality, Australians victs, or prisoners, sent into exile as punishment for
have been city dwellers throughout most of the his- their crimes. A small number of penal settlements
tory of European settlement of the country, and soon were located around the coast of the continent.
Australia has long been one of the world’s most These grew into the colonial centers that are today
urbanized populations. the capital cities of Australia’s states.
Some free citizens came from Britain to the Aus-
Immigration History tralian colonies as settlers, but their numbers were
The history of immigration to Australia explains small, and they wanted to become pastoralists,
this pattern of settlement. After the American Rev- rather than agriculturalists. Not until 1830 were

River views of Brisbane CBD seen from Kangaroo Point, Queensland. (Kgbo)

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Urbanization of Australia Human Geography

MAJOR URBAN CENTERS IN AUSTRALIA

G r
Timor Sea Darwin Gulf a

e
of

t
Carpentaria
Coral Sea

B a
Derby Cairns

r r
Indian Townsville ie
Broome
Ocean Tennant r
Port Hedland Creek Mackay

R
Pa c i f i c

ee
Alice Springs Gladstone Ocean

f
Carnarvon
Sunshine Coast
Brisbane
Geraldton Gold Coast
Cook Bourke
Kalgoorlie
Perth Port Augusta Broken Hill
Great Sydney Newcastle
Port Adelaide
Australian Canberra Wollongong
Lincoln
Bight
Melbourne Tasman Sea
Geelong

Hobart

there more free settlers than convicts in Australia. States, where the majority of immigrants in the
The discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 attracted eighteenth and nineteenth centuries wanted to be
thousands of miners from around the world and led farmers. At the time of World War I, more than 50
to the establishment of inland towns, which persist percent of the US population still lived in rural ar-
today as Bendigo, Ballarat, and Castlemaine. eas, while only 40 percent of Australians lived in ru-
Later gold discoveries in other colonies led to ral areas then. The percentage continued to decline
population increases in New South Wales, throughout the twentieth century and into the
Queensland, and Western Australia. Unsuccessful twenty-first: by 2020, approximately 14 percent of
miners often stayed in Australia and established Australians and 17 percent of people in the United
businesses. Overall, immigrants to Australia came States lived in rural areas.
to the cities and towns—a contrast to the United
Modern Population Trends
The pattern of population distribution in Australia
reflects environmental constraints as well as history.
The driest parts of the continent are almost empty;
the arid 50 percent of the continent in the center
contains less than 5 percent of Australia’s popula-
tion. The well-watered temperate parts have a mod-
erate population density; the coastal areas have
high-density urban settlements. The largest popu-
lation concentration is in the southeastern part, in
the more temperate regions. Ninety percent of Aus-
An outdoor café in Sydney. (imamember) tralian residents live east of a line drawn from

184
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Urbanization of Australia

Adelaide to Brisbane, and 84 percent of the people

are crowded into a densely populated 1 percent of
the area of Australia. The southwest corner, around
Perth, has the other significant population concen- Population
City (Millions)
tration. The island state of Tasmania, with a
population of 537,000 in 2020, has the lowest Sydney 4,823.9
growth rate in Australia. Melbourne 4,485.2
In 2020, Australia had a population of 25.5 mil- Brisbane 2,270.8
lion people. New South Wales was the most populous Perth 1,943.8
state, with more than 8 million people, followed by Adelaide 1,295.7
Victoria with 6.6 million. Queensland’s population is Gold Coast-Tweed Heads 624.2
increasing most rapidly, due to interstate migration. Newcastle-Maitland 463.0
The population of Western Australia has also in- Canberra-Queanbeyan 432.3
creased rapidly, reaching 2.6 million in 2020. Sunshine Coast 307.5
Australia is one of the world’s most urbanized Wollongong 285.6
countries. Forty percent of all Australians live in either Hobart 222.3
Sydney or Melbourne, which, despite ranking only Geelong 247.4
fifty-sixth and fifty-eighth, respectively, in compara- Townsville 173.8
tive world city population size, are nevertheless cos- Cairns 144.7
mopolitan cities. Three other Australian capital cities Source: 2016 Census QuickStats, Australia Bureau of
have a population of more than 1 million—Brisbane, Statistics.
Perth, and Adelaide. Seven more urban areas have a
population greater than 200,000—the conurbations Darwin. This makes the comparative size of cities in
of Gold Coast-Tweed Heads, Newcastle-Maitland, Australia noteworthy; the typical rank-size pattern
Canberra-Queanbeyan, and Sunshine Coast, as well of a primate city, some middle-sized cities, and
as the cities of Wollongong, Geelong, and Hobart. many smaller towns does not apply. The state capi-
Australia’s largest inland towns include tals contain the greatest proportion of each state’s
Albury-Wodonga, Toowoomba, Ballarat, and population. In South Australia, Western Australia,
Bendigo. Suburban life is typical in Australia, with and Victoria, almost three-quarters of the people
Sydney and Melbourne, each having more than 1 live in the capital city. In Northern Territory, about
million privately occupied homes. 60 percent of the people live in the capital city of
Slightly more than two-thirds of Australians live Darwin. In Queensland and Tasmania, 48 and 43
in either one of the six capital cities, the national percent, respectively, live in the capital city.
capital, Canberra, or the administrative center of This dominance of the capital cities is a demon-
stration of primacy, reflecting both the history and
the relative location of the cities. Those states with a
more dispersed population also have a less cen-
trally located capital city. Queensland is the best ex-
ample: its capital, Brisbane, is located in the far
southeast of the state. Such a location has, on occa-
sion, led to separatist movements initiated by peo-
ple in areas remote from the seat of government,
which has happened several times in Queensland.
Immigration led to the growth of Australian cit-
ies, and recent immigration has changed the ethnic
A modern apartment complex in Canberra, Australia. (Daniiielc) profile of Australian cities. In the first two decades

185
Urbanization of Australia Human Geography

Mark Twain spent several months in Australia in 1895-1896 and was enchanted with the names of Australian
towns—many of which were adapted from indigenous Australian words. He called these names “good words for po-
etry. Among the best I have ever seen,” and used sixty-six of them to write the poem that follows.
His favorite name was “Woolloomooloo,” which he called “the most musical and gurgly.” He made no pretense of
the poem’s having any meaning other than the beauty of its words, but it can stand as a commentary on Australia’s
climate. (Some of these names are actually from New Zealand.)

(To be read soft and low, with the lights turned down.)

The Bombola faints in the hot Bowral tree, In the weltering hell of the Moorooroo plain
Where fierce Mullengudgery’s smothering fires The Yatala Wangary withers and dies,
Far from the breezes of Coolgardie And the Worrow Wanilla, demented with pain,
Burn ghastly and blue as the day expires; To the Woolgoolga woodlands despairingly flies;

And Murriwillumba complaineth in song Sweet Nangwarry’s desolate, Coonamble wails,

For the garlanded bowers of Woolloomooloo, And Tungkillo Kuitpo in sables is drest,
And the Ballarat Fly and the lone Wollongong For the Whangarei winds fall asleep in the sails
They dream of the gardens of Jamberoo; And the Booleroo life breeze is dead in the west.

The wallabi sighs for the Murrumbidgee, Myponga, Kapunda, O slumber no more!
For the velvety sod of the Munno Parah, Yankalilla, Parawirra, be warned!
Where the waters of healing from Muloowurtie There’s death in the air! Killanoola, wherefore
Flow dim in the gloaming by Yaranyackah; Shall the prayer of Penola be scorned?

The Koppio sorrows for lost Wolloway, Cootamundra, and Takee, and Wakatipu,
And sigheth in secret for Murrurundi, Toowoomba, Kaikoura are lost!
The Whangaroa wombat lamenteth the day From Oukaparinga to far Oamaru
That made him an exile from Jerrilderie; All burn in this hell holocaust!

The Teawamute Tumut from Wirrega’s glade, Parramatta and Binnum are gone to their rest
The Nangkita swallow, the Wallaroo swan, In the vale of Tapanni Taroom,
They long for the peace of the Timaru shade Kawakawa, Deniliquin—all that was best
And thy balmy soft airs, O sweet Mittagong! In the earth are but graves and a tomb!

The Kooringa buffalo pants in the sun, Narrandera mourns, Cameroo answers not
The Kondoparinga lies gaping for breath, When the roll of the scathless we cry:
The Kongorong Comaum to the shadow has won Tongariro, Goondiwindi, Woolundunga, the spot
But the Goomeroo sinks in the slumber of dead Is mute and forlorn where ye lie.

Source: Mark Twain, Following the Equator (1897), chapter 36.

of the twenty-first century, there was a significant New Zealand, with over half of all immigrants, the
change in the source countries of Australian immi- United Kingdom, Ireland, China, Vietnam, Hong
grants. In the 1960s, the main countries of origin Kong, and the Philippines. In 2019, the greatest
were the United Kingdom and Ireland, which ac- number of immigrants came from the United King-
counted for just over half of all immigrants, fol- dom, India, New Zealand, and the Philippines. To-
lowed by Greece, Italy, Yugoslavia, Malta, and Ger- day, approximately 30 percent of the Australian
many. In the 1990s, the major source countries were population is foreign-born.

186
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Urbanization of Australia

Major Cities event took place in the Southern Hemisphere; in

Sydney is located in one of the world’s most beauti- 2006, the Commonwealth Games were held there.
ful settings, around a huge protected harbor, so that Each year, Melbourne hosts the Grand Slam
the inner parts of the city slope down to the water. Australian Open tennis tournament.
The Sydney Opera House was designed with Brisbane was first settled in 1824 as the penal
sail-like roof shells to reflect the water-loving char- outpost of Moreton Bay, a place of harsh punish-
acteristic of the city’s people. The site at Sydney ment for hardened criminals. Free settlement was
Cove was chosen in 1788 for the first penal settle- permitted in 1841, and in 1859 the separate colony
ment, so there was some controversy when Austra- of Queensland was created. Brisbane is located in a
lians decided to celebrate the Bicentennial in 1988, hilly area upstream from the mouth of the Brisbane
since other colonies were settled later. The indige- River. The subtropical climate of Brisbane gives it a
nous Australians also noted that they had little rea- different character from Australia’s other state capi-
son to celebrate the event. Sydney was the site of the tals, and wooden houses raised on rough wooden
Summer Olympic Games of 2000. It is the country’s piers called stumps are an interesting feature of
financial center, manufacturing hub, and Austra- what is internationally known as “Queenlander
lia’s tourism gateway. Sydney consistently ranks architecture.”
among the world’s top-ten cities for quality of life. Adelaide was founded in 1836. The man behind
Melbourne began as an unofficial settlement to this city was Edward Gibbon Wakefield, a severe critic
serve pastoralists in 1853. Gold discoveries inland of convict colonies, who envisioned a community of
from Melbourne led to the rapid growth of a rich small farmers who purchased relatively expensive
and beautiful city, full of impressive Victorian-pe- land; the proceeds were to be used to bring laborers
riod buildings and large public parks. Melbourne is from overcrowded England. The location and ele-
the most English of Australia’s cities in appearance. gant design of the city were the work of the sur-
It was larger than Sydney during the latter half of veyor-general Colonel Light. Prosperity did not en-
the nineteenth century and was Australia’s capital sue, however, as settlers stayed in the town rather
city until Canberra was built. The Olympic Games than begin farming. Today, Adelaide is known for its
were held in Melbourne in 1956—the first time the beauty, as a manufacturing center, and as being Aus-

Sydney Opera House, and the Harbour Bridge, two of Sydney’s most famous landmarks. (Benh Lieu Song)

187
Urbanization of Australia Human Geography

tralia’s “city of churches” in recognition of its diver-

sity of faiths as well as its many houses of worship.
Perth is one of the most isolated cities in the
world. It was founded in 1829 as a free settlement When considering the names of Australian regions,
known as the Swan River Colony, but it fared so one must be careful not to confuse phrases such as
badly that in 1846, the governor requested that it “southern Australia” with actual place names. The
become a penal settlement. Despite opposition country is administratively divided into six states
and three internal territories. One of these states is
from the eastern colonies, almost 1,000 convicts, all
called “South Australia,” and it occupies the center
men, were sent to Western Australia from 1850 to
portion of the continent’s southern coast, immedi-
1868. In 1890 Western Australia became a self-gov- ately west of two other states, New South Wales and
erning colony, and gold discoveries at Coolgardie Victoria. Western Australia, the largest state, covers
and Kalgoorlie brought new prosperity and a rapid most of the west half of the continent. Occupying
population increase. Perth has grown most rapidly, most of northeastern Australia is Queensland. The
Northern Territory occupies the central part of the
partly as a result of prosperity from mining in
northern coast. Jervis Bay Territory is the smallest
Western Australia.
of the states and territories at roughly 25 square
Hobart was settled in 1803 as a penal colony. It miles, and is located on the southeastern coast of
prospered as a free settlement, as agriculture and New South Wales. Tasmania, the sixth state, is an is-
mining created new wealth, but in the late twentieth land directly south of Victoria. Australia’s capital
century it declined in comparative importance. city, Canberra, is located in the Australian Capital
Ter ritory—much the way the U S capital,
Hobart has emerged as the center for Antarctic re-
Washington, is in the District of Columbia.
search, being the closest city to that continent.
Darwin, the administrative center of the North-
ern Territory, relies heavily on government employ- ings, including the High Court of Australia, Na-
ment. Its port is well located for trade with Asia. It tional Library, National Art Gallery, National War
was the only Australian city bombed by the Japa- Museum, and the impressive Parliament House.
nese during World War II. The city experienced a Alice Springs is a small town of fewer than 30,000
23-percent growth rate between 2011 and 2018. residents (2018), but is located close to the center of
Canberra, the national capital of Australia, is lo- the continent and is visited by many tourists. About
cated within the Australian Capital Territory. Part 200 miles (320 km.) is Uluru (Ayers Rock), a well-
of the agreement that led to the union of the former known sandstone formation, and a center of indige-
colonies into the Commonwealth of Australia was nous Australian art.
the construction of a new capital city, located in New Cairns is located on the northeast coast of
South Wales. After the site was chosen, an interna- Queensland. A city of more than 150,000 residents,
tional competition was held to select the architect. it is an important port and popular with tourists be-
Walter Burley Griffin, an American who had worked cause of its tropical climate and its proximity to
for Frank Lloyd Wright, won, and construction was such attractions as the Great Barrier Reef, rain for-
completed in 1927. Canberra remains a well- ests, beaches, and Outback experiences.
planned city with many important modern build- Ray Sumner

188
 Urbanization of the
Pacific Islands

The Pacific islands, also known as Oceania, include has been inhabited for 50,000 years and that the first
approximately 30,000 islands, divided into three inhabitants came from Southeast Asia.
distinct groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polyne- In the nineteenth century, the Pacific islands be-
sia. The Pacific Ocean has more islands than all other gan to become truly integrated into the world econ-
oceans combined; most are located in the southwest omy. Since World War II, the Pacific island countries
quadrant of the Pacific Ocean. It is estimated that and territories have had to cope with increasing ur-
when the first Europeans landed in the area during ban, social, and economic problems that had not af-
the sixteenth century, more than 3 million people fected them before. Urban growth has increased air,
lived there. Anthropologists believe that the region water, and land pollution in the Pacific islands.

The market in downtown Port Vila, Vanuatu. (Torbenbrinker)

189
Urbanization of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

City dwellers in Saipan try to stay dry. (aksyBH)

The Pacific island countries and territories are Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, had a
small and isolated in the vast Pacific Ocean. Most population in 2020 of 9.47 million—a 50 percent
rely on agriculture and tourism for economic sur- increase in population in twenty years. More than
vival. The population density varies throughout the three-quarters of Melanesia’s population live in Pa-
islands: In New Caledonia, the density was 37 per- pua New Guinea, which had a population of almost
sons per square mile (14.5 per sq. km.), while Nauru 7.25 million in 2020.
had a density of 1,375 persons per square mile In 2020 the overall urban population in Melane-
(523.8 per sq. km.) in 2020. It appears that fam- sia was 18.3 percent, a drop of nearly 3 percent
ily-planning programs and economic conditions since 2000. While the Solomon Islands at 24.7 per-
have not slowed the growth of population. In recent cent, Papua New Guinea at 13.3 percent, and
years, there has been an increase in the number of Vanuatu at 25.5 percent had relatively small urban
islanders who live in towns or cities. For some of the populations percentage-wise, Fiji at 57.2 percent
poorer islands, the growing urban population has and New Caledonia at 71.5 percent had compara-
led to poor sanitation, scarcity of land for adequate tively large urban populations. The capital of Fiji is
housing, underemployment, and the breakup of Suva, located on the island of Viti Levu; in 2017 it
the family structure. had an urban population of about 186,000. New
Caledonia’s urban population grew at an annual
Melanesia rate of 1.89 percent. It is an overseas collectivity of
While some islands have an area that is at least a few France and is made up of the island of New Caledo-
thousand square miles, many islands are no more nia, where most of the population lives, and several
than small mounds of rock or sand. Melanesia, outlying islands. The capital of New Caledonia,
which includes Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Noumea, had a population of 94,285 in 2019.

190
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Urbanization of the Pacific Islands

The urban population in Papua New Guinea was

only 13.3 percent in 2020. Its capital, Port Moresby,
had a population of almost 364,000 in 2019. While
the percentage may be low for the urban population
in Papua New Guinea, the annual urban growth
rate in 2020 was rather robust at 2.5 percent. On the
large islands of Melanesia, such as Papua New
Guinea, people began leaving the interior high-
lands to settle in the coastal areas. As expectations
were not met, some urban settlers became frus-
trated with city life; house burglaries, carjackings,
and other destructive patterns of behavior became Dilapidated housing in Papeete, Tahiti. (jfbenning)
widespread. Social problems such as drug abuse
and alcoholism have also increased. Guam is a territory of the United States. Because
The highest annual urban growth rate in the Pa- of its strategic importance, US air force and naval
cific islands was in the Solomon Islands, with a rate personnel occupy part of the island. The urban
of 3.91 percent. While only 13 percent of the popu- population on Guam reached 94.9 percent in 2020.
lation was urban in the year 2000, that percentage Kiribati, formerly known as the Gilbert Islands,
had nearly doubled by 2020 to 24.7 percent. The had an estimated total population of nearly
capital of the Solomon Islands is Honiara, located 112,000 in 2020. The urban population was 55.6
on the island of Guadalcanal; in 2017 it had a popu- percent, with an annual urban growth rate of 3.19
lation of more than 84,000. percent. The Kiribati capital, Tarawa, had a popula-
Vanuatu, formerly known as the New Hebrides, tion in 2015 of more than 63,000.
had a rural population that made up nearly 75 per- The Marshall Islands became independent in
cent of its total in 2020; its annual urban growth rate 1986. With a population of approximately 78,000
was 2.55 percent. The capital of Vanuatu, Port Vila, in 2020, its urban population was 77.8 percent. The
had a population of 51,437 in 2016. Islands with capital of the Marshall Islands is Majuro; in 2011 its
rapidly growing urban areas faced the pressing is- population was nearly 28,000.
sues of providing adequate housing, a safe water Nauru is the only Pacific island country with a
supply, proper sanitation, and steady employment. 100 percent urban population. In 1983, Nauru’s
population was 8,100. By 2020 the population had
Micronesia grown to 11,000.
Including the Federated States of Micronesia, The Northern Mariana Islands had the next
Guam, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, the highest percentage of urban dwellers of any Pacific
Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau, Micronesia island country or territory, with 91.8 percent in
had a population in 2020 of approximately 2020 — a huge increase since 1995, when the per-
545,100, an increase of 9.3 percent since 2000. The centage of urban dwellers had been 53.6 percent.
overall percentage for the Micronesian urban pop- Today, the Northern Mariana Islands’ annual urban
ulation in 2020 was 70 percent—more than 3.5 growth rate has dropped to 0.45 percent. In 1994,
times that of Melanesia. The Federated States of Palau became an independent republic. With a
Micronesia, comprising 607 islands, had a rela- 2020 population of little more than 21,000, its ur-
tively low urban population at 22.9 percent, with an ban population had grown to 81 percent. The an-
annual urban growth rate of 1.05 percent. The capi- nual urban growth rate was 1.77 percent.
tal of the Federated States of Micronesia, located on The number of urban Pacific Islanders having an
the island of Pohnpei, is Palikir, which had a 2010 adequate sewage system is small. In the Marshall Is-
population of 6,647. lands, surface pollution was widespread in the

191
Urbanization of the Pacific Islands Human Geography

1990s because of faulty septic tanks, pit latrines, the island of Oahu. Hawaii’s largest city, in 2019
and household waste. Honolulu had a population of approximately
345,000, and a metropolitan area population of
Polynesia more than 950,000. Honolulu is one of the primary
The Polynesian nations and territories of American destinations for tourists from the United States
Samoa, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, m a i n l a n d a n d a p r i m a r y de s t i n a t i o n f o r
Pitcairn Island, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Polynesians looking to resettle.
and Wallis and Futuna had a combined population
of 701,644 in 2020. With Hawaii and New Zealand New Zealand
included as part of Polynesia, the total population New Zealand has an advanced economy. In 2020
was 7,047,612 (2020). the population was more than 4.9 million, an in-
American Samoa is a territory of the United crease of more than 1 million since 2000; 86.7 per-
States. With a population of approximately 50,000 cent live in urban areas. The annual urban growth
in 2020, the urban population hovered around 87 rate was a modest 1.01 percent in 2020. Pacific is-
percent. The annual urban growth rate was 0.07 landers made up 7.4 percent of the total popula-
percent. The capital of American Samoa is Pago tion, with newcomers arriving from the Cook
Pago, located on the island of Tutuila, which had a Islands, Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga. Compared to the
population of 3,656 in 2010. American Samoa’s problems associated with urban growth in the other
economy was not large enough to adequately sup- Pacific island countries or territories, New Zealand
port its native population, and thousands of Ameri- seemed to offer greater possibilities for a better life.
can Samoans have emigrated to the United States. Economic downturns have impacted the Pacific is-
Both the Cook Islands and French Polynesia had lander immigrants more than the New Zealand-
urban populations above 60 percent in 2020. The born population. In 2020, New Zealand had seven
Cook Islands had a “self-governing in free associa- cities with populations of more than 100,000. The
tion” relationship with New Zealand. Because of capital of New Zealand, Wellington, had a popula-
this relationship, many Cook Island citizens emi- tion of 215,000 in the city proper and more than
grated to New Zealand in search of a better life. 424,000 in the metropolitan area in 2019.
French Polynesia is an overseas collectivity of
France. Tahiti, one of the most important tourist lo- Conclusion
cations in the South Pacific, is part of French Polyne- Because land space is so limited in the Pacific islands,
sia. The capital of French Polynesia, Papeete, is lo- population density in urban areas can be high. Pa-
cated on Tahiti. Because of the influx of people cific island cities are faced with such issues as urban
moving to Papeete, shantytowns have sprouted up waste, rapid economic change, and expanding
on the outskirts of the city. At 64 percent, Tuvalu was squatter encampments. In the twenty-first century,
the only other French Polynesian country or terri- Pacific island government institutions both local and
tory to have an urban population above 40 percent national are working with more traditional indige-
in 2020. It also had the highest annual urban nous leadership to help smooth the growth of urban
growth rate (2.27 percent) in all of Polynesia. centers. Effective urban planning, appropriate gov-
While arguably not part of Polynesia, Hawaii has ernment oversight, and vigorous public feedback are
close ties to the region. Hawaii’s native population helping to make the transition from life in rural vil-
originally came from Polynesia. The fiftieth state of lages to swirling urban cities more efficient and less
the United States, Hawaii has a high standard of liv- traumatic for all Pacific islanders.
ing. The capital of the state is Honolulu, located on Jeffry Jensen

192
 Political Geography

The vast Pacific Ocean region, or Oceania, encom- Two of the internal territories—Northern Territory
passes a variety of landforms, from the continent of a n d A u s t r a l i a n Ca p i t a l Te r ri t o r y — a re
Australia to tiny coral atolls. The main geograph- self-governed and function essentially as states.
ical divisions are Australia and three groups of Pa- One underappreciated aspect of Australian poli-
cific Islands—Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polyne- tics is how decentralized the country is. Each state
sia. Oceania’s many countries and non-sovereign inherited and kept the system of government it had
territories exist under a variety of governmental developed as a separate colony. It has a bicameral
systems—from monarchies to democratic repub- legislature and its own premier, who is a figure of
lics. The nations of Australia and New Zealand national scope, although state politicians rarely go
share a British colonial heritage as antipodean (sit- on to assume significant roles in the federal govern-
uated on the opposite side of the globe from Brit- ment. The federal Australian parliament reflects
ain) settler colonies. They are closely integrated this decentralization.
historically, culturally, economically, and politically. In Australia’s parliamentary system, the head of
government (the prime minister on the federal
Australia level, the premier on the state level) comes out of
While Australia is the world’s sixth-largest country the legislature and must command a legislative ma-
by landmass, it has a relatively small population jority. Members of the lower chamber, the House of
(25.5 million in 2020) with most people living along Representatives, represent single-member elec-
the eastern and southeastern coastlines. When the toral districts, determined according to population.
Constitution of Australia came into force on Janu- As in the United States, each state elects the same
ary 1, 1901, the six separate self-governing British number of senators to the upper chamber of the na-
colonies on the Australian mainland became states tional parliament—in the case of Australia, twelve.
of the Commonwealth of Australia, a dominion of Two senators are also elected from each of the two
the British Empire. It achieved inde-
pendence after the British Parlia-
m e n t a d o p t e d t he S t a t u t e of
Westminster (1931), granting full
sovereignty to all dominions, and in
1942, when the Parliament of Aus-
tralia passed the Statute of Westmin-
ster Adoption Act. Modern Australia
is a federation, with six states—
Queensland, Western Australia,
South Australia, New South Wales,
Victoria, Tasmania—and ten territo-
ries—three internal ones, located on
the Australian mainland, and seven
external ones, located on Australian
islands and in Eastern Antarctica. The House of Representatives in the Parliament Building in Canberra, Australia. (ai_yoshi)

193
Political Geography Human Geography

Flag of the Dominion of Westralia, the Western Australia secessionist movement.

self-governing territories. That makes a total num- Western Australia is the largest of the Australian
ber of senators in the Australian Senate of sev- states and the farthest removed from the urban cen-
enty-six. The remainder of Australia’s ten territo- ters of the eastern states, where some 80 percent of
ries are either very sparsely populated or the Australian population lives. At the same time,
uninhabited; they are not represented in the Parlia- Western Australia, with its wealth of natural re-
ment of Australia and are administered directly by sources and a large mining sector, contributes a sig-
the federal government. (The one exception is the nificant part of Australia’s GDP. There is a belief
Jervis Bay Territory, which is administered by the among Western Australians that the eastern states
Australian Capital Territory.) live off the hard-earned wealth of western taxpay-
The official name of the country is the Common- ers. In 1933, the people of Western Australia voted
wealth of Australia. The country’s three main par- to secede from the Commonwealth of Australia by a
ties are the Australian Labor Party, the Liberal Party margin of more than two to one. The British Parlia-
of Australia, and the Nationals. Since the general ment, however, ruled the decision invalid as the
election of 1949, the Liberal Party and the Nation- constitution of Australia had no provision for states
als (under the latter party’s various names) have to secede from the federation. The 1974 Westralian
acted as a coalition; that is why Australia is often re- Secession Movement also stagnated. Nevertheless,
garded as having a two-party system. in 2020, secessionist groups were still active in rural
While the British colonization of the continent Western Australia.
was characterized by violent conflicts between in- Even the individual states have internal divi-
digenous Australians and settlers, Australia’s sions. In New South Wales, the conservative politi-
post-colonial history has been notably peaceful, cal culture of the city of Sydney has remained per-
with few of the sectional rivalries or ideological divi- ceptively different from the left-leaning party
sions such as the ones that led to civil war in the politics of the city of Newcastle located some 100
United States. However, secessionist sentiments miles (160 km.) from Sydney. Queensland has a
have been a constant feature on the political land- reputation of being the most conservative state in
scape of Western Australia, which was the last Brit- Australia, especially with regard to social and racial
ish colony to agree to join the Australian federation. issues. As such, it has been deemed Australia’s

194
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Political Geography

“Deep North,” in reference to the “Deep South” of

the United States. Although most residents of the
capital city of Brisbane have become relatively lib-
eral on social issues in recent decades, the same can-
not be said for many of the people of central
Queensland.
Australia is formally a constitutional monarchy.
While the king or queen of Great Britain is Austra-
lia’s head of state, Australia is not part of the British
monarchy but constitutes a separate Australian
monarchy. The monarch appoints his or her official
representatives, the governor-general of Australia
and the state governors, on the advice, respectively,
of the federal government and each state govern-
ment. A powerful movement launched in the 1990s
for Australia to become a republic proved unsuc-
cessful in a referendum on November 6, 1999, re-
ceiving only 45 percent of the vote. Many observers
felt this was because the model for a republic on the
ballot did not provide for the direct election of the
president (who would replace the queen and her
representative, the governor-general, as head of
state). A more democratic model for the presidency
Paul Eagle, right, an MP (member of Parliament) of Maori descent,
might have garnered approval for a republic. In addresses a colleague. (Nevada Halbert)
2020, Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II was still Queen
of Australia. lian society. Until about the age of eighteen, they
Australia is known worldwide as the originator of were placed in specialized institutions under the
the secret ballot, often termed the Australian ballot. care of government-appointed social workers or
Voting is compulsory in Australia, with only a small church missionaries. Besides being a tragedy for
minority of “informal” votes (those voters who have thousands of families, the policy did not generate
not come out to the polls or have not followed the any tangible improvement in the social position of
electoral rules) being disqualified. Until 1984, in- “removed” individuals as compared to “non-re-
digenous Australians were exempt from compul- moved.” The decades of the policy became known
sory voting provisions. as the Stolen Generations. In 2008, an official apol-
Australia’s treatment of its indigenous peoples ogy was issued by the Australian government for
has been mired in tragedy and controversy. The Ab- “the pain, suffering, and hurt of these Stolen
original and Torres Strait Islander peoples inhab- Generations.”
ited the continent and nearby islands for over During the second half of the twentieth century,
65,000 years. The populations collapsed following indigenous population numbers began to recover.
the arrival of British settlers in 1788, as a result of During that period and in later decades the federal
disease epidemics and frontier conflicts. Between government has enacted a number of significant
the 1870s and 1970s, up to 30 percent of indige- policy initiatives aimed at reconciliation between
nous and mixed-race children were forcibly re- non-indigenous and indigenous Australians and
moved from their families for the purpose of addressing the key issues such as unemployment,
“resocialization,” or improving the integration of school enrollment, child protection, alcoholism,
indigenous populations into the European-Austra- food security, and housing.

195
Political Geography Human Geography

Until recently, Australia always supported high to all dominions of the British Empire, and in 1947,
levels of immigration. It also resettled many asylum when the Parliament of New Zealand passed the
seekers. However, the government’s policy of man- Statute of Westminster Adoption Act. An island na-
datory-and since 1992, indefinite-detention of un- tion with two large landmasses-the North Island
authorized arrivals has generated controversy, as and the South Island-and some 600 small islands,
has the offshore processing arrangements with New Zealand is a unitary parliamentary democracy
Nauru and Papua New Guinea. In recent decades, under a constitutional monarchy.
the flow of unauthorized arrivals from Asia has in- New Zealand’s parliamentary system, modeled
creased dramatically. For instance, the number on Britain’s, was once considered an ideal form of
from India has grown from 3,000 migrants in 1996 the Westminster system. In this system, each mem-
to more than 40,000 by 2013. This led the govern- ber of parliament was elected as a representative
ment to pass Migration Amendment Acts, which from his or her own constituency, and elections were
initially removed Australia’s outlying islands and governed by the first-past-the-post principle, by
later, the entire mainland from the country’s migra- which the party that won the most seats formed the
tion zone. Public opinion has shifted from support- government. In 1996, New Zealand switched to a
ing immigration toward opposing the explosive mixed-member proportional (MMP) system. Un-
population growth caused by massive migration. der New Zealand’s MMP rules, each voter gets two
votes: one for a member of parliament from their
New Zealand local electoral district and one for a political party
Like Australia, New Zealand achieved independ- of the voter’s choice.
ence after the British Parliament adopted the Stat- New Zealand has a multiparty system, but only two
ute of Westminster (1931), granting full sovereignty parties have dominated the country’s political life

Three immigrant women in Auckland, New Zealand. (nazar_ab)

196
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Political Geography

since the 1930s. The Labour Party, traditionally The Pacific Islands
left-leaning, underwent a radical reversal in the Polynesia, in the east-central Pacific, is bound by the
mid-1980s in favor of free markets and deregulation. US state of Hawaii in the north, New Zealand
The National Party, traditionally conservative, has be- (Aotearoa) in the west, and Easter Island (Rapa
come more open to the viewpoints of women and mi- Nui), a special territory of Chile, in the east. It in-
norities. The party produced New Zealand’s first cludes the independent nations of New Zealand,
woman prime minister, Jenny Shipley, in 1997; when Samoa (formerly Western Samoa), Tuvalu, Tonga,
Shipley was defeated in 1999, she was replaced by an- Niue, and the Cook Islands (the latter two are
other woman, her Labour opponent, Helen Clark. self-governing countries in free association with
New Zealand is a unitary, not a federal, state. Al- New Zealand). Polynesia also has several territorial
though the country is divided into sixteen regions, dependencies of different countries-Wallis and
regions do not have the influence there that they do Futuna (a French island collectivity), Tokelau (a
in Australia or the United States. The national legis- New Zealand dependency), American Samoa (an
lature is unicameral (having only one house). A unincorporated US territory), Pitcairn Island (a
group with a distinct electoral role is the Maori, the British overseas territory), Rotuma Island (a Fijian
indigenous Polynesian people of mainland New Zea- dependency), Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi
land. There have been parliamentary seats reserved (atolls belonging to the Federated States of Micro-
for the Maori in the New Zealand Parliament since nesia), and French Polynesia. The collectivity of
1868. Many Maori have left their traditional lands to French Polynesia includes Tahiti and the other Soci-
work in large urban centers such as Auckland and ety Islands, the Marquesas Islands, the Austral Is-
Wellington; these cities also host many new immi- lands, the Tuamotu Archipelago, and the Gambier
grants from Europe and Polynesia. This character- Archipelago, including Mangareva Island.
ization is mainly true of North Island; South Island, Melanesia forms an arc that begins with New
with fewer Maori and immigrants and a more rural Guinea (the western half of which is called Papua
economy, tends to be more conservative politically.
Secession movements, which surfaced several times
in South Island history, have reemerged as the
twenty-first century began.
Like Australia, New Zealand has retained the
constitutional role of the British monarchy. The
monarchy in New Zealand functions the same way
as it functions in Australia and other former British
dominions. There has been less of a republican
movement in New Zealand than in Australia. This is
partially because of the role of the Crown in signing
the Treaty of Waitangi, the 1840 document that is
the foundation for the relationship between the
Maori and the Pakeha (New Zealanders of Euro-
pean descent). Although the Maori dispute several
provisions of the treaty and the treaty has not been
incorporated as part of the New Zealand constitu-
tion, it continues to play a major role in the system
of government, politics, and many aspects of life in
the country. The Maori name for New Zea-
land—Aotearoa—has been increasingly used by all Biman Prasad, the leader of Fiji’s National Federation Party, one of
New Zealanders since the late twentieth century. the rival parties to the ruling FijiFirst party. (Vatuniveivukefj)

197
Political Geography Human Geography

The Tongan Royal Palace. (Donyanedomam)

and is part of Indonesia, and the eastern half of Austronesian peoples, have not seen the dictator-
which is the independent country of Papua New ships that have often characterized newly
Guinea) and continues through the independent is- independent countries in Africa and mainland
land nations of Solomon Islands, Vanuatu (formerly Asia. The Pacific islands were decolonized later
New Hebrides), and Fiji as well as the French-ad- than the rest of the non-European world, and the
ministered archipelago of New Caledonia, Norfolk lessons were learned from the mistakes made ear-
Island (one of Australia’s external territories), and lier when other colonies had been transitioning to
numerous smaller islands belonging to Papua New sovereignty. Still, colonial rule has left an indelible
Guinea and Indonesia. The Andesite Line, a chain mark on the island nations.
of active volcanoes, separates Melanesia from Poly- Papua New Guinea, for example, has been
nesia in the east and from Micronesia in the north, plagued by land tenure issues and a strong seces-
along the equator; in the south, Melanesia is sionist movement on the island of Bougainville (in a
bounded by Australia. 2019 referendum, over 98 percent of the island vot-
Micronesia consists of the independent ers chose independence). Parts of what in 1975 be-
microstates of Kiribati, Nauru, and Palau; the Fed- came an independent country of Papua New
erated States of Micronesia; the Republic of the Guinea had been colonized and ruled, at different
Marshall Islands; and insular areas of the United times, by different countries-namely, Germany,
States-Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. Britain, and Australia-which resulted in its dual
The United States also has several minor outlying name and, more importantly, had contributed to
islands in the Pacific. the complexity of organizing a uniform post-inde-
The independent Pacific island countries, inhab- pendence administration. Fiji saw several (albeit
ited largely by Polynesians, Melanesians, and other bloodless) coups d’état since it gained independ-

198
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Political Geography

ence from Britain in 1970. At the root of much of island of New Guinea and on New Zealand’s North
the political upheaval has been the rivalry between and South Islands are there sizable regional subdi-
indigenous Fijians and the Indo-Fijians, descen- visions of the sort typical of most continental
dants of indentured laborers brought from India countries.
during colonial rule. The United States has been a direct influence on
Most Pacific nations are republics, operating with governmental forms in the Pacific islands as much
a president and a legislature of one or two cham- as anywhere in the world. The Federated States of
bers. Several, however, are constitutional monar- Micronesia and the Marshall Islands, for example,
chies. Tonga is the only sovereign indigenous mon- were under US trusteeship from 1945 to 1991, as
archy in Oceania. It has been ruled by kings and was Palau from 1945 to 1994. Upon independence,
queens since the tenth century. In 2008, the reign- all three countries adopted constitutions similar to
ing king relinquished most of his powers to the the US model, with minor variations. American Sa-
prime minister. Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, and the moa, Guam, and the Northern Marianas remain
Solomon Islands have retained the British monarch under United States control with internal self-gov-
as the formal head of state. Like Australia and New ernment.
Zealand, these countries are Commonwealth As of 2020, France was the only European power
realms, that is, they are realms (kingdoms) in per- maintaining its colonial presence in the Pacific. Al-
sonal union with the United Kingdom. Fiji, which though French Polynesia and New Caledonia were
disestablished the monarchy during its 1987 coup, represented in the French parliament, there was
briefly considered bringing the monarchy back in considerable discontent among the indigenous
the late 1990s, although this plan was rejected as peoples of those lands. In 2003, the status of French
unworkable. The Union Jack in the corner of Fiji’s Polynesia was changed from “overseas territory” to
flag still testifies to how much Fijians value their that of “overseas collectivity of the French Repub-
British connections. Samoa became a republic in lic.” The territory thus acquired more autonomy in
2007, when its last monarch, who had been legislative matters, including the power to oppose
appointed king for life at independence in 1962, laws voted by the French Parliament. It also estab-
died at the age of 94. lished French Polynesian citizenship. In New Cal-
In many island countries, traditional chiefs edonia, after a long conflict between the French au-
(known as alii, ariki, matai, iroji, and by other titles, thorities and the indigenous Melanesian
depending on the local chiefly system) still retain inhabitants, the Kanaks, the Nouméa Accord of
substantial power. In some they have a formal con- 1998 provided for a gradual preparation for a refer-
stitutional role, usually comprising an upper or ad- endum on full independence. The referendum was
visory authority; in others, they exercise informal held in 2018, and independence was rejected by 57
power. On some islands, traditional chiefs and the percent of voters. Another independence
clans they represent are major landowners. There referendum was planned to be held in several years.
have been many complaints about the concentra- French nuclear testing was a source of great con-
tion of power in the chiefly ranks, which infringes cern in the Pacific region. This was not only because
upon the ideals of democracy found in these states’ of the political overtones of continued European
constitutions. However, often the traditional chiefs presence but also the ecological danger nuclear ex-
serve as mediators of potentially difficult social or plosions pose to an already fragile natural environ-
moral problems. ment. Regional organizations such as the South Pa-
Since Pacific island nations are usually composed cific Forum, including all states in the area, sharply
of archipelagoes containing several small islands, condemned nuclear testing. The test site at French
the usual administrative subdivision is by island, al- Polynesia’s Mururoa atoll was dismantled after
though subdivisions also occur within islands and France conducted its last nuclear test there on
by grouping a number of islands. Only on the large January 27, 1996.

