TOPIC 6 – WRITTEN COMMUNICATION. KINDS OF WRITTEN TEXTS.

STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS.

NORMS RULING WRITTEN TEXTS. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE

OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION.
2. A HISTORICAL APPROACH TO WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: ORIGINS
AND DEVELOPMENT.
2.1. The nature of communication: features and types.
2.2. The origins of written communication: language and semiotics.
2.3. The influential role of grammar: a basis for written skills.
2.4. A historical overview on written skills in the context of language teaching.
3. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR AN ANALYSIS OF WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION.
3.1. Spoken vs written language.
3.2. The nature of written language: a social and cognitive act.
3.3. Interactional vs transactional written discourse.
3.4. Language teaching and writing skills: reading and writing.
3.5. Written discourse devices.
3.5.1. Cohesion.
3.5.1.1. Grammatical devices.
3.5.1.2. Lexical devices.
3.5.1.3. Graphological devices.
3.5.2. Coherence.
3.5.3. The role of pragmatics and genre analysis.
4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS.
4.1. Basic principles to all text types.
4.2. Text type classification.
4.2.1. Narration.
4.2.2. Description.
4.2.3. Exposition.
4.2.4. Argumentation.
4.2.5. Instruction.
5. STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS.
5.1. Textual structure.
5.2. Basic language structures.
5.3. Elements common to all text types.
6. RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN DISCOURSE.
7. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE SPEECH.
8. NEW DIRECTIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
9. IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
10. CONCLUSION.
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. INTRODUCTION.
The main aim of this research is to provide a useful background for the written
communication process and identify its main features by means of a historical and a
theoretical background. While doing so, the importance of written devices is
highlighted, as well as the importance of genre analysis in the context of pragmatics in
the classification of text types, structure and elements, and framework for routines and
formulaic speech.
The study comprises eight sections. Section one, Introduction, is an introductory
chapter which starts off by defining the aims of the study.
Section two, A Historical Approach to Written Communication, goes on to offer a
brief background to the history of writing, from its origins and nature as part of the
communication process to, particularly, the language teaching context regarding writing
skills.
Section three, A Theoretical Framework for an Analysis of Written
Communication, deals with the theoretical premises of the study pertaining to the notion
of written language. The section begins with two theoretical distinctions. The first one,
between written and spoken language, and the second one, between interactional and
transactional language functions so as to establish written discourse features and
function. Once written discourse is framed within a transactional function, reading and
writing skills are examined in relation to language teaching, and therefore, the writing
process from a structural point of view. Then, its main features are under revision:
cohesion, coherence and the prominent role of pragmatics and genre analysis as a
theoretical basis for next sections, where text types are classified according to genres
and text types.
Section four, Different Types of Written Texts, firstly offer an overview of the
common basic principles to all types of texts, to secondly, provide a text type
classification with their own features. Thus, we find narration, description, exposition,
argumentation and instruction.
Section five, Structure and Formal Elements, comprises a revision on textual
structure, basic language structures, and elements common to all text types.
Section six deals with rules governing written discourse; section seven, with
routines and formulae speech. Section eight examines new directions in language
teaching, and section nine, implications in language teaching.
Section ten, conclusion, offers a critical view on the issue, and finally,
bibliography is listed at the end of this study for further references.