199
Political Geography Human Geography

The South Pacific Forum and the Pacific Commu-

nity are the two main regional organizations of the
island countries and territories of Oceania. The Pa-
cific Community is focused on developmental is-
sues from fisheries and food security to education
and climate change mitigation. It helps implement
specific projects and programs, especially in small
island states with limited resources or expertise.
The South Pacific Forum changed its name to Pa-
cific Islands Forum in 1999 to reflect the organiza-
tion’s Oceania-spanning membership. It has
played an important role in harmonizing regional
KH-7 satellite reconnaissance image of the Mururoa Atomic Test
positions on various political issues as well as in Site in French Polynesia, May 26, 1967. (National Security Archive
peacekeeping, transportation, and regional trade. Electronic Briefing Book No. 184)
Until recently, the Pacific island states, with their
low populations and limited natural resources, the United Nations have pledged assistance to the
tended not to receive much attention in the world threatened islands. Meanwhile, the island nations
media or to exercise great influence in international worldwide have created the Global Island Partner-
debates. However, with the growing threat of rising ship to help each other adapt to climate change and
sea levels, the low-lying atoll countries of Oceania build resilient and sustainable island communities.
have become an international symbol for the poten- Considering the obstacles in their way, their
tially catastrophic consequences of climate change. political achievements have been notable.
Countries such as New Zealand and India as well as Nicholas Birns

200
 Antarctica: Political Status
and Related Issues

Antarctica does not belong to any country or group that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used ex-
of countries although there are some historic claims clusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become
to its territory. It has no permanent population and the scene or object of international discord.” The
therefore has neither citizenship nor government. treaty essentially preserved the status quo with re-
Antarctica is a de facto condominium, that is, terri- spect to previously made territorial claims by neither
tory governed by multiple sovereign powers. The explicitly denying these claims nor providing their
governance of Antarctica is carried out by the Con- de jure recognition. Apart from the seven original
sultative Nations of the Antarctic Treaty during claimants, most other parties to the treaty do not rec-
their annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. ognize the existing territorial claims; some maintain
The world’s southernmost and coldest continent that they reserve the right to make a claim. More
was the last region on Earth to be discovered in re- than twenty countries without claims-such as the
corded history. It was only in 1820, when an expedi- United States, Russia, China, and India-have con-
tion commanded by Fabian von Bellingshausen and structed one or more research facilities within the ar-
Mikhail Lazarev, officers (and future admirals) of eas claimed by other countries. Many other nations
the Imperial Russian Navy, sighted Antarctica’s ice intend to build their bases on the Antarctic main-
shelf. Numerous expeditions from different coun- land, attracted by the continent’s unique scientific
tries have visited Antarctica since then, dozens of research potential as well as its abundant natural re-
scientific research bases have been established sources. There has never been any commercial min-
there, and seven countries have laid claim to parts ing in Antarctica thanks to the Environmental Proto-
of the continent. These include the United King- col, part of the Antarctic Treaty System of
dom (British Antarctic Territory), France (Adélie agreements and conventions. The ban, however, can
Land), Norway (Peter I Island and Queen Maud be subject to review starting in 2048.
Land), Australia (Australian Antarctic Territory), There is a growing number of other issues that
New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Chile (Chilean the Antarctic Treaty System, which has kept peace
Antarctic Territory), and Argentina (Argentine and order on the continent for almost six decades,
Antarctica). Some of these claims overlap and have has been struggling to deal with in the twenty-first
caused friction. Marie Byrd Land, a 620,000- century. The treaty provides that Antarctica will be
square-mile (1,606,000 sq. km.) area in western used for peaceful purposes only. It specifically pro-
Antarctica, is the only major land on Earth not hibits “any measures of a military nature, such as
claimed by any country. the establishment of military bases and fortifica-
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by the tions, the carrying out of military maneuvers, as
twelve countries whose scientists had been active in well as the testing of any type of weapons.”
and around Antarctica at the time. It entered into Antarctica’s almost seventy bases are all professed
force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by some to be peaceful research stations, but the ban on
forty other nations. The primary purpose of the militarization has been hard to monitor under the
treaty was to ensure “in the interests of all mankind current inspection provisions of the treaty. Some

201
Antarctica: Political Status and Related Issues Human Geography

countries may have used civilian contractors for difficult for a consensus-based group to address.
dual-use scientific research that has utility for mili- There is a need for new regulation, stringent en-
tary purposes, including possibly for controlling forcement, and universal agreement on the prob-
offensive weapon systems. lems posed by cumulative impacts. The latter is one
Other new geopolitical tests-from the effects of of the greatest challenges not only for Antarctica
climate change to the regulation of tourism and but for the entire planet.
fishing-are facing Antarctica that are increasingly Irina Balakina

202
Economic
Geography
 Overview

Traditional Agriculture

Two agricultural practices that are widespread burnt wood add minerals to the soil, which tempo-
among the world’s traditional cultures, slash-and- rarily improves its fertility. Crops the first year
burn and nomadism, share several common fea- following clearing and burning are generally the
tures. Both are ancient forms of agriculture, both best crops the site will provide. Each year after that,
involve farmers not remaining in a fixed location, the yield diminishes slightly as the fertility of the
and both can pose serious environmental threats if soil is depleted.
practiced in a nonsustainable fashion. The most Farmers who practice swidden cultivation do not
significant difference between the two forms is that attempt to improve fertility by adding fertilizers
slash-and-burn generally is associated with raising such as animal manures but instead rely on the soil
field crops, while nomadism as a rule involves herd- to replenish itself over time. When the yield from
ing livestock. one site drops below acceptable levels, the farmers
then clear another piece of land, burn the brush
Slash-and-Burn Agriculture and other vegetation, and cultivate that site while
Farmers have practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, leaving their previous field to lie fallow and its natu-
which is also referred to as shifting cultivation or ral vegetation to return. This cycle will be repeated
swidden agriculture, in almost every region of the over and over, with some sites being allowed to lie
world where the climate makes farming possible. fallow indefinitely while others may be revisited and
Humans have practiced this method for about farmed again in five, ten, or twenty years.
12,000 years, ever since the Neolithic Revolution. Farmers who practice shifting cultivation do not
Swidden agriculture once dominated agriculture in necessarily move their dwelling places as they
more temperate regions, such as northern Europe. It change the fields they cultivate. In some geo-
was, in fact, common in Finland and northern Russia graphic regions, farmers live in a central village and
well into the early decades of the twentieth century. farm cooperatively, with the fields being alternately
Today, between 200 and 500 million people use allowed to remain fallow, and the fields being
slash-and-burn agriculture, roughly 7 percent of the farmed making a gradual circuit around the central
world’s population. It is most commonly practiced in village. In other cases, the village itself may move as
areas where open land for farming is not readily new fields are cultivated. Anthropologists studying
available because of dense vegetation. These regions indigenous peoples in Amazonia, discovered that
include central Africa, northern South America, and village garden sites were on a hundred-year cycle.
Southeast Asia Villagers farmed cooperatively, with the entire vil-
Slash-and-burn acquired its name from the prac- lage working together to clear a garden site. That
tice of farmers who cleared land for planting crops garden would be used for about five years, then a
by cutting down the trees or brush on the land and new site was cleared. When the garden moved an in-
then burning the fallen timber on the site. The convenient distance from the village, about once ev-
farmers literally slash and burn. The ashes of the ery twenty years, the entire village would move to be

205
Traditional Agriculture Economic Geography

closer to the new garden. Over a period of approxi-

mately 100 years, a village would make a circle
through the forest, eventually ending up close to Modern hybrid seeds have increased yields and en-
where it had been located long before any of the abled the tremendous productivity of the modern
present villagers had been born. mechanized farm. However, the widespread use of a
In more temperate climates, individual farmers few hybrid varieties has meant that almost all plants
often owned and lived on the land on which they of a given species in a wide area are almost identical
genetically. This loss of biodiversity, or, the range of
practiced swidden agriculture. Farmers in Finland,
genetic difference in a given species, means that a
for example, would clear a portion of their land, blight could wipe out an entire season’s crop. His-
burn the brush and other covering vegetation, grow torical examples of blight include the nineteenth
grains for several years, and then allow that land to century Great Potato Famine of Ireland and the
remain fallow for from five to twenty years. The in- 1971 corn blight in the United States.
dividual farmer rotated cultivation around the land In response to the concern for biodiversity, there
has been a movement in North America to preserve
in a fashion similar to that practiced by whole vil-
older forms of crops with different genes that would
lages in other areas, but did so as an individual otherwise be lost to the gene pool. Nostalgia also
rather than as part of a communal society. motivates many people to keep alive the varieties of
Although slash-and-burn is frequently de- fruits and vegetables that their grandparents raised.
nounced as a cause of environmental degradation Many older recipes do not taste the same with mod-
in tropical areas, the problem with shifting cultiva- ern varieties of vegetables that have been optimized
for commercial considerations such as transport-
tion is not the practice itself but the length of the cy-
ability. Thus, raising heritage varieties also can be a
cle. If the cycle of shifting cultivation is long way of continuing to enjoy the foods one’s ancestors
enough, forests will grow back, the soil will regain its ate.
fertility, and minimal adverse effects will occur. In
some regions, a piece of land may require as little as
In many nomadic societies, the herd animal is al-
five years to regain its maximum fertility; in others,
most the entire basis for sustaining the people. The
it may take 100 years. Problems arise when growing
animals are slaughtered for food, clothing is woven
populations put pressure on traditional farmers to
from the fibers of their hair, and cheese and yogurt
return to fallow land too soon. Crops are smaller
may be made from milk. The animals may also be
than needed, leading to a vicious cycle in which the
used for sustenance without being slaughtered. No-
next strip of land is also farmed too soon, and each
mads in Mongolia, for example, occasionally drink
site yields less and less. As a result, more and more
horses’ blood, removing only a cup or two at a time
land must be cleared.
from the animal. Nomads go where there is suffi-
cient vegetation to feed their animals.
Nomadism
In mountainous regions, nomads often spend
Nomadic peoples have no permanent homes. They
the summers high up on mountain meadows, re-
earn their livings by raising herd animals, such as
turning to lower altitudes in the autumn when snow
sheep, cattle, or horses, and they spend their lives
begins to fall. In desert regions, they move from
following their herds from pasture to pasture with
oasis to oasis, going to the places where sufficient
the seasons. Most nomadic animals tend to be
natural water exists to allow brush and grass to
hardy breeds of goats, sheep, or cattle that can with-
grow, allowing their animals to graze for a few days,
stand hardship and live on marginal lands. Tradi-
weeks, or months, then moving on. In some cases,
tional nomads rely on natural pasturage to support
the pressure to move on comes not from the deple-
their herds and grow no grains or hay for them-
tion of food for the animals but from the depletion
selves. If a drought occurs or a traditional pasturing
of a water source, such as a spring or well. At many
site is unavailable, they can lose most of their herds
natural desert oases, a natural water seep or spring
to starvation.

206
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Commercial Agriculture

provides only enough water to support a nomadic

group for a few days at a time.
In addition to true nomads—people who never Desertification is the extension of desert conditions
live in one place permanently—a number of cul- into new areas. Typically, this term refers to the ex-
pansion of deserts into adjacent nondesert areas,
tures have practiced seminomadic farming: The
but it can also refer to the creation of a new desert.
temperate months of the year, spring through fall, Land that is susceptible to prolonged drought is al-
are spent following the herds on a long loop, some- ways in danger of losing its vegetative ground cover,
times hundreds of miles long, through traditional thereby exposing its soil to wind. The wind carries
grazing areas; then the winter is spent in a away the smaller silt particles and leaves behind the
permanent village. larger sand particles, stripping the land of its fertil-
ity. This naturally occurring process is assisted in
Nomadism has been practiced for millennia, but
many areas by overgrazing.
there is strong pressure from several sources to In the African Sahel, south of the Sahara, the im-
eliminate it. Pressures generated by industrialized pact of desertification is acute. Recurring drought
society are increasingly threatening the traditional has reduced the vegetation available for cattle, but
cultures of nomadic societies, such as the Bedouin the need for cattle remains high to feed populations
of the Arabian Peninsula. Traditional grazing areas that continue to grow. The cattle eat the grass, the
soil is exposed, and the area becomes less fertile and
are being fenced off or developed for other pur-
less able to support the population. The desert
poses. Environmentalists are also concerned about slowly encroaches, and the people must either move
the ecological damage caused by nomadism. or die.
Nomads generally measure their wealth by the
number of animals they own and so will try to de-
for example, has been blamed for the expansion of
velop their herds to be as large as possible, well be-
the Sahara Desert in Africa. For this reason, many
y o n d t h e nu m b e r s re q u i re d f o r s i m p l e
environmental policymakers have been attempting
sustainability. The herd animals eat increasingly
to persuade nomads to give up their roaming life-
large amounts of vegetation, which then has no op-
style and become sedentary farmers.
portunity to regenerate, and desertification may oc-
Nancy Farm Männikkö
cur. Nomadism based on herding goats and sheep,

Commercial Agriculture

Commercial farmers are those who sell substantial Commercial agriculture has enabled world food
portions of their output of crops, livestock, and production to increase more rapidly than world
dairy products for cash. In some regions, commer- population, improving nutrition levels for millions
cial agriculture is as old as recorded history, but only of people.
in the twentieth century did the majority of farmers
come to participate in it. For individual farmers, Steps in Commercial Agriculture
this has offered the prospect of larger income and In order for commercial agriculture to exist, prod-
the opportunity to buy a wider range of products. ucts must move from farmer to ultimate consumer,
For society, commercial agriculture has been associ- usually through six stages:
ated with specialization and increased productivity.

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Commercial Agriculture Economic Geography

1. Processing, packaging, and preserving to pro- sia. India, similar to China in size, development,
tect the products and reduce their bulk to facilitate and population, had relatively little agricultural
shipping. trade. Australia and Argentina are examples of
2. Transport to specialized processing facilities countries with large export surpluses, while Japan
and to final consumers. and South Korea had large import surpluses.
3. Networks of merchant middlemen who buy Judged by volume, trade is dominated by grains,
products in bulk from farmers and processors and sugar, and soybeans. In contrast, meat, tobacco,
sell them to final consumers. cotton, and coffee reflect much higher values per
4. Specialized suppliers of inputs to farmers, unit of weight.
such as seed, livestock feed, chemical inputs (fertil-
izers, insecticides, pesticides, soil conditioners), The United States
and equipment. Blessed with advantageous soil, topography, and
5. A market for land, so that farmers can buy or climate, the United States has become one of the
lease the land they need. most productive agricultural countries in the world.
6. Specialized financial services, especially loans Technological advances have enabled the United
to enable farmers to buy land and other inputs be- States to feed its own residents and export substan-
fore they receive sales revenues. tial quantities with only 3 percent of its labor force
Improvements in agricultural science and tech- engaged directly in farming. In the 2020s there are
nology have resulted from extensive research pro- about 2 million farms cultivating about 1 billion
grams by government, business firms, and acres. They produced about US$133 billion worth
universities. of products. After expenses, this yielded about
US$92.5 billion of net farm income—an average of
International Trade only about US$25,000 per farm. However, most
Products such as grain, olive oil, and wine moved by farm families derive substantial income from
ship across the Mediterranean Sea in ancient times. nonfarm employment.
Trade in spices, tea, coffee, and cocoa provided There is a great deal of agricultural specialization
powerful stimulus for exploration and colonization by region. Corn, soybeans, and wheat are grown in
around 1500 ce. The coming of steam locomotives many parts of the United States (outside New Eng-
and steamships in the nineteenth century greatly land). Some other crops have much more limited
aided in the shipment of farm products and growing areas. Cotton, rice, and sugarcane require
spurred the spread of population into potentially warmer temperatures. Significant production of
productive farmland all over the world. Beginning cotton occurred in seventeen states, rice in six, and
with Great Britain in the 1840s, countries were will- sugarcane in four. In 2018, the top 10 agricultural
ing to relinquish agricultural self-sufficiency to ob- producing states in terms of cash receipts were (in
tain cheap imported food, paid for by exporting descending order): California, Iowa, Texas, Ne-
manufactured goods. braska, Minnesota, Illinois, Kansas, North
Most of the leaders in agricultural trade were Carolina, Wisconsin, and Indiana Typically the top
highly developed countries, which typically had two states in a category account for about 30 percent
large amounts of both imports and exports. These of sales. Fruits and vegetables are the main excep-
countries are highly productive both in agriculture tion; the great size, diversity, and mild climate of
and in other commercial activities. Much of their California gives it a dominant 45 percent.
trade is in high-value packaged and processed
goods. Although the vast majority of China’s labor Socialist Experiments
force works in agriculture, their average productiv- Under the dictatorship of Joseph Stalin, the com-
ity is low and the country showed an import surplus munist government of the Soviet Union established
in agricultural products. The same was true for Rus- a program of compulsory collectivized agriculture

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Modern Agricultural Problems

in 1929. Private ownership of land, buildings, and agricultural export promotion, and underwriting
other assets was abolished. There were some state goals to expand domestic potato production. In
farms, “factories in the fields,” operated on a large 2019, trade wars with China and punishing tariffs
scale with many hired workers. Most, however, were have led to increased subsidies by the U.S.
collective farms, theoretically run as cooperative government, totaling US$10 billion in 2018 and
ventures of all residents of a village, but in practice US$14.5 billion in 2019.
directed by government functionaries. The ar-
rangements had disastrous effects on productivity Problems for Farmers
and kept the rural residents in poverty. Neverthe- Farmers in a system of commercial agriculture are
less, similar arrangements were established in vulnerable to changes in market prices as well as the
China in 1950 under the rule of Mao Zedong. A res- universal problems of fluctuating weather. Con-
toration of commercial agriculture after Mao’s gress tried to reduce farm subsidies through the
death in 1976 enabled China to achieve greater Freedom to Farm Act of 1996, but serious price de-
farm output and farm incomes. clines in 1997-1999 led to backtracking. Efforts to
Most Western countries, including the United increase productivity by genetic alterations, radia-
States, subsidize agriculture and restrict imports of tion, and feeding synthetic hormones to livestock
competing farm products. Objectives are to sup- have drawn critical responses from some consumer
port farm incomes, reduce rural discontent, and groups. Environmentalists have been concerned
slow the downward trend in the number of farm- about soil depletion and water pollution resulting
ers. Farmers in the European Union will see aid from chemical inputs.
shrink in the 2021–2027 period to 365 billion eu-
ros (US$438 billion), down 5 percent from the cur- Productivity and World Hunger
rent Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Japan’s Despite advances in agricultural production, the
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries problem of world hunger persists. Even in countries
(MAFF) has requested 2.65 trillion yen (roughly that store surpluses of farm commodities, there are
US$24 billion) for the Japan Fiscal Year (JFY) 2018 still people who go hungry. In less-developed coun-
budget, a 15 percent increase over last year. The tries, the prices of imported food from the West are
budget request eliminates the direct payment sub- too low for local producers to compete and too high
sidy for table rice production, but requests signifi- for the poor to buy them.
cant funding for a new income insurance program, Paul B. Trescott

Modern Agricultural Problems

Ever since human societies started to grow their productive, growing even more food to feed even
own food, there have been problems to solve. Much more people. Since the first spade of soil was turned
of the work of nature was disrupted by the work of over and the first plants domesticated, farmers
agriculture as many as 10,000 years ago. Nature have been trying to figure out how to care for the
took care of the land and made it productive in its land as well as nature did before.
own intricate way, through its own web of interde- Many modern problems in agriculture are not
pendent systems. Agriculture disrupts those sys- really modern at all. Erosion and pollution, for ex-
tems with the hope of making the land even more ample, have been around as long as agriculture.

209
Modern Agricultural Problems Economic Geography

However, agriculture has changed drastically sively. Grazing more livestock than these pastures
within those 10,000 years, especially since the can handle decreases the amount of grass in the
dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the seven- pasture and exposes more of the soil to wind—the
teenth century. Erosion and pollution are now big- primary erosive agent in dry regions.
ger problems than before and have been joined by Overgrazing can affect pastureland in tropical re-
a host of others that are equally critical—not all re- gions too. Thousands of acres of tropical forest have
lated to physical deterioration. Modern farmers been cleared to establish cattle-grazing ranges in
use many more machines than did farmers of old, Latin America. Tropical soils, although thick, are
and modern machines require advanced sources of not very fertile. Fertility comes from organic waste
energy to unleash their power. The machines do in the surface layers of the soil. Tropical soils form
more work than could be accomplished before, so under constantly high temperatures and receive
fewer farmers are needed, which causes economic much more rain than soils in moderate, midlatitude
problems. climates; thus, tropical organic waste materials rot
Cities continue to grow bigger as land—usually so fast they are not worked into the soil at all. After
the best farmland around—is converted to homes one or two growing seasons, crops grown in these
and parking lots for shopping centers. The farmers soils will yield substantially less than before.
that remain on the land, needing to grow ever more Tropical fields require fallow periods of about ten
food, turn to the research and engineering indus- years to restore themselves after they are depleted.
tries to improve their seeds. These industries have That is why tropical cultures using slash-and-burn
responded with recombinant technologies that methods of agriculture move to new fields every
move genes from one species to another; for exam- other year in a cycle that returns them to the same
ple, genes cut from peanuts may be spliced into place about every ten years, or however long it takes
chickens. This creates another set of cultural prob- those particular lands to regenerate. The heavy for-
lems, which are even more difficult to solve because est cover protects these soils from exposure to the
most are still “potential”—their impact is not yet massive amounts of rainfall and provides enough
known. organic material for crops—as long as the forest re-
mains in place. When the forest is cleared, however,
Erosion the resulting grassland cannot provide the ade-
Soil loss from erosion continues to be a huge prob- quate protection, and erosion accelerates. Grass-
lem all over the world. As agriculture struggles to lands that are heavily grazed provide even less pro-
feed more millions of people, more land is plowed. tection from heavy rains, and erosion accelerates
The newly plowed lands usually are considered even more.
more marginal, meaning they are either too steep, The use of machines also promotes erosion, and
too thin, or too sandy; are subject to too much rain; modern agriculture relies on machinery: tractors,
or suffer some other deficiency. Natural vegetative harvesters, trucks, balers, ditchers, and so on. In the
cover blankets these soils and protects them from United States, Canada, Europe, Russia, Brazil,
whatever erosive agents are active in their regions: South Africa, and other industrialized areas, ma-
water, wind, ice, or gravity. Plant cover also in- chinery use is intense. Machinery use is also on the
creases the amount of rain that seeps downward rise in countries such as India, China, Mexico, and
into the soil rather than running off into rivers. The Indonesia, where traditional nonmechanized
more marginal land that is turned over for crops, methods are practiced widely. Farming machines,
the faster the erosive agents will act and the more in gaining traction, loosen the topsoil and inhibit
erosion will occur. vegetative cover growth, especially when they pull
Expansion of land under cultivation is not the behind them any of the various farm implements
only factor contributing to erosion. Fragile grass- designed to rid the soil of weeds, that is, all vegeta-
lands in dry areas also are being used more inten- tion except the desired crop. This leaves the soil

210
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Modern Agricultural Problems

more exposed to erosive weather, so more soil is load choking the life out of streams and rivers. Ac-
carried away in the runoff of water to streams. celerated erosion from water runoff carries silt
Eco-fallow farming has become more popular in particles into streams, where they remain sus-
the United States and Europe as a solution to reduc- pended and inhibit the growth of many beneficial
ing erosion. This method of agriculture, which forms of plant and animal life. The silt load in U.S.
leaves the crop residue in place over the fallow streams has become so heavy that the Mississippi
(nongrowing) season, does not root the soil in place, River Delta is growing faster than it used to. The
however. Dead plants do not “grab” the soil like live heavy silt load, combined with the increased load of
plants that need to extract from it the nutrients they chemical residues, is seriously taxing the capabili-
need to live, so erosion continues, even though it is ties of the ecosystems around the delta that filter
at a slower rate. Eco-fallow methods also require out sediments, absorb nutrients, and stabilize salin-
heavier use of chemicals, such as herbicides, to ity levels for ocean life, creating an expanding dead
“burn down” weed growth at the start of the growing zone.
season, which contributes to accelerated erosion This general phenomenon is not limited to the
and increases pollution. Mississippi Delta—it is widespread. Its impact on
people is high, because most of the world’s popula-
Pollution tion lives in coastal zones and comes in direct con-
Pollution, besides being a problem in general, con- tact with the sea. Additionally, eighty percent of the
tinues to grow as an agricultural problem. With the world’s fish catch comes from the coastal waters
onset of the Green Revolution, the use of herbi- over continental shelves that are most susceptible to
cides, insecticides, and pesticides has increased this form of pollution.
dramatically all over the world. These chemicals are
not used up completely in the growth of the crop, so Monoculture
the leftovers (residue) wash into, and contaminate, Modern agriculture emphasizes crop specializa-
surface and groundwater supplies. These supplies tion. Farmers, especially in industrialized regions,
then must be treated to become useful for other often grow a single crop on most of their land, per-
purposes, a job nature used to do on its own. Agri- haps rotating it with a second crop in successive
cultural chemicals reduce nature’s ability to act as a years: corn one year, for example, then soybeans,
filter by inhibiting the growth of the kinds of plant then back to corn. Such a strategy allows the farmer
life that perform that function in aquatic environ- to reduce costs, but it also makes the crop, and, thus,
ments. The chemical residues that are not washed the farmer and community, susceptible to wide-
into surface supplies contaminate wells. spread crop failure. When the crop is infested by
As chemical use increases, contamination accu- any of an ever-changing number and variety of
mulates in the soil and fertility decreases. The mi- pests—worms, molds, bacteria, fungi, insects, or
croorganisms and animal life in the soil, which had other diseases—the whole crop is likely to die
facilitated the breakdown of soil minerals into us- quickly, unless an appropriate antidote is immedi-
able plant products, are no longer nourished be- ately applied. Chemical antidotes can do the job but
cause the crop residue on which they feed is de- increase pollution. Maintaining species diver-
pleted, or they are killed by the active ingredients in sity—growing several different crops instead of one
the chemical. As a result, soil fertility must be re- or two—allows for crop failures without jeopardiz-
stored to maintain yield. Chemical replacement is ing the entire income for a farm or region that
usually the method of choice, and increased appli- specializes in a particular monoculture, such as
cations of chemical fertilizers intensify the toxicity tobacco, coffee, or bananas.
of this cyclical chemical dependency. Chemicals are not the only modern methods of
Chemicals, although problematic, are not as dif- preventing crop loss. Genetically engineered seeds
ficult to contend with as the increasingly heavy silt are one attempt at replacing post-infestation chem-

211
World Food Supplies Economic Geography

ical treatments. For example, splicing genes into va- about 6.8 million farmers farming 1.1 billion acres,
rieties of rice or potatoes from wholly unrelated the United States at the end of the twentieth cen-
species—say, hypothetically, a grasshopper—to tury counted fewer than 2.1 million farmers farm-
prevent common forms of blight is occurring more ing 950 million acres. As fewer people care for land,
often. Even if the new genes make the crop more re- the potential for erosion and pollution to accelerate
sistant, however, they could trigger unknown side is likely to increase, causing land quality to decline.
effects that have more serious long-term environ- As farmers are displaced and move into towns,
mental and economic consequences than the prob- the cities take up more space. The resulting urban
lem they were used to solve. Genetically altered sprawl converts a tremendous amount of cropland
crops are essentially new life-forms being intro- into parking lots, malls, industrial parks, or subur-
duced into nature with no observable precedents to ban neighborhoods. If cities were located in mar-
watch beforehand for clues as to what might ginal areas, then the concern over the loss of farm-
happen. land to commercial development would be
nominal. However, the cities attracting the greatest
Urban Sprawl numbers of people have too often replaced the best
As more farms become mechanized, the need for cropland. Taking the best cropland out of primary
farmers is being drastically reduced. There were production imposes a severe economic penalty.
more farmers in the United States in 1860 than James Knotwell and Denise Knotwell
there were in the year 2000. From a peak in 1935 of

World Food Supplies

All living things need food to begin the life process ing. There is a global food market, and many peo-
and to live, grow, work, and survive. Almost all ple can select what they want to eat and when they
foods that humans consume come from plants and eat it according to the prices they can pay and what
animals. Not all of Earth’s people eat the same is available.
foods, however, nor do they require the same caloric Historically, in places where food was plentiful,
intakes. The types, combinations, and amounts of accessible, and inexpensive, humans devoted less
food consumed by different peoples depend upon time to basic survival needs and more time to activi-
historic, socioeconomic, and environmental ties that led to human progress and enjoyment of
factors. leisure. Despite a modern global food system, in-
stant telecommunications, the United Nations, and
The History of Food Consumption food surpluses at places, however, the problem of
Early in human history, people ate what they could providing food for everyone on Earth has not been
gather or scavenge. Later, people ate what they solved.
could plant and harvest and what animals they According to the United Nations Sustainable De-
could domesticate and raise. Modern people eat velopment Goals that were adopted by all Member
what they can grow, raise, or purchase. Their diets States in 2015, an estimated 821 million people
or food composition are determined by income, lo- were undernourished in 2017. In developing coun-
cal customs, religion or food biases, and advertis- tries, 12.9 percent of the population is undernour-

212
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands World Food Supplies

ished. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest preva- the world are corn (maize), wheats, rice, potatoes,
lence of hunger; the number of undernourished cassava (manioc), barley, soybeans, sorghums and
people increased from 195 million in 2014 to 237 millets, beans, peas and chickpeas, and peanuts
million in 2017. Poor nutrition causes nearly half (groundnuts).
(45 percent) of deaths in children under five—3.1 More than one-third of the world’s cultivated
million children each year. As of 2018, 22 percent of land is planted with wheat and rice. Wheat is the
the global under-5 population were still chronically dominant food staple in North America, Western
undernourished in 2018. To meet challenge of Goal and Eastern Europe, northern China, and the Mid-
2: Zero Hunger, significant changes both in terms dle East and North Africa. Rice is the dominant
of agriculture and conservation as well as in financ- food staple in southern and eastern Asia. Corn,
ing and social equality will be required to nourish used primarily as animal food in developed na-
the 821 million people who are hungry today and tions, is a staple food in Latin America and South-
the additional 2 billion people expected to be east Africa. Potatoes are a basic food in the high-
undernourished by 2050. lands of South America and in Central and Eastern
Europe. Cassava (manioc) is a tropical starch-pro-
World Food Source Regions ducing root crop of special dietary importance in
Agriculture and related primary food production portions of lowland South America, the west coast
activities, such as fishing, hunting, and gathering, countries of Africa, and sections of South Asia. Bar-
continue to employ more than one-third of the ley is an important component of diets in North Af-
world’s labor force. Agriculture’s relative impor- rican, Middle Eastern, and Eastern European coun-
tance in the world economic system has declined tries. Soybeans are an integral part of the diets of
with urbanization and industrialization, but it still those who live in eastern, southeastern, and south-
plays a vital role in human survival and general eco- ern Asia. Sorghums and millets are staple subsis-
nomic growth. Agriculture in the third millennium tence foods in the savanna regions of Africa and
must supply food to an increasing world population south Asia, while peanuts are a facet of dietary
of nonfood producers. It must also produce food mixes in tropical Africa, Southeast Asia, and South
and nonfood crude materials for industry, accumu- America.
late capital needed for further economic growth,
and allow workers from rural areas to industrial, Food from Animals
construction, and expanding intraurban service Animals have been used as food by humans from
functions. the time the earliest people learned to hunt, trap,
Soil types, topography, weather, climate, socio- and fish. However, humans have domesticated only
economic history, location, population pressures, a few varieties of animals. Ranked by tonnage of
dietary preferences, stages in modern agricultural meat produced, the most commonly eaten animals
development, and governmental policies combine are cattle, pigs, chickens and turkeys, sheep, goats,
to give a distinctive personality to regional agricul- water buffalo, camels, rabbits and guinea pigs, yaks,
tural characteristics. Two of the most productive and llamas and alpacas.
food-producing regions of the world are North Cattle, which produce milk and meat, are impor-
America and Asia. Countries in these regions ex- tant food sources in North America, Western Eu-
port large amounts of food to other parts of the rope, Eastern Europe, Australia and New Zealand,
world. Argentina, and Uruguay. Pigs are bred and reared
for food on a massive scale in southern and eastern
Foods from Plants Asia, North America, Western Europe, and Eastern
Most basic staple foods come from a small number Europe. Chickens are the most important domesti-
of plants and animals. Ranked by tonnage pro- cated fowl used as a human food source and are a
duced, the most important food plants throughout part of the diets of most of the world’s people.

213
World Food Supplies Economic Geography

Sheep and goats, as a source of meat and milk, are working in developing countries. During the last
especially important to the diets of those who live in four decades of the twentieth century, a tremendous
the Middle East and North Africa, Eastern Europe, shift took place in overall dietary habits as Western
Western Europe, and Australia and New Zealand. foods became increasingly available and popular
Water buffalo, camels, rabbits, guinea pigs, yaks, throughout the world. While improved nutrition
llamas, and alpacas are food sources in regions of has contributed to a decrease in child mortality, an
the world where there is low consumption of meat increase in longevity, and a greater resistance to dis-
for religious, cultural, or socioeconomic reasons. ease, it is also true that conditions including morbid
Fish is an inexpensive and wholesome source of obesity, Type II diabetes, and hypertension are on
food. Seafood is an important component to the di- the rise.
ets of those who live in southern and eastern Asia,
Western Europe, and North America. Strategies for Increasing Food Production
To meet the food demands and the food distribu-
The World’s Growing Population tion needs of the world’s people in the future, sev-
The problem of feeding the world is compounded eral strategies have been proposed. One such
by the fact that population was increasing at a rate strategy calls for the intensification of agriculture—
of nearly 82 million persons per year at the end of improving biological, mechanical, and chemical
second decade of the twenty-first century. That rate technology and applying proven agricultural inno-
of increase is roughly equivalent to adding a coun- vations to regions of the world where the physical
try the size of Germany to the world every single and cultural environments are most suitable for
year. rapid food production increases.
Also compounding the problem of feeding the The second step is to expand the areas where
world are population redistribution patterns and food is produced so that areas that are empty or
changing food consumption standards. In the year underused will be made productive. Reclaiming ar-
2050, the world population is projected to reach ap- eas damaged by human mismanagement, expand-
proximately 10 billion—4 billion people more than ing irrigation in carefully selected areas, and intro-
were on the earth in 2000. Most of the increase in ducing extensive agrotechniques to areas not under
world population is expected to occur within the cultivation could increase the production of
developing nations. inexpensive grains and meats.
Finally, interregional, international, and global
Urbanization commerce should be expanded, in most instances,
Along with an increase in population in developing increasing regional specializations and production
nations is massive urbanization. City dwellers are of high-quality, high-demand agricultural products
food consumers, not food producers. The exodus of for export and importing low-cost basic foods. A
young men and women from rural areas has given disequilibrium of supply and demand for certain
rise to a new series of megacities, most of which are commodities will persist, but food producers, re-
in developing countries. By the year 2030, there gional and national agricultural planners, and
could be as many as forty-one megacities (cities with those who strive for regional economic integration
populations of 10 million people or more). must take advantage of local conditions and loca-
When rural dwellers move to cities, they tend to tion or create the new products needed by the
change their dietary composition and food-con- food-consuming public in a one-world economy.
sumption patterns. Qualitative changes in dietary
consumption standards are positive, for the most Perspectives
part, and are a result of copying the diets of what is Humanity is entering a time of volatility in food
considered a more prestigious group or positive ed- production and distribution. The world will pro-
ucational activities of modern nutritional scientists duce enough food to meet the demands of those

214
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands World Food Supplies

who can afford to buy food. In many developing stability, and declining food aid. In developing
countries, however, food production is unlikely to countries, decision makers need to ensure that poli-
keep pace with increases in the demand for food by cies promote broad-based economic growth—and
growing populations. in particular agricultural growth—so that their
Factors that could lead to larger fluctuations in countries can produce enough food to feed them-
food availability include weather variations such as selves or enough income to buy the necessary food
those induced by El Niño and climate change, the on the world market.
growing scarcity of water, civil strife and political in- William A. Dando

215
 Agriculture of Australia

Agriculture is an essential part of Australia’s econ- ment in agriculture in Australia was reported at
omy. Australia’s exports were overwhelmingly agri- 2.56 percent of the workforce. This was nearly twice
cultural until the 1960s, when mining and manu- as high as in the United States, where 1.3 percent of
facturing grew in importance. Agricultural the workforce was directly employed in agriculture
production has continued to increase, but so have at the farm level.
other sectors of the economy, including the service In one form or another, agriculture occupies 60
sector. As a result, since the mid-1970s, the value of percent of the total land area of Australia. Much of
agricultural output has dropped to only 3 percent this land (over 85 percent) is used for open-range
of Australia’s gross domestic product (GDP). How- cattle grazing, especially huge stretches of
ever, when value-added processing of cultivated Queensland and Western Australia. Only a small
products beyond the farm is included, this figure part of Australia’s agricultural land is used for grow-
rises to 12 percent. In 2019, direct on-farm employ- ing crops. Western Australia and New South Wales

A barley field in Western Australia. (Andrew Hanlon)

217
Agriculture of Australia Economic Geography

SELECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF AUSTRALIA

Gulf Tea Coffee

Timor Sea Bananas
of Pineapples
Carpentaria Mangoes
Lumber Papayas
Coral Sea
Lumber
Indian
Ocean NORTHERN Cattle Sugarcane
Sheep
TERRITORY
Pa c i f i c
QUEENSLAND
Barley Cotton Ocean

Sheep
Wheat
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA Barley
SOUTH
Oats AUSTRALIA
Wool Cotton
Oats
Dairy Cattle NEW SOUTH
Wine WALES
Wine Great Dairy Cattle
Rice
Australian Cherries Apples
Peaches
Bight VICTORIAGrapes Apricots
Honey Tasman Sea
Fish
Fruit TASMANIA

have the greatest areas under cultivation. The areas salinization of soil, which has become a major prob-
most suitable for growing commercial crops are lim- lem in some areas, especially the Murray-Darling
ited mainly by climate, given how dry Australia is. basin in southeastern Australia, one of the conti-
As a general rule, an annual rainfall of 20 inches nent’s most significant agricultural areas. (Austra-
(500 millimeters) is necessary to grow crops success- lia’s salt-interception schemes, aimed at reducing
fully without irrigation; less than half of Australia salinity and rehabilitating irrigation areas, are
receives this amount, and the rainfall is often vari- discussed in the “Engineering Projects” section of
able or unreliable. Years of drought may be followed this chapter.)
by severe flooding. Warm temperatures throughout Listed by value, the top ten agricultural exports
most of Australia also mean high evaporation rates, from Australia in 2018 were: beef, wheat, other meat,
so rainfall figures are not the only factor that affects wool, wine and other alcoholic beverages, sugar and
agricultural productivity. related products, vegetables, dairy, live animals, and
Australian soils usually require the application of fruits and nuts. Other important agricultural ex-
fertilizer to grow crops successfully. The wet tropical ports were cotton, rice, canola, and flowers.
north of Australia is suitable for cattle raising, while
sugarcane is grown on the east coast in high-rainfall Wheat and Barley
and irrigated areas along coastal plains and river Long the most important crop of Australia, wheat is
valleys. The cooler southern parts are suited to produced in several so-called wheat-belt regions in
wheat growing and sheep raising. Dairy production a crescent of land just west of the Eastern High-
is found throughout the country in selected cool, lands, or the Great Dividing Range, which extends
wet regions. Irrigation has opened up large areas of from central Queensland through New South Wales
drier land to agriculture, especially for fruit grow- to Victoria, as well as in the south of South Australia
ing. However, irrigation has contributed to the and southwest Western Australia. These are also the

218
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Agriculture of Australia

most important regions of sheep raising, so they are Wool

sometimes called the wheat-sheep belts. In the Australia produces approximately one-fifth of the
2010s, wheat was the principal or significant grain world’s wool. Its wool’s high-quality and high-price
crop on some 21,000 Australian farms. The average fleece (mostly from Merino sheep) makes Australia
Australian grain farm is family-owned and has an the largest producer of wool by value. Ninety percent
area of over 6,440 acres (2,606 hectares). Wheat of the world’s fine apparel wool comes from Australia.
crops are rotated with legume and oilseed crops in The Merino breed of sheep originated in Spain.
order to improve soil fertility and reduce soil In 1797, Merino sheep were imported for the first
erosion, weeds, and pests. time to Australia by John Macarthur, a British offi-
Australian wheat is planted during the winter, cer in the New South Wales Corps. The flat grassy
which is much milder than winter on the prairies of plains and temperate dry climate of inland New
North America. Harvesting begins in September in South Wales provided a favorable environment for
the warm state of Queensland and moves south to sheep raising. Merino sheep were bred to produce
Victoria and Western Australia by January. Austra- new genetic variants of animals, or “strains,” with
lian wheat is high in quality and low in moisture, so the emphasis on high production of fine woolen
it is easy to mill. Wheat crops are frequently affected fleece. New South Wales today has one-third of Aus-
by drought; another problem is markets, since Aus- tralia’s sheep. Wool is produced from the New Eng-
tralia competes with Russia, the United States, Can- land Tablelands to the Goulburn area. (The city of
ada, and several other countries in selling wheat. Goulburn is home to the huge Big Merino monu-
When the British first came to Australia and es- ment, the world’s largest concrete-constructed
tablished a penal colony near Port Jackson (Sydney sheep.) Western Australia is the second-largest
Harbor), the convicts planted wheat on a govern- wool-producing state. An average Australian fleece
ment farm in what is now inner Sydney. They had (the coat of wool from a single sheep) weighs 10 to
difficulty growing wheat because of poor soils, unfa- 11 pounds (4.5 to 5 kilograms). To put this into per-
miliar climate, and inexperience, causing fear of spective, 1 pound (0.45 kilogram) of wool can make
widespread hunger. As settlement spread beyond up to 10 miles (16 km.) of yarn.
the coastal plain and into the interior, wheat pro- Wool was Australia’s main export in the earliest
duction rose dramatically. The rapid increase in days of British colonization. It is mostly exported as
population after the gold discoveries of the 1850s greasy (or raw) wool, meaning the wool is not
also led to increased demand for wheat. Australia cleaned or treated. Sheep and cattle farms are
began exporting wheat in 1845 and is now the called “stations” in Australia. The sheep are shorn
world’s fifth-largest exporter of the cereal grain. each year, usually in spring, by teams of profes-
Barley is Australia’s second-largest commercial sional shearers who travel from one station to an-
crop, after wheat. It is widely grown throughout a other. The work has always been physically de-
vast geographic area from southern Queensland to manding, especially before electric shears were
Western Australia. Australia is a dominant player in adopted. The Australian Labor Party traces its ori-
world barley markets, representing about 20 percent gins to disputes between shearers and station own-
of global trade in feed barley and between 30 and 40 ers in central Queensland, which led to widespread
percent (depending on the year) of global trade in strikes in the 1890s. Today, the working conditions,
malting barley. Malting barley is barley developed hours, and wages of contract shearers are strictly
and grown specifically for brewing beer and making regulated. Once rare on sheep stations, women now
whiskey and other distilled spirits. Australian barley take a large part in the shearing industry; they work
is highly sought after because of its exceptional malt- as pressers, wool rollers, wool classers, and shearers.
ing quality, low moisture content, and low for- Top professional shearers (called “gun shearers”)
eign-material contamination. China and Japan are can shear, per day, more than 400 crossbred sheep
Australia’s largest barley export markets. or around 200 finer-wool sheep such as Merino.

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Agriculture of Australia Economic Geography

Two men shearing sheep in Australia. (GaryRadler)

Britain was the traditional market for Australian Beef and Other Meat
wool until the 1960s, but Japan later became the Cattle are raised for beef throughout Australia, but
main buyer. By 2020, 98 percent of Australia’s wool predominantly in the tropical north. In the 2010s,
was being exported, with the vast majority of this Australia had more than 28 million head of cattle;
going to China to be processed and eventually Queensland had the largest number, more than 11
made into clothing such as suits and sweaters. Wool million head of cattle. Large herds are kept on the
ranked fourth, in terms of value, of agricultural unimproved native grasses, although in southern
commodities produced in Australia. states, improved pastures and fodder crops are
In 1970, there were 180 million sheep in Austra- more common in the cattle industry. The pastoral
lia. By 2020, that number had fallen to about 64 industries are subject to great losses through both
million, as the Australian sheep industry has drought and flooding. Since the early 1990s, Japan
changed focus, transitioning from being predomi- has been the largest customer for Australian beef,
nantly wool-orientated to a combination of meat with the United States second. Australia exports
and wool. The wool industry has suffered from a mostly high-quality, highly marbled beef. In 2020 it
lowering global demand for natural fibers. Recent was the world’s third-largest beef exporter after
years of drought have also motivated many pro- Brazil and India.
ducers to switch their emphasis from wool to Poultry and sheep meat (lamb and mutton) rank
highly profitable mutton and lamb. However, the second in Australian meat production, followed by
overall strong international demand for Austra- pork. In the decade leading up to 2020, Australia
lian sheep products has endured, and the national was the world’s largest exporter of sheep meat. In
flock has been projected to grow again in the 2018, it exported almost 57 percent of its lamb pro-
2020s. duction and 92 percent of its mutton production.

220
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Agriculture of Australia

The United States, China, the United Arab growing. In 2019, Australia had more than 1.5 mil-
Emirates, and Qatar were the main markets for Aus- lion dairy cattle. Dairy cows are kept throughout the
tralian sheep meat. Australia was the third-largest cooler and more closely settled areas of Australia, in
exporter of live sheep; its main markets were the a belt extending south around the east coast to
Persian Gulf states. Adelaide in South Australia. The southwest of West-
Since the 1970s, a new type of agriculture in ern Australia also produces milk. The milk-delivery
northern Australia has been saltwater crocodile journey from the town of Harvey in Western Austra-
farming. The creatures are raised for both meat and lia to a bottling plant near Darwin, the capital of the
skins. Crocodile meat is sold domestically and ex- Northern Territory, is believed to be the longest
ported. It is a healthful white meat, low in fat and such run in the world. The trip by a three-trailer
high in protein. The skin of the Australian saltwater “road train” across 2,610 miles (4,200 km.) takes
crocodile is considered one of the best leathers in about 55 hours.
the world. However, the Australian industry has The state of Victoria produces 60 percent of Aus-
been facing challenges from the recent global over- tralia’s milk. A dairy area of interest is the Atherton
supply of lesser-quality crocodile skins from Africa Tableland in north Queensland, where elevation
and Papua New Guinea. Pressure from animal enables the industry to exist in the tropics. The
rights activists campaigning against the use of any dominant dairy cattle breed in Australia is the Hol-
animal leather has also increased. stein, accounting for around 70 percent of all dairy
cattle. This breed has the highest milk production
Dairy Products of all dairy breeds in the world. In 2019, Australia
Dairying is Australia’s third-most important type of produced almost 2.3 million gallons (8.6 million li-
agriculture, after beef cattle raising and wheat ters) of milk. While the Australian market is

A herd of cattle in Queensland, Australia. (JosuOzkaritz)

221
Agriculture of Australia Economic Geography

A sugar mill in Queensland, Australia. (Mastamak)

well-supplied with fresh milk and dairy products, production. Nevertheless, the Australian sugarcane
exports are also important. Some 35 percent of the industry has been struggling to compete with the
fresh milk is processed for export as dried milk huge Brazilian industry (benefitting from the econ-
powder, ultra-heat treated milk, cheese, and butter. omy of scale) and India’s industry, with its high
In the 2010s, Australia was the world’s eighth-larg- subsidies at every level.
est exporter of dairy products. Imports of milk In Australia, sugarcane is grown on more than
products into Australia are restricted. 4,000 small, individually owned farms. Until the
1960s, the cane was cut by hand. Now, it is harvested
Sugar mechanically and taken by rail to a nearby mill. In
Sugarcane is grown in a series of small regions along 2020, there were twenty-four sugar mills in
the tropical coast of Queensland, extending across Queensland and New South Wales. The Australian
the border into northern New South Wales. A warm, sugar industry is an interesting case study in atti-
wet climate is required for the successful cultivation tudes of Europeans. In the nineteenth century, men
of sugarcane, so it is confined to parts of the coastal were brought from the islands of Melanesia to work
plain with good deep soils and reliable rainfall. in the sugar fields, as it was believed that no white
More than 80 percent of all sugar produced in Aus- person could survive physical work in a tropical cli-
tralia is exported as bulk raw sugar, making Austra- mate. These workers were called “kanakas” (from
lia the second-largest raw sugar exporter in the the Hawaiian word for “person” or “man,” but the
world. Australian sugar farmers are among the least word acquired a derogatory connotation in Austra-
subsidized in the world, and the country is one of lian English); they were virtually slaves of the plan-
the most efficient sugar producers, far more cost-ef- tation managers. The practice was stopped in 1901
fective than the heavily subsidized American sugar when Queensland became part of the new Com-

222
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Agriculture of Australia

monwealth of Australia. Italians then were encour- Thailand. In an average year, Australia produces
aged to migrate to Queensland to do the hard work. enough cotton to clothe 500 million people!
Today, many sugarcane farms are owned by families Thanks to biotechnology and advances in precision
of Italian descent. irrigation and timing, the Australian cotton indus-
try has become the most water-efficient cotton in-
Fruit dustry in the world. Its Whole Farm Irrigation
Fruit growing has a long history in Australia and is Efficiency (an index showing the percentage of wa-
strongly influenced by climatic considerations. In ter used by the crop instead of being lost on the
Queensland, tropical fruits such as bananas, pine- farm) has increased from 57 percent in the late
apples, mangoes, and papaya (called pawpaw in 1990s to 81 percent in 2020.
Australia) are cultivated. In the cooler south, ap- Rice has been grown commercially in Australia
ples, peaches, apricots, cherries, and grapes are since 1924, using irrigation. New South Wales is the
grown. Fruits and nuts today account for 8 percent main producer, where the Murrumbidgee Irriga-
of the country’s agricultural production by value. tion Area dominates rice production. Australia ex-
Grapes are grown for both eating fresh
and dried as raisins, although far more
important is wine production, especially
in the Barossa Valley and the Riverland
(South Australia), Hunter Valley and
Riverina (New South Wales), Margaret
River area (Western Australia), and Yarra
Valley (Victoria). John Macarthur, the
aforementioned founder of the Austra-
lian wool industry, also established the
first commercial vineyard, in New South
Wales. In the 1960s, modern plantings
and production methods were intro-
duced. By 2020, Australia had almost
361,000 acres (146,000 hectares) of vine-
yards and almost 2,500 wineries. Wine is
an important export for Australia, with
China purchasing 40 percent of wine ex-
ported in 2019 and 2020, followed by the
United States (14 percent), and the
United Kingdom (12 percent).

Other Agricultural Products

Cotton is grown mainly in drier interior
parts of New South Wales, in parts of cen-
tral and southern Queensland, and in
northern Victoria. It is usually grown on
family farms in conjunction with sheep
farming. Asia is the major customer for
Australian cotton, with leading import
destinations being China, Bangladesh,
Vietnam, India, Indonesia, Turkey, and A granny smith apple orchard in Australia. (Alfio Manciagli)

223
Agriculture of Australia Economic Geography

ports about 80 percent of its rice crop to more than Blossoms of the eucalyptus tree produce distinc-
seventy markets, mainly in the Middle East and the tive-tasting honey, which is sold mainly to Southeast
Asia-Pacific region. Oats are grown where the cli- Asian countries.
mate is too cool and too moist for wheat. In Austra- Australian agriculture suffered when one of its
lia, this means in the interior southeast of Western then-largest importers of agricultural products, the
Australia. This state and New South Wales are the United Kingdom, joined the European Economic
biggest producers of oats, which is used mainly for Community (predecessor of the European Union)
fodder. in 1972. Some of Australia’s exports were displaced
Other agricultural products of Australia include by European products, others became subjects to
grain sorghum; corn (maize); vegetables, including the European Community tariffs. However, Austra-
potatoes, peas, tomatoes, and beans; oil seeds such lia’s export-oriented agriculture recovered and ex-
as canola and sunflower; soybeans; and tea and cof- panded as the country successfully negotiated bilat-
fee in northern Queensland. Australia is a major eral free trade agreements with New Zealand and a
producer of honey, with hundreds of commercial number of Asian countries and regional trade blocs.
operations and thousands of registered apiarists. Ray Sumner

224
 Agriculture of the
Pacific Islands

Agricultural practices in the Pacific islands have an of soils and lagoons, loss of important trees and
unsettled history, and they share some common native crops, and depletion of precious soils.
problems. Many of these islands are separated from The Pacific islands can be divided into two main
one another by hundreds to thousands of miles. Ty- types: the high islands, which are generally volcanic
phoons, storms, drought, and volcanic activity can islands, and the low islands, which are primarily
wreak havoc on their agriculture. Low-lying islands atolls. Volcanic lava weathers rapidly and provides
are especially vulnerable to the rise of sea levels reasonably fertile soil for cultivation on high is-
caused by climate change. Throughout history, at- lands, whereas atolls are low-lying coral reefs, which
tempts by foreigners to encourage plantation agri- generally have an inadequate supply of freshwater
culture have threatened fragile island environments. and poor soils. Coconuts, which can ripen through-
Large-scale land clearing and the use of fertilizers out the year and can grow on poor soil, are one of
and pesticides have caused erosion, contamination the few crops that thrive on the low islands.

Three farmers harvest coconuts in Vanuatu. (lkonya)

225
Agriculture of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

Pepper seed harvested from Pohnpei. (Supersmario)

The coconut is believed to have originated in the point-edged tools), split with a chopping knife,
coastal areas of Southeast Asia and Melanesia. In and, most commonly, left to dry in the Sun. (Smoke
prehistoric times, it spread naturally on ocean cur- drying, kiln drying, and indirect hot-air drying in a
rents. Around 4,500 years ago, voyaging Polyne- heated tunnel are less commonly used methods.)
sians and Indo-Malayans introduced their pre- After a few days, the dried copra can be easily
ferred varieties to various Pacific islands. Today, the scraped out and dried further on racks. The aver-
coconut palm continues to be an important eco- age yield of a coconut palm is eighty to 100 nuts a
nomic and subsistence crop in the Pacific region. year, depending on the variety. About thirty nuts
Pacific islanders use almost every part of the coco- provide meat for 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of co-
nut palm: it is a major source of food, oil, fiber pra. Coconut oil is made by pressing fresh coconut
(coir), wood, and fodder for livestock. Copra (the meat (virgin oil) or copra (refined oil). A metric ton
dried meat or kernel of the coconut) was for a time of copra yields about 1,345 pounds (610 kilograms)
an important industrial product used in the pro- of oil. The rest—the copra cake—is mainly used as
duction of detergents, synthetic rubber, and glyc- fodder.
erin. It is still exported, but in smaller quantities, Islands show great variations in the amounts of
mainly for the extraction of coconut oil used in rainfall they receive, the steepness of their slopes,
cooking and beauty products. and the variety of plant life that can grow. Great dif-
For making copra, the nuts of the coconut palm ferences in rainfall and vegetation can exist on dif-
are harvested, husked (using sharp-edged or ferent sides or parts of the same island. For exam-

226
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Agriculture of the Pacific Islands

ple, one side of the Big Island of Hawaii has one of Mount Wilhelm, which rises to 14,795 feet (4,509
the driest deserts on Earth, whereas a few miles meters). Arable lands make up only one-tenth of a
away on the other side of the island, a tropical rain percent of its land, and permanent crops occupy 1
forest exists. percent of the land. Crops often need to be terraced
Many traditional Pacific island crops are little in areas having steep slopes. Irrigation water is of-
known to Europeans or Americans. These include, ten brought to the crops through bamboo pipes. In
among others, betel (or areca) nut, breadfruit, the twenty-first century, subsistence agriculture still
Gnetum, kava, noni, taro, and pandanus (screw provides a livelihood for some 85 percent of the
palm). population. Agricultural products grown include
coffee, cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels (edible seeds
Melanesian Islands of the oil palm fruit), tea, natural rubber from rub-
These fairly large islands are located to the north- ber trees, fruit, sweet potatoes, vegetables, poultry,
east of Australia. They are quite damp, have a hot and pork. Palm oil, coffee, and cocoa are exported.
climate, and display a mountainous terrain that is Today, Papua New Guinea is the world’s largest
covered with dense vegetation. Papua New Guinea exporter of copra, with 35 percent of the global
is the largest island in Melanesia, slightly bigger in trade.
size than California. It has a mountainous interior Vanuatu, which includes eighty islands in the
with rolling foothills that are surrounded by low- South Pacific, covers a total area a bit larger than the
lands along the coastal areas. Its highest point is state of Connecticut. Its mostly mountainous ter-

Percent of
Country Products Arable Land
Fiji Sugarcane, copra, ginger, tropical fruits, vegetables; beef, 9.0
pork, chicken, fish
Kiribati Copra, breadfruit, fish 2.5
Micronesia, Taro, yams, coconuts, bananas, cassava (manioc, tapioca), 2.3
Federated States of sakau (kava), Kosraen citrus, betel nuts, black pepper, fish,
pigs, chicken
New Zealand Dairy products, sheep, beef, poultry, fruit, vegetables, wine, 1.8
seafood, wheat and barley
Palau Coconuts, cassava (manioc, tapioca), sweet potatoes; fish, 2.2
pigs, chickens, eggs, bananas, papaya, breadfruit, calamansi,
soursop, Polynesian chestnuts, Polynesian almonds,
mangoes, taro, guava, beans, cucumbers, squash/pumpkins
(various), eggplant, green onions, kangkong (watercress),
cabbages (various), radishes, betel nuts, melons, peppers,
noni, okra
Papua New Guinea Coffee, cocoa, copra, palm kernels, tea, sugar, rubber, sweet 0.7
potatoes, fruit, vegetables, vanilla; poultry, pork; shellfish
Samoa Coconuts, nonu, bananas, taro, yams, coffee, cocoa 2.8
Solomon Islands Cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels, rice, fruit; cattle, pigs; fish; 0.7
timber
Vanuatu Copra, coconuts, cocoa, coffee, taro, yams, fruits, vegetables; 1.6
beef; fish
Source: The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency

227
Agriculture of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

rain provides only minimal arable land: approxi- Ten percent of New Caledonia’s land is in perma-
mately 2 percent, with another 2 percent used for nent pasture used for raising beef cattle.
pasture. About two-thirds of the population is in- The island nation of Fiji includes 332 islands,
volved in subsistence or small-scale agriculture. only 110 of which are inhabited. These islands are
The main agricultural products are copra, coco- volcanic in origin, and approximately 10 percent of
nuts, cocoa, yams, coffee, fruits, kava, fish, and beef. the land is arable and 10 percent is in permanent
Copra, beef, cocoa, and kava are exported. In the pasture. Approximately 40 percent of the labor
2010s, they accounted for more than 60 percent of force is involved in subsistence agriculture. Sugar-
Vanuatu’s total exports. Vanuatu produced about 12 cane is an important crop in Fiji; cane sugar consti-
percent of the global supply of copra and was one of tutes a major industry and 8 percent of Fiji’s ex-
the two largest producers of kava (the other being ports. Other agricultural products grown in Fiji are
Fiji). Kava, a root crop, has long been used through- coconuts, cassava (tapioca), rice, sweet potatoes,
out the Pacific region in traditional medicine and taro, kava, cattle, pigs, and goats. Fried taro is a sta-
for making beverages and is also exported as herbal ple food. Taro is one of the oldest cultivated plants
medicine to countries outside the region. in Pacific island history and was once a staple food
New Caledonia, located east of Australia in the for many island peoples. This starchy, edible rhi-
South Pacific Ocean, is almost the size of New Jer- zome can be cultivated by clearing or partially
sey. It consists of coastal plains with interior moun- clearing a patch in the tropical rain forest and
tains over 4,900 feet (1,500 meters) high. New Cal- planting the taro in the moist ground.
edonia, which is known for its nickel resources, The Solomon Islands are a cluster of small is-
imports much of its food supply. A few vegetables lands that collectively cover an area almost the size
are grown, but raising livestock is more common. of Maryland. They are located in the Solomon Sea

A macadamia orchard on the Big Island, Hawaii. (JTSorrell)

228
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Agriculture of the Pacific Islands

between Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. Some of The Federated States of Micronesia include four
the islands have rugged mountainous terrain, oth- groups of islands divided into the states of Pohnpei,
ers are low coral atolls. Only 1 percent of the land is Chuuk, Yap, and Kosrae. There are a total of 607 in-
arable, and 1 percent is devoted to pastures. Over dividual islands, some high and mountainous, oth-
80 percent of the islanders live in rural areas and ers low-lying atolls. Volcanic outcroppings are
depend on subsistence agriculture. The main sub- found in Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Chuuk. Agriculture
sistence crops are sweet potato, cassava, banana, on the islands is mainly subsistence farming. Prod-
yam, beans, cabbage, watercress, watermelon, and ucts grown include peppers, coconuts, tropical
breadfruit. Palm oil, cocoa beans, copra, and betel fruits and vegetables, cassava, and sweet potatoes.
nuts are exported. Black and white peppers were introduced to the
area in the 1930s, although commercial pepper
Micronesian Islands growing only began in Pohnpei in the 1960s. Pep-
Micronesia comprises thousands of relatively small pers have since become an important export crop,
islands located along the equator in the central Pa- thanks to the island’s heavy rainfall and rich
cific Ocean and slightly north of the equator in the volcanic soil.
western Pacific Ocean. The region covers approxi- Guam, the largest island in the Mariana archipel-
mately 1.54 million square miles (4 million sq. km.) ago, is of volcanic origin and surrounded by coral
and is subdivided into four areas: the Kiribati reefs. It has a flat coral limestone plateau that serves
group, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of as a source of freshwater for the islands. In Guam,
Micronesia, and Guam, a US territory located 15 percent of the land is used as permanent pasture
within the western cluster of islands of the and another 11 percent is arable. Although fruits,
Federated States of Micronesia. vegetables, and livestock are raised on the island,
The Kiribati group includes primarily low-lying much of its food is imported because the economy
atolls encircled by extensive living reefs. Twenty of relies heavily on US military spending and the tour-
the thirty-three islands in the group are inhabited. ist trade.
Agriculture is mainly subsistence, with copra being
one of Kiribati’s few exports. Grown on the island Polynesia
for local consumption are giant swamp taro, bread- Polynesia comprises a diverse set of islands lying
fruit, sweet potatoes, vegetables, and coconuts. Gi- within a triangular area having corners at New Zea-
ant swamp taro is a root crop similar to taro but with land, the Hawaiian Islands, and Easter Island.
bigger leaves and larger, coarser roots. The roots French Polynesia is at the center of the triangle and
need to be cooked for hours to reduce toxicity but includes 118 islands and atolls.
they are rich in nutrients. In the harsh atoll environ- The five archipelagoes of French Polynesia in-
ments of the Central Pacific, especially Kiribati and clude four volcanic island chains (the Society Is-
Tuvalu, swamp taro is not only an important food lands, the Marquesas, the Gambiers, and the
source but also an essential part of cultural heritage. Australs) and the low-lying atolls of the Tuamotus.
The crop is now under threat, being displaced by The mountainous volcanic islands contain quite
imported food products. fertile soils along their narrow coastal strips. The
The Marshall Islands contain two island chains of atolls have little soil and lack permanent water sup-
30 atolls and 1,152 islands. The economy of the ply. Permanent pasture covers 5 percent of French
Marshall Islands is dependent upon aid from the Polynesia, and another 6 percent is used for perma-
US government. Agriculture exists as small farms nent crops. Agriculture, once of primary impor-
that provide commercial crops of tomatoes, mel- tance, now only provides a small portion of the
ons, coconuts, and breadfruit. Coconuts, cacao, gross domestic product of French Polynesia. Ex-
taro, breadfruit, pigs, and chickens are produced ports include vanilla and coffee, but the main ex-
for local consumption.

229
Agriculture of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

A dairy farm in New Zealand. (JenS)

ports from French Polynesia are pearls and Tuvalu is a group of nine coral atolls located al-
tourism-related services. most halfway between Hawaii and Australia. The
Samoa is a chain of seven islands lying several soil is poor on these islands and there are no
thousand miles to the west of Tahiti. Collectively, streams or rivers. Water for the islands is captured
the islands are almost the size of Rhode Island, and in catchment systems and put into storage. Island-
they are covered in rugged mountains with a narrow ers live by subsistence farming and fishing. Coco-
coastal plain. Approximately 24 percent of the land nuts and giant swamp taro are among the few crops
sustains crops of bananas, taro, yams, and coconuts. that can grow in the poor soils, and coconut farming
Samoans practice both subsistence and crop agri- allows the islanders to export copra.
culture; over two-thirds of Samoans are involved in The Cook Islands comprise a combined area al-
agricultural production and are dependent on it. most the size of Washington, D.C. Located halfway
Samoan agricultural lands, however, have been fre- between Hawaii and New Zealand, the northern is-
quently devastated by natural disasters. Coconuts lands are primarily low coral atolls, and the south-
grown on the islands are processed into creams and ern Cook Islands are hilly volcanic islands. The na-
copra for export. Taro was a staple subsistence crop tion of the Cook Islands was a major exporter of
and the largest export commodity until the 1990s, fresh and processed citrus, pineapples, and ba-
when the crops were repeatedly destroyed by hurri- nanas in the 1950s to 1970s. However, it has since
canes, which were followed by the rapid spread of lost its market share to more competitive producers.
taro leaf disease. Taro currently accounts for less The population of the country has sharply declined
than 1 percent of export revenue. Samoa is no since the 1990s owing to emigration to Australia
longer self-sufficient in food and must now rely on and New Zealand. Many agricultural lands were lost
imported foodstuffs. to housing developments for tourism and private

230
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Agriculture of the Pacific Islands

use. Current food production in the Cook Islands is more than 1.2 million people in 2018, has the larg-
insufficient to meet demand. The country is highly est population in the Polynesian island group. The
dependent on imported food products, especially Hawaiian Islands represent one of the most striking
given the rapidly growing number of tourists. examples of the transformation of an agricultural
Tonga is a kingdom consisting of more than 170 economy into a tourism-based economy. For over a
mostly uninhabited islands. Tongans rely on both century, when Hawaii was still a kingdom and then
subsistence and plantation agriculture. Today, the later, an annexed US territory, it was among the
majority of Tonga’s agriculture is still based on tra- leading producers and exporters of pineapples and
ditional farming systems. All land in the kingdom cane sugar. Both industries had been introduced to
belongs to the crown, and each Tongan male is enti- the islands by Westerners and dominated by large
tled to lease an allotment, called api, measuring American corporations. After Hawaii became a US
8.25 acres (3.34 hectares) when he reaches the age state (in 1959), large commercial producers of pine-
of 16. Root crops such as taro, cassava, sweet potato, apples and sugarcane started relocating their acre-
and kava are grown on two-thirds of the agricultural age elsewhere in the world, primarily due to high
land. Other plants grown both as market cash crops US labor and land costs. The last of the large
and for home use include bananas, coconuts, coffee food-production companies, Del Monte, harvested
beans, vanilla beans, and squash. Kava and vanilla its final pineapple crop in Hawaii in 2008. Hawaii’s
from larger plantations are now the main agricul- last sugar mill produced its final shipment of sugar
tural exports, together with squash. Agriculture and in 2016.
fishing contribute some 30 percent to the gross The areas of Hawaii once devoted to sugarcane
domestic product of Tonga. and pineapple plantations are now occupied by ho-
The Hawaiian Islands are a volcanic chain of tels and resorts. Between the 1980s and the 2010s,
more than 130 islands. The US state of Hawaii, with Hawaii’s total land use for agricultural production

A kiwi plantation in New Zealand. (Fyletto)

231
Agriculture of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

shrank by about 68 percent. Now the corn seed in- Wool, lamb, mutton, beef, and dairy products ac-
dustry is the state’s dominant agricultural land user, count for more than one-third of New Zealand’s ex-
followed by commercial forestry and the production ports. New Zealand now exports 95 percent of its
of macadamia nuts. dairy products and is the world’s largest dairy
exporter.
New Zealand New Zealand is the third-largest producer of
About the size of Colorado, New Zealand is divided kiwifruit, after China and Italy. Kiwifruit, native to
into two large islands and numerous smaller islands. China, was originally known as Chinese gooseberry.
It is a mountainous country with large coastal plains. In 1962, New Zealand fruit producers gave the fruit
About 50 percent of its land is in permanent pasture, a new name, kiwifruit, after the country’s iconic bird
9 percent of the land is arable, and 5 percent is and the nickname by which New Zealanders refer to
planted in permanent crops. Since European settle- themselves—kiwis. In recent years, the New Zea-
ment, New Zealand has been a farming country, and land wine industry has grown rapidly, and the coun-
in the twenty-first century, agriculture remains a vital try now ranks among the world’s top-ten wine
component of the national economy, forming its sin- exporters.
gle largest tradable sector. Agriculture accounts, on a With the exception of New Zealand and Hawaii,
year-to-year average, for about 8 percent of the gross subsistence agriculture and cash crop production
national product and employs approximately 5 per- have continued to coexist in Pacific island nations
cent of the labor force. Today, New Zealand produces and territories in the twenty-first century, with
enough food to feed more than 20 million people, semi-subsistence economies prevailing. Agricul-
around four times its population. ture, in general, has been declining and giving way
In New Zealand, sheep outnumber people six to to the tourism sector.
one, and there are also more cows than people. Toby R. Stewart

232
 Industries of Australia

The basis for much of Australia’s industrial activity Historic Background

is its minerals. Few countries possess the large num- From the time the British established the first col-
ber of minerals found in Australia, nor are Austra- onies in Australia, minerals have been extracted.
lia’s immense reserves matched anywhere else. Aus- Before 1800, coal was being exported from mines
tralia is self-sufficient in most minerals, and is a near Newcastle, New South Wales. Along with coal
world-class producer of bauxite (the raw material extraction, whaling and the export of such byprod-
for aluminum), copper, iron ore, lead, zinc, nickel, ucts as whale oil became Australia’s first primary in-
diamonds, gold, silver, salt, and uranium. Austra- dustries. Whale oil was highly prized in Europe and
lia’s mineral resources provide the raw materials for North America as a transmission fluid and a lubri-
the country’s processing and manufacturing indus- cant. It was also used for candles and as a base for
tries. They also represent a valuable export com- perfumes and soaps. Whalebone was used in the
modity that generates foreign currency earnings. making of corsets, umbrellas, and hoop skirts. The
Australia has also emerged as an important ex- whaling industry, started in the 1790s, helped the
porter of natural gas. Taken together, in 2020, more fledgling colonies survive and prosper. By 1806, an
than 40 percent of Australia’s export earnings was efficient method of bay whaling had been devel-
derived from minerals and natural gas. oped: a small ship would harpoon a whale off the

A bauxite mine in Queensland, Australia.

233
Industries of Australia Economic Geography

coast and tow it to a station on land. One whaling

station could therefore serve many ships. The in-
dustry flourished until the eventual overharvesting Diamonds in Australia were first recorded in 1851 in
of many species. The development of harpoon New South Wales, and were mined there from 1867
guns, explosive harpoons, and steam-driven whal- to 1922. Geologists discovered Northwest Austra-
ing boats in the late nineteenth century made large- lia’s famous Argyle pipe in 1979, and the Argyle Di-
scale commercial whaling so efficient that species amond Mine opened in 1985, going on to supply a
third of the world’s diamond supply every year since
such as the humpback, blue, and southern right
the late 1980s. Only about 5 percent of the mine’s
whale came very near to extinction. The last
diamonds were of gem quality, but these included
whaling station in Australia closed in 1978. the rare pink diamond, valued at fifty times that of
In the 1840s, copper and lead mines were estab- white diamonds. With the mine expected to close in
lished first in South Australia, then in New South 2021, Australia’s rough diamond output is expected
Wales and Victoria. In the 1850s and 1860s, gold to decline from 14.2 million carats to 134.7 thou-
was discovered at diverse locations in Victoria and sand carats. Other notable mines include Merlin,
which reached full production in 2018, and Ellen-
New South Wales. The ensuing gold rush led to a
dale, which the Western Australian government
rapid increase in Australia’s population. Through
rehabilitated after suspending operations in 2015.
the years, other minerals were discovered and
mined locally. By 1900, Australia was exporting
large amounts of copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, and als for the country’s manufacturing. Although some
silver. manufacturing took place in the nineteenth cen-
As mineral exploration techniques were im- tury, substantial industrial development did not oc-
proved, enormous deposits of coal, iron ore, and cur until after 1900. During the first half of the
bauxite were discovered in the 1950s. The following twentieth century, manufacturing centered around
decade, large deposits of petroleum, natural gas, the processing of minerals. This led to the develop-
nickel, and manganese were found. ment and expansion of such basic manufacturing
Australia has very large reserves of extremely industries as steel, aluminum, petroleum, ship-
high-quality thermal coal (also called steam coal as building, and fabricated metals. These industries,
it is burned for making steam to run electricity-gen- and many others, were expanded during World War
erating turbines) and coking coal (used for II when domestic industrial growth was stimulated
steelmaking). Most coal mines are located in New by a reduction in imports. Rapid expansion of man-
South Wales and Queensland. Coal production is ufacturing continued in the 1950s and 1960s as the
the mineral industry’s largest employer. Western demand for both consumer goods and products
Australia is Australia’s leading mineral-producing used by businesses accelerated. During those two
state for most other minerals, although extensive decades, manufacturing employment rose 70 per-
resources are distributed widely across the country. cent. By the early 1970s, more than 40 percent of
Many of the mines, smelters (plants where minerals Australia’s gross domestic product was derived
are extracted from ore), and refineries (plants for from manufacturing.
purifying minerals) are located in remote, arid re- The last quarter of the twentieth century saw a
gions of the country, factors that contribute to the rapid decline in manufacturing in both Australia
high production costs for several minerals. These and throughout the rest of the industrialized world,
same factors have boosted the development of Aus- from the United States to the European Union.
tralia’s transportation infrastructure as roads and Manufacturers were moving production to other
railroads had to be built to serve the mines, world regions where labor and production costs
smelters, and refineries. were lower. Australia also experienced a phenome-
Australia’s mineral industries, along with its non known as “Dutch disease,” a reference to the
farms and ranches, provide many of the raw materi- impact of the Netherlands’ gas discovery in the

234
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Industries of Australia

A natural gas pipeline in Western Australia. (Glen Dillon)

North Sea on the Dutch manufacturing sector. Aus- Australia’s Service Industries
tralia followed the same pattern. As revenues in nat- As both the manufacturing industries and the pri-
ural-resource exports grew and inflows of foreign mary sector workforce declined, Australia’s ser-
capital increased, the Australian dollar became vice industries gained prominence. By 2020,
much stronger than the currencies of Australia’s im- nearly 80 percent of the labor force was employed
port partners. Australian exports therefore became in services and more than 60 percent of the GDP
more expensive and imports became cheaper. was derived from this sector. Major service indus-
Ultimately, many of Australia’s manufacturing tries included retail trade, education, finance,
plants were forced to close. Employment in textiles, recreation and tourism, health care, and
apparel, coal-mining, steel, aluminum, shipbuild- information services.
ing, and the metal-fabricating industries declined Australia has developed a strong educational ser-
dramatically. The de-industrialization of Australia vice industry by providing schooling to overseas
took place at the same time as the workforce in agri- students. International full-tuition students consti-
culture, mining, and other parts of the primary sec- tute a major source of income for domestic colleges,
tor was shrinking as a result of automation and universities, and other institutions of higher learn-
other technological advances. In the 2010s, the ing. A significant number of these foreign students
mining sector contributed around 8.5 percent to ultimately choose to reside in Australia after com-
Australia’s gross domestic product (GDP) while pleting their studies, providing a valuable addition
accounting for about 2 percent of the workforce. to Australia’s skilled labor force.