2. A HISTORICAL APPROACH TO WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:

ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT.
According to Crystal (1985), it is particularly important for people to have some
historical perspective in linguistics as it helps the researcher or teacher to avoid unreal
generalizations or doubts about modern developments and innovations. Besides, it
provides a source of salutary examples, suggesting which lines of investigation are
likely to be profitable, which fruitless. Therefore, in order to provide a relevant basis for
subsequent sections concerning the development of written communication within a
theory of language learning, we shall first examine in this section the origins of written
communication. We shall first trace back to the general nature of communication, and
then, establish a link between communication, language and semiotics in order to lead
our presentation towards a theoretical framework for an analysis of written discourse.
2.1. The nature of communication: features and types.
Research in cultural anthropology (Crystal 1985) has shown that the origins of
communication are to be found in the very early stages of life when there was a need for
animals and humans to communicate adequately for their purposes, in order to express
their feelings, attitudes and core activities of everyday life, such as hunting, fighting,
eating, or breeding among others. However, even the most primitive cultures had a
constant need to express their ideas by other means than gutural sounds and body
movements as animals did. Concerning humans, their constant preoccupation was how
to turn thoughts into words. Hence, before language was developed, non- verbal codes
were used to convey information by means of symbols which were presented, first, by
means of pictorial art, and further in time, by writing.
Language, then, is a highly elaborated signaling system with particular design
features. It is worth noting, then, the distinction between human and animal systems as
they produce and express their intentions in a different way. Yet, the most important
feature of human language that differs from animal systems’ is to be endowed with an
auditory vocal channel which allowed humans to develop and improve language in
further stages. Besides, the possibility of a traditional transmission plays an important
role when language is handed down from one generation to another by a process of
teaching and learning.
Therefore, we may establish a distinction in terms of types of communication,
where we distinguish mainly two, thus verbal and non-verbal codes. Firstly, verbal
communication is related to those acts in which the code is the language, both oral and
written. Thus, singing and writing a letter are both instances of verbal communication.
Secondly, when dealing with non-verbal devices, we refer to communicative uses
involving visual and tactile modes, such as kinesics, body movements, and also
paralinguistic devices drawn from sounds (whistling), hearing (morse) or touch
(Braille). According to Goytisolo (2001), the oral tradition in public performances
involves the participation of the five senses as the public sees, listens, smells, tastes, and
touches.

2.2. The origins of written communication: language and semiotics.

As we have previously mentioned, prior to language development, non-verbal
codes were used to convey information by means of icons and symbols which were
presented, first, by means of pictorial art, and further in time by writing. Later
developments in the direction of the study of meaning were labelled during the last
century under the term semantics, which had a linked sense with the science related to
the study of signs, semiotics.
This development in the direction of explicit messages and knowledge was soon
followed by anthropologist researchers interested in the findings of written accounts in
earlier societies, by means of icons and symbols found in burial sites and prehistoric
caves. From Greek’s mantikós (significant) and sêma (sign), semiotics has a prominent
role on the study of signs, what they refer to, and of responses to those signs.
According to Crystal (1985), most primitive cultures developed a deep-rooted
connection between divinity and language, and therefore, approached language with a
clearly religious purpose. They firmly believed in the power of language, and they felt
that the writing had a voice, and a life of its own. Thus, there are regular tales in the
anthropological literature of natives where alphabets began to be interpreted mystically,
as a proof of the existence of God. Similar stories are not hard to find in other cultures.
Thus, the god Thoth was the originator of speech and writing to the Egyptians. The
Babylonians attributed it to their god, Nabû. A heaven-sent water-turtle with marks on
its back brought writing to the Chinese, it is said. According to Icelandic saga, Odin was
the inventor of runic script. And Brahma is reputed to have given the knowledge of
writing to the Hindu race (Crystal 1985). These story-tales are clearly involved with
religious beliefs and superstitious and mystical ideas as words were seen as all-
powerful. Thus, runes were originally charms, and the power of a charm or an amulet
depended largely on the writing upon it, the more spiritual the subject-matter, the better
the charm. We find this kind of belief in Jewish phylacteries, and in the occasional
Christian custom, such as that of fanning a sick person with pages of the Bible, or
making him eat paper with a prayer on it. Examples of this kind abound in the history of
cultures.

2.3. The influential role of grammar: a basis for written skills.

As we have seen above, the history of language is bound up with the history of
religious thought in its widest sense. However, more fundamental and far-reaching than
this is the major concern of early Greek and Roman scholarship on thought about
language. Thus, Greeks developed an alphabet different in principle from the writing
systems previously mentioned, and considered to be the forerunner of most subsequent
alphabets. Their permanent contribution in this area is nicely indicated by the history of
the term ‘grammar’ (grammatike), which in this early period implied understanding the
use of letters, that is, having the skill of reading and writing (Crystal 1985).
Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics devoted a great deal of time to the development of
specific ideas about language, and in particular, to grammatical analysis. Hence, Plato
was called by a later Greek writer ‘the first to discover the potentialities of grammar’’
and his conception of speech (logos) as being basically composed of logically
determined categories. This fairly study of the language, part of the more general study
of ‘dialectic’, was taken over by the Romans with very little change in principle, and,
through the influence of Latin on Europe, was introduced into every grammatical
handbook written before the twentieth century.
Similarly, in ancient India, for example, the Hindu priests had begun to realize,
around the 5th century B.C., that the language of their oldest hymns, Vedic Sanskrit, was
no longer the same, either in pronunciation or grammar, as the contemporary language.
For an important part of their belief was that certain religious ceremonies, to be
successful, needed to reproduce accurately the original pronunciation and text of the
hymns used.
The solution adopted in order to preserve the early states of the language from the
effects of time was to determine exactly what the salient features of Vedic Sanskrit
were, and to write them down as a set of rules. The earliest evidence we have of this feat
is the work carried out by Panini in the fourth century B.C., in the form of a set of
around 4,000 aphoristic statements about the language’s structure, known as sutras.
Also, there were other ways in which religious studies and goals promoted language
study. Thus, missionaries have often introduced writing by stating the first grammars of
languages, and priests and scholars have translated works such as the Bible and the
Scriptures.

2.4. A historical overview on written skills in the context of language teaching.

As we have stated in the previous section, an important step in the development of
writing, after the influential role of the language of worship with a clear religious
purpose, was the determination of preserving the early states of the language from the
effects of time by means of grammar, stating the most salient features of a language,
and writing them down as a set of rules. Besides, the influence of Greek and Latin
scholarship proved highly relevant in Europe in subsequent centuries, since still under
the aegis of the Church, missionaries and scholars have often introduced writing by
stating the first grammars of languages, translating works such as the Bible and the
Scriptures.
Latin, according to Crystal (1985), became the medium of educated discourse and
communication throughout Europe by the end of the first millennium. Largely as a
result of this, the emphasis in language study was for a while almost exclusively
concerned with the description of the Latin language in the context of language
teaching. This approach brought about a massive codification of Latin grammars such
as those of Aelius Donatus (fourth century) and Priscian (sixth century) among many
others. Donatus’ grammar was used right into the Middle Ages, and became a popular
grammar known as being the first to be printed using wooden type, and providing a
shorter edition for children.
Throughout this period, we may observe a high standard of correctness in learning.
The Benedictine Rule, for example, heavily punished the mistakes of children in Latin
classes. By the Middle Ages, when it had come to be recognized that Latin was no
longer a native language for the majority of its prospective users, the grammar books
became less sets of facts and more sets of rules, and the concept of correctness became
even more dominant.
It is worth noting that this use of grammar rules promoted the development of
written skills in language teaching, as we may observe in a popular Latin definition of
grammar, that is, ars bene dicendi et bene scribendi, which means ‘the art of speaking
and writing well’. Later, in the age of humanism, it was common to hear people identify
the aim of learning grammar with the ideal of being able to write Latin like Cicero. A
similar attitude had also characterized Greek language teaching, especially after the
Alexandrian school (third century B.C.), considered to be the language of the best
literature, was held up as a guide to the desired standard of speech and writing.
Grammars were considered, then, to tell people authoritatively how to speak and write.

3. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR AN ANALYSIS OF WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION.
3.1. Spoken vs written language.
In order to get a firm grasp on the relationship between oral and written languages
we must first examine once again our historical knowledge of both before we consider
the changes introduced by the invention of typography in 1440. According to Goytisolo
(2001), the first evidence of writing is from 3500 B.C., the date of the Sumerian
inscriptions in Mesopotamia and early Egyptian inscriptions whereas the
appearance of language can be traced back some forty or fifty thousand years. The
period which encompasses primary orality, then, is consequently ten times the length of
the era of writing. However, in a present-day context, we may observe an overwhelming
influence of the written on the oral component as an attempt to preserve and memorise
for the future the narratives of the past, by means of literature productions, printing and
modern audiovisual and computing media.
With respect to both codes of communication (Widdowson 1978), oral and written,
it is worth noting that one of their differences relies on the notion of participants and
different skills, thus productive and receptive, to be carried out in a one-way process or
two-way process. Hence, regarding written communication, we refer to writer and
reader, when they are involved in the productive skill of writing and the receptive skill
of reading. Similarly, we refer to speaker and listener, when they are involved in the
productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of listening.
Furthermore, within a traditional division of language into the two major categories
of speech and writing, Cook (1989) establishes two main differences. The first
difference is described in terms of time factor, that is, a here-and-now production; and
the second difference is depicted in terms of degree of reciprocity, that is, one-way
speech or two-way speech. There are certain features regarding these differences that
are likely to happen within each category depending on the nature of the activity.
Concerning the time factor, we may find features such as time limitations, and the
associated problems of planning, memory, and of production. First, regarding time
limitations, spoken language happens in time, and must therefore be produced and
processed ‘on line’. In writing, however, we have time to pause and think, and while we
are reading or writing, we can stand back and view the discourse in spatial or
diagrammatic terms. Secondly, in relation to planning, the speaker has no time to plan
and organize the message as there is no going back and changing or restructuring our
words, whereas the writer may plan his writing under no time pressure, and the message
is economically organized. Thirdly, regarding memory, on spoken interaction we may
forget things we intended to say whereas on writing we may note our ideas and organize
the development of our writing. Finally, concerning production, on speaking we often
take short cuts to avoid unnecessary effort in producing individual utterances, and
therefore we make syntactic mistakes because we lose the wording. On the contrary, on
writing, the words are planned and organized while producing a text, allowing the writer
to control the language being used. Hence, sentences may be long or complex as the
writer has more time to plan. Moreover, mistakes are less likely to happen as we are
aware of the grammar of our utterances.
The second feature to be mentioned is a reciprocal activity, in terms of one-way
speech or two-way speech. This crucially affects the sorts of reactions at a
communicative level that are likely to take place in an interaction. Thus, in speaking,
the person we are speaking to is in front of us and able to put us right if we make a
mistake; on the contrary, the writer has to anticipate the reader’s understanding and
predict potential problems. If the writer gets this wrong, the reader may give up the
book in disgust before getting far.
Moreover, regarding reactions, both speakers may show agreement and
understanding, or incomprehension and disagreement to each other whereas readers
have no way of signalling this to the writer. Therefore, readers have to put in some
compensatory work in order to make their reading successful, either skip, or else work
very carefully. Both readers and writers need patience and imagination at a
communicative level.

3.2. The nature of written language: a social and cognitive act.

Students writing in a second language are faced with social and cognitive
challenges related to second language acquisition as writing requires conscious effort
and much practice in composing, developing, and analysing ideas (Myles 2002). In fact,
one of the problems students find more difficult to overcome is how to operate
successfully in a special type of discourse that implies knowledge of the textual
conventions, expectations, and formulaic expressions. In the social cognitive curriculum
students are taught as apprentices in negotiating a required discourse, and in the process
develop strategic knowledge. As Ellis (1994) states, writing is typically a socially
situated, communicative act that is incorporated into a socio-cognitive theory of writing.
 Both social and cognitive factors affect language learning. In fact, exploration of
social factors gives us some idea of why learners differ in proficiency type, thus
conversational ability versus writing ability, and in ultimate proficiency (Ellis 1994).
Learners with positive attitudes, motivation, and concrete goals will have these attitudes
reinforced if they experience success, and negative attitudes by failure. According to
Myles (2002), although learners may have negative attitudes toward writing for
academic purposes, many of them are financially and professionally committed to
graduating from English-speaking universities, and as a result, have strong reasons for
learning and improving their skills. Also, Myles states that most students hate writing in
English, native and non-native, and only take the course for educational and career
purposes.
Moreover, academic writing is believed to be cognitively complex. The acquisition
of academic vocabulary and discourse style is particularly difficult. Therefore,
according to cognitive theories, communicating orally or in writing is an active process
of skill development where the learner internalizes the language. Indeed, acquisition is a
product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner’s
internal mechanisms. Thus, students may develop particular learning strategies that
isolate mental processes, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective
strategies. Firstly, metacognitive strategies are used to plan the organization of written
discourse or answer appropriately to the demands of a task. Secondly, cognitive, such as
transferring or using known linguistic information to facilitate a new learning task or
using imagery for recalling and using new vocabulary. Finally, social/affective
strategies, which involve cooperating with peers, thus, in peer revision classes (Ellis
1994).
As we can see, writing in a second language is a complex process involving the
ability to communicate in a foreign language, and the ability to construct a text in order
to express one’s ideas effectively in writing. Social and cognitive factors and learner
strategies will help us in assessing in next section the underlying functions of language
implicit in written discourse that, in turn, will be useful to establish a fundamental basis
for subsequent sections.