235
Industries of Australia Economic Geography

A group of tourists in Sydney, Australia. (Mlenny)

Since the late twentieth century, one of the most impact on Australia’s flourishing tourist industry,
rapidly growing tertiary sectors of the Australian t h o u g h a n e v e n t u a l re c o v e r y wa s w i d e l y
economy has been tourism. Domestic travel has anticipated.
been the most important component, providing al- The Australian government provides financial in-
most 75 percent of tourism revenues in the 2010s. centives for producers of big-budget films to use Aus-
International tourism has been also increasing in tralian locations, cast, crew, and service providers. As
importance. In 2018, 9.3 million foreign tourists a result, Australia has become popular as a film-mak-
visited Australia, including many Europeans and ing destination, which also enhances various film
North Americans arriving on cruise ships during production-related services, from sound recording
the Northern Hemisphere winter. Top interna- to graphic design to movie prop production.
tional visitor destinations were Sydney, Melbourne, The health care and social assistance sector em-
the Gold Coast, tropical North Queensland, and ployed over 14 percent of the workforce in 2020.
Brisbane. The tourism industry employed more Since 2011, it has been the country’s largest (by em-
than 5 percent of the labor force. The coronavirus ployment) and fastest-growing economic sector.
(COVID-19) pandemic in 2020 had a catastrophic Robert R. McKay

236
 Industries of the
Pacific Islands

With the exception of New Zealand and Fiji, the in- the GDP. The processing of meat and dairy
dustries of the Pacific islands are less developed products was the most significant component of this
than those of many other world regions. The small sector. Most of these products were produced for in-
population and limited market potential of the Pa- ternational markets, and in 2019, the sector ac-
cific region have prevented the island countries counted for the second-largest amount of New
from taking advantage of economies of scale that Zealand’s foreign exchange earnings, after the
exist in regions with large populations. Another dis- tourism sector.
advantage is the long distances between the islands New Zealand manufactures a wide range of alu-
and their export markets. Transportation costs for minum, steel, and consumer goods. While manu-
both raw materials and finished products tend to be facturing has decreased in recent decades, as part of
high, putting producers at a competitive disadvan- the global trend affecting all developed economies,
tage. Many of the countries in the region are further in New Zealand it has remained an important
limited by an overall lack of natural resources. source of employment and exports.
Mineral, forestry, and agricultural resources are In Fiji, sugar production has remained a signifi-
poor throughout the region. In some cases, the polit- cant industry, and sugar is a major export. Also im-
ical-economic structure has not been conducive to portant is the manufacturing and export of textiles
industrial development. Migration, remittances and garments. Since the 2010s, however, the top ex-
from persons working abroad to their home coun- port product of Fiji has been bottled water. The wa-
tries, and foreign aid have long been important for ter is derived from a huge, 17-mile (27.4-km.)-long
Pacific island economies, along with a few agricul- aquifer on a remote part of Fiji’s largest island, Viti
tural exports such as copra and sugar. At the same Levu. It is bottled at the source and shipped to the
time, the tourism industry and commercial fishing li- United States and other countries, under the Fiji
censes have assumed important places in the econo- Water brand, a privately owned US company.
mies of most Pacific island nations and territories. In recent years, New Zealand has also been rap-
idly expanding its production and exportation of
Manufacturing bottled water, most of which is destined for China.
In the twenty-first century, New Zealand has re- Local producers as well as foreign investors in New
mained the dominant Pacific island industrial Zealand bottling plants have been encouraged by
power. From an industrial perspective, other coun- the success of Fiji Water.
tries of the region have neither had the strength nor
the economic diversity of New Zealand. In 2017, Mining
manufacturing made up 21.5 percent of New Zea- A major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where
land’s GDP and employed 20.7 percent of the total many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur is
workforce. Food processing was New Zealand’s larg- known as the Ring of Fire. Substantial deposits of
est industry in terms of employment and output, valuable minerals are associated with this volcanic
contributing one-third of manufacturing’s share to activity. On a number of the Pacific islands, mining

237
Industries of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

Copra being loaded at a port in Kiribati. (Government of Kiribati)

has been an important industry since the nine- close to 10 percent of the GDP of that French collec-
teenth and early twentieth centuries. Papua New tivity. Large-scale mining there started in the 1870s
Guinea and New Caledonia are the region’s leading and dozens of nickel mines have been established
producers of minerals, which are the mainstays of since then; two new ones opened very recently. New
those economies. Caledonia also produces chromium, cobalt, manga-
Copper, gold, silver, natural gas, and petroleum nese, and iron ore. Unprocessed nickel-containing
are being extracted in Papua New Guinea. That ores have been exported to many countries. How-
country is extremely rich in natural resources but ever, due to the remoteness of the New Caledonia
plagued by poverty, crime, and land-tenure issues; archipelago from the world markets, part of the ex-
rugged terrain has also hampered the development tracted volume has been smelted locally to produce
of mining and the necessary associated infrastruc- ferronickel, which has been shipped to France. In
ture. Nevertheless, minerals extraction accounted the twenty-first century, the nickel mining and pro-
for almost two-thirds of export earnings of Papua cessing industry in New Caledonia has been domi-
New Guinea in the 2010s. The first Papua New nated by companies based in France, Brazil, and
Guinea Liquefied Natural Gas (PNG LNG) project, Switzerland.
a consortium led by ExxonMobil, began exporting In Fiji, the Emperor Mine at Vatukoula has been
gas to Asian markets in 2014. producing gold since the 1930s. The Solomon Is-
New Caledonia is among the world’s leading pro- lands are also rich in mineral resources such as gold,
ducers of nickel, which in the 2010s accounted for lead, zinc, and nickel, but those have remained

238
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Industries of the Pacific Islands

largely undeveloped due to political and economic Wood Industries

instability. The country’s only working mine, at Gold Many Pacific islands are deeply forested. In several
Ridge on Guadalcanal, was abandoned for several of the island countries, tropical hardwood and soft-
years as a result of ethnic violence but reopened in wood forests have provided the basis for the wood
2017. It is one of the country’s biggest employers products industry. The lumber operations on is-
and largest contributors to the national GDP. lands export primarily roundwood (logs) but many
Phosphates had been profitably exported from sawmills and wood processing plants also produce
Banaba Island of the Republic of Kiribati since the lumber and wood products. In some areas, small
turn of the twentieth century, but the deposits were furniture manufacturing plants have operated;
exhausted by the end of the 1970s. The only other elsewhere, wood is burned to produce charcoal,
Pacific island country where mining was ever of sig- which is used for cooking by many rural residents.
nificance is Nauru, where the production of phos- The production of pulp, paper, and other wood
phate was a mainstay of the economy for decades. products in New Zealand is based on the processing
This mineral was exported to Australia and several of timber from pine forests on North Island, which
Asian countries, where it was used as fertilizer. By have been planted since 1970. In Papua New
1998, Nauru’s phosphate reserves were virtually ex- Guinea, where almost all land, including forested
hausted. The mining had led to an environmental land, is owned by tribal groups, logging activities
catastrophe on the island, with 80 percent of the must be agreed upon between the government au-
land surface having been strip-mined. thorities and tribal chiefs. The country’s most valu-

Bottles of Fiji Water awaiting distribution. (Jon Roig)

239
Industries of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

Stray logs from a logging operation in the Solomon Islands. (Velvetfish)

able (for wood export) tree species are eucalyptus, coconuts. Both copra (dried coconut meat) and
rosewood, and pine. Commercial logging in the Sol- coconut oil have been produced on many Pacific is-
omon Islands began only in the 1990s. Since then, lands since the early nineteenth century when West-
however, the islands have lost over 20 percent of ern missionaries and colonists began to establish
their forest cover—mainly because of logging and, to plantations for copra cultivation to meet the de-
a much lesser extent, as a result of land clearing for mand for coconut oil in Europe. Although copra
oil palm, cocoa, and coconut plantations. and coconut oil were traditionally used by indige-
Wood is Fiji’s third-largest export commodity. Fiji nous islanders, the copra trade had never been
is noted for its roundwood, plywood, veneers, pulp, geared toward a local market. Copra was a valuable
and wood chips. This island country has nearly cash crop whose production was controlled entirely
136,000 acres (55,000 hectares) of plantation of the by foreigners for overseas export. This legacy con-
high-value mahogany tree species, introduced to tinues today. Even as Oceania’s copra production
Fiji during the British colonial rule. Harvesting be- for industrial purposes has dwindled, the market-
gan in 2003. If well-managed and marketed, Fiji’s ing of copra derivatives, such as coconut-oil prod-
substantial mahogany assets could emerge as a sig- ucts for cosmetic use, has endured across the
nificant contributor to the growth of the national Central and South Pacific. In Kiribati, Oceania’s
economy. poorest country, copra accounted for about
two-thirds of export revenue in the 2010s.
Processing of Agricultural Products Sugarcane is believed to have originated in Mela-
Locally grown agricultural products have been pro- nesia and, at one time, a large number of traditional
cessed for centuries on many of the islands. The varieties of sugarcane was grown on the Pacific is-
most widespread such industry is the processing of lands. In Fiji, among other islands, sugar-refining

240
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Industries of the Pacific Islands

was the most important industry from the 1870s un- many of the world’s largest maritime companies
til the mid-twentieth century. The milling efficiency which, in turn, benefit from reduced labor, tax, and
in the region has been in decline since the regulatory costs. Vanuatu is an important center of
mid-1980s as sugarcane plantation productivities offshore insurance, banking, and gambling.
in the Pacific have not kept pace with the changing The film industry, based on foreign movie and
international sugar market. television production, has played an increasing role
in the economies of New Zealand and Fiji, whose is-
Tourism and Other Service Industries lands are famous for their scenic beauty. Like the
In the twenty-first century, several countries and Australian government, the governments of these
territories in the Pacific have become centers of off- two countries have provided major financial incen-
shore financial services. tives to foreign-film-production companies. The in-
Samoa, the Marshall Islands, the Cook Islands, centives have led to a significant boost in produc-
and Vanuatu are the largest centers, followed by tions. In New Zealand, the screen industry has
Nauru and the Federated States of Micronesia. Sa- contributed to the development of a wide range of
moa’s International Finance Centre is one of the creative industries such as audio-visual design and
major conduits for foreign investment in China. digital-content services. The screen industry in Fiji
The Marshall Islands and Vanuatu offer flags of still faces challenges in attracting bigger-budget
convenience for ships and offshore oil rigs. These film productions due to the lack of adequately
countries benefit from being the legal domiciles of equipped film studios and skilled crew support.

A cruise ship docking in Hilo, Hawaii. (dani3315)

241
Industries of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

A single industry—tourism—dominated the motional and entertainment tool have driven a

economies of many Pacific island countries and ter- wedge between the human and nature relationship
ritories in 2020. These destinations included New that has always been at the core of Pacific island life.
Zealand, Samoa, American Samoa, Hawaii, Fiji, Pa-
pua New Guinea, French Polynesia, the Cook Is- Fisheries
lands, Tonga, Guam, Palau, and Vanuatu. For coun- Subsistence fishing around Oceania’s many islands
tries such as New Zealand and Fiji, the export of and atolls has been practiced for thousands of years,
tourism-related services has become the largest and fish remain an extremely important food source
earner of foreign exchange. for local populations. Much of the region’s nutrition,
In 2018, total visitor arrivals (by air and cruise employment, recreation, traditions, and culture are
ships) to the Pacific island region reached 3.16 mil- centered around the living resources in the coastal
lion. Fiji was the Pacific’s largest destination, with a zone between the shoreline and the outer reefs. Lo-
40.7-percent share of the total volume. It was fol- cal small-scale commercial fisheries supply domestic
lowed by French Polynesia—with its top destina- markets and produce some fresh and processed fish
tions of Tahiti and Bora Bora—at 10.1 percent. products as an export commodity.
Tourism receipts contributed over 11 percent to the Large-scale industrial offshore fisheries in
region’s combined GDP. On an individual basis, Oceania are dominated by foreign fleets operating
tourism contributed the largest shares to the GDP in the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of the vari-
of the Cook Islands (87 percent), French Polynesia ous Pacific island countries and territories. EEZs ex-
(85 percent), Palau (64 percent), Vanuatu (45.1 per- tend to 200 nautical miles (230.2 miles, or 370.4
cent), Fiji (38.5 percent), Samoa (30.4 percent), and km.) from each nation’s land boundary, making
Tonga (25.5 percent). On the supply side, the re- Oceania a unique region since its nations, scattered
gion offered more than 3,000 hotels, resorts, and across multiple small islands, have huge—by com-
other tourism-related accommodations, with some parison to their land—oceanic EEZs. For instance,
75,000 beds. As in Australia, the coronavirus Tuvalu’s EEZ is almost 30,000 times larger than its
(COVID-19) pandemic in 2020 had a devastating land area. Altogether, Pacific island EEZs account
impact on tourism throughout the Pacific islands. for approximately 10 percent of the planet’s ocean
Efforts were underway to promote tourism in sev- surface. Commercial fleets from countries such as
eral other island countries, including Tuvalu, China, Japan, Taiwan, the United States, Spain,
Nauru, Kiribati, and Niue. However, a shortage of and France harvest fish resources in the Pacific
facilities to accommodate tourists, especially ade- island EEZs using industrial-scale fishing vessels.
quate ports and airports, has put constraints on the The economies of several Pacific island nations
development of the tourism industry in these small and territories have been largely dependent on
and geographically remote countries. fishing; these islands possess few other natural re-
In recent decades, local and international devel- sources such as minerals or timber. For the nation of
opment agencies have focused on the potential of Tuvalu, consisting of nine coral atolls, fisheries have
tourism as a vehicle for the economic development constituted the only significant natural resource,
of the Pacific islands. The natural beauty, mild cli- and earnings from substantial fishing license fees
mate, diverse cultures, and even the isolation of the paid by foreign commercial fleets have been a ma-
islands have been increasingly viewed—and mar- jor source of government revenue; in the 2010s,
keted—as major economic assets. However, some re- they totaled almost half of the national GDP.
searchers and economists have questioned whether Kiribati and the Federated States of Micronesia also
tourism has contributed to the prosperity and wel- heavily rely on earnings from fishing licenses.
fare of the majority of the island populations. They Fish-processing canneries have been built on
have also pointed out that tourism-related misuse of American Samoa, Fiji, and the Solomon Islands. As
land and the exploitation of island culture as a pro- Oceania is home to the largest tuna fishery on the

242
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Industries of the Pacific Islands

A catch of tuna being offloaded on the Pacific island of Niube. (ctbctb8)

planet, tuna fishing and onshore tuna processing gional effort at regulation and resource manage-
have been especially significant to these island ment, Oceania’s offshore fisheries may quickly
economies, generating up to 8 percent of regional become overexploited. Several strong regional or-
wage employment in the 2010s. Tuna fishing alone ganizations are active in the fisheries sector, includ-
contributed to 42 percent of government revenue ing the Pacific Community, the Forum Fisheries
in Kiribati, 17 percent in Nauru, and 11 percent in Agency, the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
Tuvalu. Papua New Guinea has strong domestic Commission, and the Parties to the Nauru Agree-
tuna, prawn, and lobster resources and exports ment Concerning Cooperation in the Management
fresh chilled, canned, and frozen fishing products of Fisheries of Common Interest. However, the
as well as fishmeal. presence of extensive areas of international waters
Diminished tuna populations in other regions among the region’s EEZs greatly complicates the
have made the Pacific island region highly attrac- region’s efforts at fishery management.
tive to global tuna fleets. Without concerted re- Robert R. McKay

243
Industries of the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

Q1. What role do mineral resources play in Austra-

lia’s economy? What are the country’s leading in-
dustries? What is Australia’s single most important
economic sector?

Q2. How did tourism come to dominate the econo-

mies of many Pacific island nations? Which islands
are the principal destinations of tourists? What chal-
lenges do these islands face in their quest to attract
visitors?

Q3. What are Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)?

How big are they? What local industries benefit
from the establishment of EEZs? How do the indi-
vidual countries benefit?

244
 Transportation in Australia

Australia is located a great distance from Europe achieved recorded speeds of 400 miles (640 km.)
and the United States and is almost as large as the per day. The sleek Champion of the Seas, designed by
United States. Distance means isolation, both from Donald McKay of Boston, claimed the record of 465
other countries and from one place to another miles (744 km.) in twenty-four hours, on December
within the Australian continent. This isolation has 12, 1854, while sailing to Australia at 50° south lati-
shaped the human geography of Australia through tude. The British shipper James Baines of Liver-
its effects on immigration, trade, and even on the pool bought many McKay clippers for the Australia
national character of Australians. passage. His Black Ball Line held the record—from
Liverpool, England, to Melbourne, Australia, in
Early Shipping seventy-four days—but voyages through great
Early European explorers of Australia and Oceania stormy seas with huge areas of sail aloft were a
sailed on ships that had been originally designed frightening experience for many passengers. The
for transporting cargo. The expedition of the Dutch rocky south coast of Australia was particularly dan-
seafarer Abel Tasman reached Tasmania and New gerous, and many ships were wrecked there as they
Zealand on two ships—a war yacht and a type of neared the end of the perilous voyage.
cargo vessel called a fluyt. The ships commanded by
the British explorer of Australia James Cook in- Steamships
cluded merchant vessels called barques and colliers The invention of the steam engine in England led
converted to carry coal and other bulk cargo. The to the building of steamships, which eventually
so-called “convict ships” that carried convicted fel- meant the end of sailing ships to Australia. The
ons to the British penal colonies in Australia were opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 shortened the
ordinary British merchant ships randomly route considerably, so that by 1914 the voyage be-
commandeered for convict transport.
Early in the nineteenth century, US shipbuilders
developed what came to be regarded as the world’s
most beautiful sailing ships—the clippers. These
graceful, slender wooden vessels with their tall Transportation means the carrying of goods or peo-
masts and vast expanses of canvas were also the fast- ple from one place to another, but there is also an
older meaning for the word. Transportation, in the
est sailing ships ever. Initially, they brought tea from
earliest days of European settlement in Australia,
China to America and Europe; later, they carried meant the exile of British convicts to the penal col-
miners to California. Clipper design reached a ony of New South Wales, a harsh punishment in the
peak of perfection in the 1850s, just as the ships eyes of British lawmakers. Prisoners who received
were being replaced by steamships, especially for this sentence were transported to one of the colo-
the Atlantic trade. On the long route between Eu- nies and not permitted to return to Great Britain.
During the nineteenth century some 165,000 con-
rope and Australia, however, the clipper ships ex-
victs were transported to the Australian colonies, es-
celled, carrying grain, wool, and gold. A fast time pecially in the peak years 1820 to 1840. The last
for the voyage was around 100 days. British convicts were received in the colony of
Racing in the Roaring Forties—the fierce west- Western Australia in 1868.
erly winds of the south Atlantic—clipper ships

245
Transportation in Australia Economic Geography

The Ghan train arriving at Alice Springs Station. (bennymarty)

tween Europe and Australia took only five weeks. and oil. Container ships are commonly used for
Coastal shipping around Australia also rapidly transport of manufactured goods, both imports and
made the change from sail to steam but with time, exports. Australia has few long rivers, so inland
road and rail transport have largely overtaken shipping was of only minor importance for internal
coastal shipping in importance. Most Australian transportation even in the nineteenth century,
ships are now used for recreation or commercial when some steamboats operated on the Murray
fishing. Sea transport remains significant for the River. In 2019, Melbourne and Sydney were Austra-
transport of minerals, which are carried long dis- lia’s largest container ports. Iron ore was exported
tances around the coast by vessels operating mostly from the neighboring ports of Dampier, Port
under the flags of other countries. Hedland, and Port Walcott; coal was exported from
In 2019, only fourteen large vessels, including Darlymore Bay and Hay Point. Other major sea-
four bulk carriers and seven tankers, were regis- ports included Brisbane, Fremantle, Cairns,
tered under the Australian flag. Over the past sev- Darwin, Geelong, Gladstone, and Hobart.
eral decades, many Australian maritime companies
have phased out Australian-registered and Austra- Railroads
lian-crewed ships and replaced them with those reg- The first railways—as they are called in Australia—
istered under flags of convenience and run by for- were built by the government of each separate Brit-
eign crews. Flags of convenience—such as those of ish colony in Australia, which caused problems in the
Liberia, Panama, and the Marshall Islands—allow twentieth century. Victoria used the broad, or Irish,
ship owners to avoid Australia’s stringent tax re- gauge—5 feet, 3 inches—wanting large, safe trains
gime, environmental regulations, and laws for its passengers. The earliest lines from Melbourne
regarding employment conditions and safety. to Bendigo and from Geelong to Ballarat, built in the
Modern Australian ports use bulk handling for 1860s, have massive stone bridges and other struc-
agricultural exports of sugar and wheat, as well as tures. Railway builders in New South Wales had diffi-
for mineral exports such as iron ore, coal, bauxite, culties crossing the Blue Mountains, but that colony

246
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Transportation in Australia

chose the standard English gauge—4 feet, 8.5 cause of the break of gauge, what the Victorian In-
inches—for its tracks. Many lines ran straight from a stitute of Engineers called “the most lamentable en-
port to the hinterland. The colony of Queensland, gineering disaster in Australia.” Railway construc-
which had chosen the economical, narrow gauge of 3 tion boomed through the 1880s, with lines being
feet, 6 inches, was the best example of this—rail lines laid “from nowhere to nowhere.” The trains ran on
ran inland from Brisbane, Maryborough, coal, which Australia still has in abundance. Mod-
Bundaberg, Rockhampton, Townsville, and ernization in the 1950s meant conversion to diesel
Cooktown, but these towns were connected with each trains and air-conditioned carriages.
other only by steamship until the 1920s. After the colonies united to form the Common-
In the United States, railroad construction linked wealth of Australia in 1901, the government of the
the continent, spread economic prosperity, and Commonwealth was responsible for the construc-
helped to create a powerful nation. By contrast, the tion of the rail line from Port Pirie to Kalgoorlie, the
colonial lines of Australia simply brought agricul- heart of Western Australia’s Goldfields region, since
tural products or minerals to the ports of respective this rail link was part of the bargain made to secure
colonies for export overseas. By 1880, Australia had the entry of Western Australia into the federation. It
nearly 4,000 miles (6,400 km.) of railways, but there forms the central part of the Trans-Australian Rail-
was no connectivity. Rail travelers going from Bris- way, opened in 1917. That railway is the only rail
bane to Perth had to change trains five times be- freight corridor between Western Australia and the
eastern states and thus is strategically important be-
cause Western Australia is the country’s largest pro-
ducer of iron ore, gold, bauxite, and wheat. The
Throughout the nineteenth century, places in the Trans-Australian Railway includes the world’s
interior of Australia far from railroads were served longest section of completely straight track.
by mules, packhorses, and donkeys, but the largest The extended Perth-to-Adelaide line, now known
area of the interior was served by teams of camels
as the Indian Pacific, is run as a private passenger rail
that could cope well with the arid, hot conditions
and the tough vegetation. Camels were imported service. Although the Australian National (previ-
from Pakistan and used in exploration parties. They ously known as the Australian National Railways
also were used for the construction of the Overland Commission) was sold to private consortia in late
Telegraph line through the arid heart of Australia 1997, the Australian rail systems are still largely op-
from Darwin to Adelaide in 1872. Although many erated by the state governments. In 2018, the Aus-
camel drivers came from Pakistan, they were called
tralian rail network had over 22,000 miles (35,400
Afghans. The modern train from Adelaide to Alice
Springs is named The Ghan in honor of the early km.) of track, most of it government- owned.
camel teams and their masters. When camel teams Freight is the most important part of railway op-
were replaced in the 1930’s by motorized transport, erations, with 1.34 billion tons carried in 2016. Pas-
many of the camels were turned loose and became senger services include numerous long-distance,
wild, roaming the center of Australia. By 2008, the regional, and suburban routes, with over 90 percent
feral camel population had grown to an estimated
being suburban trips. Suburban commuter trains
one million camels (although that figure would later
be lowered), posing a danger to environmental and and urban rail are an important part of the infra-
cultural sites. In response, the government intro- structure of Australian cities such as Melbourne,
duced the Australian Feral Camel Management Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane.
Project, devoting $19 million to culling the animals. Private freight railway lines have been built in re-
The project ran from 2009-2013, reducing the pop- mote parts of Australia to carry primary commodi-
ulation by 160,000 camels. A five-day cull also oc-
ties such as sugarcane, timber, and coal. Australia
curred in South Australia in early 2020, after
widespread heat, drought, and bush fires prompted has numerous privately owned heritage railways
camels to inundate indigenous communities. operated as living history excursions that re-create
the railway experience of the past. Some of them,

247
Transportation in Australia Economic Geography

such as the Puffing Billy Railway in Victoria, run Road Transportation

original rolling stock built in the late nineteenth In the twentieth century, roads increased in impor-
century. The Kuranda Scenic Railway in north tance, and Australians rapidly adopted automo-
Queensland is a small, picturesque tourist enter- biles as the preferred mode of travel. Australia has a
prise that takes passengers from the humid coastal relatively extensive road system for its small popu-
plains of Cairns up a steep track to the Atherton Ta- lation and huge territory. In 2020, the country had
bleland town of Kuranda, passing waterfalls and af- about 542,820 miles (873,580 km.) of road-
fording spectacular views of the coast, gorges, and ways—the ninth-largest road network in the world.
rain forests. The continent of Australia is flat and has a gener-
Rail lines are still being built in Australia, which is ally mild climate, so road construction would at first
uncommon around the world. Planned for some glance seem to have been easier and less expensive
120 years, the Adelaide-Darwin railway was com- than in many other regions. But Australia has a
pleted in 2003. It is a south-north transcontinental small population and the great distances to be cov-
railroad running for 1,849 miles (2,975 km.) and ered added to the comparative cost per person and
providing both freight and passenger services. The per mile. About 40 percent of Australia’s roads are
travel on The Ghan, the line’s passenger train, takes paved, compared to 65 percent in the United
54 hours and is considered one of the world’s great States. Major highways have an excellent-quality bi-
train journeys. tumen (asphalt) surface, and dirt roads are usually
High-speed rail services between Australia’s larg- well-maintained, even in the Outback, Australia’s
est cities, most commonly between Sydney and Mel- vast, remote interior.
bourne, have been proposed since the 1980s, but in In 2020, Australians had more than one passen-
2020, all these projects were still in the planning ger vehicle for every two people, making this coun-
stage. try one of the world’s most mobile. Counting buses,

“Road trains” in Australia gassing up. (travellinglight)

248
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Transportation in Australia

trucks, and other commercial vehicles, there were changed horses every 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 km.),
almost 720 vehicles per 1,000 persons. Australian and achieved speeds of 9 miles (14.5 km.) per hour
cities experience traffic congestion, especially Syd- between Melbourne and Castlemaine. Within a de-
ney, where there is only one bridge into the inner cade, the company expanded its operations to New
city. The Outback roads have little traffic, but travel- South Wales and Queensland, carrying passengers,
ers are cautioned about the danger of accidents that gold, and mail. Soon robbers, known as “bushran-
can be caused by fatigue or drowsiness when driving gers,” began to hold up the coaches and steal gold
on the long, straight, and often empty roads with shipments or rob passengers.
the little-changing landscape. In the 1870s, Cobb and Company was one of the
Most domestic freight is carried by road trans- world’s largest coaching firms, with 6,000 horses
port. Road trains—huge trucking vehicles carrying working every day. When railways were built, Cobb
two or more trailers—move live cattle, fuel, mineral continued to operate farther inland. The last route,
ores, milk, and all kinds of other freight. Australia in inland Queensland, closed in 1924. Many of the
has the longest and heaviest road-legal (that is, coaches are preserved in Australian museums today.
equipped and licensed for use on public roads) road
trains in the world, consisting of up to four trailers Air Transportation
weighing a maximum of 200 tons. The continent is well suited to air transport because
Australia’s National Highway is a system of roads of the great distances between cities and the gener-
connecting the nation’s large cities and major re- ally fine weather. The absence of major mountains
gional centers of all mainland states and territories. has contributed to Australian aviation’s remarkable
Highway 1 is a ring road around Australia joining safety record. There were more than 400 airports in
all mainland state capitals. At a length of some Australia in 2020, and thousands of registered air-
9,000 miles (14,500 km.), it is the longest national craft, about half of which were privately owned small
highway in the world, longer than the Trans-Sibe- airplanes. Only about 100 small airfields lack paved
rian Highway and the Trans-Canada Highway. runways. Passenger traffic in the country’s busiest
airports was close to 42 million passengers (Sydney
Cobb and Company Airport) and 36.7 million (Melbourne Airport).
The discovery of gold in 1851 in several places in- Australia’s first airmail was flown from Mel-
land in New South Wales and Victoria led to a gold bourne to Sydney in 1914. The first scheduled do-
rush attracting miners from all over the world. mestic air service in Australia, for transporting both
Transportation was needed from the
ports to the goldfields and the oxen
teams laden with provisions were too
slow. Horse-drawn coaches were the
solution. In 1853, Freeman Cobb im-
ported four thoroughbrace coaches
from the United States—light
coaches with the body suspended on
two long leather straps instead of
metal springs. This made the passen-
gers’ ride more comfortable over the
rutted tracks and reduced break-
downs. Other specially designed
coaches were built for Cobb by Aus-
tralian factories. Cobb and Company
employed experienced drivers, A Qantas jet. (Jetlinerimages)

249
Transportation in Australia Economic Geography

airmail and passengers, began in the remote north

of Western Australia in 1921. Sir Charles Kingsford
Smith is Australia’s best-known aviator and an Aus-
tralian national hero. With Charles Ulm, Kingsford
Smith was the first to cross the Pacific Ocean, flying
in 1828 from Oakland, California, to Brisbane in
the Southern Cross, a monoplane, with landings at
Hawaii and Fiji. They covered 7,400 miles (11,900
km.) in eighty-three hours flying time. In 1934,
Kingsford Smith made the first west-to-east Pacific
crossing. Six weeks later, Ulm was lost near Hawaii;
in 1935, Kingsford Smith vanished on a flight from
England to Australia. The Sydney airport is named A Royal Flying Doctor Service plane. (moisseyev)
Kingsford Smith Airport, and the Southern Cross is
preserved at the Brisbane Airport. The Flying Doctor
At the close of World War I, the flight from Brit- A Presbyterian minister, the Reverend John Flynn,
ain to Australia took four days, and a flight from the established the Australian Inland Mission in 1912
United States to Australia took ten days. In 2020, in the remote interior of Australia, to provide medi-
one could fly nonstop from Los Angeles to Sydney cal assistance to isolated settlers in the lonely Out-
in less than fifteen hours. back. He saw the possibilities of using aircraft to
cover trackless expanses when there was a medical
Qantas emergency, combined with having the new “pedal
In 1920, Qantas (the Queensland and Northern radio” at all remote cattle and sheep stations, mis-
Territory Aerial Services) was begun in the sions, and other isolated settlements to keep in con-
Queensland Outback. In 1933, the company be- tact with a centralized medical base. In 1928, Flynn
came Qantas Empire Airways, an international ser- established the Aerial Medical Service at Cloncurry
vice to the United Kingdom. In the 1940s the in western Queensland, with one small plane leased
airline began its first services outside of the British from Qantas. In 1942 this became the Flying
Empire, to Tokyo; it was later rebranded Qantas Doctor Service, and the prefix “Royal” was granted
Airways. Now Qantas is Australia’s international in 1955.
airline and its largest domestic carrier, with an ad- This was the first comprehensive aerial medical
mirable safety record. In 2019, Qantas completed organization in the world, and it continues to pro-
the world’s longest commercial flight; the flight be- vide emergency medical care and routine health
tween New York and Sydney using a Boeing 787-9 services (including telehealth sessions by radio,
Dreamliner took 19 hours and 20 minutes. telephone, or video) to tens of thousands of people
Smaller airlines operate within Australia at the in remote and isolated parts of Australia each year.
regional level. There are many private airplanes, In 2020, the Royal Flying Doctor Service main-
since Outback pastoralists are able to have airstrips tained more than twenty bases throughout Austra-
on their properties. Private airstrips also enable vis- lia, served by a fleet of sixty-eight aircraft.
its by the Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia. Ray Sumner

250
 Transportation in the
Pacific Islands

The Pacific island region, also known as Oceania, is lines. Ironically, because of the cost of air travel, it is
divided into three subregions: Melanesia, Microne- now more expensive to travel to the Pacific islands
sia, and Polynesia. Approximately 30,000 islands than it was in the 1950s when less-expensive
make up the region. Thousands of years ago, the passenger sea travel was common.
first inhabitants of the Pacific islands are believed to Within the Pacific’s island groups, the predomi-
have traveled by boat to Melanesia from somewhere nant modes of transportation are now air travel ser-
in Southeast Asia. The early Pacific islanders devel- vices by local carriers, motorboats, ferries, water
oped a twin-hulled sailing canoe, an extremely effi- taxis, and freighters (some cargo ships have reserved
cient seagoing vessel. In boats of this kind, they con- spaces for travelers, who are mostly locals). An is-
tinued the process of migrating through Micronesia lander who wishes to travel to places such as the
and Polynesia. United States, Canada, or Japan must use an inter-
It was not until the sixteenth century that the first national airline. On the islands, automobiles are
Europeans arrived in the South Pacific. European used primarily in urban centers, and shuttle buses
exploration of the Pacific began with the Spanish are used for travel between ports and cities or resorts.
and the Portuguese. By the late 1500s, the Spanish Except for New Zealand and Hawaii, there are no
traders had discovered several of the Caroline Is- well-developed road systems in the Pacific islands.
lands in Micronesia, the Solomon Islands in Mela- For coastal and inter-island travel, the native popula-
nesia, and the Marquesas Islands in Polynesia. The tion, which traditionally relied on the canoe for
Spanish sailed on galleons, large and heavy vessels traveling short distances, now uses mostly
that usually had three or more decks and masts and motorboats.
could be used both for trade and war. Not until the
late eighteenth century and Europe’s second Age of Ports
Exploration were most of the Pacific islands ex- Outside of private yachts and expensive cruise ship
plored and mapped, and the cultures of their tours, few passengers traveled by boat or ship to the
inhabitants described. Pacific islands after the 1960s. Cargo was still trans-
As modes of transportation evolved through the ported, however. The island nations and territories
centuries, it became somewhat easier for the Pacific export agricultural and mining products as well as
islands to be more fully integrated into the rest of seafood to places such as Australia, New Zealand,
the world. Between the 1830s and the 1950s, ocean and East and Southeast Asia and import a wide vari-
liners were the mainstay of long-distance passenger ety of products, including foodstuffs and manufac-
transport. However, due to the growth of air travel, tured goods. Imports far outweigh exports and are
the passenger ships declined by the early 1960s. carried mostly in containerized form, while major
(Many liners continued their service as luxury cruis- exports are shipped by bulk carriers. Major chal-
ers.) The advent of air travel has made getting to lenges that have persisted into the twenty-first cen-
Oceania far quicker. However, the cost of maintain- tury include the long distances between ports, low
ing links with the Pacific islands is high for the air- trade volumes, and widely varying port facilities with

251
Transportation in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

generally inadequate funding for operation and

maintenance. Cargo shippers, often large multina-
tional companies, charter vessels that sail at the
times and to the ports determined by the cargo inter-
ests. Imports come mainly from Australia and Asia
but also from as far as the United States and Europe.
All Pacific island countries and territories have
ports, but most of those are very small, serving only
motorboats and yachts. Their infrastructure is lim-
ited to basic wharves and paved docking areas. In
2020, French Polynesia had five small ports and a
medium-sized cruise port in Papeete, its capital. The
tiny countries of Vanuatu, Tonga, and the Marshall
Islands had a few small ports. At the same time,
Vanuatu, Tonga, and the Marshall Islands had nu-
merous large merchant marine ships on their ship
registries, including bulk cargo carriers and oil tank-
ers. French Polynesia had seventeen cargo carriers
and large yachts registered under its flag. These
countries and the territory of French Polynesia have
open registries, colloquially called flag-of-conve-
nience registries, allowing foreign ship owners to
take advantage of attractive fiscal regimes on these
Pacific islands and their flexible rules governing
maritime safety and working conditions for ship Traffic in Papeete, Tahiti. (Patrick Cooper)
crews. Various fees and charges associated with regis-
tering foreign-owned ships under their flags are The Japan International Cooperation Agency has
major sources of government revenues for Vanuatu, developed a project for expanding the Pohnpei
Tonga, and the Marshall Islands. Port, the largest and the most commercially impor-
In 2020, New Zealand had over a dozen small tant port in the Federated States of Micronesia. The
ports, eight medium-sized ports, and a large sea- government of Papua New Guinea has approved
port—Ports of Auckland—with container and two major port projects, including the relocation of
cruise ship terminals and four additional freight Port Moresby’s main port from the city’s central
hubs. New Zealand’s largest container terminal, business district to nearby Motukea Island.
however, was at the recently upgraded nearby Port The Pacific Forum Line is a regional shipping
of Tauranga. The nation of the Solomon Islands line run collectively by twelve Pacific island govern-
had two deepwater ports, at Honiara and Noro, ments. Established in 1978, it has been held up as a
with anchorage facilities for international cargo model of how a regional approach to transport can
and cruise ships. succeed. In the 2010s, it operated eight vessels ca-
In recent years, there has been some progress in pable of carrying containerized and break bulk car-
port development in the rest of the Pacific island re- goes on five routes between various Pacific islands
gion. The ports of Suva and Lautoka on Fiji’s main and also between these islands and Australia.
island have been significantly upgraded, with funds
provided by the Asian Development Bank. The Fiji Air Travel
Ports Corporation plans to build a major new con- In the second half of the twentieth century, air
tainer and multipurpose port facility at Rokobili. travel became the most efficient mode of transpor-

252
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Transportation in the Pacific Islands

tation to and from the Pacific islands. In 2020, most Pacific destinations have made use of small
air traffic to the Pacific islands came from North commuter planes.
America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Ko- Most Pacific island countries and territories have
rea, and Europe. Air New Zealand, Qantas, United more than one airport. The only territory that did
Airlines, and Air France were among the major air- not have an airport in 2020 was Tokelau: its three
lines with daily flights to the Pacific islands. Air Ta- small atolls could be reached only by boat from Sa-
hiti Nui, the main airline of French Polynesia, had moa or by private helicopter. In 2020, Papua New
several daily flights from Paris to Papeete via Los Guinea had almost 500, mostly very small airports,
Angeles. Fiji Airways (Air Pacific) was bringing of which only about twenty had paved runways. New
two-thirds of all visitors to Fiji. It operated flights to Zealand had more than 120 airports, a third of
twenty-three cities in thirteen countries, including which had paved runways.
several Pacific island nations.
Profitability was a major problem for smaller Pa- Roads and Motor Vehicles
cific island countries and territories that were fund- The size of a particular island, and its level of eco-
ing regional airlines. Pacific island nations came to nomic advancement, have greatly influenced what
believe that regional cooperation initiatives were a kind of highway system has been built. Since New
viable solution to the profitability problem. In the Zealand is one of the most developed countries in
mid-1990s, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, Tuvalu, the world, let alone in the Pacific region, it has a far
and Kiribati agreed to share aircraft in order to cut more elaborate highway system than any of its Pa-
the massive losses that they had been incurring. cific island neighbors. Although the terrain is pri-
Agreements of such kind in aviation are called m a r i l y m o u n t a i n o u s , w h i c h m a ke s roa d
“codeshare.” These and other lesser-traveled South construction both hazardous and expensive, New
Zealand has invested large funds in order to have

A gate marking off a grass landing strip in Fiji. (Janos)