3.3. Interactional vs transactional written discourse.

Brown and Yule (1983) state in their discussion on functions of language that there
is, on the one hand, written language and, on the other hand, spoken language, and that
they differ primarily in the way information is packed regarding syntactic structure and
vocabulary selection. For them, written language has many different functions ranging
through literary functions, expository functions (academic, legal, journalistic), to
straight informative functions (news, familiar letters, domestic type notes), to recording
functions (minutes of meetings, lecture notes, doctor recording patients’ medical
histories) among others.
They claim that, in each function, language is used for a somewhat different
purpose, and hence takes on a somewhat different form. There are appropriate ‘styles’
for different functions, or in other words, different ‘registers’. These registers involve
facts about society, and the individual in society; they also involve messages which give
information about place, intention and time. We find, then, that the fundamental
function common to most uses of the written language is the transmission of
information, whether recording information about what is past, or what is to happen in
the future. Brown and Yule shall call this information-transferring function of language
the transactional function of language. Actually, when this function is at issue, it
matters that information is clearly conveyed, since the purpose of the producer of the
message is to convey information.
There are, though, genres, other than literary, where this transactional function is
not primary: ‘thank you’ letters, love- letters, party games. These examples have in
common a clear function of spoken language, that is, the maintenance of social
relatioships, where the primary purpose is to be nice to the person they are talking to.
Also, this function is characterised by constantly shifting topics and a great deal of
agreement on them. Therefore, in order to establish a relevant framework for analysing
written discourse, we could say that primarily transactional language is primarily
message-oriented whereas primary interactional function is primarily listener-oriented.

3.4. Language teaching and writing skills: reading and writing.

According to Brown and Yule (1983), for most of its history, language teaching has
been concerned with the study of the written language which is the language of
literature and of scholarship. Since any well-educated person ought to have access to
writing skills in order to acquire a foreign language, the obvious procedure is to teach
the language through excellent written models carefully selected by the teacher. Written
language has not varied greatly over a couple of centuries, and texts selected for foreign
students to study were nearly all written in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Nowadays, several approaches are proposed in order to teach writing by means of
grammatical exercises, written dialogues, translation exercises, and dictation. This type
of writing processes ranges from the more guided types of exercises to more flexible
production in writing.
Writing skills and habits are said to be directly influenced by reading as both skills
are intertwined. Reading, whether in a first or second language context, involves the
reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and text. As Widdowson (1983)
claims, the most promising way of teaching writing is first to develop in the learner an
ability to recognise how written language communicates by means of comprehension
exercises. Cognitive processes are then at work, allowing us to organize information and
knowledge economically by means of schemas, which also allow us to predict the
continuation of written discourse. These cognitive processes will lead us to current
approaches to the teaching of writing, such as guided writing where students begin from
the material provided and develop it out in an individual way.
For many years, several approaches have tried to account for the best method to
teach writing. However, according to Rivers (1981), examination papers in composition
all over the world are, with few exceptions, disappointing since college and university
students are still unable to express themselves by writing in a clear, correct, and
comprehensible manner after even six or more years of study of another language
behind them. Yet, among those proposed, a common aim for teachers is to develop the
learners’ ability to write a text by means of writing devices to help them use the text as a
basic format for practice from the very beginning. Some of these approaches differ in
the way learners are guided or the stress on correct production. Firstly, regarding
writing guidance, we shall say it does not imply tight control over what the learners
write. Thus, in the early stages it is rejected to allow free expression as writing is
intended to be a step-by-step work with various kinds of controlled and guided
exercises. Secondly, in relation to the production of accurate sentences, some
approaches place so much stress on the production of correct sentences, and some of
them try to reduce the amount of control, either by forcing the learners to exercise some
sort of meaningful choice or by allowing them to contribute to the text (Byrne 1979).
 With respect to writing programmes for students to be taught how to write and be
aware of how to communicate through written texts, Byrne (1979) considers that we do
not need to build into the writing programme a step-by-step approach which will take
the learners in easy stages from sentence practice to the production of a text. With the
text as our basic format for practice, we can teach within its framework all the rhetorical
devices, thus logical, grammatical and lexical, which the learners need to master. These
devices are the aim of our next section.