253
Transportation in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

first-rate roads. It has spent more on the construc- With a population of little more than 106,000 in
tion of roads than on any other mode of transport. 2020, Tonga had 420 miles (680 km.) of roads, 115
By the late 2010s, New Zealand had more than miles (184 km.) of which were paved and the rest
58,400 miles (94,000 km.) of roads, more than 60 surfaced with compacted coral.
percent of which were paved, including 224 miles
(360 km.) of motorways and expressways. More Railroads
than 100 additional miles (160 km.) of highways The small size of the islands and the hazardous ter-
were expected to be built by 2030. rain have made rail travel impractical on the major-
By comparison, Papua New Guinea—which is ity of the Pacific islands. The most sophisticated rail
also mountainous—had only about 12,000 miles system of the South Pacific exists in New Zealand. In
(20,000 km.) of roads—only about 1,860 miles 2020, the main rail services were provided by
(3,000 km.) of which were paved. The terrain and KiwiRail, a state-owned enterprise. The nationwide
land ownership issues have worked against Papua rail network had over 2,565 miles (4,128 km) of
New Guinea having a truly adequate highway sys- track linking major cities on both the country’s
tem. Still, several major large islands. The islands
c i t i e s i n Pa p u a N e w themselves were con-
Guinea were connected by nected by inter-island rail
the Highlands Highway, and road ferries.
Q1. What were the main challenges faced during
which ran 435 miles (700 In Fiji, rail transport
the construction of Australia’s railways? Where does
km.). the Trans-Australian Railway run? Which railroad
hauls cut sugarcane to
Motor vehicles are a crosses north-south through the heart of Australia? crushing mills. In 2020,
common mode of trans- there were 370 miles (597
portation in the urban ar- Q2. What is the mission of the Royal Flying Doctor km.) of rail track, run by
Service? How does it meet the medical needs of peo-
eas of the Pacific islands. the government-owned
ple living in remote areas? How has it grown and
Papeete, the capital of evolved since its inception in 1928?
Fiji Sugar Corporation.
French Polynesia located The only other rail line
on the island of Tahiti had Q3. What major challenges have impeded the de- of note in the Pacific re-
a four-lane freeway con- velopment of efficient transportation networks in gion was in Nauru. Its
the Pacific islands? Which islands have well-built
necting it to the suburbs in 2.4-mile (3.9-km.)-long
road systems? How has the emergence of aviation
2020. The area around facilitated travel among the islands?
rail line that transported
Papeete has become so ur- phosphates from the inte-
banized that it takes com- rior to the coast was built
muters as much as two hours to go to and from work by a British phosphate company in 1907. By the be-
during the week. While other Polynesian islands re- ginning of the twenty-first century, Nauru’s phos-
mained less developed, Tahiti became the hub of phate deposits were essentially exhausted, and the
the area and one of its most popular tourist loca- future of the railway remains uncertain.
tions. Because land is at such a premium, the intro- Without financial backing from governments, in-
duction of roads and motor vehicles created major ternational institutions, or overseas investors, it is
problems on other islands where the growth of tour- unlikely that rail, road, or regional maritime trans-
ism necessitated their use. In Honolulu, Hawaii, port will make significant further inroads into the
with a metropolitan population of 953,207 in 2019, smaller Pacific islands in the twenty-first century,
traffic congestion was extremely heavy. where size or terrain, populations, and economies
The Polynesian country of Tonga is a small, rela- continue to make new transportation infrastructure
tively poor island country, comprising an archipel- a difficult proposition.
ago of 170 islands, of which only forty are inhabited. Jeffry Jensen

254
 Trade in Australia

From the earliest days of European settlement in in favor of the unification (in 1901) of the six British
the 1780s, Australia was regarded as a place for the colonies in Australia into a single dominion of the
extraction and exploitation of natural resources. British Empire was the elimination of customs du-
Throughout the nineteenth century, the British col- ties, or tariffs, that had been applied on goods
onies on the Australian continent maintained this traded among the six separate colonies. Even after
typical trade relationship with the home country, gaining independence, Australia remained a mem-
exporting raw materials and natural prod- ber of the British Commonwealth of Nations (now
ucts—such as gold and whale oil—and importing known simply as the Commonwealth) and partici-
manufactured goods. pated in trade agreements with other Common-
Wool was the first commercially successful agri- wealth members, predominantly with the United
cultural product produced in Australia specifically Kingdom.
for export markets; it was soon followed by wheat Wool, wheat, and gold continued to dominate
and animal hides. The invention of the steamship Australian exports until the 1960s, when discover-
and refrigeration expanded the exports to include ies of rich ore and petroleum deposits occurred.
frozen meat and fruits. One of the main arguments Iron ore and coal quickly became valuable exports,

An Australian container ship. (ugurhan)

255
Trade in Australia Economic Geography

and new markets in Asia overtook

traditional European markets. In
the twenty-first century, Australian
trade still maintained this pattern,
with minerals and agricultural
products dominating exports. In
2020, Australia remained the
world’s largest exporter of wool,
coal, and iron ore; the fifth-largest
exporter of alumina; and the sixth- The lobby of the Australian Securities Exchange. (Jason7825)
largest exporter of gold.
As a high-income economy, Australia has great when access to the traditional market, the United
demand for manufactured goods. It imports large Kingdom, was restricted by that country’s joining
volumes of consumer goods, such as automobiles the European Economic Community (later the Eu-
and trucks, electronic devices, and pharmaceuti- ropean Union). This forced Australia to look for
cals. It also imports such capital goods as machin- new markets, especially in Asia, where several coun-
ery, telecommunications equipment, aircraft, and tries had rapidly developing economies. In 2020,
oil. The manufacturing industries of Australia have Australia’s top trading partners were China, Japan,
the disadvantages of a small domestic market and a South Korea, and the United States. At a regional
long distance to overseas markets, together with an level, Australia is a member of the Asia-Pacific Eco-
Australian system of high wages and strong trade nomic Cooperation (APEC), which was established
unionism. On the other hand, Australia has the ad- in 1989. It has twenty-one member economies:
vantages of being a stable and democratic country nineteen countries that are members of the United
with a highly educated, urbanized workforce and a Nations, plus Taiwan and Hong Kong. The APEC
rich resource base. has been highly successful in establishing Asia-Pa-
Australian agriculture and mining are highly cific markets for agricultural products and raw ma-
productive, using the most modern technology terials as well as in reducing the costs of business
while employing only 3 percent of the workforce. transactions across that huge region.
Because of the strong export performance of its pri- Other important trade agreements are the Austra-
mary industries, the country has maintained a posi- lia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations (CER)
tive trade balance for the past several decades. Aus- trade agreement, in effect since 1983, and the
tralia has encouraged the growth of tourism, which China-Australia Free Trade Agreement (ChAFTA),
is regarded as an export industry. Foreign compa- which entered into force in 2015. Australia also has
nies, especially the United States, the United King- free trade agreements (FTAs) with Japan, South Ko-
dom, and Japan, have invested strongly in rea, Chile, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the
Australian industry. United States, and a regional FTA with the Associa-
tion of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Australia
International Trade Agreements is a strong proponent of the proposed Regional
The Australian government actively seeks new mar- Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)
kets for Australian goods and services through bilat- among the ten ASEAN member states and five of
eral and multilateral trade agreements at different ASEAN’s FTA partners—Australia, China, Japan,
levels. The necessity for these kinds of trade agree- New Zealand, and South Korea.
ments became obvious in Australia in the 1960s Ray Sumner

256
 Trade in the Pacific Islands

The Pacific island region consists of more than cific islands of Midway and Hawaii to the southern
20,000 separate islands, ranging from lone specks tip of New Zealand. These latter islands historically
of barely visible rock to landmasses covering thou- relied on agricultural exports such as coffee, ba-
sands of square miles. They are traditionally di- nanas, pineapples, and coconut oil and dominated
vided into three subregions. Melanesia is located in the region’s economic infrastructure. However, with
the southwestern Pacific Ocean off the northern the advent of jet air travel, a global tourist industry
and eastern coasts of Australia and includes Papua has transformed many Polynesian island nations
New Guinea (the eastern half of the island of New and territories, including Fiji, Tahiti, Samoa, New
Guinea), Fiji, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, and the Sol- Z e a l a n d , a n d t h e H a w a i i a n ch a i n , i n t o
omon Island chain. Micronesia is situated just south international vacation getaways.
of Japan and contains strategic US military installa-
tions on Guam and Wake Island as well as the Feder- Early Trade Contacts
ated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Mar- Thousands of years ago, people began to migrate
shall Islands, and the small countries of Kiribati, from Southeast Asia to the Pacific islands, facilitat-
Nauru, and Palau. Polynesia stretches from the Pa- ing the evolution of civilizations in the region. Be-

A row of duty-free stores in Tuom, Guam. (Hiroshi_H)

257
Trade in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

ginning with the early settlements in Australia and quickly exploited and devoured as islanders
New Guinea, various tribes systematically moved swapped sandalwood for European cloth, guns,
outward from Melanesia to Polynesia—into New ironware, tobacco, and liquor.
Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and Hawaii; others This trade also produced profitable networks
sailed north and relocated to parts of Micronesia. among the islands, since Europeans often paid for
The development of outrigger canoes and the sail sandalwood with indigenous products. In Melane-
helped spread agricultural commodities such as sia, traders obtained tortoise shells in the Solomons
sweet potatoes, coconuts, and pigs throughout the and exchanged them for pigs in Fiji. These pigs,
region, and profitable trade relations developed along with stores of tortoise shells and whale teeth,
throughout the island chains. Trade networks were used to purchase sandalwood in the Vanuatu
stretched from Fiji to Tahiti and connected New islands, advancing the growth of inter-island ex-
Caledonia and New Hebrides (now Vanuatu). In changes. These contacts also intensified both mili-
Hawaii, before European colonization, the island- tary conflict and political unification in the islands.
ers formed an interdependent trade system that Many island chiefs desired firearms to further their
furnished various communities with goods and own ambitions, and the sandalwood trade
services from each inhabited island. enhanced the distribution of guns in the region.
Throughout the Pacific island region, different Hawaii’s King Kamehameha I was able to consol-
shells were used as money, from the common pearl idate his hold over the Hawaiian Islands after secur-
shell broken into flakes to cowry shells to elaborate ing control of hundreds of muskets, some small can-
shell beads worked into strips of cloth. To this day, nons, and sailing vessels from European merchants.
the shell currency is still used to some extent in the In Tahiti, chief Tu (future King Pomare I) sold pigs
Solomon Islands and the Papua New Guinea island to Australia for weapons, conquered his opponents,
of East New Britain. The island of Yap (now part of and united the different chiefdoms into the single
the Federated States of Micronesia) is famous for its Kingdom of Tahiti. This same process occurred in
stone money—rai stones—carved disks with a hole Fiji and the Marquesas, as pigs were swapped for
in the middle. Rai stones vary in diameter from firearms. Although the sandalwood trade had been
about 1.4 inches (3.5 centimeters) up to 13 feet (4 depleted by the 1860s, it helped integrate the Pa-
meters). The latter weigh thousands of pounds; cific economies and led to a vast movement of peo-
those were placed in front of houses or along path- ple and products from New Zealand to Hawaii.
ways and were rarely moved. Until the twentieth As a result of European and US domination dur-
century, rai stones were the principal form of cur- ing the nineteenth century, the Pacific islands were
rency on Yap island. Even now, they are used as rep- systematically incorporated into the global econ-
resentative money for important social obligations omy. However, for the most part, this process re-
such as dowry or inheritance transactions. tarded the development of local manufacturing
The arrival of European traders drastically al- and processing industries and led to the emergence
tered the nature of trade relations in the Pacific is- of one-crop export economies, tourism, and mili-
lands. While earlier Spanish, Portuguese, and tary bases in the region. As a result, many island
Dutch missions established the first western contact economies became structurally dependent upon
in the Pacific islands as far south as New Zealand, foreign trade for their survival.
the explorations of English captain James Cook
from 1768 to 1779 revolutionized trade in the re- Micronesia
gion and expedited the integration of the region The small islands of Micronesia are sparsely popu-
into international commerce. Cookand others dis- lated and, for the most part, play an inconsequential
covered that the islands contained vast quantities of role in global trade. The Marshall Islands contain a
sandalwood, which could be exchanged in China plentiful supply of fish among their coral reefs, but
for a handsome profit. Indigenous resources were with the exception of coconuts, few plants can survive

258
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Trade in the Pacific Islands

in the sandy soil. Export earnings of the Marshall Is- Melanesia

lands come mostly from the service sector—lease pay- Located off the northern coast of Australia, the
ments by the United States for the use of Kwajalein Melanesian islands are situated in some of the most
Atoll as a US military base. Guam is the most vibrant strategic shipping lanes in the Pacific Ocean. As a
island in Micronesia. As a location of several strategic result, these islands experienced fierce amphibious
US military operations, Guam benefits from Ameri- battles during World War II. However, most of the
can national defense spending. It is also a principal islanders continue to rely on subsistence farming
vacation spot for Japanese tourists, and since it has for their livelihood, and this region remains highly
been established as a duty-free port, it generates sig- underdeveloped. The Solomon Islands export
nificant revenue from service exports, mainly spend- some fish, timber, and coconut meat to East Asia,
ing by foreign tourists visiting Guam’s duty-free but they are dependent upon imports from China,
shopping outlets and malls. In 2018, service exports Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan for
accounted for almost 18 percent of the island’s gross most of their food supply, manufactured goods, and
domestic product (GDP). fuel.
The proximity to Guam also bolsters the tourism Papua New Guinea benefits from profitable wood,
industry and service exports of the tiny nation of fish, palm oil, and coffee exports, and with the dis-
Palau. In Nauru, another tiny nation in Micronesia, covery of copper, gold, oil, and natural gas, it also
the phosphates industry is all but dead, and most has developed lucrative mining industries. Mineral
necessities—even water—must be imported. Im- resources account for nearly two-thirds of the coun-
ports exceed exports in all Micronesian economies, try’s export earnings. Along with Australia, Papua
and the small population base has failed to attract New Guinea is a member of the Asia-Pacific Eco-
or generate large-scale trade. nomic Cooperation (APEC) forum, a major Asia-Pa-

Tourists prepare to board a plane at the Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu, Hawaii. (hapabapa)

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Trade in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

cific trading bloc. In 2017, the country launched its lar Tahitian black pearls. Pearls account for over
first-ever national trade policy, setting the goal to re- half of annual exports from French Polynesia. Tour-
duce imports and significantly increase exports and ism-related services comprise the second-largest
foreign direct investment by 2032. export category. In contrast, Tuvalu, one of the
Fiji’s major industry is tourism, and its airport at smallest and most isolated countries in the world, is
Nadi is an important hub for South Pacific travel. almost entirely dependent on imports, particularly
Fijians export bottled water (the popular Fiji Water of food and fuel. The French collectivity of New Cal-
brand) as well as fish, gold, sugar, and clothing. Since edonia exports large quantities of nickel; food ac-
the 2010s, Fiji has become the world’s second-largest counts for about 20 percent of New Caledonia’s im-
exporter of water, after China. Along with this new ports as only a small amount of the land is suitable
source of export earnings, Fiji’s main economic re- for cultivation.
sources continue to be its exotic beaches, remote is- Hawaii and New Zealand are the two most devel-
land locations, and comfortable tropical climate. In oped and sophisticated Polynesian economies. Ha-
the first decades of the twenty-first century, the ex- waii’s economy has been directly tied to the United
port of tourism-related services has remained Fiji’s States since the mid-nineteenth century, leading to
largest earner of foreign exchange. the formal annexation of the islands in 1898 and
Offshore financial services and tourism are foun- statehood in 1959. Initially colonized by US ship-
dations of the service trade in Vanuatu, but this na- pers and sugarcane plantation owners, Hawaii has
tion, made up of some eighty small, low-lying is- evolved into the most important military base in the
lands, is highly vulnerable to natural disasters, even Pacific, and a large percentage of its people are em-
more so than most other Pacific island countries. In ployed in tourism-related sectors. Some islanders
2015, its leading tourist destination, the island of remain extremely critical of the US presence in Ha-
Efate, was severely impacted by Tropical Cyclone waii. They claim that the United States has de-
Pam. Another severe tropical cyclone, Harold, hit stroyed indigenous rights in exchange for a system
Vanuatu in 2020. It also caused widespread destruc- of dependency which, by 2017, had left approxi-
tion in the Solomon Islands and Fiji. mately 15 percent of Native Hawaiians at the
poverty level.
Polynesia For about a century, sugar and pineapples were
Due to its long-standing, interactive, historic rela- Hawaii’s two principal agricultural exports. Pineap-
tionship with Asia, the United States, and Europe, ple production emerged as a profitable crop follow-
Polynesia possesses the most modernized infra- ing the creation of the Hawaiian Pineapple Com-
structure and has prospered from a more diversi- pany by James Dole in 1901. As a result, Honolulu
fied economic background than the two other had one of the largest fruit-canning businesses in
island subregions of Oceania. It is the cornerstone the world. By the mid-1970s, Dole and other fruit
of the Pacific tourist industry, and its import-export companies moved the production of canned fruits
trade has created many profitable links throughout to countries such as the Philippines and Thailand,
the global economy. where labor costs are lower. As the Hawaii canneries
Following the construction of luxury hotels and closed, the local industry shifted to the production
international airports, Samoa and Tonga have of fresh pineapples. Other products, such as Kona
gained economically thanks to the rise of tourism coffee, papayas, and macadamia nuts, have
and related service trade. Tahiti and other parts of eclipsed pineapples as notable agricultural exports.
French Polynesia long considered tropical para- Similarly, sugar production moved to India, South
dises, have reaped the same benefits. Jet air travel America, and the Caribbean. Former plantation
has allowed Tahiti to become one of the most exotic lands were used by the “Big Five” sugarcane pro-
vacation spots in the world. French Polynesia’s larg- cessing corporations to build hotels and develop
est export, however, is pearls, especially the popu- Hawaii’s modern tourism-based economy.

260
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Trade in the Pacific Islands

Imported cars in New Zealand being transported. (Nid Goloti)

New Zealand has achieved the most significant powder, butter, and cheese), meat, wood, fruits,
economic and trading success of any of the Pacific wine, and aluminum. Export of services (mostly
island nations. New Zealand farmers benefit from tourism-related) accounted for about 30 percent of
a mild climate and have efficiently utilized mod- all New Zealand’s exports. Over the years, New Zea-
ern scientific farming techniques to create a profit- land has tended to import more than it exports, but
able business in meat, dairy, and wool exports. the trade deficit has been relatively small. The
Sheep provide a variety of products, including country’s top imports include cars and trucks, oil,
wool, mutton, sausage casings, and animal fat. and telecommunications equipment.
Beef and dairy cattle also help fuel the nation’s ex- In the twenty-first century, China has become
port-oriented primary sector. Commercial crops New Zealand’s main trading partner. The New Zea-
include barley, wheat, and potatoes, and the coun- land-China free-trade agreement (FTA), signed in
try is one of the world’s most important suppliers 2008, was the first FTA that China has signed with
of kiwifruit. any developed country. It was also New Zealand’s
Products of fishing, forestry, and ore processing largest trade deal since the Closer Economic Rela-
are also significant in New Zealand’s export mix. tions agreement with Australia, signed in 1983. In
Timber grows quickly in North Island’s volcanic re- 2019, New Zealand and China agreed to upgrade
gion, and the nation exports considerable amounts their FTA. New provisions gave New Zealand pref-
of pine and evergreen wood. Despite its limited erential access to China’s wood and paper market.
supply of mineral resources, New Zealand has de- New Zealand’s other major trading partners have
veloped a processing base that includes the produc- been Australia, the European Union, the United
tion of steel, aluminum, and iron. In 2020, New States, and Japan.
Zealand’s top exports were dairy products (milk Robert D. Ubriaco, Jr.

261
 Communications in Australia

Australia, the only country in the world that occu- Territory, defined by the Outback, it was 0.4 person
pies a whole continent, is approximately the same per square mile (0.16 per sq. km.).
size as the continental United States. It is the Communications have always been a major con-
sixth-largest nation by area but is sparsely popu- cern for the people of Australia because of the re-
lated. Australia is a nation of extreme differences: moteness of the rural population. The federal gov-
more than 80 percent of the population live within ernment has traditionally played a prominent role
31 miles (50 km.) of the eastern shoreline and the in the development of the country’s wire communi-
southwestern coast of Western Australia; the rest of cations system. Since the completion of the Over-
the people live in the remote interior area referred land Telegraph Line in 1872, the government has
to as the Outback, which covers approximately 70 maintained and strengthened the telecommunica-
percent of Australia’s landmass. Among all coun- tions infrastructure throughout the continent. By
tries of the world with a population over 10 million, 2020, Australia had landing points for more than
Australia is the least densely populated one. In twenty submarine cables providing links between
2020, the population density was about 9 people the Australian coastal population centers and be-
per square mile (3.3 per sq. km.). In the Northern tween Australia and the Asia-Pacific region, the

Residents of Sydney, Australia mail letters at post office boxes on the street. (asiafoto)

263
Communications in Australia Economic Geography

United States, Europe, and the Middle East. It had

a domestic satellite system and more than twenty in-
ternational satellite Earth stations. Government
funds have been offered on a competitive basis to 1803: First newspaper, Sydney Gazette and New
service carriers to address communication gaps in South Wales Advertiser, appears.
rural areas. 1842: First capital city newspaper, Sydney Morn-
ing Herald Daily is established.
Postal Services 1843: First rural newspaper, Maitland Mercury is
For millennia, the widely dispersed Aboriginal Aus- established.
tralian peoples communicated with each other by 1872: Overland Telegraph is completed.
using ancestral routes that crisscrossed the conti-
1923: Shortwave radio is introduced.
nent. These routes led to meetings at particular lo-
1927: Radio is introduced.
cations of great cultural and mythical importance.
There, the tribes traded goods and renewed and re- 1932: Australian Broadcasting Commission Act es-
tablishes national broadcasting presence.
inforced friendship ties, which involved ceremonial
exchanges of objects and creation accounts known 1950: Black and white television is introduced na-
tionally.
as Dreamtime songs. Dreamtime songs and stories
were considered especially valuable for their spiri- 1953: Television Act of 1953 establishes broadcast
regulations.
tual, cultural, and artistic worth; they were passed
from one tribal group to another. Between the 1974: Color television is introduced.
meetings, messages from one group to another 1992: Federal government initiates Telecenter
were transmitted on objects called message sticks: program.
sticks carved or painted with symbols that could be 1997: National telephone service is deregulated.
understood by groups speaking the many different 2000: One hundred Australian newspapers have
indigenous languages. The sticks were small and Web sites on the Internet.
easy to carry over long distances. 2001: Digital terrestrial television is introduced.
When Europeans began arriving and settling in
2007: The National Broadband Network initiative
Australia in the 1780s, the early settlers had to rely is announced, slated for completion in 2020.
on travelers, transporters of goods, or storekeepers
2020: News Corporation announces the closure of
to pass on letters or parcels. The colonial postal ser- 36 community and regional newspapers,
vice was established in 1809. It later transformed and the transition of 76 to digital-only—a
into the Postmaster-General’s Department, then move reflective of the age of digital media
and the COVID-19 pandemic.
the Australian Postal Corporation, and finally, the
Australia Post— the government business enter-
prise that provides postal services in Australia by motorcycle delivery. Cars and trucks are used in
today. Australia only on the longest mail routes.
Australia was one of the first countries to intro-
duce an airmail service (in 1914) and mechanical Print and Online Media
mail-processing centers (in 1967). Like all postal In 2020, Australia had two national newspapers
operators worldwide, the Australia Post has faced (the Australian and the Australian Financial Review),
an accelerating decline in its letter-delivery service ten state- and territory-wide daily newspapers,
since the advent of digital communications. In thirty-seven regional dailies, and several hundred
2015, it started reducing its workforce. In 2019, smaller local newspapers issued once or several
however, the Australia Post reported profit, largely times a week. By that time, the disruption of tradi-
due to record parcel-delivery numbers. In 2020, tional print media by digital media that began late
Australia had 7,950 postal routes, mostly serviced in the twentieth century was well underway. Year by

264
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Communications in Australia

A newsstand in Sydney, Australia.

year, the circulation of print newspapers and maga- erates include News Corp Australia (a spin-off of
zines has been dropping, and a number of newspa- Rupert Murdoch’s News Limited), Seven West Me-
pers have closed or switched to an online-only dia, and Fairfax Media-Nine Entertainment. As the
format. The Herald Sun daily (published in Mel- number and circulation of the print media de-
bourne) remained the newspaper with the largest creased, the number of online content creators in
daily circulation, and the Sydney Sunday Telegraph Australia has more than doubled since the begin-
had the largest weekend circulation. Twenty-eight ning of the twenty-first century. According to Niel-
percent of Australians still read print newspapers in sen’s Digital Content Ratings, the most visited news
2020, a higher number than in many other and current-events sites in the late 2010s were
developed countries. News.com.au, Nine.com.au, ABC News, and Daily Mail
Among the thirty dominant Australian maga- Australia.
zines, the ones that had fared better than the others
were magazines that served readership groups with Broadcasting
specialized interests. In 2020, the largest-circula- There are two nationwide public broadcasting sys-
tion magazine in Australia was Club Marine, devoted tems in Australia. Both systems are financially sup-
to boating and fishing. ported by the government but are free from
The ownership of print and broadcast media in government control of programming. The Special
Australia is highly concentrated. Leading conglom- Broadcasting Service of Australia (SBS) broadcasts

265
Communications in Australia Economic Geography

both radio and television programs in more than vate television networks buy programs from local
seventy languages. The service supplies limited and international suppliers. Cable and satellite
news information to overseas news outlets. systems are widely available.
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation In the 2010s, besides the ABC and SBS radio net-
(ABC), the larger of the two public broadcasting sys- works, Australia had over 260 commercial radio sta-
tems, runs multiple national and local radio net- tions and numerous community radio stations op-
works and television stations as well as ABC Austra- erating on the AM and FM bands, on the Internet,
lia, a television channel that broadcasts throughout and (since 2009) also via DAB.
the Asia-Pacific region and is Australia’s main inter- All television and radio broadcasters in Australia
national broadcaster. The ABC also operates an- are required to carry a minimum percentage of Aus-
other international service, Radio Australia, broad- tralian-made programs. The Australian Communi-
casting online and via digital audio broadcasting cations and Media Authority (ACMA) was formed in
(DAB). The ABC has a vast news-gathering capabil- 2005 through the merger of the Australian govern-
ity and provides a major service for international ment’s previously separate broadcasting and com-
communications. The federal government finances munications authorities. ACMA regulates all forms
the operation and guarantees editorial and of broadcasting and telecommunications, includ-
programming freedom. ing television, radio, the Internet, and converged
Australia has three national commercial televi- mass communication over digital platforms.
sion networks that operate in a similar manner as
those in the United States. They have affiliates Telephone Systems
throughout the country that also broadcast regional Australia’s telephone system, and telecommunica-
and local programming. Both the public and pri- tion services in general, underwent a major change

A classroom in Australia with the kids using computers. (SolStock)

266
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Communications in Australia

in direction, from a monopoly to competition. As which provides health and medical treatment to re-
telephone communications became increasingly motely located families. The same radios were used
merged with other telecommunications, the by the school to make two-way, high-frequency ra-
state-owned service providers also merged into a dio broadcasts to the children of those families. By
single telecommunications corporation, which was the 1980s, more than twenty Schools of the Air were
privatized, in stages, between 1997 and 2011. Now in operation, covering almost the entire landmass
known as Telstra, it is Australia’s largest telecom- of Australia. Distance learning in Schools of the Air
munications company by market share. Telstra is supplemented by three or four annual gatherings
builds and operates telecommunications networks where the children travel to the school to spend a
involving fixed-line and mobile telephony, Internet week with their teacher and classmates. Teachers
access, pay television, and other products and ser- also sometimes travel to visit individual students.
vices. Other telecommunications companies oper- By 2010, traditional radio has been replaced by
ate on a more limited scale. The Australian mobile teleconferencing using satellite telephone set-ups,
market is dominated by three major operators— fax, email, and a special type of interactive online
Telstra, Optus, and TPG Telecom Limited. whiteboard. By the 2020s, some of the more remote
In 2018, the country had thirty-three fixed-line areas of Australia did not yet have broadband
telephone subscriptions per 100 people, placing Internet access. However, the federal government
Australia among the twenty countries with the high- has been investing in broadband connectivity, and
est per-capita number of landline telephone sub- more and more locations in the Outback—and stu-
scriptions. The use of mobile cellular phones was dents of Australia’s Schools of the Air—have been
rapidly expanding; in 2018, there were 114 cell gaining access to live interactive video broadcasts
phone subscriptions per 100 Australians. In recent over the Internet. The Australian Schools of the Air
years, 90 percent of all mobile device sales in Aus- system has proved to be highly successful, and Aus-
tralia were smartphones. Radiotelephone was still tralian educators have been consulting other
widely used in remote areas with low population countries on distance learning.
densities.
The Internet
Australia’s Schools of the Air When Australia joined the global Internet on June
The School of the Air is a unique Australian dis- 23, 1989, via a connection made by the University
tance-learning institution for primary- and second- of Melbourne, it was mostly used by computer sci-
ary-school students. In Australia, tens of thousands entists. Three decades later, in 2019, more than 86
of school-aged children live in remote, isolated ar- percent of Australian households were connected to
eas, mostly on cattle and sheep farms, called “sta- the Internet. According to a 2015 report by Oxford
tions” in Australia. These stations are scattered University’s Reuters Institute, Australians are the
across huge areas, comparable to the size of large most likely people in the world to use a digital de-
countries. From the early 1900s, the education of vice to obtain their news. In 2019, over 70 percent
these children was handled by correspondence of Australians were active social media users, with
schools located in the capital cities of Australia’s Facebook being the top social platform.
states and territories. Lessons and completed Wireless Internet connectivity is well-suited to the
homework took days, and sometimes weeks, to remote rural areas of Australia because large dis-
reach their destinations. tances and low population density make traditional
This changed with the establishment of the first lines costly. Several different long-term projects have
School of the Air at Alice Springs, a remote town in been designed to bring the Internet to rural areas.
the Northern Territory, in 1951. The school used The vast majority of Australia’s Internet connectivity
the radio network maintained by Australia’s is achieved via undersea fiber-optic cables connect-
long-established Royal Flying Doctor Service, ing Australia’s large population centers, all of which

267
Communications in Australia Economic Geography

A group of Australian teens consult their smartphones as they walk down the street. (DisobeyArt)

are located on its coasts, and international cables creative institutions were isolated from other Eng-
connecting Australia with Asia, the United States, lish-speaking markets, and the world in general, by
and Europe. They carry over 90 percent of Austra- distance. But distance is no longer a barrier to ac-
lia’s total Internet traffic. Australian companies also cessing or transmitting information, and Austra-
finance the building of submarine Internet cable lians have promptly and eagerly adopted digital
connections for its Pacific island neighbors. methods of communication and entertainment,
The impact on the Australian society of new tele- growing much closer to—and becoming a bigger
communication technologies has been enormous. part of—the rest of the world.
For much of its history, Australia and its cultural and Earl P. Andresen

268
 Communications in
the Pacific Islands

The communications systems found among the their native languages at home, the primary
scattered islands of the Pacific Ocean are shaped by language in Oceania is English.
the unique geographic situation in which they exist. Two striking exceptions to the general patterns
These far-flung islands, many of them tiny coral of economic development and communications
atolls with only a few hundred people, are separated systems in the Pacific islands are New Zealand and
by thousands of miles of open ocean. Communica- Hawaii. These archipelagos of volcanic islands were
tions among them have generally been difficult, both originally settled in prehistoric times by Poly-
and the low population densities prevented the de- nesian seafarers—ancestors of the Maori in New
velopment of economies of scale that reduced com- Zealand and Native Hawaiians in Hawaii. However,
munications costs in larger societies. both of these island groups have been so thoroughly
integrated into the Western world (New Zealand as
Obstacles to Communication a British colony and later a member of the Com-
Communications among the islands have been fur- monwealth of Nations, and Hawaii as a US-an-
ther complicated by the enormous variety of lan- nexed territory and later a state of the United
guages within the region. Linguists estimate that as States) that they have developed Western-style
many as 1,200 languages have been spoken in the economies and telecommunications systems. They
Pacific islands. However, many of these languages are also larger than all other Pacific island nations
have an extremely restricted range, often confined and territories except Papua New Guinea, and thus
to a few hundred people on one or two coral islands. have the resources to sustain such systems.
Almost none of them had a written form before the
arrival of Western missionaries. Many of these Postal Systems
smaller languages are considered to be severely or Postal service to the various Pacific islands has often
critically endangered, with few or no children learn- been spotty and unreliable. Until the second half of
ing them and their use restricted to an ever-shrink- the twentieth century, the only way to get letters and
ing elderly population. It is likely that as many as parcels between the islands was by ship, which was
half of these languages will be extinct by 2050. often slow and always subject to the vagaries of wind
English, in both British and American forms, has and weather (particularly in the days of sailing
become a trade language in many areas of the Pa- ships). By the 1950s, airmail had become available,
cific islands, enabling people from various lan- but was often expensive, particularly for the people
guage groups to do business. Japanese serves a sim- of smaller islands. Because their small populations
ilar function in many areas of the Western Pacific, made it uneconomical to set up regular postal ser-
particularly in those islands given to Japan by the vice, mail deliveries to those islands were generally
League of Nations as mandated territories after irregular and dependent upon calls by unsched-
World War I. French is used in French Polynesia and uled merchant ships. Mail delivery was further com-
New Caledonia, the territories controlled by plicated by the fact that many rural Pacific islanders
France. Although many people continue to use lived on unnamed roads without street numbers. In

269
Communications in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

2017, the kingdom of Tonga became the first Pacific phone service in many parts of the Pacific island region
island nation to adopt a new GPS-based was often prohibitively costly, particularly on smaller is-
geolocation technology for home mail delivery. lands. Thus radiotelephones were often the only form
Many of the small island nations’ postal systems are of two-way telecommunications among islands.
best known for their colorful stamps, which are prized In the twenty-first century, high frequency (HF)
by collectors. The sales of mint-quality stamps to col- and very high frequency (VHF) radiotelephones
lectors abroad have created a stream of foreign ex- have remained essential means of communication
change revenues for these countries and territories. with remote, outlying islands, although satel-
New Zealand and Hawaii are notable exceptions lite-based mobile services have become the primary
to the pattern of slow and unreliable mail delivery form of voice communication across the region.
typical of the Pacific island region. New Zealand has Larger islands have satellite Earth stations and mi-
its own privately owned and operated postal system crowave relay stations for radio signal relay.
based upon a British model. Hawaii, as a state of the In 2018, New Zealand had thirty-seven fixed-line
United States, is served by the United States Postal telephone subscriptions and 134 cellular mobile
Service (USPS), which regularly airlifts mail to the phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants. Fiji, the
mainland without additional charge. A USPS prior- most advanced economy in the Pacific island region
ity-mail shipment from New York to Maui costs the outside of New Zealand and Hawaii, had eight land-
same price as when one is shipping the package line telephone subscriptions and 112 cell phone
from New York to New Jersey. subscriptions per 100 people in 2018. Kiribati,
among the poorest and smallest Pacific island coun-
Telephone tries, had no fixed-line phones. Its inhabitants con-
Prior to the development of inexpensive telecommuni- tinued to rely on HF/VHF radiotelephones and had
cations satellites and cellular telephones, the tele- fifty-four cell phones per 100 people.

A father and a son in Polynesia use a walkie talkie radio. (Bobby Coutu)

270
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Communications in the Pacific Islands

Submarine Cables
The ocean floor topography of the region has made
connectivity via submarine cables a serious chal-
lenge for the Pacific islands as submarine fiber-op- Easter Island is one of most remote Polynesian Is-
tic networks are expensive to build and maintain. lands. Its aboriginal culture, long shrouded in mys-
Nevertheless, more and more Pacific island nations tery, has become the subject of much speculation.
and territories are being linked to undersea cable Along with the monumental statues erected along
networks connecting Australia and New Zealand its coasts, the people of Easter Island produced a
large number of puzzling wooden boards inscribed
with the United States.
with rows of mysterious characters. By the time
The Southern Cross Cable, completed in 2000, Western scholars took serious interest in Easter Is-
has landing points in Australia, New Zealand, and land’s culture, no one survived who could read this
Fiji as well as the US states of Hawaii, Oregon, and script, known as Rongorongo.
California. Other cables interconnecting with Because of the characters’ notable similarities to
Southern Cross include the Tonga Cable System, those on seals found in the ruins of the Indus Valley
civilization in India, a connection between the two
the Interchange Cable System to Vanuatu, the
cultures has been posited. Some writers have even
TUI-Samoa cable linking Samoa to Fiji, and the suggested that these similarities are evidence of un-
Gondwana-1 system linking Australia to New Cal- discovered ancient civilizations that were destroyed
edonia. The Hantru-1 cable system, which became in some catastrophe before the accepted beginning
operational in 2010, has landing points in the Re- of written history.
public of the Marshall Islands, Guam, and the Fed- In the late 1990’s a Russian linguist, Sergei V.
Rjabchikov, claimed to have deciphered the
erated States of Micronesia. Ten more cables were
Rongorongo. In his analysis, it is a hieroglyphic
in various stages of development in 2020, including script containing a combination of ideographic
Southern Cross NEXT. characters—those that represent ideas, rather like
Chinese characters, and phonetic charac-
Newspapers ters—those that represent sounds, such as Western
The largest daily newspapers of the Pacific islands alphabets. Rjabchikov suggested that the
Rongorongo script was used to record sacred leg-
are published—in print and online—in English in
ends and astronomical observations.
New Zealand and Hawaii. In 2020, New Zealand
However, these theories are often discounted by
had about thirty daily papers, the largest of which serious scholars. Some linguists discount the idea
was Auckland’s New Zealand Herald. Many of New that the Rongorongo is a native writing system for
Zealand’s newspapers are independents that pro- Rapa Nui, the language of Easter Island. Instead,
vide thoughtful in-depth coverage of local events, they suggest that it is of relatively recent origin,
but have few foreign correspondents and must rely probably imitative of European scripts, and was
likely decorative, or at most a memory aid. Others
heavily on wire services for international news. Ha-
suggest that Rongorongo is a form of proto-writing,
waii had eleven daily and weekly newspapers. The now impossible to decipher.
largest was the Honolulu Star-Advertiser, formed in
2010 with the merger of the Honolulu Advertiser and
the Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Although most of Ha- off-island news. Fiji’s largest newspaper, the Fiji
waii’s newspapers are in English, there are smaller Times, had a daily circulation of 2,000 copies in
print and online publications for the Native Hawai- 2019.
ian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, and Korean
communities. Radio
Other Pacific island nations and territories had Radio has long been an important medium of mass
their own newspapers, but few were dailies and al- communication for the peoples of the Pacific is-
most none were known beyond their own shores. lands. Because a radio requires little power and ra-
Most of them relied entirely upon wire services for dio signals in certain frequencies can carry over

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Communications in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

long distances via reflection from the ionosphere, KGU of Honolulu, began operation in 1922. In
radio has generally been the most cost-efficient 2020, it had more than 100 radio stations, most of
means to broadcast to those scattered islands. Radio which were headquartered in Honolulu.
listening also does not require any level of literacy,
an important factor given the high rates of illiteracy Television
on some islands. The smaller island nations have In New Zealand, multiple television networks are
just one, state-run radio station. The larger ones operated by the state-owned Television New Zea-
have multiple stations, although their news pro- land. It also does some television broadcasting in
grams generally consist of some local material com- the languages of the other Pacific islands for
bined with relays of news from Australia and New rebroadcast by local stations, although many of the
Zealand. Radio Australia is available throughout smaller islands do not have their own television sta-
the Pacific island region via satellite feed; Radio tions. Multi-channel pay television is available on
New Zealand is available in the South Pacific via these islands in hotels and resorts.
shortwave service. Three of Hawaii’s television stations merged in
New Zealand has a large number of radio sta- 2009 under the banner Hawaii News Now. Since
tions, both public and commercial, including a then, the Hawaii News Now group has controlled al-
Maori-owned, Maori-language station and a na- most half of the state’s television market. All Ha-
tional government-funded station for the Pacific is- waii’s television broadcast stations are located in
lander communities. Hawaii, as a territory and later Honolulu. Programming is transmitted throughout
a state of the United States, has a long history of ra- the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago via satel-
dio broadcasting. Its first radio stations, KDYX and lites and through Oceanic Time Warner Cable.