3.5. Written discourse devices.

According to Rivers (1981), writing a language comprehensibly is much more
difficult than speaking it. When we write, she says, we are like communicating into
space if we do not know the recipient of our piece of writing, whereas when we
communicate a message orally, we know who is receiving the message. We are dealing
here once again with a traditional division of language into the two major categories of
speech and writing.
Dealing with written language and its resources, we observe that both categories,
speaking and writing, share similar features as well as differ in others regarding the
nature of each category. Then, following Byrne (1979), we can establish similar
resources for both speaking and writing at a linguistic level, thus on its grammar and
lexis, but not to the extent to which some resources apply directly to the nature of the
two channels. Thus, as speech is the language of immediate communication, most
linking devices will also occur in the spoken language although less frequently than in
writing where they are essential for the construction of a coherent text.
Therefore, in order to examine the construction of longer texts, we will show how
the coherence, cohesion and effectiveness of written texts rely on an understanding of
genre analysis and its workplace applications. However, as writing is the way of making
contact at a distance, we cannot forget graphological devices which compensate for the
absence of oral feedback and paralinguistic devices. Then, we may refer to three
elements involved in written discourse. First of all, cohesion and coherence as they
establish intrasentential and intersentitial links in written discourse. These text-centred
notions, which are featured as constitutive principles, create textual communication as
well as set the rules for communicating. The third feature to be mentioned in relation to
written discourse is the analysis of genre analysis which, according to Byrne, deals with
the nature of the two channels.
There are also at least three more regulative principles that control textual
communication: the efficiency of a text is contingent upon its being useful to the
participants with a minimum of effort; its effectiveness depends upon whether it makes a
strong impression and has a good potential for fulfilling an aim; and its appropriateness
depends upon whether its own setting is in agreement with the seven standards of
textuality (de Beaugrande & Dressler 1981).

3.5.1. Cohesion.
Cohesion concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text (the
actual words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence (de Beaugrande
& Dressler 1981), that is, intra-text linking devices are connected to extra-textual
reference. Cohesion has been a most popular target for research, and it is well known its
relation to the second of the textuality standards, coherence. Since cohesive markers are
important for the understanding of oral texts as well as written, interpreters, as all
speakers, make extensive use of cohesive devices, for example in order to enhance
coherence, but also for reasons of economy (e.g. saving time and alleviating conceptual
work load by using anaphoric devices like generalisations and pro-forms).
Halliday and Hasan, in their ground-breaking work Cohesion in English (1976),
describe cohesion as a semantic concept that refers to relations of meaning that exist
within a text. They define two general categories of cohesion: grammatical cohesion
(substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, reference) and lexical cohesion.