A TV satellite dish attached to a person’s home in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. (seraficus)

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Communications in the Pacific Islands

Broadband Internet The first satellite of the Kacific Broadband Satel-

Except for New Zealand and Hawaii, most of the Pa- lites Group, providing high-speed Internet access
cific islands have generally lagged in Internet us- for South East Asia and Pacific islands, was placed in
age. The populations of many of the islands are orbit in December 2019. It was designed and manu-
generally too poor to afford computers. In recent factured by Boeing and launched into orbit from
years, Internet-enabled cellular phones have al- Cape Canaveral, Florida, on a SpaceX Falcon 9
lowed them to connect to the digital world for the launch vehicle. Kacific-1 uses spot beams to deliver
first time. However, traditional dial-up Internet ac- high-speed broadband Internet service to more
cess in the region was generally slow and unreliable. than twenty-five countries and territories of South-
The launch of Kacific-1 satellite has vastly im- east Asia and the Pacific, from American Samoa to
proved Internet connectivity and the quality of Vanuatu.
Internet-related services. Leigh Husband Kimmel

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 Engineering Projects in
Australia

Early Australian engineers had been handicapped Salt-interception works along the Murray River,
by the country’s small, dispersed population, its which started in the 1980s, have offered an inge-
great size, and the largely inhospitable physical en- nious solution to the problem of soil salinization. In
vironment. Prior to World War I, Australia was pri- the twenty-first century, the construction of the
marily an exporter of agricultural products and Adelaide-Darwin railway was the second-largest
minerals, and its capital resources were limited. As a civil engineering project in Australia since the
result, engineering activity was concentrated in Snowy Mountains scheme, and the Gorgon Gas Pro-
mining, transportation, and water supply. The sin- ject has become the single-largest natural-resource
gle largest engineering feat in nineteenth-century development project ever undertaken in Australia.
Australia was the construction of the Australian
Overland Telegraph Line. The Overland Telegraph Line
After World War I, Australian engineering struc- Completed in 1872, the Australian Overland Tele-
tures were put on the map with the construction of graph Line runs coast to coast for 2,000 miles
the Sydney Harbour Bridge (1923-1932). The (3,200 km.) across the middle of the continent be-
Snowy Mountains scheme was the next major engi- tween Darwin, the capital of the Northern Terri-
neering feat in Australia, followed by the Sydney tory, and Port Augusta, South Australia. Before the
Opera House. Although the engineering aspects of construction of the line was started, its projected
the Sydney Opera House have been overshadowed route through the largely uninhabited interior of
by its architectural and cultural fame, engineers the continent had to be surveyed for waterholes and
agree that because of its design and unique con- areas with sufficient supplies of timber for the tele-
struction techniques, the building stands as a model graph poles. The line featured 36,000 telegraph
for engineering, and it remains, along with the poles and eleven repeater stations (necessary to
Snowy Mountains scheme, one the most significant boost the strength of the electrical signal); the latter
engineering monuments in Australia. were located about 125 miles (over 200 km.) apart.
Although the Murray River Barrage and the Within months of completion, the Overland Tele-
Adelaide Aqueduct deserve mention, they have been graph Line was linked to the Java-to-Darwin subma-
subsumed in importance. The Dingo Fence, built in rine telegraph cable, reducing Australia’s communi-
the 1880s, although perhaps the longest fence in the cation time with Europe from months to hours. The
world, is merely a wire-link fence of no particular en- line also opened up the huge central part of the con-
gineering significance. Its only claim to fame is that it tinent. Prospectors and cattle raisers used the re-
is one of the world’s longest such structures and that it peater stations as starting points from which to ex-
was partially successful as a pest-exclusion barrier that plore and stake claims on the land. Established as a
helped reduce losses of sheep to dingoes (although repeater station, the town of Alice Springs, which is
wild dingoes can still be found in parts of Australia’s situated roughly in Australia’s geographic center, be-
southern states, thanks to holes in the fence through came the administrative hub for central Australia
which many dingo offspring have passed). and, later, an important tourist hub.

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Engineering Projects in Australia Economic Geography

The Snowy Mountains Scheme

The Snowy Mountains scheme is Australia’s fore-
most engineering project of all time. This irrigation
and hydroelectricity complex supplies 555 billion An innovative hydrological engineering project
gallons (2.1 trillion liters) of water to 1.31 million that began in 1949 was the Snowy Mountains Hy-
acres (530,000 hectares) of farmland in the Mur- dro-Electric Scheme. The Snowy River, which was
rumbidgee Irrigation Area on the Murrumbidgee fed by snowmelt from the Australian Alps, was di-
River in New South Wales and in the Goulburn- verted westward into the Murray River. The project
involved construction of twelve long tunnels
Murray region in New South Wales and Victoria. As
through the mountains, as well as sixteen dams and
a result, additional primary agricultural production seven power-generating plants. Immigrants from
is estimated to generate about 60 million Australian more than thirty other countries, many of whom
dollars (A$) a year. While falling 2,640 feet (800 me- had lost everything during World War II, came to
ters), the water generates 3.74 million kilowatts of Australia to construct these facilities. The project
electricity. was therefore not only a tremendous engineering
challenge for Australia, but also a great social exper-
One system of tunnels and reservoirs diverts wa-
iment for a country whose existing population con-
ter from the Eucumbene River, a tributary of the sisted mainly of people of British origin. The work-
east-flowing Snowy River, into the Tumut River, a ers’ living conditions were spartan, and the
tributary of the west-flowing Murrumbidgee River. environment was harsh, but the immigrants saw the
The Upper Murrumbidgee is diverted into the project as a wonderful financial opportunity. The
Eucumbene and the Tooma River, a tributary of the work, especially the tunneling, was sometimes dan-
gerous, and some 120 people lost their lives during
Tumut. Another system diverts Snowy River water
the construction. The Snowy Mountains Hy-
directly into the Murray River. The two systems con- dro-Electric Scheme has been honored twice by the
nect through reversible flow tunnels, so that excess American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the
water can be diverted to storage. great engineering achievements of the twentieth
Sixteen major dams, many smaller dams, seven century, and was added to the Australian National
large and three small power stations, and 140 miles Heritage List in 2016. The following year, prime
minister Malcolm Turnbull announced an expan-
(225 km.) of tunnels, pipelines, and aqueducts
sion to the scheme, known as Snowy 2.0, which in-
make up the project. When built, the Eucumbene volves linking two existing dams (Tantangara and
main storage dam, with a capacity of 3,860,000 Talbingo) through new tunneling and the construc-
acre-feet (4.76 cubic kilometers), was the world’s tion of a new underground power station. Snowy 2.0
largest earthen-rock fill dam. is intended to provide an additional 2,000 mega-
More than 100 miles (160 km.) of highway and watts of generating capacity and around 350,000
megawatt hours of storage to Australia’s electricity
625 miles (1,000 km.) of secondary roads built for
system, with first power expected in 2025.
the project opened previously inaccessible wilder-
ness for tourism and recreation. The Kosciuszko
National Park, which includes over 2,660 square power stations on the Tumut River, was undertaken
miles (690,000 hectares) of nine distinct wilderness between 2009 and 2011, adding additional capac-
zones surrounding Australia’s highest mountain— ity. The federal government, through Snowy Hy-
Mount Kosciuszko (7,313 feet/2,229 meters)—is a dro, financed the construction cost of the Snowy
heritage of the project. Mountains scheme, which ran to approximately
The Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Authority A$820 million. That would have been equivalent to
(later renamed Snowy Hydro), owned by the Austra- almost A$6.5 billion, or $4.6 billion, in 2020.
lian federal government, began constructing the The project’s economics and impacts have not
project in 1949. More than 100,000 people from been without criticism. Providing water for inten-
thirty countries were involved in the construction. A sive agriculture has been said to yield less return
major upgrade of Tumut 3, one of the underground than an equivalent investment in grain-growing.

276
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Engineering Projects in Australia

The Murray 1 Hydroelectric Power Station at the Snowy Mountains Scheme in New South Wales, Australia. (Martin Kraft)

The cost of the massive storage requirements Danish-English engineer Ove Arup, who helped
needed to offset Australia’s highly variable rainfall make Utzon’s vision a reality. Assembled from mod-
has been deemed by the critics as exorbitant. Envi- ular precast concrete elements, it is famous both as
ronmentalists charge that the project has destroyed an architectural object of great beauty and for
the Snowy River and violated the wilderness. groundbreaking use of precast concrete.
The expansion of the Snowy Mountains scheme, The Sydney Opera House is an entertainment
which started in 2020 and was dubbed Snowy 2.0, center housing a concert hall seating 2,700, an op-
includes carving new tunnels through 17 miles (27 era theater seating 1,500, a drama theater seating
km.) of rock connecting two reservoirs and the 540, a cinema-music room, rehearsal and recording
building of a new underground power station capa- halls, exhibition areas, and restaurants. As early as
ble of generating 10 percent of Australia’s electric- 1947, Eugene Goosens, then conductor of the Syd-
ity. Snowy Hydro officials have disputed claims ney Symphony Orchestra, called for construction of
from environmentalists that up to 38.6 square miles a musical center for symphony, opera, and chamber
(100 sq. km.) of the Kosciuszko National Park would music. In 1954, J. J. Cahill, premier in the Labor
be damaged by the dumping of excavated rock. government of New South Wales, initiated an inter-
national design competition for the center. In 1957,
Sydney Opera House Jørn Utzon won the opera house competition, al-
Comprising a series of spherical, shell-like compo- though his entry included only rough drawings of
nents, the Sydney Opera House is an iconic build- the proposed building. Utzon was appointed archi-
ing whose original design concept was developed tect, and the Opera House Executive Committee
by the Danish architect Jørn Utzon. The building’s selected the British firm Ove Arup and Partners as
unique construction techniques were devised by the design engineers. Cahill, fearing a politically in-

277
Engineering Projects in Australia Economic Geography

spired cancellation of the project, insisted that Utzon’s spectacular plans for the building’s inte-
construction begin before the 1959 elections. rior were never realized because of mounting con-
Work began in March 1959 on the massive po- flicts among Arup, Utzon, the Executive Commit-
dium (the foundations and platform upon which tee, and the New South Wales government. In 1965,
the building was to rest). Because the concepts asso- after a Liberal Party election victory, a new Public
ciated with the final form of the building and how it Works Director, Davis Hughs, assumed personal
was to be built were still evolving, work was repeat- control over the project. Questioning innovative
edly interrupted and much of completed design designs and citing excessive costs, he vetoed
work had to be discarded. In some cases, portions of Utzon’s plans for the interior. Utzon was forced out
the building were demolished and rebuilt. When in 1966, and succeeding architects and a new engi-
the podium was completed in 1963, estimated costs neering firm redesigned the interior. (Utzon’s re-
had increased to more than A$24,000,000. moval triggered protests and marches through the
Utzon’s original, free-hand sketches of elliptical streets of Sydney. In the late 1990s, the Sydney Op-
paraboloid shells were not working plans for the era House Trust initiated reconciliation with Utzon,
walls and roof of the building. His first plan to cast but the architect never returned to Australia to see
the shells in place proved impractical. Arup de- his masterpiece in its completed form.)
signed shells composed of double skins supported Queen Elizabeth II formally opened the new
by an internal steel frame, but Utzon rejected this Sydney Opera House in October 1973. Largely fi-
design. Utzon and Arup then designed self-sup- nanced by state lotteries, it was completed at a cost
porting shells composed of radiating ribs, each of A$102,000,000. The original cost estimate to
built of precast concrete sections—an utterly new build it had been A$7,000,000. Construction was
concept. The original ellipsoidal form was dis- expected to take four years; it took fourteen years.
carded for spherical surfaces of a uniform radius, The building is a world-famous engineering and
allowing mass-production of the sections. architectural monument, but also has been criti-

The Murray-Darling Basin in Victoria, Australia. (Ingrid_Hendriksen)

278
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Engineering Projects in Australia

cized. Some architects argue that the shells were de- shells, the architect himself said that they were
signed wholly for aesthetics and thus cause over- inspired by a peeled orange. Almost 11 million peo-
whelming problems in seating, acoustics, and ple visit the Sydney Opera House every year. It was
staging. (Original acoustics designs, commissioned added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 2007.
by Utzon but never implemented, were later mod-
eled and found to be very good.) Persistent struc- Sydney Harbour Bridge
tural shortcomings arose from the innovative tech- The Sydney Harbour Bridge spans 1,650 feet (503
niques and materials. For example, the tiles on the meters) of open water from Dawes Point to Milsons
outside of the building require continuous Point. Five steel approach spans increase the
regrouting. The issue of poor acoustics in the con- bridge’s total length to 3,770 feet (1,149 meters).
cert hall was finally addressed in 2020 with the start The top of the main span is 440 feet (134 meters)
of a two-year renovation, providing for a new acous- above mean sea level, and the crest of the deck
tic ceiling, new automated drapes, and a 3D stands 160 feet (49 meters) above the water. The
surround-sound system. deck originally accommodated a central six-lane
The building is 600 feet (183 meters) long and roadway, two tram lines, two rail lines, a footway on
394 feet (120 meters) wide at its widest point. The the eastern side, and a bikeway on the west. In 1959
total roof surface of the structure, composed of the tram lines were removed, widening the roadway
“shells,” is approximately 4 acres (1.62 hectares). to its current eight lanes.
Each shell is a section of a sphere with a radius of An English firm began construction in 1923. The
246 feet (75.2 meters). While some believe that the two wings of the arch, based on two steel pins in
shell form was inspired by boat sails, clouds, or sea- each abutment, were cantilevered outward and built

The Sydney Harbour Bridge at sunset. (zorazhuang)

279
Engineering Projects in Australia Economic Geography

from large creeper cranes advancing on top of the salt behind in the top layers of the soil. Soil salinity
growing arch. After the arch was closed in 1930, the significantly limits the productivity of crop plants,
cranes retreated, lifting deck panels from pontoons and an excess amount of salt in the water can render
and hanging them from the arch. A total of 58,000 it unusable for human or animal consumption. The
tons of steel (almost all imported from Middles- annual cost to Australia in lost production alone is
brough, England, where the engineering firm was close to A$100 million; the environmental cost can
based) were used in construction. The completed only be conjectured.
bridge was opened on March 19, 1932. The bridge Salt-interception schemes involve a system of
cost A$20,230,000, raised by loans and contribu- bores and pumps that take out the highly saline
tions from local governments. Although the loans groundwater from underground and pipe it for sev-
were paid off in 1988, tolls remain in effect to offset eral miles into salt management basins. The water
maintenance costs. slowly evaporates, concentrating the salt or very
When built, the bridge was the longest sin- gradually leaking it back into the groundwater sys-
gle-span bridge in the world. Until 2012, it was also tems; this way, it will not return to the river for thou-
the world’s widest long-span bridge and, in 2020, it sands of years. In the 2010s, there were eighteen of
remained the tallest steel arch bridge in the world. these schemes in the Murray-Darling basin; they
The monumental stone pylons at the ends of the moved approximately half a million tons of salt
bridge have been criticized as entirely decorative away from the Murray each year. After decades of
and nonfunctional, and the bridge was called too operation, irrigators in the area have started seeing
costly and overdesigned. Nevertheless, the bridge, the benefits of the lowered level of saline groundwa-
which perfectly fits its beautiful harbor location, has ter on their lands, and healthy flood-plain
come to symbolize Australia and has even been vegetation has begun reemerging.
commemorated on postage stamps. Although some
people thought the bridge was not justified by the Adelaide-Darwin Railway
expected traffic, its designed capacity of 6,000 vehi- The construction of a south-north transcontinental
cles per hour was exceeded before the end of the railway between South Australia and the country’s
twentieth century. In the 2010s, more than 20,000 sparsely populated northern region was envisaged
cars crossed the Sydney Harbour Bridge every day. even before the creation of the Northern Territory
A combination land-and-immersed tunnel near the in 1911. The vision was not realized, however, until
bridge was completed in 1992 to alleviate the 2003. One of the largest civil engineering projects
congestion on the bridge. in Australia’s history, the Adelaide-Darwin railway
runs for 1,849 miles (2,975 km.) connecting the
Groundwater Interception Schemes capital of South Australia, Adelaide, which is the
Since 1988, the New South Wales, Victoria, and state’s most populous city, with Darwin, the capital
South Australia governments, together with the of the Northern Territory. The Adelaide-Darwin
Commonwealth government, have funded the con- line has both freight and passenger services.
struction and operation of salt-interception works Aboriginal people hold title to much of the land
along the Murray River in the Murray-Darling ba- that the railway crosses, so the construction was pre-
sin, one of the most significant agricultural areas in ceded by extensive negotiations. Many additional
Australia. Clearance of native plants and drainage difficulties were associated with the building of a
from long-term, wide-scale irrigation have added railway across some of the most inhospitable terrain
water to salty groundwater aquifers, leading to the in the world, including the Tanami Desert, where
elevation of groundwater levels, which deposited summer temperatures reach 122º Fahrenheit (50º
salt into the soil and the river. Another factor was Celsius), and a three-month monsoon season.
the combination of low rainfall, which is common in Teams worked from both final destinations toward
parts of the basin, and high evaporation that leaves each other, thereby minimizing the distances work

280
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Engineering Projects in Australia

trains had to travel. Continuous welded rail on con- natural gas) project, a joint venture of Australian
crete sleepers was used throughout, and up to 1.24 subsidiaries of the global energy companies Chev-
miles (2 km.) of track were laid per day. ron, Shell, and Exxon Mobil. The project was
With the completion of the railway, the popula- started in 2009 and completed in 2017. It involved
tion of the Northern Territory, including its many the development of Western Australia’s Greater
indigenous communities, gained important access Gorgon gas fields and the building of an LNG plant
to a major transportation artery. The economy of on Barrow Island, 37 miles (60 km.) off the coast of
the Northern Territory heavily depends on visitors, Western Australia.
and a major railway signified a new era of tourism Gas is delivered to the island via an advanced
development in the region. Darwin is also a large subsea gas-gathering system. It consists of tree-like
deepwater port serving as a gateway to Asian mar- pipeline structures fixed to wellheads at each field
kets, and the line has facilitated bulk commodity ex- that control the production of gas through groups
ports originating from iron-ore and copper mines of valves, spools, and monitors; gather the gas un-
of central Australia. The railway network is inte- dersea; and deliver it to the LNG plant. The “trees”
grated with Port Darwin’s new East Arm wharf, were designed by General Electric and manufac-
which includes a railway embankment and an tured in Scotland. The Barrow Island plant has
intermodal container terminal. three processing units designed to produce 15.6
million metric tons of LNG per year. The estimated
Gorgon Gas Project production lifespan of the project is forty to fifty
Australia’s largest natural-resource undertaking by years.
capital expenditure is the Gorgon LNG (liquefied M. Casey Diana

281
 Engineering Projects in
the Pacific Islands

The Pacific island region, or Oceania, is the site of The moai must have been carved over a long pe-
one of the world’s greatest feats of ancient monu- riod, for there are almost 900 of them on a 64-
mental art and engineering—the huge stone sculp- square-mile (166-sq.-km.) island. Not all of them
tures of Easter Island (Rapa Nui). Carved from vol- were installed; some have remained in the quarry or
canic tuff, the statues, called moai, weigh an in various places throughout the island, probably
average of 14 tons each, with the largest weighing on their way to intended locations. It was those
more than 80 tons. They were created by descen- moai that had been moved and erected that have
dants of Polynesian seafarers who had settled the re- caused an intense and long-standing scholarly de-
mote Polynesian island around the close of the first bate over possible means by which they had been
millennium C.E. The statues consist of massive transported. One theory involves a sledge with
heads, each on a sketchily carved top half of a body; cross pieces, pulled with ropes by dozens of men.
probably representing ancestors, they are designed Another of the several theories is that the statues
to stand facing inland on ceremonial platforms. were “walked” to their destinations by attaching

A group of statues on Easter Island. (daboost)

283
Engineering Projects in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

ropes to the statue and rocking it, tugging it forward

as it rocked. In any case, the Easter Islanders accom-
plished something that is still admired and talked
about today. Long-term waste disposal options for the Pacific Is-
lands are limited, due to a lack of planning, fund-
Mining and Natural Gas Extraction in Papua ing, and land, among other hindrances. To protect
New Guinea their fragile environments, island governments at-
Substantial deposits of valuable minerals are associ- tempt to turn wastes into reusable resources, such as
fertilizers for agriculture. Island governments are
ated with the volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of
also considering limiting imports of nonbiodegrad-
Fire, the active tectonic boundary between the Pa-
able and hazardous substances. The Moana Taka
cific and Indo-Australian tectonic plates. In Partnership was launched in 2018 between the Sec-
Oceania, New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea retariat of the Pacific Regional Environment
have extensive mineral deposits; Papua New Programme (SPREP) and China Navigation Com-
Guinea also has a rapidly developing natural gas in- pany (CNCo). Under the agreement, CNCo vessels
dustry, born out of several recent important transport containers of recyclable waste from eligi-
ble Pacific island ports for treatment and recycling
discoveries.
in suitable ports in the Asia-Pacific region—free of
Papua New Guinea’s mining industry relies
charge. As of 2020, approximately 686 tonnes of
heavily on foreign technology. Australian, North waste have been shipped under the agreement.
American, and Asian mining companies have used
core-sample drilling, satellite-based mapping, and
other sophisticated prospecting technologies to an LNG plant located 12.5 miles (20 km.) northwest
identify new deposits of gold, aluminum, and other of the country’s capital, Port Moresby. The gas is liq-
metals. In the late 1990s, significant deposits of uefied at the plant prior to loading onto tankers to
gold and copper were discovered near the Frieda be shipped to Asian gas customers.
River in remote Sanduan and East Sepik provinces. The success of the PNG LNG venture has encour-
The government of Papua New Guinea and a suc- aged other companies to look at similar LNG pro-
cession of foreign companies have been planning jects. An agreement was made between the Papua
the construction of a A$1.5-billion mining, ore pro- New Guinea government and a consortium of for-
cessing, and shipping complex at the Frieda River eign companies to develop three other LNG pro-
site, along with a hydroelectric scheme. The project jects, one of which was at an advanced planning
has been billed as hugely beneficial for Papua New stage in 2020. The benefits of LNG development
Guinea, geared to stimulate the growth of other sec- for the country is a controversial issue. Government
tors of the economy, including the chemicals, com- participation in the projects and environmental is-
munications, and transportation industries. How- sues have emerged as a dominant theme in the poli-
ever, it has been proceeding very slowly and has tics of modern-day Papua New Guinea.
remained controversial due to vehement Papua New Guinea has almost 5 percent of the
opposition by environmental groups. world’s known reserves of nickel. A huge mining and
There are four liquefied natural gas (LNG) pro- refinery project known as Ramu NiCo began opera-
jects in Papua New Guinea. The first one, PNG tions in 2012. New roads, bridges, and quarries were
LNG (Papua New Guinea Liquified Natural Gas), built to access nickel deposits in Madang province, in
has been fully operational since 2014, exporting the southeastern part of the country. An 83-mile
liquefied natural gas to Asian markets. PNG LNG is (133-km.)-long slurry pipeline carries unprocessed
a consortium led by ExxonMobil, and the project ore to a nickel refinery. The Chinese-owned mining
has consistently operated above its intended capac- and refining operation was temporarily shut down in
ity. Gas is sourced from seven fields, conditioned at 2019 after the plant spilled tens of thousands of liters
the source, and then transported by gas pipeline to of highly acidic slurry into the Basamuk Bay. It was

284
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands Engineering Projects in the Pacific Islands

A row of pipes in Papua New Guinea which will be set up to transport natural gas. (dane-mo)

only one in a succession of incidents in the short his- Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam, Hong Kong,
tory of Ramu NiCo. Local landowners have been un- Malaysia, and Singapore. Early undersea cables
successfully trying to stop the company from dump- were coaxial; they suffered from attacks by sea life
ing waste into the sea by a process known as deep-sea and had limited bandwidths (data transfer rates).
tailings disposal. In 2020, they were joined by the In the 1980s, fiber-optic cables were developed.
provincial government in a lawsuit against the com- Optical fibers permit the transmission of infrared
pany, seeking the highest amount of restitution for or near-infrared light over long distances with
environmental damages in the history of Papua New much lower signal loss compared to electrical ca-
Guinea. bles. This allows for higher bandwidth with fewer
repeaters, or signal regeneration devices. By 2020,
Telecommunications Engineering numerous fiber-optic submarine cables were criss-
The Pacific islands have faced a singular set of diffi- crossing the Pacific Ocean floor and linking the Pa-
culties in the operation of effective communica- cific islands with Australia, Asia, and the United
tions systems. Huge distances separate the States, as well as some islands with each other.
inhabited islands, and extreme weather conditions These cables include the SEA-US (opened in
interfere with conventional communications. The 2017, with landing points in Indonesia, the Philip-
first trans-Pacific submarine communications ca- pines, Guam, Hawaii, and the continental United
bles providing telegraph service were completed in States), the Honotua Cable System (laid in
1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to Hawaii 2009-2010, it connected several islands of French
and Guam to the Philippines. The SEACOM (South Polynesia via Tahiti to Hawaii, and was later ex-
East Asia Commonwealth) submarine telephone tended to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Samoa), the
cable system opened for traffic in 1967. It included Belau Submarine Cable (opened in 2017 between

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Engineering Projects in the Pacific Islands Economic Geography

Palau and Guam), HANTRU-1 (since 2010, it con-

nects Guam, the Federated States of Micronesia,
and the Marshall Islands), and the Southern Cross
Cable Network (commissioned in 2000, it has nine
landing stations in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand,
Hawaii, and the continental United States).
In 2020, more than a dozen new submarine ca-
bles and cable extensions were in various stages of
construction, including the Samoa-American Sa-
The Nippon Causeway in Kiribati. To combat climate change, many
moa Cable and the Southern Cross NEXT, with experts have proposed replacing causeways like these in the Pacific
branching units linking Fiji, Tokelau, and Kiribati. Ocean with elevated bridge roads. (Flexmaen)
The benefits of submarine cables to the Pacific sub-
region are significant because they not only bring for the same amount of allocated frequency. Since
high bandwidth capacity but also considerably then, Kacific1 HTS has been used by American Sa-
lower telecommunications costs. moa, the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Norfolk Is-
In the late 1970s, several Pacific island countries land, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solo-
such as the Cook Islands, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, mon Islands, and the Federated States of
Tonga, and Vanuatu engaged with a British tele- Micronesia for their international satellite gateway
communications company for gateway access to in- access.
ternational satellites. At the time, the satellite con-
nection was the only practical way for them to Sea-Level Rise Solutions
telecommunicate with other parts of the world. Climate change is causing sea levels to rise. Among
However, satellite communications were very ex- the places expected to be most hard-hit by rising
pensive, had high maintenance costs, and were not sea-levels in the twenty-first century are the islands
always reliable, especially during extreme weather of the tropical Pacific Ocean, ranging from sparsely
events such as heavy rain. With submarine cables in developed low-lying archipelagos in Micronesia to
place, satellite became the secondary connection in heavily populated coastal areas on the Hawaiian Is-
many Pacific island countries. lands. But even long before the Pacific Ocean sub-
This changed in the 2010s with the introduction sumes low-lying islands and coastal areas, waves will
of O3b satellites designed specifically for telecom- begin washing over them frequently enough to ruin
munications and data backhaul from remote loca- groundwater supplies and damage crops and
tions. Each O3b satellite is equipped with twelve fragile infrastructure.
steerable Ka-band antennas (Ka is a portion of the On an island-by-island level, projects have been
microwave section of the electromagnetic spec- identified as possible solutions for mitigating the
trum). The footprint of each antenna beam mea- impact of rising sea levels. Approaches include the
sures 435 miles (700 km.) in diameter. These satel- building of resilient towns and cities as well as im-
lites provide high-bandwidth capacity and lower proving and constructing related infrastructure.
costs. The first O3b satellites were constructed by Some of the islands can be protected, at least for a
the French-Italian aerospace manufacturer Thales time, by building seawalls, dikes, embankments,
Alenia Space, and the next generation, by Boeing and surge barriers. But the projected costs of these
Satellite Systems. infrastructure projects are extremely high, and they
In 2019, Boeing built and Elon Musk’s aerospace will continue to climb unless climate change and ris-
company SpaceX launched the first Ka-band HTS ing sea levels are minimized as much as possible
(high-throughput satellite), Kacific1. HTS has through humanity’s collective effort.
many times the throughput of a traditional satellite Laura M. Calkins

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 Gazetteer
Places whose names are printed in small caps are sub- in 1944. They were administered by Australia,
jects of their own entries in this gazetteer. then became a United Nations Trust Territory
before becoming part of Papua New Guinea in
Adelaide. Capital and largest city of the state of 1975.
South Australia. Located on a plain 9 miles Akaka Falls. Waterfall along the Hamakua coast of
(14 km.) inland from the Gulf of St. Vincent and Hawaii Island. Tallest waterfall in the Hawaiian
at the base of the Mount Lofty Ranges that rise Islands, at 442 feet (135 meters). The stream
to the east. Has a Mediterranean climate and a that forms the waterfall cuts through a layer of
2020 population of 1.3 million. The Torrens ash to the lava below.
River flows through the city. Known for its beau- Alice Springs. Outback town located in the Red
tiful parklands, Adelaide has evolved from an Centre of Australia’s Northern Territory.
early agricultural center (fruit, wheat, wool, and The Red Centre is an area approximately
Barossa Valley wines) into an industrial power 100,000 square miles (260,000 sq. km.) in size of
producing automobile parts, machinery, tex- desert and rocky outcrops, flanked by the
tiles, and chemicals. A hub of rail, sea, air, and MacDonnell Ranges. Had a 2018 population of
road transportation, it is also connected by pipe- fewer than 30,000 and is 954 miles (1,535 km.)
line with the Gidgealpa natural gas fields in south of Darwin and 1,028 miles (1,654 km.)
Cooper Basin, northeastern South Australia. north of Adelaide. It is a major shipping point
Port Adelaide, its main harbor, is located 7 miles for cattle and minerals and an important tourist
(11 km.) northwest. Established in 1836 and destination as the gateway to Australia’s Out-
named for Queen Adelaide, wife of Britain’s back, to Ayers Rock/Uluru and the Olgas/Kata
King William IV. Tjuta, and to Aboriginal lands. It is the regional
Adélie Coast. See Terre Adélie. headquarters for the Royal Flying Doctor Ser-
Admiralty Islands. Island group in the western Pa- vice and the School of the Air. Originally estab-
cific Ocean, part of Papua New Guinea. The lished along the ephemeral Henley River in
eighteen islands are part of the Bismarck Ar- 1871 as a station for the Overland Telegraph
chipelago. The two largest are Rambutyo Is- Line.
land and Manus Island. The League of Nations Alps, Australian. Section of the Great Dividing
mandated the islands to Australia in 1920. Ja- Range, located in the south easternmost corner
pan occupied the islands in 1942, then the Allies of Australia in southeastern New South

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 Gazetteer

Wales and eastern Victoria. Forms as the divide by a huge geodesic dome to protect them from
between the Murray River system flowing west the punishing winds that howl constantly across
and the Snowy River and other streams that the pole. Named for Antarctic explorers Roald
flow east to the Pacific Ocean. Massive and cov- Amundsen and Robert Falcon Scott.
ered with snow nearly half the year, the Alps are Andesite Line. Geological line forming a boundary
the tallest mountains on the continent and in- between the high (continental) and the low (oce-
clude Australia’s tallest peak, Mount anic) islands of the Pacific Ocean. The line fol-
Kosciuszko, at 7,310 feet (2,229 meters). lows the island arcs from the Aleutians south-
Ambrym. Active volcano on Ambrym Island on ward to the Yap and Patou arcs, eastward
northern Vanuatu in the southwestern Pacific through the Bismarcks and Solomons, and
Ocean. Reaches a height of 4,377 feet (1,334 southward through Samoa, Tonga, Chatham,
meters). It last erupted in 2018. and Macquaries to Antarctica.
Antarctic Circle. Imaginary line at 66°32¢ south
latitude, south of which lies all the Antarctic
landmass but a small portion of the Antarctic
Peninsula.
Antarctic Convergence. Point just north of the
Antarctic Circle where cold polar waters
meet the warmer waters of the Atlantic, Pa-
cific, and Indian oceans. The cold water sinks,
forcing the warmer currents to rise toward the
surface. Also called the Antarctic Polar Front.
Antarctic Peninsula. Peninsula that juts north into
the South Atlantic Ocean. With water on three
Lava lake in Marum crater, Ambrym. (Geophile71) sides, it has the most moderate climate on
Antarctica, with summer temperatures some-
American Samoa. Unincorporated territory of the times reaching above 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10
United States, comprising seven islands in the degrees Celsius). Warm enough to have occa-
southern Pacific Ocean: Tutuila, the Manua sional light rainfall and to support the two flow-
group (Tau, Olosega, Ofu), Aunu’u, Rose Island, ering plants that grow south of 60 degrees south
and Swains Island. Total area of 86 square miles latitude, the pearlwort and Antarctic hairgrass,
(224 sq. km.); population was 49,437 in 2020. as well as several mosses and lichens.
Tutuila, the Manua group, and Aunu’u are of Antarctic Polar Front. See Antarctic Conver-
volcanic origin; Rose and Swains islands are gence.
coral atolls. Pago Pago, a harbor town on Antarctica. World’s fifth-largest continent. Has 10
Tutuila, is the capital and largest city. percent of Earth’s landmass, covering 5.48 mil-
Amery Ice Shelf. Ice shelf on the Indian Ocean in lion square miles (14.2 million sq. km.). Twice
southeast Antarctica. Area is about 23,200 the size of Europe or Australia, 1.5 times the
square miles (60,000 sq. km.); fed by the Lam- size of the United States. Earth’s highest conti-
bert Glacier, one of Antarctica’s largest. Gi- nent, with an average altitude of about 6,000
gantic iceberg broke off in 2019. Scientists be- feet (1,830 meters), excluding its covering of
lieve that this was due to the ice shelf ’s normal snow and ice. Its ice and snow cover, with an av-
calving cycle. erage thickness of about 7,086 feet (2,160 me-
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. US research ters), increases its average altitude to 14,633 feet
station located at 90 degrees south latitude, di- (4,460 meters), just a little less than Mount Rain-
rectly on the South Pole. Buildings are covered ier in Washington. The most isolated continent,

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

located 600 miles (960 km.) from the southern and Burdekin River on the south. Originally
tip of South America, 1,550 miles (2,500 km.) settled in the 1870s as a mining region.
from Australia, and 2,500 miles (4,023 km.) Atlantic Ocean. The South Atlantic Ocean lies
from the southernmost point in Africa. Round in north and east of Antarctica. The Antarctic
shape except for the Antarctic Peninsula, Peninsula, the Weddell Sea, and Queen Maud
which juts northward into the South Atlantic Land in East (Greater) Antarctica all face
Ocean, and the indentations of the Ross and toward the South Atlantic.
Weddell seas. Has 11,165 miles (17,968 km.) of Auckland. Largest city in New Zealand, and larg-
coastline. est Polynesian city in the world. Population was
Aoraki/Mount Cook. New Zealand’s highest moun- 1.47 million in 2020. Located on a narrow neck
tain peak, at 12,218 feet (3,724 meters). Located of land in the north of North Island, sur-
in the Southern Alps of South Island. Perpetual rounded by two harbors, Waitemata to the east
snowcap; popular skiing site. Known to the and Manukau to the west. Built on forty-eight
Maori as Aorangi, meaning “cloud piercer.” extinct volcanoes, including Rangitoto, the last
Arafura Sea. Shallow sea in the western Pacific and largest of which became extinct 800 years
Ocean. Covers 250,000 square miles (650,000 ago.
sq. km.) at depths of 165 to 260 feet (50 to 80 Austral Islands. Groups of islands in French Poly-
meters). Located between the north coast of nesia, South Pacific Ocean. Small islands form
Australia and the Gulf of Carpentaria and a chain 850 miles (1,370 km.) long. Total area is
the south coast of New Guinea. Bordered by the 54 square miles (140 sq. km.); population was
Timor Sea to the west and connected to the 6,509 in 1998. The inhabited islands are
Coral Sea to the east by the Torres Strait. Rimatara, Rurutu, Tubuai, Raivavae, and Rapa.
Known as a navigational hazard because of its Also known as Îles Australes or Tubuai Islands.
many uncharted shoals. Australasia. Loosely defined term for the region,
Arnhem Land. Historical region located at Aus- which, at the least, includes Australia and New
tralia’s Top End in the eastern half of a large Zealand; at the most, it also includes other
peninsula forming the northernmost portion of South Pacific islands in the region and takes on a
the Northern Territory. Covers 37,000 meaning similar to that of Oceania.
square miles (95,900 sq. km.), including islands Australia. Continent occupied by a single nation of
off the coast. Set aside in 1931 as Aboriginal re- the same name, covering 2.97 million square
serves, it has a tropical climate. Named for his miles (7.7 million sq. km.), including its island
ship the Arheim (Aernem) by Dutch explorer state of Tasmania. Located between the Indian
Willem van Colster in 1623. and Pacific oceans, Australia is the sixth-largest
Arthur’s Pass. New Zealand’s highest alpine pass, country and the smallest continent in the world.
at 3,032 feet (924 meters). The road-railway pass Population in 2020 was nearly 25.5 million peo-
crosses over the Southern Alps of South Is- ple. Other states are New South Wales,
land, linking the Canterbury Plains on the Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, and
east with Westland on the west. Named after the Western Australia. It also has the Northern
surveyor Arthur Dobson, who rediscovered the Territory and Australian Capital Terri-
old Maori alpine route in 1864. tory, which contains the national capital, Can-
Atherton Tableland. Highly fertile plain, part of berra. Australia is the flattest and driest conti-
the Great Dividing Range (Eastern High- nent; two-thirds is either desert or semiarid.
lands) in northeastern Queensland, Austra- Geologically, it is the oldest and most isolated
lia. Covers 12,000 square miles (31,000 sq. continent.
km.), bordered by the Palmer River on the north Australian Capital Territory. Site of Canberra
and surrounding lands of Australia’s national

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 Gazetteer

capital. Covers 910 square miles (2,350 sq. km.) 1940s and 1950s the United States tested nu-
within the Southern Tablelands of New South clear bombs on Bikini and neighboring atolls,
Wales. Established as a result of the British Par- forcing their residents to leave the islands.
liament’s passing the Commonwealth of Austra- Bismarck Archipelago. Group of mostly volcanic
lia Constitution Act in 1901. The site was chosen islands in the west Pacific Ocean, north of the
in 1908; parliament moved from the temporary east end of New Guinea; part of Papua New
capital, Melbourne, into the official Parliament Guinea. Total area is 19,173 square miles
House in 1927. Population was 427,419 in 2019. (49,658 sq. km.); population was 399,149, pri-
Ayers Rock. See Uluru. marily Melanesian, in 1990. Contains New Brit-
Bagana. Active volcano on south central ain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Admiralty Is-
Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea. lands, and 200 other islands and islets. There
Reaches 6,086 feet (1,855 meters). Its most re- are active volcanoes on New Britain.
cent eruption occurred in 2020. Blue Mountains. Section of the Great Dividing
Balleny Islands. Island group straddles the Ant- Range, New South Wales, Australia. Rises to
arctic Circle. Unlike such coastal islands as 3,781 feet (1,180 meters). Steep and riddled
Ross, Alexander, and Roosevelt, is in the sea off with waterfalls and ravines, its bluish hue is
Victoria Land. Connected to the mainland by caused by light rays diffusing through oils dis-
pack ice during the winter. persed into the air by varieties of indigenous eu-
Bass Strait. Channel separating Victoria, Austra- calyptus trees. The location of many ancient
lia, from the state of Tasmania. It is 150 miles rock formations, including the Three Sisters and
(240 km.) wide and 180 to 240 feet (50 to 70 me- the Jenolan Caves, as well as the Blue Mountains
ters) deep and known for rough crossing. Bor- National Park, a 662,130-acre (267,954-hectare)
dered by King Island and the Indian Ocean to nature reserve. Sydney is 40 miles (60 km.) to
the west and by the Furneaux Group to the the east.
west. Named in 1798 by the English navigator Bora-Bora. Volcanic island in French Polynesia in
Matthew Flinders for the surgeon-explorer the South Pacific. One of the Leeward Islands,
George Bass. Society Islands group. Area is 15 square miles
Bay of Islands. See Islands, Bay of. (39 sq. km.); population was 410,605 in 2017.
Bay of Whales. See Whales, Bay of. Leading industries are tourism and copra pro-
Beardmore Glacier. Largest glacier thus far discov- duction; was a US air base during World War II.
ered in the Antarctic. Originates at the South
Pole and continues its flow to the Ross Ice
Shelf, which is roughly the size of France.
Belau. See Palau, Republic of.
Bellingshausen Sea. Sea in West Antarctica. Ex-
tends from the eightieth south parallel to the
Antarctic Peninsula. Named after Russian
explorer Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen.
Bentley Subglacial Trench. Lowest spot in
Antarctica and the lowest altitude on any con-
tinent. At 8,383 feet (2,555 meters) below sea
level, it is 7,000 feet (2,134 meters) lower than
Israel’s Dead Sea. There is little snow, and the
earth is often exposed.
Bora Bora and its lagoon seen from the International Space Station.
Bikini Atoll. Small atoll in the Marshall Islands (NASA Johnson Space Center)
group in the western Pacific Ocean. In the

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

Botany Bay. Inlet of the South Pacific Ocean on ered by Captain James Cook in 1770 and named
the southeastern coast of Australia. Located 9 in honor of Commodore John Byron, the grand-
miles (15 km.) south of Port Jackson, in the city father of British poet Lord Byron.
of Sydney, New South Wales. The site of Cap- Cairns. City and port in North Queensland, Aus-
tain James Cook’s first landing on Australian tralia; gateway to the Great Barrier Reef. Lo-
soil, in 1770. cated 860 miles (1,380 km.) north of Brisbane,
Brisbane. State capital and major port of with a 2018 population of 152,729. Served by in-
Queensland, and Australia’s third-largest ternational air, rail, and the Bruce Highway. An
city. Built along the banks of the Brisbane River, important tourist center for access to the Great
12 miles (19 km.) from where it empties into Barrier Reef, coastal resort islands, and
Moreton Bay. Balmy and tropical, it had a 2019 big-game fishing. Founded in the 1870s on Trin-
population of 2.5 million. A shipping and man- ity Inlet of Trinity Bay; grew as a result of nearby
ufacturing hub, its proximity to the agricultural gold and tin mining and sugarcane cultivation.
lands of the Eastern Highlands and Darling Canberra. Federal capital of Australia, located in
Downs, and its port, which can accommodate the Australian Capital Territory. The coun-
the largest cruise ships, have made Brisbane a try’s first planned city; carved from the bush in
major exporter of wool, meat, dairy products, southeastern Australia, about 150 miles (240
sugar, and grains. Among its industrial facilities km.) southwest of Sydney. Site was chosen in
are food-processing plants, oil refineries, ship- 1909; an international contest was launched in
yards, sawmills, and factories that produce auto- 1911 to find a design for the new capital. Con-
mobiles, rubber goods, cement, and fertilizer. struction began in 1913; in 1927 ceremonies
Also the gateway to Australia’s famous Gold marked the official transfer of the federal parlia-
Coast resorts and casinos. Originally established ment from its temporary home in Melbourne
as a convict settlement in 1824; became the to the new Parliament House in Canberra. Low
capital in 1859. buildings, large expanses of park lands, and the
Brooks Islands. See Midway Islands. artificial lake Burleigh Griffin form the city’s
Burdekin River. Largest river in Australia’s core. Name is derived from an Aboriginal word
Queensland state. Enters the sea in a big delta for “meeting place.” Population in 2019 was
near Ayr, where groundwater makes the cultiva- 426,704.
tion of sugarcane, a principal crop, possible. Af- Canterbury Plains. Largest lowland area in New
ter flooding in the summer months, it dries up Zealand. About 200 miles (320 km.) long and
into waterholes for m uch of t he year. 40 miles (64 km.) wide; located in the east-cen-
Queensland’s largest dam was constructed at the tral region of South Island. The breadbasket of
Burdekin Falls. Named by explorer Ludwig the country. Once home of the moa, a large
Leichhardt in 1845 in honor of the Burdekin flightless bird that was hunted into extinction by
family, which financed his expedition. the Maori. Home of the nor’wester, a dry, warm
Byrd Glacier. Largest glacier feeding the Ross Sea wind that blows from the northwest across the
and the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica. Wider plains, similar to the chinook of North America.
than the English Channel and produces more Cape York Peninsula. Large triangular area com-
ice annually than all the other six glaciers that prising the northernmost extension of Austra-
feed the Ross Ice Shelf. lia’s Queensland state, with the Gulf of
Byron, Cape. Easternmost point of Australia’s Carpentaria on the west and the Coral Sea to
mainland; located in northeastern New South the east. A remote area with mostly dirt roads;
Wales. Shelters Byron Bay. Originally the main travel in wet lowlands is made difficult by flood-
port between the town of Newcastle and Bris- ing streams. The twenty-five national parks on
bane, 90 miles (145 km.) to the north. Discov- the peninsula represent the wide variety of

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 Gazetteer

Queensland vegetation and habitats, ranging terrain, making it ideal for bicycling and walk-
from tropical rain forest to woodland and tropi- ing. The international airport is the primary
cal grasslands and swamps. Cattle raising and gateway to Antarctica. Earthquakes in 2010
gold mining on the Palmer River were impor- and 2011 destroyed one-third of the city.
tant during the nineteenth century; bauxite Christmas Island. See Kiritimati Island.
mining and tourism now support the local Clutha River/Mata-Au. Largest river by volume
economy. and second-longest river in New Zealand.
Caroline Islands. Archipelago in the western Pa- Flows southeast 200 miles (322 km.) across cen-
cific Ocean, with more than 930 hundred is- tral Otago on South Island, beginning at Lake
lands, atolls, and islets. Area of 450 square miles Wanaka and reaching the Pacific Ocean south
(1,165 sq. km.) is divided into the Republic of of Dunedin. Major source of hydroelectric
Palau (1994) and the Federated States of Mi- power for New Zealand. Center of the Otago
cronesia (1979), consisting of Chuuk, Kosrae, gold rush in the eighteenth century.
Pohnpei, and Yap. Native inhabitants are Coober Pedy. Mining town in central South Aus-
Micronesians. The larger islands are volcanic in tralia; most of the world’s opals come from this
origin; the smaller are coral atolls. From 1947 to area. Located 590 miles (950 km.) northwest of
1979, the islands, previously in Japanese hands, Adelaide in the Stuart Range on the edge of the
were the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Great Victoria Desert. Population was 1,762
administered by the United States. Population in 2016. Its name is derived from the Aboriginal
was 131,200 in 2007. words meaning “boy’s waterhole,” referring to
Carpentaria, Gulf of. Shallow inlet of the Arafura miners’ practice of building homes under-
Sea along the northern coast of Australia. Cov- ground to escape temperatures as high as 125
ers 120,000 square miles (310,000 sq. km.) with degrees Fahrenheit (52 degrees Celsius) during
a maximum depth of 230 feet (70 meters). Bor- the summer months. The first opals were found
dered on the east by the Cape York Peninsula here in 1911.
and on the west by Arnhem Land. More than Cook, Mount. New Zealand’s highest mountain
twenty meandering rivers drain into the gulf. peak, at 12,317 feet (3,754 meters). Located in
The town of Karumba, located on the gulf, is a the Southern Alps of South Island. Perpetual
major center for the prawn-fishing industry; snow cap; popular skiing site. Known to the
huge deposits of manganese and bauxite are Maori as Aorangi, meaning “the cloud piercer.”
mined in the area. Cook Islands. Self-governing islands in association
Chatham Islands. Remote group of islands belong- with New Zealand in the South Pacific Ocean.
ing to New Zealand. Situated 528 miles (850 About 2,000 miles (3,220 km.) northeast of New
km.) east of Christchurch. Population was 663 Zealand. Comprises fifteen islands with a total
in 2018. Main population center is located at area of about 90 square miles (240 sq. km.); pop-
Waitangi. Island economy is based on the ex- ulation was 8,574 in 2020. Northern islands are
port of sheep, wool, and fish to the mainland. sparsely populated atolls; southern islands are
Original inhabitants of the islands were the volcanic in origin and include Rarotonga. Most
Moriori, of Polynesian origin. Tommy Soloman, of the islands’ people live on Rarotonga and are
the last full-blooded Moriori, died in 1933. of mixed Polynesian and European ancestry.
Christchurch. Largest city on South Island, New Cook Strait. Stretch of ocean separating North
Zealand. Situated on the coastal edge of the and South Islands of New Zealand. Major
Canterbury Plains, at the foothills of Banks inter island shipping link; 16 miles (25 km.) at
Peninsula, an extinct volcano. Population was its narrowest point. Subject to rough seas and
377,200 in 2019. Founded in 1850 as an Angli- site of maritime disasters; acts like a wind tunnel.
can settlement. Most of the city is built on flat In 1968 the inter-island roll-on, roll-off ferry

292
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

sank, costing fifty-one lives, during one of the 1942 during World War II. The city was largely
worst storms in the country’s history. Named af- rebuilt after being devastated by Cyclone Tracy
ter Captain James Cook, who sailed through the in 1974. Port Darwin was named in 1839 by John
strait in 1770. Lort Stokes aboard H.M.S. Beagle, after his for-
Cooktown. Town and port located at the mouth of mer shipmate, Charles Darwin.
the Endeavour River on the Coral Sea in north- Dry valleys. Ice-free valleys in Antarctica that re-
eastern Queensland. Population was about ceive almost no precipitation and can sustain
2,631 in 2016. Linked by the Mulligan Highway some rudimentary plant life. Dry valleys with
to Cairns, 120 miles (190 km.) to the south; oases are found in Victoria Land, Wilkes Land,
faces the Great Barrier Reef. Founded in 1873 and Princess Elizabeth Land, all in East
during the Palmer River gold rush; economy re- (Greater) Antarctica. Protected by the Royal
lies on agriculture mining, and ecotourism. Society Mountain Range; consist of the Taylor,
Named after British explorer Captain James Wright, and Victoria valleys, which were once
Cook, who beached his ship Endeavour there for filled by glaciers. Collectively, they cover an area
repairs. of 9 to 15 miles by 93 miles (15 to 25 km. by 150
Coral Sea. Part of the southwestern Pacific Ocean; km.).
extends east from its meeting with the Arafura Dunedin. Second-largest city on New Zealand’s
Sea, through the Torres Strait, east of the Aus- South Island. Located on the southeast coast of
tralian continent and New Guinea, west of New Otago; population was 131,700 in 2019.
Caledonia and the New Hebrides, and south of Founded as a Scottish settlement in 1848. New
the Solomon Islands. Covers 1,849,800 square Zealand’s first university was established there in
miles (4,791,000 sq. km.); named for its many 1869. The name is Gaelic for “Edinburgh.”
coral formations, particularly the Great Bar- East (Greater) Antarctica. Portion of Antarctica
rier Reef, which extends 1,250 miles (2,010 km.) east of the Transantarctic Mountains. In-
down Australia’s northeast coast. Subject to ty- cludes Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, and Queen
phoons from January to April; provides a Maud Land. The geographic and magnetic
200-mile (320-km.) shipping channel between South Poles lie in this area. Considerably larger
eastern Australia and the South Pacific Islands and than West (Lesser) Antarctica.
China. Site of a naval battle in 1942 that prevented Easter Island. Chilean dependency in the South
the Japanese invasion of Australia. Pacific, about 2,400 miles (3,862 km.) off the
Darling Downs. Tableland located in southeastern coast of Chile. Area of 46 square miles (119 sq.
Queensland, Australia. Agricultural and pas- km.); population was 7,750 in 2017. The island,
toral region covering 5,500 square miles (14,200 discovered on Easter Sunday in 1722 by Dutch
sq. km.); a major wheat and dairy belt. Admiral Jacob Roggeveen, is known for the hun-
Darwin. Capital city of Australia’s Northern dreds of monolithic statues of people, averaging
Territory. Located in the far north, or Top 15 feet (4.6 meters) tall, that dot its landscape.
End, it was founded in 1869 on a low peninsula Also known as Isla de Pascua or Rapa Nui.
northeast of the entrance to its harbor, Port Dar- Ellice Islands. See Tuvalu.
win, an inlet of the Clarence Strait of the Timor Ellsworth Mountains. Range located south of the
Sea. A center for government administration Antarctic Peninsula in Marie Byrd Land.
and mining; also a tourist destination, providing Some of the world’s highest peaks are located
access to Bathurst and Melville Islands. Popula- there: Vinson Massif soars to 16,050 feet (4,892
tion was 148,564 in 2018. Violence was part of meters); Mount Tyree reaches 15,500 feet (4,723
the area’s history, as the local Aborigines resisted meters). Named for Lincoln Ellsworth, the US
European settlement. As a result of its proximity aviator who discovered their northern portion,
to Asia, Darwin was bombed by the Japanese in Sentinel Ridge.

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Equator. Great circle of Earth that is everywhere Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. Enormous ice shelf on
equally distant from the two poles and divides the northeastern side of the Weddell Sea in
Earth into the Northern and Southern hemi- East (Greater) Antarctica. Became much
spheres. The direction of the currents and winds smaller in 1986, when all the ice north of its
around the equator have a profound effect on great chasm calved, floating into the Weddell
the Pacific Islands. Sea. The area that broke away covered 5,000
Erebus, Mount. Largest active volcano on Ross Is- square miles (13,000 sq. km.). Another large
land, Antarctica. Rises to 12,448 feet (3,794 area of ice broke away in 2010. Some scientists
meters) above sea level. Discovered in 1841 by predict that climate change may cause this shelf
Antarctic explorer Sir James Clark Ross, who to disappear altogether by the end of the
named it after one of his ships. When discov- twenty-first century.
ered, it was spewing smoke and flame into the Fiordland National Park. Largest national park in
sky to a height that Ross estimated to be 2,000 New Zealand. Covers 4,853 square miles
feet (600 meters). (12,570 sq. km.). Established in 1952 in the re-
mote southwestern corner of South Island. Its
geographical features include fjords, rugged
mountain ranges, and vast beech forests. The
park is a World Heritage Site.
Flinders Island. Largest and northernmost island
in the Furneaux Group, Tasmania, Australia.
Located in the eastern Bass Strait between Tas-
mania and the Australian mainland; covers ap-
proximately 800 square miles (2,080 sq. km.).
Named for English navigator Matthew Flinders,
who first surveyed it in 1798. Population was 833
Aerial view of Mount Erebus craters in the foreground with Mount Ter- in 2016.
ror in the background, Ross Island, Antarctica. (NSF/Josh Landis)
Fraser Island. World Heritage-listed sand island,
Eyre, Lake. Great salt lake located in the southeast- l o c a t e d of f t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n co a s t o f
ern corner of the Great Artesian Basin in the Queensland state, Australia; also called Great
state of South Australia. Covers 3,861 square Sandy Island. It is 75 miles (120 km.) long and
miles (10,000 sq. km.). The surface of the lake covers 625 square miles (1,620 sq. km.). Named
bed is covered by a thin crust of salt, the result of for Captain James Fraser, who was killed there
deposits made by rapidly evaporating waters. by indigenous Australians in 1836. The island is
Federated States of Micronesia. See Micronesia, noted for its large population of dingoes, which
Federated States of. have become a menace to residents and tourists.
Fiji. Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, com- Fremantle. One of Australia’s largest ports and
prising about 332 islands in a horseshoe config- the principal port of Western Australia state.
uration in Melanesia. Area is 7,056 square Located on the Indian Ocean at the mouth of
miles (18,274 sq. km.). Capital city is Suva. Pop- the Swan River. Originally a major whaling cen-
ulation was 935,974 in 2020, 57 percent native ter; later served the gold fields of Coolgar-
Fijians and 38 percent Asian Indians. This has die-Kalgoorlie; a principal submarine base for
created continuing ethnic strife. Two main is- the Allies in World War II; now a major industrial
lands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The islands center. Population in 2016 was 28,893.
are volcanic in origin, but coral reefs have built French Oceania. See French Polynesia.
up along them. Also known as Fiji Islands. French Polynesia. An overseas collectivity of
France located in the South Pacific Ocean,

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comprising 118 islands and atolls. Area is 1,609 named for Alfred Gibson, a member of his party
square miles (4,167 sq. km.); population was who perished there.
2 9 5 , 1 2 1 i n 2 0 2 0 . C o n t a i n s S o c i e t y, Gilbert Islands. Group of islands with sixteen atolls
Marquesas, Gambier, and Austral island in Kiribati, west Pacific Ocean, across the
groups and Tuamotu Archipelago. Capital is equator. Area is 102 square miles (264 sq. km.);
Papeete, located on Tahiti, its largest island. Ta- population was 83,382 in 2005. Part of the
hiti is also home to the largest peak on the is- Gilbert and Ellice Islands (see Tuvalu) Colony
lands, Mount Orohena, which reaches 7,352 feet until 1976. Major islands are Tarawa, Butaritari,
(2,241 meters). About 78 percent of the popula- Abaiang, Abemama, Tabiteuea, Nonouti, and
tion are Polynesian, 12 percent are Chinese, and Beru.
6 percent are of French origin. Also known as Gippsland. Fertile region of southeastern Victo-
Polynésie Française. Formerly French Oceania. ria, Australia. Covers 13,600 square miles
Friendly Islands. See Tonga. (35,200 sq. km.). Center of the state’s dairy in-
Furneaux Group. Cluster of mountainous, rocky is- dustry. Originally attracted settlers with its gold
lands situated in the Bass Strait that separates finds; farmers arrived with the completion of a
the Australian mainland from the island state of rail line from Melbourne in 1887.
Tasmania. Primarily used for cattle and sheep Graham Land. Southern half of the Antarctic
raising. Sighted by Tobias Furneaux in 1773. Peninsula; the northern half is called Palmer
Gambier, Mount. Mountain located in southeast- Land. Named after a British nobleman.
ern South Australia, approximately 280 miles Grampians. System of mountain ranges extending
(450 km.) southeast of the capital city of southwest from the Great Dividing Range in
Adelaide. An extinct volcano with four crater southwest central Victoria, Australia. Covers
lakes; rises to a height of 623 feet (190 meters). approximately 400 square miles (1,035 sq. km.).
Gaua. One of the Banks Islands (also known as Mount William, the highest peak, rises to 3,827
Santa Maria), in northern Vanuatu in the south- feet (1,166 meters). Noted for sandstone rock
western Pacific Ocean. Volcanic Mount Gharat, formations, deep gorges, and colorful
which reaches 2,615 feet (797 meters) in height, vegetation.
most recently erupted in 2013. Great Antarctic Horst. See Transantarctic
Gaussberg, Mount. Only volcano discovered in Mountains.
East (Greater) Antarctica. Great Artesian Basin. One of the largest areas of ar-
Geographic South Pole. See South Pole. tesian water in the world, covering approxi-
George VI Ice Shelf. Antarctic ice shelf with a nota- mately 656,250 square miles (1.7 million sq.
ble ice melt in 2020 of about 90 miles (140 km.). km.). Underlies approximately one-fifth of the
Located below the George VI Sound west of Australian continent, including most of
Palmer Land on the Antarctic Peninsula, it Queensland, with portions extending into New
receives deep, warm waters that spill over the South Wales, the Northern Territory, and
continental shelf. These waters are 3.6 Fahren- South Australia. Overexploitation of the
heit degrees (2 Celsius degrees) warmer than Great Artesian Basin is a major environmental
those beneath the Ross Ice Shelf, enough to concern.
drastically affect the speed at which the ice Great Australian Bight. Embayment of the Indian
melts. Ocean indenting the southern coast of the Aus-
Gibson Desert. Vast dry area in the interior of tralian continent. Its head abuts the arid
Western Australia and the Northern Terri- Nullabor Plain. Has a continuous border of
tory. Located between the Great Sandy Desert sea cliffs that rise 200 to 400 feet (60 to 120 me-
to the north and the Great Victoria Desert to ters) high.
the south. First crossed in 1876 by Ernest Giles;

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Great Barrier Reef. Limestone formation created Great Sandy Island. See Fraser Island.
by the largest group of coral reefs in the world; Great Victoria Desert. Vast, arid expanse of land in
extends 1,250 miles (2,000 km.) along the Western and South Australia, situated be-
northeast coast of Australia. Parts of the reef tween the Nullarbor Plain to the south and
are more than 100 miles (160 km.) from the the Gibson Desert to the north, and stretching
coast; the closest point is 10 miles (16 km.) dis- eastward from Kalgoorlie nearly to the Stuart
tant. Covers approximately 80,000 square miles Range. Composed of salt marshes and hills cov-
(207,000 sq. km.). Thought to have begun grow- ered with Spinifex grass. First explored by Ernest
ing millions of years ago, the reef is formed from Giles, who named it.
the skeletal waste of tiny marine organisms Greater Antarctica. See East (Greater)
called coral polyps and hydrocorals. Supports Antarctica.
about 400 species of these organisms, more than Guadalcanal. Largest of the Solomon Islands in
1,500 species of fish, and myriad other sea life the South Pacific Ocean. Area is 2,180 square
and birds. Current biggest threats are thought to miles (5,646 sq. km.). Population was 109,382 in
be climate change and overfishing. A 2012 study 1999. Extending the length of the island (92
estimated that over half the reef has disap- miles/148 km.) are the Kavo Mountains. During
peared since the 1980s. Australia proposed a World War II, the site of fighting between US
35-year plan in 2014 to save the reef. In addition and Japanese forces, beginning in August 1942,
to its scientific interest, the reef is a major tourist and ending in February 1943, with a US victory.
attraction. In 1981 it was named a UNESCO Guahan. See Guam.
World Heritage Site. The Great Barrier Reef was Guam. Largest and southernmost of the Mariana
first explored by Europeans in 1770, when Brit- Islands in the western North Pacific Ocean;
ish explorer Captain James Cook’s ship ran unincorporated US territory. Area is 212 square
aground on it. miles (549 sq. km.); population was 168,485 in
Great Dividing Range. Series of mountain ranges 2020. Capital is Agana. Its northern part, largely
and plateaus that form the main watershed of a plateau, was formed by coral; the southern
eastern Australia. Also known as the Great Di- part, hilly with streams, is volcanic in origin. Oc-
vide or Eastern Highlands, the range begins to cupied by the Japanese in 1941 and taken by the
the north on the Cape York Peninsula and par- United States in 1944. Many US Navy, Army,
allels the coasts of Queensland, New South and Air Force installations are located on Guam,
Wales, and Victoria, ending in the Gram- which was an important air base in the Vietnam
pians. One section, the Australian Alps, in- War. Also known as Guahan.
cludes Australia’s highest peak, Mount Halycon Island. See Wake Island.
Kosciuszko. Several of the country’s major Hamersley Range. Mountains in the Pilbara region
rivers form their headwaters in the range, in- of Western Australia. Includes the state’s
cluding the Snowy, Darling, and Murrumbidgee highest peak, Mount Meharry (4,111 feet/1,253
rivers. An important agricultural, lumbering, meters). Important for mining, particularly iron
and mining region. ore.
Great Sandy Desert. Vast, flat expanse of sand hills Haupapa/Tasman Glacier. Largest glacier in New
and salt marshes located in northern Western Zealand. Flows down the eastern slopes of
Australia, between the Pilbara and Kimberley Aoraki/Mount Cook in South Island. First ex-
ranges. Sparsely populated, with no significant plored by geologist Julius Von Haast and sur-
settlements. Daytime temperatures in the sum- veyor Arthur Dobson in 1862. Melting has oc-
mer are among the hottest in Australia, fre- curred since the 1990s.
quently rising above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 Hawaii. State of the United States consisting of a
degrees Celsius) at times. chain of volcanic and coral islands in the North

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Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiian archipelago con- the last of them was exterminated in 1876. Situ-
tains eight major islands—Hawaii (also known ated at the foot of lofty Mount Wellington (4,165
as the Big Island), Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, feet/1,270 meters) and with an excellent
Molokai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe—and 124 is- deep-water harbor, Hobart has prospered, par-
lets, reefs, and shoals. The islands’ total area is ticularly in the whaling trade, shipbuilding, and
10,931 square miles (28,311 sq. km.). Hawaii’s the export of agricultural products such as corn
population was 1.41 million in 2018. Largest and Merino wool.
city is Honolulu, on Oahu Island. The islands Honolulu. Seaport city on Oahu Island, and Ha-
are almost all volcanic in origin, with some areas waii state capital. In the Pacific Ocean. Metro-
formed from coral reefs. The islands contain politan population was 953,207 in 2019. Its con-
mountains rising to more than 13,000 feet venient location in the North Pacific Ocean and
(4,000 meters) above sea level, numerous sandy its protected harbor make it a valuable trade
beaches, dense rain forests, arid scrublands, port. Located at the mouth of the Nuuanu Val-
fields, forests, barren lava beds, and canyons. ley, with the Punchbowl and Mount Tantalus be-
European explorer Captain James Cook arrived hind it. A superior beach is located in its south-
in 1778 and named the islands the Sandwich Is- eastern suburb of Waikiki. Main industries are
lands. Originally an independent kingdom cre- tourism, sugar processing, and pineapple
ated by Kamehameha I in the late eighteenth canning.
century, the islands lost their independence in Howe, Cape. Southeastern point of mainland Aus-
the late nineteenth century when American tralia, located at the New South Wales-Vic-
planters overthrew the monarchy and declared a toria border. Named by Captain James Cook in
republic. Hawaii was annexed to the United 1770 for Richard, Lord Howe, of the Royal Navy.
States in 1898 and became the nation’s fiftieth Hunter Valley. Fertile agricultural region in east
state in 1959. central New South Wales, Australia; watered
Hawaii Island. Largest and southernmost of the by the Hunter River and its tributaries. Agricul-
Hawaiian Islands, United States, in the North ture includes fruit orchards and vineyards; cat-
Pacific. Area is 4,021 square miles (10,414 sq. tle, sheep, and poultry are also raised.
km.); population was 186,738 in 2011. Has four Îles Australes. See Austral Islands.
volcanic mountains: Mauna Kea, Hualalai, Îles Marquises. See Marquesas Islands.
Mauna Loa, and Kilauea. Indian Ocean. One of the three oceans on which
Hawke’s Bay. Largest production region of apples, the coast of Antarctica fronts. The Indian
pears, and peaches in New Zealand. A wide bay Ocean is off East (Greater) Antarctica, from
located on the east central coast of North Is- about the fiftieth to the hundred-twentieth par-
land. Boasts a Mediterranean climate and fer- allel.
tile soils. Contains Cape Kidnappers, the largest Invercargill. Southernmost city in New Zealand.
known mainland gannet-nesting colony in the Located on the Waihopai River at the bottom of
world. Named by Captain James Cook after Sir South Island; population was 56,200 in 2019.
Edward Hawke, then Lord of the British Has some of the widest streets of any city in New
Admiralty, in 1769. Zealand.
Hobart. Largest city, main port, and capital of Aus- Isla de Pascua. See Easter Island.
tralia’s island state, Tasmania. Australia’s Islands, Bay of. Site of New Zealand’s first perma-
smallest capital city, with an estimated popula- nent European settlement. Located on the east
tion of 240,342 in 2019. Established as a convict coast in the Northland region of North Island.
settlement at the mouth of the Derwent River in Contains 150 islands, most uninhabited, within
the southeastern corner of the state in 1804. Ex- an irregular coastline that stretches 497 miles
isted in conflict with the Aboriginal people until (800 km.).

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Jervis Bay. Inlet of the Tasman Sea, in southeastern Flinders in 1802 for the abundance of
New South Wales, Australia. One of the kangaroos.
country’s finest natural harbors, 10 miles (16 Karkar. Active volcano on a small island in the Pa-
km.) wide and 6 miles (10 km.) long. Discovered cific Ocean, off the east coast of New Guinea Is-
and named in 1770 by Captain James Cook. land, in the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua
Joseph Bonaparte Gulf. Inlet of the Timor Sea in- New Guinea. Reaches a height of 6,033 feet
denting the northern coast of Australia for (1,839 meters). One of its most recent eruptions
nearly 100 miles (160 km.). Site of Wyndham, occurred in 2013.
the area’s main port; termination point for the Kauai. Island in the northwest part of the Hawai-
Ord, Victoria, and other rivers. Aboriginal re- ian Islands, North Pacific Ocean. Area is 555
serves are located here. square miles (1,437 sq. km.). Mountainous, with
Kalgoorlie. Historical Gold Capital of the World, two major peaks, Kawaikini and Waialeale;
located in the Outback northern goldfields of three major bays are Nawiliwilli, Hanalei, and
Western Australia, 372 miles (600 km.) from Hanapepe. Largest city, Lihue, had a popula-
Perth. Population was 29,849 in 2018. Mining tion of 6,455 in 2010.
began with (Paddy) “Hannan’s Find”—the dis- Kavachi. Active submarine volcano in the Solomon
covery of gold in 1893; production peaked in Islands, south of Vangunu Island, in the Pacific
1903. Nickel is now the region’s chief mineral Ocean. Located 18.6 miles (30 km.) from the
product. An arid region, its name is a corruption boundary of the Indian and Australian tectonic
of the Aboriginal word “galgurlie,” an plates. Rises from a depth of about 3,600 feet
indigenous plant. (1,100 meters); base measures about 4.9 miles (8
km.) in diameter. Since the first recorded erup-
tion in 1939, it has created at least eight islands
up to about 480 feet (150 meters) in length. Last
eruption occurred in 2014.
Kerr Point. Northernmost tip of New Zealand. Sit-
uated on North Cape at 34°24¢ south latitude,
longitude 172°59¢ east. Extends northward into
the Pacific Ocean.
Kilauea. World’s most active volcano. In Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park, on the east slope of
volcanic mountain of Mauna Loa, south central
Hawaii Island, Hawaii. Crater is at an elevation
of 4,091 feet (1,247 meters), more than 10,000
Kalgoorlie Court House, Western Australia. (Bonga) feet (3,000 meters) below the summit. It began
erupting in 1983, spewing 525,000 cubic yards
Kangaroo Island. Australia’s third-largest off-
(400,000 cubic meters) of lava per day on
shore island. Located at the entrance to the Gulf
average.
of Saint Vincent in South Australia, 80 miles
Kimberley Plateau. Sandstone plateau with deep
(130 km.) southwest of the state’s capital city,
river gorges, located in northern Western Aus-
Adelaide. Kingscote is the main town; popula-
tralia. Covers 140,000 square miles (360,000
tion was 4,702 in 2016. A low, cliffed plateau, 90
sq. km.). Mining and cattle grazing are primary
miles (145 km.) long and 27 miles (44 km.) wide.
industries. Many of the inhabitants are indige-
Separated from the mainland by Investigator
nous Australians.
Strait. Named by English explorer Matthew
Kiribati. Island nation, part of the Commonwealth
of Nations, in the central Pacific Ocean. Area is

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313 square miles (811 sq. km.); population was (1,449 meters). One of its latest eruptions oc-
111,796 in 2020. This Micronesian republic curred in 2007.
comprises thirty-three coral atolls in three McMurdo Station. One of six US stations built in
groups: the Gilbert, Phoenix, and Line Is- Antarctica during the International Geophys-
lands. Seventeen of the twenty-one permanently ical Year (1957-1958). Situated on the east side
inhabited islands are in the Gilbert Islands, of the Ross Sea off Victoria Land in the
where its capital, Tarawa, is located. Except for McMurdo Sound. Staffed by over 1,200 re-
Banaba, the islands are atolls, few rising more searchers and explorers during the Antarctic
than 13 feet (4 meters) above sea level. Kiribati, summer; about 200 people remain during the
among other Pacific Island nations, has ex- long winter.
pressed concern over climate change, which Magnetic South Pole. See South Magnetic Pole.
could cause sea levels to rise and submerge its Mariana Islands. Pacific Ocean island group east
islands. of the Philippines that comprises the sixteen
Kiritimati Island. One of the Line Islands of coral and volcanic islands of the Commonwealth
Kiribati, in central Pacific Ocean. Largest of the Northern Mariana Islands and Guam.
atoll in the Pacific, at 150 square miles (388 sq. Mariana Trench. Deepest seafloor depression in
km.); population was 6,456 in 2015. Part of the world, 36,210 feet (11,034 meters) deep. Lo-
Kiribati since 1979. Also known as Christmas cated just east of the Mariana Islands in the Pa-
Island. cific Ocean at 11°22¢ north latitude, longitude
Kosciuszko, Mount. Australia’s highest moun- 142°36¢ east. The arc-shaped trench, which av-
tain peak, located in New South Wales. Rises to erages 44 miles (70 km.) in width, stretches from
7,310 feet (2,229 meters). Snow covers the northeast to southwest for about 1,554 miles
mountain through the winter. In 1840 explorer (2,500 km.). The Challenger Deep, at the south-
Paul Edmund de Strzelecki named the moun- western end of the trench, is the deepest point
tain after Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a Polish army on Earth at 35,856 feet (10,929 meters).
officer who fought with the Americans in the
Revolutionary War.
Lagoon Islands. See Tuvalu.
Lambert Glacier. Sizable Antarctic glacier; 25 miles
(40 km.) wide and more than 248 miles (400
km.) long. Flowing through the Prince Charles
Mountains, it drains the interior reaches of the
continent of ice and snow, discharging 8.4 cubic
miles (35 cubic km.) of ice every year into the
Amery Ice Shelf.
Lesser Antarctica. See West (Lesser) Antarctica.
Little America. Name of several bases in
Antarctica. The first was established by ex-
plorer Richard Byrd near the Bay of Whales in The bathyscaphe Trieste (designed by Auguste Piccard), the first
1928. Four subsequent bases called Little Amer- manned vehicle to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench. (U.S.
ica were built after this one. Little America V was Navy Electronics Laboratory)
disbanded in 1979 after the International Geo-
physical Year program ended. Marie Byrd Land. Large area in West (Lesser)
Lopevi. Active volcano on the island of Lopevi, in Antarctica. Established near the one hun-
south central Vanuatu in the southwestern Pa- dredth parallel; named for the wife of Antarctic
cific Ocean. Reaches a height of 4,755 feet explorer Richard Byrd.

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Marquesas Islands. Fourteen-island group in considered part of Asia.) The other islands in-
French Polynesia, in the South Pacific clude the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New
Ocean. Area is 405 square miles (1,049 sq. km.); Caledonia, Fiji, Admiralty Islands, and the
population was 9,346 in 2017. Major islands fall Bismarck Archipelago. Population in 2020
in three groups: Nuku Hiva, Ua Pu, and Ua was 9.47 million.
Huka (center); Hiva Oa, Tahuata, and Fau Hiva Melbourne. State capital of Victoria, Australia;
(southeast); and Eiao and Hatutu (northwest). country’s second-largest city. Situated 3 miles
Islands are of volcanic origin. Also known as Îles (4.5 km.) inland at the head of Port Phillip Bay
Marquises. on the southeastern coast. Population was 5 mil-
Marshall Islands. Archipelago and republic in cen- lion in 2019. Established in 1835 on the banks of
tral North Pacific Ocean. Contains 30 atolls the Yarra River, the cosmopolitan city is the
and 1,152 islands. Area is 70 square miles (181 country’s financial center. The densely popu-
sq. km.); population was 77,917 in 2020. Majuro lated city center and outlying suburbs cover ap-
is the capital island of these Micronesian is- proximately 2,359 square miles (6,109 sq. km.).
lands. The February 1944, capture of Majuro by Hosted the Olympic Games in 1956.
the United States in World War II was the first Micronesia. One of three divisions of the Pacific Is-
seizure by the United States of a Japanese pos- lands, the other two being Melanesia and Poly-
session. The United States used Bikini Atoll in nesia. The name Micronesia means “little is-
the Marshall Islands as a nuclear testing ground lands.” The islands are mostly atolls and coral
in 1946. A trusteeship of the United States after islands; however, many of the islands in the
1947; became self-governing in 1979. Officially, Carolines are of volcanic origin. The more
the Republic of the Marshall Islands. than 2,000 islands of Micronesia are located in
Maui. Second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. the Pacific Ocean east of the Philippines,
Area is 728 square miles (1,886 sq. km.). East mostly above the equator. Micronesia contains
end of the island has Haleakala National Park, the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru,
with a peak, Red Hill, reaching 10,023 feet Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, the Republic
(3,055 meters); the west end has Puu Kukui, at of Palau, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the
5,787 feet (1,764 meters). On its south coast is Northern Mariana Islands. Population in
Maalaea Bay. Population was 154,834 in 2015. 2020 was approximately 545,000.
Mauna Kea. Extinct volcano in north central Ha- Micronesia, Federated States of (FSM). Islands of
waii Island, Hawaii. At 13,796 feet (4,205 me- the Carolines except Palau, in free association
ters), the highest island mountain in the world with the United States. Area is 271 square miles
from base to peak. (702 sq. km.); population was 1102,436 in 2020.
Mauna Loa. Active volcano in Hawaii Volcanoes Comprises four states—Kosrae, Pohnpei (for-
National Park on south central Hawaii Island, merly Ponape), Chuuk (formerly Truk), and Yap
Hawaii. Reaches 13,680 feet (4,170 meters) in —and is located north of the equator. Contains
height; is the largest mountain in the world in more than 600 islands, many of which are low-ly-
cubic content. Large lava flows occurred in 1919, ing coral atolls. Pohnpei, a volcanic island, is
1950, and 1984. Last eruption occurred in 1984. FSM’s largest and is home to the capital, Palikir.
Melanesia. One of three divisions of the Pacific Is- The islands of Yap state, unlike the others of
lands, the other two being Micronesia and FSM, are continental (formed by an uplifting of
Polynesia. Located in the western Pacific the continental shelf).
Ocean. Papua New Guinea, the eastern half of Midway Islands. Two islands, Eastern and Sand is-
the island of New Guinea, forms the western- lands, parts of a coral atoll in central Pacific
most part of Melanesia (the western half of New Ocean. Area is 2 square miles (5 sq. km.).
Guinea, Irian Jaya, is part of Indonesia, and thus Unpopulated before occupied by the United

300
Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

States since 1867; administered by the US Navy island. Naurans are of Polynesian, Micronesian,
and has been used extensively by the US Navy and Melanesian origin. The island contained
and Air Force. In June 1942, during World War large amounts of phosphate, depleted by 2006,
II, U.S. forces defeated a Japanese fleet nearby. produced royalties that made the republic, per
Formerly Brooks Islands. capita, one of the richest in the world, but caused
Milford Sound. One of the wettest places in New severe damage to the environment. Today,
Zealand, with an annual average rainfall of 256 Nauru relies heavily on financial aid from
inches (650 centimeter). A 10-mile-long (16- Australia. Formerly Pleasant Island.
km.)-long fjord located in the remote corner of New Caledonia. French collectivity in the south-
South Island. Part of Fiordland National western Pacific Ocean. Contains New Caledo-
Park. Contains a number of rock-sheer cliffs in- nia Island, Loyalty Islands, Isle of Pines, Ches-
cluding Mitre Peak, which rises 5,560 feet (1,695 terfield Islands, and Huon Islands. Total area is
meters) out of the sea. Ending point of the 7,358 square miles (19,058 sq. km.); population
Milford hiking track. was 290,009 in 2020, with 39 percent Melane-
Molokai. One of the Hawaiian Islands. Area is 259 sian; 34 percent Vietnamese, Polynesian, and In-
square miles (671 sq. km.). Largest city is donesian; and 27 percent European (mainly
Kaunakakai; the island has Mauna Loa at its French). Economic activities include mining
west end and Kamakou at its east end. A lep- (nickel, iron, and manganese), agriculture, live-
rosy-treatment center operated on its north stock production, fishing and forestry, and
coast until 1969. tourism.
New Hebrides. See Vanuatu.
New Hebrides Basin. Part of the Coral Sea, lo-
cated east of Australia and west of the New
Hebrides island chain. The basin contains volca-
nic islands, both old and recent.
New Hebrides Trench. Ocean trench in the south-
western Pacific Ocean, about 750 miles (1,200
km.) long and 25,000 feet (7,600 meters) deep.
New South Wales. Australia’s most populous
state. Located in the southeastern section of the
continent; bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the
Eastern Moloka’i with a portion of Kamakou and Moloka’i Forest east, the state of South Australia to the west,
Reserve. (Travis.Thurston)
Queensland state to the north, and the state of
Victoria to the south. Population was more
Murray River. Australia’s principal river. Flows
than 8 million in 2020. Environments range
1,560 miles (2,500 km.) across southeastern
from tropical rain forests to snow-clad moun-
Australia, from the Snowy Mountains to the
tains. Geographically, it is a narrow coastal plain
Great Australian Bight on the Indian
bordered in the east by the Great Dividing
Ocean. Main tributaries include the Darling
Range, which runs the length of the state; slopes
and Murrumbidgee rivers. The fertile Murray
and plains lie to the west. In 1788 it became the
Valley, the most irrigated land on the continent,
site of the first British settlement on the conti-
is of great economic importance.
nent; during the nineteenth century the colo-
Nauru. Raised coral island and republic in central
nies of Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania,
Pacific Ocean. Area is 8.2 square miles (21.2 sq.
and Queensland were carved out of its vast
km.); population was 11,000 in 2020 most living
original territory. Highly industrialized and eco-
in a narrow coastal strip around the edges of the

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nomically stable, the state is famous for its population was 51,433 in 2020. Consists of six-
beautiful harbor and capital city, Sydney. teen coral and volcanic islands that are the
New Zealand. Large South Pacific island nation, lo- Mariana Islands minus Guam. Main islands
cated more than 1,200 miles (1,900 km.) south- are Saipan (where the seat of government is),
east of Australia, its nearest neighbor. It was a Tinia, and Rota. The islands’ economy is based
British colony until 1947. The country com- on agriculture, light manufacturing, and tour-
prises two main islands, North and South is- ism. Also known as Northern Marianas.
lands, and a number of smaller islands, which Northern Territory. Self-governing territory of
collectively cover an area of about 103,500 Australia. Located in the central section of the
square miles (268,000 sq. km.). New Zealand ad- northern part of the continent; bounded by the
ministers the South Pacific island group of Timor and Arafura seas to the north, the state
Tokelau and claims a section of Antarctica. of We s t e r n Au s t r a l i a t o t h e we s t ,
Niue and the Cook Islands are self-governing Queensland and the Gulf of Carpentaria to
states in free association with New Zealand. Its the east, and South Australia to the south.
economy is based on the export of agricultural Population was 244,000 in 2020. Occupies
products. About 16.5 percent of its 4.92 million nearly one-sixth of the Australian landmass. Cli-
people (2020) are native Maoris. Capital city is mate is tropical in the north and semiarid in the
Wellington. south. Central section is crossed east-to-west by
Ninety Mile Beach. Famous beach in New Zea- the Macdonnell Ranges; main rivers include the
land, located along the west coast of the top of Victoria and the Adelaide. Uluru monolith is
North Island. Despite its name, it is about 55 located near the southwest corner of the terri-
miles (88 km.) long. The fringe of the beach is tory. Major towns are Darwin (the capital) and
lined by spectacular white sand dunes. Alice Springs.
Niue. Raised coral island in the south central Pa- Nullarbor Plain. Flat, treeless plateau located in
cific Ocean, east of Tonga, in free association the states of South Australia and Western Aus-
with New Zealand. Area is 100 square miles tralia. An ancient limestone seabed rising about
(260 sq. km.); population was 2,000 in 2019. 150 to 500 feet (50 to 200 meters) above sea
Consists of a plateau (200 feet/61 meters) sur- level; southern edge is bordered by the Great
rounded by a lower level (90 feet/27 meters) and Australian Bight and features 124 miles (200
rimmed by uneven, steep cliffs. Most of its resi- km.) of spectacular eroded sea cliffs. Covers
dents are Polynesian; about half live in or 100,000 square miles (259,000 sq. km.) and is
around the capital, Alofi (population 597 in crossed by the world’s longest stretch (330
2017). Also known as Savage Island. miles/530 km.) of straight railroad track; it is
North Island. Smaller of the two principal islands also accessed nearer the coast by the Eyre High-
of New Zealand, separated from South Island way. Has an average rainfall of less than 10
by Cook Strait. North Island has an area of inches (254 millimeters) and is nearly feature-
44,010 square miles (113,985 sq. km.), as well as less with no surface streams. Name is Latin for
a majority of the national population. Most of its “no tree.”
people are concentrated in the vicinity of the Oahu. Third-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. Area
m a j o r u r ba n a re a s , We l l i n g to n a n d is 600 square miles (1,555 sq. km.). Contains two
Auckland. Its population was 3,760,900 in mountain ranges: the Koolau along the north-
2019. east coast and the Waianae along the southwest
Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth of coast. Honolulu, capital of the state of Hawaii,
the. Island group in the Pacific Ocean, east of and Pearl Harbor are located on its south coast.
the Philippines, a commonwealth of the United Oceania. Collective name for the more than 10,000
States. Area is 184 square miles (477 sq. km.); islands scattered throughout the Pacific

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

Ocean, excluding the Japanese archipelago, In- back. Economy is mainly supported by sheep
donesia, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Alaska’s raising, opal mining, and oil production. Home
Aleutian Islands. The term also generally ex- of the Royal Flying Doctor Service, which pro-
cludes Australia, while including Papua New vides medical assistance to the residents of this
Guinea and New Zealand. Oceania has tradi- area.
tionally been divided into four p arts: Pacific Ocean. Largest body of water on Earth, cov-
Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and ering more than one-third of the world’s surface.
Polynesia. Its total land area, excluding Austra- Its area of about 70 million square miles (181
lia, is approximately 317,000 square miles million sq. km.) is greater than the entire land
(821,000 sq. km.); its population (again exclud- area of the world. It is framed by North and
ing Australia) was about 41.5 million people in South America in the northeast, Asia in the west,
2018. and Australia in the southwest. The equator
Ord River. River in the Kimberley plateau region separates the North Pacific Ocean from the
of northeastern Western Australia. Flows east South Pacific Ocean. The ocean’s average depth
then north nearly 400 miles (650 km.) to the is about 12,900 feet (3,900 meters). Its bottom is
Cambridge Gulf. Site of one of Australia’s more geologically varied than those of the
most expensive and controversial irrigation earth’s other great oceans—the Indian and At-
plans, the Ord River Project, designed to pre- lantic Oceans. The Pacific has more volcanoes,
vent seasonal flooding and store water for irri- ridges, trenches, seamounts, and islands. His-
gating areas subject to drought. torically, the vast size of the Pacific was a formi-
Outback. Name by which Australians refer to any dable barrier to travel, communications, and
place away from their cities. More specifically, trade well into the nineteenth century.
the semiarid region west of the Great Dividing Pagan. Active volcano on Pagan Island in the
Range (Eastern Highlands), which covers about Northern Mariana Islands. Reaches 1,870
80 percent of the continent, including most of feet (570 meters) in height. Its most recent erup-
Queensland, all of the Northern Territory, tions occurred in 2012.
and all of Western Australia except the south- Palau, Republic of. Republic and group of about
west corner. The Macdonnell, Musgrave, and 200 islands and islets in the west Pacific Ocean,
Petermann mountain ranges and the country’s in free association with the United States. Area is
four major deserts (Victoria, Great Sandy, 188 square miles (488 sq. km.). Its population
Gibson, and Tanami) are situated in the Out- was 21,685 in 2020, with about 70 percent of its
people living on Koror. Part of Micronesia and
considered western part of Carolines. The re-
public includes islands of Babeldaob (the larg-
est), Urukthapel, Peleliu, Angaur, Eil Malk, and
Koror. Palau’s islands, the larger of which are
volcanic, are encompassed by a fringing reef.
Also known as Belau.
Palau Trench. Seafloor depression in the western
Pacific Ocean; about 400 miles (650 km.) long
and 27,976 feet (8,527 meters) deep. Located
near Palau at 7°52¢ north latitude, longitude
134°56¢ east.
Palmer Land. Northern half of the Antarctic
View across sand plains and salt pans to Mount Conner, Central
Peninsula; the southern half is called Graham
Australia. (Gabriele Delhey)
Land. Named after Nathaniel Palmer, an Amer-

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ican who discovered the South Orkney Is- Phoenix Islands. Island group consisting of eight
lands. small coral atolls, in the central Pacific Ocean;
Papua New Guinea. Independent country in the part of Kiribati. Area is 11 square miles (28 sq.
southwestern Pacific Ocean. Area is 178,704 km.). The Phoenix Islands contain Canton,
square miles (462,840 sq. km.); population was Rawaki, Enderbury, Birnie, Manra, Orona,
7.25 million in 2020. Capital is Port Moresby. Nikumaroro, and McKean. Formerly a stop on
Located on the eastern half of the island of New trans-Pacific flights.
Guinea; includes Bougainville Island, Buka Is- Pitcairn Island. Group of islands forming a British
land, Louisiade Archipelago, Trobriand Islands, dependency in the south Pacific Ocean. Con-
D’Entrecasteaux Islands, the Bismarck Archi- sists of Pitcairn Island and the uninhabited is-
pelago (New Britain, New Ireland, Manus), and lands of Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno. Area is
hundreds of smaller islands. (The western part 18 square miles (47 sq. km.); population was 50
of New Guinea is Irian Jaya, part of Indonesia in 2020. Pitcairn, of volcanic origin, contains a
and thus considered part of Asia.) Mountains on single village, Adamstown. It was uninhabited
the mainland stretch from east to west and rise to when mutineers of the HMS Bounty and a group
14,795 feet (4,509 meters) at Mount Wilhelm in of Tahitians occupied it in 1790; the remains of
the Bismarck Range. Between this range and the their settlement were discovered in 1808. Over-
Owen Stanley range in the southeast lie broad, population resulted in 200 islanders moving to
high valleys. North of the valleys is a swampy Norfolk Island in 1856; some later returned to
plain; on its north are coastal mountain ranges, Pitcairn.
running from west to east. Major rivers include Polynesia. One of three divisions of the Pacific Is-
the Fly, Purari, Kikori, Sepik, and Ramu. Lo- lands, the other two being Melanesia and Mi-
cated along the Ring of Fire, a belt of seismic cronesia. Group of islands in the central and
activity circling the Pacific Ocean, it has forty ac- southern Pacific Ocean. Polynesia means
tive volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. “many islands.” Includes American Samoa, the
Formerly known as the Territory of Papua and Cook Islands, Easter Island, French Polyne-
New Guinea. sia, Hawaiian Islands, Line Islands, New Zea-
Perth. Capital of Western Australia state, Aus- land, Niue, Pitcairn Island, Samoa, Tokelau,
tralia. Located on the banks of the Swan River, Tonga, Tuvalu, and the Wallis and Futuna Is-
12 miles (19 km.) from the river’s mouth, which lands. The islands, mostly small, are predomi-
forms the harbor of Fremantle. A city since nantly coral atolls, but some are of volcanic ori-
1856, it is now the fourth-largest in the country; gin. Population was 7.05 million in 2020.
more than 2 million (2018) people—nearly Port Arthur. Inlet of the Tasman Sea on the south
three-quarters of the state’s population—live coast of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Aus-
there. An important industrial center; has a mild tralia. Located 63 miles (101 km.) northwest of
climate nearly eight months of the year. Nick- the capital city of Hobart. Site of one of the
named the “city of lights” by astronauts orbiting most notorious British penal colonies, estab-
Earth in the 1960s. Closer in distance to Asia’s lished in 1830, the ruins of which have become a
Singapore than to Sydney. popular tourist attraction.
Petermann Range. Low mountain range extending Port Jackson. Inlet of the Pacific Ocean and prin-
for 200 miles (320 km.) from east-central West- cipal port of New South Wales, Australia;
ern Australia to the southwest corner of the also known as Sydney Harbour. Its 1.5-mile (2.4
Northern Territory. Rises to 3,800 feet km.)-long entrance lies between North and
(1,158 meters). First explored by Ernest Giles in South Heads; it is 12 miles (19 km.) long, with a
1874, and named for August Petermann, a Ger- total area of 21 square miles (55 sq. km.), and is
man geographer. spanned by the Sydney Harbour Bridge at its

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

northern end. Comprises three smaller har- spent nearly a year in 1947 on Stonington Is-
bors—North Harbour, Middle Harbour, and land with her husband, explorer Finn Ronne.
Sydney Harbour—and the deepwater mouths of Originally called Edith Ronne Land, the name
two rivers, the Parramatta and the Lane Cove. was later changed to the Ronne Ice Shelf.
Port Moresby. Seaport and capital of Papua New Ross Ice Shelf. Largest ice shelf in Antarctica.
Guinea in the Pacific Ocean. Located on the About the size of France, it is located along the
southeast coast of the Gulf of Papua. Population Ross Sea. Presents an impenetrable surface
was 364,000 in 2019. Has a large, sheltered har- along its entire face, high cliffs of ice totally with-
bor; was an Allied base in World War II. out openings, making it impossible for early ex-
Prince Charles Mountains. Area through which plorers to move from the Ross Sea into the inte-
the Lambert Glacier in East (Greater) rior. Scientists have observed melting of the ice
Antarctica flows, annually carrying 8.4 cubic shelf due to warming Antarctic temperatures.
miles (13.4 cubic km.) of ice to the Amery Ice
Shelf.
Queen Maud Land. Section of Antarctica located
west of Enderby Land, between 20 degrees west
and 45 degrees east latitude.
Queensland. Australia’s second-largest state.
Covers 668,200 square miles (1,730,648 sq. km.)
including almost 2,700 square miles (7,000 sq.
km.) of islands. The state constitutes 22.5 per-
cent of Australia’s total area. In 2020 its popula-
tion was 5.1 million; the population is heavily
concentrated in the southeast. Capital is Bris- Ross Ice Shelf, Ross Sea, Antarctica. (NOAA Corps Collection)
bane, with 2.5 million people in 2019. The state
Ross Island. Large island in the Ross Sea of
has a tropical climate and is known for its un-
Antarctica. Has four volcanoes, Mount
usual flora and fauna, and for its proximity to
Erebus being the only active one. Covered most
the Great Barrier Reef. Originally a British
of the year by ice that connects it to the main-
penal colony named Moreton Bay.
land. The cold temperatures there prevent rain
Rabaul. Active volcano on New Britain Island, in
from falling, but it regularly receives snow.
the Bismarck Archipelago, part of Papua New
Named after British explorer Sir James Clark
Guinea in the Pacific Ocean. Reaches a height
Ross.
of 2,257 feet (687 meters). Most recent eruption
Ross Sea. Large sea south of the Pacific Ocean on
occurred in 2014.
Antarctica’s west side; ice-free part of the year.
Rapa Nui. See Easter Island.
The Transantarctic Mountains run 3,000
Red Centre. See Alice Springs.
miles (4,838 km.) from the Ross Sea across the
Rockhampton. City and commercial center in cen-
South Pole to the Weddell Sea. Named after
tral Queensland, Australia. Located 38 miles
Sir James Clark Ross, who explored the area
(60 km.) inland at the head of the Fitzroy River,
1839-1843.
which empties into Keppel Bay. Population was
Rotorua. Active thermal region of New Zealand,
78,592 in 2018. Regional commercial center
situated in central North Island. Site of sulfur
served by the deepwater Port Alma; important
fumes, bubbling mud, and hot springs. One of
tourist base for ocean access to the Great
the few areas in the world where geysers are
Barrier Reef.
found. An important center of Maori culture.
Ronne Ice Shelf. Large Antarctic ice shelf in the
Weddell Sea. Named after Edith Ronne, who

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Saipan. One of the Northern Mariana Islands in height, and interspersed with growths of Spinifex
the west Pacific Ocean. Area is 47 square miles grass. First noted by explorer Charles Sturt in
(120 sq. km.); population was 52,263 in 2017. 1845.
High cliffs mark the north end of the hilly is- Snowy River. River in New South Wales, Austra-
land. Was included in the Japanese mandate un- lia. Rises from the Snowy Mountains (a section of
der the League of Nations in 1920; Japan devel- the Australian Alps). Fed by melting snow, it
oped it as a naval base. Captured by US troops in flows about 270 miles (435 km.) southeast, then
1944 and converted to a US air base for the du- west, and south to the Bass Strait. Waters are
ration of World War II. diverted by the Snowy Mountains scheme, which
Samoa. Independent island nation in the southern includes mountain tunnels, sixteen dams, and
Pacific Ocean. Located on the western part of several reservoirs; this is one of the world’s larg-
the Samoan archipelago, west of longitude 171 est power and irrigation projects.
degrees west. (The part of the archipelago east Society Islands. Group of fourteen islands in the
of this line is American Samoa.) Consists of west part of French Polynesia in the South Pa-
seven volcanic islands. Area is 1,093 square cific Ocean. Area is 621 square miles (1,608 sq.
miles (2,831 sq. km.); 99 percent of this area is km.); population was 275,918 in 2018. Volcanic
Savavi’i and Upolu, the two largest islands, in origin. Made up of two island groups, the
which contain rain forests. Samoa’s population Windward Islands (Tahiti, Mooréa, and several
was 203,774 in 2016, most of whom live on islets) and the Leeward Islands.
Savai’I and Upolu. Samoans make up more than Solomon Islands. Independent nation, member of
90 percent of the population. Also known as the Commonwealth of Nations, in the west Pa-
Samoa Islands; formerly Western Samoa. cific Ocean, east of New Guinea. Area is 11,157
Sandwich Islands. See Hawaii. square miles (28,896 sq. km.); population was
Savage Island. See Niue. 685,097 in 2020, mainly Melanesians. Capital is
Sentinel Ridge. Northern ridge of the Ellsworth Honiara, on Guadalcanal. Comprises thirty is-
Mountains in the Antarctic. Vinson Massif, lands and many atolls. Includes most of the Sol-
Antarctica’s highest mountain, is found there. omon Islands group: Guadalcanal, New Geor-
Shark Bay. Inlet of the Indian Ocean, Western gia, Santa Isabel, Malaita, Choiseul, San
Australia. Bisected by Peron Peninsula and Cristóbal, Vella Lavella, Ontong Java Atoll,
sheltered to the west by Dorre, Benier, and Dirk Rennell, and the Santa Cruz Islands. Mountain-
Hartog islands. Named in 1699 by the pirate ous islands, mostly of volcanic origin. Major ex-
William Dampier after numerous sharks were ports include timber, fish, and palm oil.
sighted. Notable for preserving the last remain- South Australia. Australia’s driest state, occupy-
ing species of dugong, and for rich beds of sea ing about one-eighth of the continent’s total
grass. landmass. Bounded on the west, north, and east
Shirase. Antarctica’s fastest-moving glacier. Lo- by other mainland states; flanked on the south
cated in Queen Maud Land on the Atlantic side by the Great Australian Bight of the Indian
of the continent. Ocean. Covers 379,900 square miles (984,377
Simpson Desert. Vast arid region of central Aus- sq. km.). Capital is Adelaide; population was
tralia, situated mainly in the southeastern cor- more than 1.75 million in 2020. More than 50
ner of the Northern Territory. Covers ap- percent of the state is pastoral lands; the south-
proximately 56,000 square miles (145,000 sq. eastern section is the economic center and
km.), mostly uninhabited. The last refuge for where most of the population resides. The
some of Australia’s rarest animal species. Char- Murray is the only major river; Mount
acterized by miles of sand dunes and ridges, Lofty/Flinders Ranges are the most important
some rising 70 to 120 feet (20 to 37 meters) in mountains.

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

South Georgia. Island in the South Atlantic Peninsula. In 1904, Argentina set up a weather
Ocean. The Andes Mountains of South America station at Laurie Island in the Orkneys.
are part of a mountain chain that extends be- South Pacific Gyre. Large mass of water, located in
neath the ocean and continues to the Antarc- the Pacific Ocean in the Southern Hemi-
tic Peninsula. South Georgia was formed when sphere, that rotates counterclockwise. Warm wa-
the peaks of some of these submarine mountains ter moves toward the pole and cold water moves
emerged above the water. toward the equator.
South Island. Larger and more southerly of the two South Pole. Point which by definition is the south-
principal islands of New Zealand in the south- ernmost point on Earth—a point from which the
west Pacific Ocean. Cook Strait separates only possible direction is north. The geograph-
South Island from North Island. Its popula- ical South Pole is at an elevation of 9,200 feet
tion has grown much less rapidly than that of (2,804 meters). See also South Magnetic Pole.
North Island. Its area is 58,084 square miles Southern Alps. Highest mountain range in
(150,437 sq. km.). Its population was 1,155,400 Australasia. The backbone of South Island
in 2019. of New Zealand, running almost the entire
length of the island in a north-to-south direc-
tion. The highest peak is Aoraki/Mount Cook,
at 12,317 feet (3,754 meters). The Southern
Alps contains 360 glaciers. Permanent snow-
fields occur throughout most of the mountain
range.
Southern Ocean. World’s stormiest waters. Located
between 60 and 65 degrees south latitude. The
cold continent and the warmer ocean waters
meet, creating a low-pressure situation that re-
sults in cyclones. The winds blow violently al-
most constantly from east to west until they spi-
ral toward the coast of Antarctica, where some
of their fury dissipates. This is nature’s way of
distributing tropical heat to the polar regions.
Spencer Gulf. Inlet of the Indian Ocean, indent-
ing the southeastern coast of South Australia.
Runs 200 miles (320 km.) with a maximum
width of 80 miles (130 km.). Several islands are
View of sediment from New Zealand’s South Island flowing in the
Pacific Ocean. (NASA Earth Observatory) situated in its 50-mile,(80 km.)-wide mouth; ma-
jor ports include Port Pirie and Port Augusta,
South Magnetic Pole. Southern pole of Earth’s which is located near the head of the inlet.
magnetic field, to which compass needles point. Stewart Island. Smallest of the three main islands
Located about 170 miles (272 km.) from the of New Zealand. Located 15 miles (24 km.)
geographic South Pole, which is the southern- south of Bluff, across Foveaux Strait. Population
most point on Earth. was 408 in 2018. Almost triangular in shape;
South Orkney Islands. Uninhabited islands in the covers 670 square miles (1,746 sq. km.). Most of
South Atlantic Ocean off the Antarctic Pen- the terrain is mountainous and covered by
insula. They are the tops of a mountain range bushland.
that includes the Andes in South America and Stonington Island. Island near the Antarctic
continues to the mountains on the Antarctic Peninsula, where Antarctic explorer Finn

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Ronne and his wife, Edith, spent nearly a year in and Flinders in the Bass Strait, and the subarctic
1947. Macquarie Island, located 900 miles (1,440 km.)
Sutherland Falls. Highest waterfall in New Zea- to the southeast. The main island has a maxi-
land, fifth-highest in the world, at 1,903 feet mum width and length of about 200 miles (320
(580 meters). Situated in Fiordland National km.) with a cool, Mediterranean-like climate
Park, at 44°48¢ south latitude, longitude 167°44¢ moderated by the Southern Ocean. Mount
east. Fed by waters from Lake Quill, the falls Ossa (part of the Great Dividing Range) is the
drop down a rockface in three stages. Named af- highest peak at 5,305 feet (1,617 meters). Capi-
ter Donald Sutherland, the Hermit of Milford tal is Hobart; population was just over 500,000
Sound, who discovered the falls in 1880. in 2020. Agriculture and mining form Tasma-
Suva. Seaport town, capital of Fiji, on southeast nia’s economic base. Originally called Van
coast of Viti Levu Island in the Pacific Ocean. Diemen’s Land by the Dutch navigator, Abel
Metro population was 185,913 in 2017. An ex- Tasman, who discovered it in 1642.
cellent harbor; major industries are coconut Taupo, Lake. New Zealand’s largest natural lake.
processing and tourism. Located within the Volcanic Plateau in central
Sydney. Australia’s oldest and largest city and the North Island; covers 235 square miles (606 sq.
capital of New South Wales. Established in km.). Considered one of the best trout-fishing
1788 as a British penal colony and located on spots in the world. Site of one of the largest vol-
Port Jackson, a magnificent deep harbor along canic eruptions in the world, around 135 c.e.
the southeastern coast of the continent. Austra- Taylor Valley. One of the dry valleys in East
lia’s leading industrial city and its major seaport. (Greater) Antarctica. Dry valleys receive al-
The city and suburbs cover about 4,700 square most no precipitation, so they do not have the
miles (12,000 sq. km.) with a population of 5.3 ice and snowcover that characterizes 98 percent
million in 2018. A major tourist destination, fa- of the continent. They can support rudimentary
mous for its mild climate and white sand plant life.
beaches, the Sydney Harbour Bridge, and the Terre Adélie. Area that has the thickest covering of
Opera House. In 2000 the city hosted the ice in Antarctica. Located 248 miles (400 km.)
Olympic Games. from the coast, in East (Greater) Antarctica
Tahiti. Mountainous island in the Windward Is- between Wilkes Land and George V Land. Also
lands of the Society Islands in French Poly- called Adélie Coast.
nesia, in the South Pacific Ocean. Area is 408 Terror, Mount. Inactive volcano in Antarctica.
square miles (1,057 sq. km.); population was Located close to the active volcano Mount
189,517 in 2017. Largest city is Papeete. Largest Erebus. Sir James Clark Ross discovered it;
of the French islands in the Pacific and the com- nearby, he encountered a perpendicular wall of
mercial and political center of French Polynesia. ice 200 feet (60 meters) high that extended as far
Tourism is a major industry. Formerly Otaheite; as the eye could see and blocked his passage.
also known as Taïte. Timor Sea. Section of the Indian Ocean, located
Tasman Sea. Area of the Pacific Ocean off the northwest of Australia, and southeast of Indo-
southeast coast of Australia, between Australia nesia and the island of Timor. Covers approxi-
and Tasmania on the west and New Zealand on mately 235,000 square miles (615,000 sq. km.)
the east. Also called the Tasmanian Sea. and is about 300 miles (480 km.) wide. Opens
Tasmania. Australia’s only island state, located east into the Arafura Sea and west into the
about 150 miles (240 km.) south of Victoria Indian Ocean.
state across the Bass Strait. Comprises the Tinian. Island in the Northern Mariana Islands
heart-shaped main island (Tasmania) and nu- in the west Pacific Ocean. Area is 20 square
merous smaller islands, including Bruny, King, miles (52 sq. km.). Part of the Japanese mandate

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Australia, Antarctica and Pacific Islands

in 1919; occupied by US troops in 1944 during Townesville. City, commercial center, and major
World War II. In 1945, planes sent from its air- port of eastern Queensland, Australia. Located
field dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and close to the Flinders Passage through the Great
Nagasaki. Barrier Reef and to the Atherton Plateau in-
Tokelau. Group of islands in central Pacific land, making it an important gateway to both ar-
Ocean; part of New Zealand. Area is 4 square eas. Population was 180,820 in 2018.
miles (10 sq. km.); population was 1,647 in Transantarctic Mountains. Range of mountains
2019. Part of the Gilbert and Ellice islands (see running across Antarctic from the Ross Sea to
Tuvalu). Includes islands of Atafu, Fakaofo, and the Weddell Sea, passing over the South Pole.
Nukunonu. Formerly Union Islands. Divides Antarctica into East (Greater)
Tonga. Independent island nation in the southern Antarctica south of the Indian Ocean and
Pacific Ocean. Area is 290 square miles (750 sq. West (Lesser) Antarctica south of the Pacific
km.); population was 106,095 in 2020, Ocean. Has a trough running alongside it with
two-thirds living on Tongatapu. Capital, chief an accumulation of ice 2 miles (3.2 km.) deep,
port, and largest town is Nukualofa. Polynesian half of it below sea level. Also called the Great
monarchy, comprising 170 islands (40 inhab- Antarctic Horst.
ited) divided into three m ain groups: Tuamotu Archipelago. About eighty islands in
Tongatapu, Ha’apai, and Vava’u. Largest island French Polynesia in the South Pacific Ocean.
is Tongatapu. Western islands are of volcanic or- Area is 331 square miles (857 sq. km.); popula-
igin; eastern are coral islands. Active volcanoes tion was 15,346 in 2017. Mostly coral atolls; its
dot several islands. Most Tonga residents (97 main islands are Makatéa, Fakarava, Rangiroa,
percent) are Polynesians, and Tonga has re- Anaa, Hao, and Reao. France has used it for
tained much of its traditional culture, although atomic testing since in the mid-1960s. Also
the island is Christian. Also known as Tonga known as Low Archipelago, Paumotu, or Danger-
Islands or Friendly Islands. ous Archipelago.
Tonga Trench. Seafloor depression in the Pacific Tubuai Islands. See Austral Islands.
Ocean, 35,433 feet (10,800 meters) deep. Lo- Tuvalu. Island country in the western Pacific
cated near Tonga, at 23°16¢ south latitude, lon- Ocean; member of the Commonwealth of Na-
gitude 174°44¢ west. tions. Area is 10 square miles (26 sq. km.); popu-
Tongariro National Park. First national park in lation was 11,342 in 2020. Consists of a chain of
New Zealand. Gifted by chiefs from the Maori nine coral islands, none of which rises more than
Tuwharetoa tribe to the people of Aotearoa 16 feet (5 meters) above sea level. Funafuti,
(New Zealand) in 1887. Located in central Nanumea, Nui, Nukufetau, and Hukulaelae are
North Island, covering 196,602 acres (79,598 atolls; Namumanga, Niutao, Vaitupu, and
hectares). Site of three active volcanoes includ- Niulakita are single islands with lagoons. About
ing Mount Ruapehu, highest peak in the North one-third of Tuvalu’s people, who are mostly
Island at 9,177 feet (2,797 meters). ethnic Polynesians, live in Funafuti. Also known
Torres Strait. Passage through the Coral Sea to the as Lagoon Islands; formerly Ellice Islands.
east and the Arafura Sea to the west in the west- Ulawun. Active volcano in the Whiteman range, on
ern Pacific Ocean; to the north is New Guinea the island of New Britain, part of Papua New
and to the south lies Australia’s Cape York Guinea in the Pacific Ocean. Located on the
Peninsula. Dangerous to navigate because of north coast and east end of the island; reaches
reefs and rocky shoals. Nearly 95 miles (150 km.) 7,657 feet (2,334 meters) in height. Most recent
wide; some of its larger islands are inhabited. eruption occurred in 2019. The volcano is also
Discovered in 1606 by Spanish navigator Luis known as The Father.
Vaez de Torres.

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 Gazetteer

Uluru. Giant red sandstone monolith located about suburbs. Victoria’s major harbor is located in
280 miles (450 km.) northeast of Alice Springs Port Phillip Bay.
in Australia’s Northern Territory. The larg- Victoria Land. Region of Antarctica that presses
est in a group of tors (isolated and weathered against the Transantarctic Mountains east of
rock masses) that includes the Olgas/Kata Tjuta; the Ross Sea. Named after Britain’s Queen Vic-
the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park is listed as a toria.
World Heritage Site. Rises more than 1,132 feet Vinson Massif. Highest point in Antarctica.
(345 meters) from a flat, sandy plateau; it is oval Soars to 16,050 feet (4,892 meters), higher than
in shape, 1.5 miles (2.4 km.) long, 0.9 mile (2 any mountain in the United States except for
km.) wide, and 6 miles (9.45 km.) around its Denali.
base. Its coarse sandstone composition causes it Vostok. Russian research station near the South
to glow a brilliant red at sunrise and sunset. In Magnetic Pole in Antarctica. Site of the low-
1985, ownership of the rock was returned to the est temperature ever recorded: -1286 degrees
Aboriginal Australians, who leased it back to the Fahrenheit (-89.2 degrees Celsius) in 1983.
government for ninety-nine years. The rock Waialeale. Mountain in central Kauai Island, Ha-
takes its name from an Aboriginal word for giant waii, that is the rainiest place in the world, ac-
pebble; the first European to sight the monolith, cording to the National Geographic Society. Av-
Ernest Giles, named it Ayers Rock after South erage annual rainfall is 460 inches (1,168
Australian premier Sir Henry Ayers. centimeters). Reaches 5,200 feet (1,585 meters).
Union Islands. See Tokelau. Waikato River. Longest river in New Zealand,
Vanuatu. Independent republic in the southwest- stretching 264 miles (425 km.). Flows northward
ern Pacific Ocean. Area is 4,707 square miles across central North Island, from the headwa-
(12,190 sq. km.); population was 298,333 in ters at Mount Ruapehu, through Lake Taupo,
2020. Capital is Port-Vila. Consists of more than reaching the Tasman Sea 30 miles (50 km.)
eighty islands—70 percent of which are inhab- southwest of Auckland. A major source of hy-
ited—in a Y-shaped configuration. The largest droelectric power for North Island.
island is Espiritu Santo; others are Malekula, Waitangi. Modern birthplace of New Zealand. Lo-
Éfaté, Erromango, and Ambrim. Most of the is- cated on North Island in the Bay of Islands.
lands are volcanic in origin; there are several ac- Site of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on
tive volcanoes. About 99 percent of the popula- February 6, 1840, between representatives of the
tion are ethnic Melanesians (ni-Vanuatu); about British Crown and a number of Maori chiefs.
70 percent live on Anatom, Éfaté, Espiritu Under the terms of the treaty, the Maori chiefs
Santo, Futuna, Malekula, and Tanna. Formerly ceded sovereignty to the Crown and were guar-
known as New Hebrides. anteed full rights of tribal lands and personal
Victoria. Australia’s smallest mainland state, lo- protection as British subjects. Maori word for
cated in the southeast corner of the continent. “weeping waters.”
Bordered to the north by New South Wales Wake Island. Coral atoll in the central Pacific
(with the Murray River forming a natural Ocean, territory of the United States. Area is 3
boundary), to the east by the Australia Alps sec- square miles (7.7 sq. km.); there is no indigenous
tion of the Great Dividing Range, to the west population. Consists of three islets (Wake, Peale,
by the deserts of South Australia, and to the and Wilkes) around a shallow lagoon. The
south by Bass Strait. Covers 87,884 square United States formally occupied Wake Island in
miles (227,600 sq. km.), with a range of climates. 1898 and built a naval air base and submarine
Population was 6.6 million in 2020, with most base on the island in 1941. Attacked by the Japa-
living in the capital city of Melbourne and its nese on December 7, 1941, immediately after
Pearl Harbor. It reverted to the United States af-

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ter World War II and today is administered by tense thermal activity as steam, noxious gases,
the US Air Force. Formerly known as Halycon Is- and toxic fumes that are released into the atmo-
land. sphere from numerous vents in the crater. In
Wallis and Futuna Islands. Overseas collectivity of 2019, a violent eruption killed twenty-one peo-
France, in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. ple, most of them tourists.
Consists of the Wallis Archipelago (Wallis and Whales, Bay of. Bay in the Ross Sea on
twenty smaller islands and islets) and the Futuna Antarctica’s west side. Has much less wind
Archipelago (two mountainous islands, Futuna than other parts of Antarctica. Over a four-year
and Alofi). Total area is 106 square miles (274 sq. period, the average wind speed was 11 miles
km.); population was 15,854 in 2020. Capital is (17.6 km.) per hour, about equivalent to that in
Matâ-Uti on Wallis. Peoria, Illinois, or Kansas City, Missouri.
Weddell Sea. Body of water formed by an indenta- White Desert. Another name for the polar ice cap.
tion in the continent of Antarctica. Located Antarctica is Earth’s driest continent. The an-
southeast of South America; bordered by the nual snowfall on the polar ice cap is only 1 to 2
Antarctic Peninsula, the Leopold Coast, the inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters); the coastal regions
Cairn Coast, and Coats Land. Named for James receive 10 to 20 inches (25 to 51 centimeters) of
Weddell, a British navigator who laid claim to it snow a year.
in 1823. Wilhelm, Mount. Mountain in Bismarck Range,
Wellington. Capital and third-largest city of New New Guinea Island, Papua New Guinea, in the
Zealand. Population was 215,400 in 2019. Lo- Pacific Ocean. Highest peak in New Guinea at
cated on the shores of a natural harbor, at the 14,795 feet (4,509 meters).
southern end of North Island, on a major Wilsons Promontory. Granite peninsula projecting
earthquake fault. Built on steep, hilly terrain, into the Bass Strait, forming the southernmost
similar to San Francisco. point of the Australian mainland. Located in the
West (Lesser) Antarctica. Area that lies west of the state of Victoria, 110 miles (177 km.) southeast
Transantarctic Mountains. Includes Marie of Melbourne. It is 22 miles (35 km.) long and a
Byrd Land, Ellsworth Land, the Antarctic maximum of 14 miles (22.5 km.) wide; the
Peninsula, and the Ross Sea. 80-mile (130-km.) coastline rises to a mountain-
Western Australia. Australia’s largest state; occu- ous interior, with Mount Latrobe (2,475 feet/754
pies nearly one-third of the continent. Bounded meters) its highest peak.
to the north by the Timor Sea, to the south by Yasur. Active volcano on Tanna Island, south
the Antarctic Ocean, to the west by the Indian Vanuatu. Reaches 1,184 feet (361 meters) in
Ocean, and to the east by the deserts of South height. Its most recent eruption occurred in
Australia and the Northern Territory. Cov- 2020.
ers 975,100 square miles (2,525,500 sq. km.), York, Cape. Northernmost tip of Australia, lo-
most of which is a semiarid plateau. Has no win- cated at 10°41¢ south latitude, longitude 142°32¢
ter, only “wet” and “dry” seasons. Population ex- east. Both it and Cape York Peninsula were
ceeded 2.6 million in 2020, more than 70 per- named by Captain James Cook in 1770, in
cent residing in and around Perth, the capital honor of Great Britain’s Duke of York. Reaches
city. into Torres Strait, which separates Australia
Western Samoa. See Samoa. from New Guinea.
Whakaari/White Island. Active volcano in New Cynthia Beres; Huia Richard Hutton; Dana P.
Zealand. Located 31 miles (50 km.) off the Bay McDermott; R. Baird Shuman; Rowena Wildin
of Plenty on North Island. Characterized by in-

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