3.5.1.1. Grammatical cohesion.

We find firstly, substitution and ellipsis which are closely related. So, substitution
takes two forms: a) substitution per se, which is “the replacement of one item by
another”, and b) ellipsis, in which “the item is replaced by nothing”, usually called zero-
replacement. There are three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal.
Secondly, conjunction is a relationship indicating how the subsequent sentence or
clause should be linked to the preceding or the following sentence or parts of sentence.
This is usually achieved by the use of conjunctions. Frequently occurring relationships
are addition, causality and temporality. Subordination links things when the status of
one depends on that of the other, by means of a large number of conjunctive
expressions: because, since, as, thus, while, or therefore.
Finally, reference is another well researched area within linguistics. It is defined by
Halliday & Hasan (1976) as a case where the information to be retrieved is the
referential meaning, the identity of the particular thing or class of things that is being
referred to. The cohesion lies “in the continuity of reference, whereby the same thing
enters into the discourse a second time.” In other words, reference deals with semantic
relationship. Reference can be accomplished by exophoric reference, which signals that
reference must be made to the context of the situation; endophoric reference: reference
must be made to the text of the discourse itself; it is either anaphoric, referring to
preceding text; or cataphoric, referring to text that follows.
Also, Halliday & Hasan (1976) describe the following types of reference: personal
reference: nouns, pronouns, determiners that refer to the speaker, the addressee, other
persons or objects, or an object or unit of text; demonstrative reference: determiners or
adverbs that refer to locative or temporal proximity or distance, or that are neutral;
comparative reference: adjectives or verbs expressing a general comparison based on
identity, or difference, or express a particular comparison.

3.5.1.2. Lexical cohesion

Lexical cohesion does not deal with grammatical or semantic connections but with
connections based on the words used. It is achieved by selection of vocabulary, using
semantically close items. Because lexical cohesion in itself carries no indication
whether it is functioning cohesively or not, it always requires reference to the text, to
some other lexical item to be interpreted correctly. There are two types of lexical
cohesion: reiteration and collocation.
First of all, reiteration includes repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, metonymy (part
vs. whole), antonymy whereas collocation is any pair of lexical items that stand to each
other in some recognisable lexico-semantic relation, e.g. “sheep” and “wool”,
“congress” and “politician”, and “college” and “study”.
Like in the case of synonymous reference, collocational relation exists without any
explicit reference to another item, but now the nature of relation is different: it is
indirect, more difficult to define and based on associations in the reader mind. The
interpreter sometimes adds coherence to the text by adding cohesion markers.
3.5.1.3. Graphological devices
With respect to graphological resources, we are mainly dealing with visual
devices as we make reference to orthography, punctuation, headings, foot notes, tables
of contents and indexes. As most of them deal with form and structure of different types
of texts, and will be further developed as part of a subsequent section, we shall
primarily deal with orthography and punctuation in this section.
Firstly, orthography is related to a correct spelling, and in relation to this term,
Byrne (1979) states that the mastery of the writing system includes the ability to spell.
This device covers different word categories, but mainly, rules of suffixation,
prefixation, and addition of verbal markers as gerunds, past tenses or third person
singular in present tenses. Moreover, Byrne claims for the use of the dictionary as the
relationship between sound and symbol in English is a complex one, and spelling
becomes a problem for many users of the language, native and non-native speakers
alike. The importance of correct spelling is highlighted when Byrne says that most of us
are obliged to consult a dictionary from time to time so as not to be indifferent to
misspelling. Therefore, students are encouraged to acquire the habit of consulting a
dictionary in order to ensure an adequate mastery of spelling.
Secondly, according to Quirk et al (1972) punctuation serves two main functions.
Firstly, the separation of successive units (such as sentences by periods, or items in a list
by commas), and secondly, the specification of language function (as when an
apostrophe indicates that an inflection is genitive). Moreover, punctuation is concerned
with purely visual devices, such as capital letters, full stops, commas, inverted commas,
semicolons, hyphens, brackets and the use of interrogative and exclamative marks. It is
worth noting that punctuation has never been standardised to the same extent as
spelling, and as a result, learners tend to overlook the relevance of punctuation when
producing a text. Learners must be encouraged to pay attention to the few areas where
conventions governing the use of the visual devices are fairly well established, among
which we may mention letters and filling in forms as part of a sociocultural educational
aim. Thus, students must try to understand the relevance of the use of capital letters as a
mark of sentence boundary, the use of commas to enumerate a sequence of items, the
use of question and exclamation marks to express requests or attitudes, and the use of
inverted commas to highlight a word or sentence.

3.5.2. Coherence.
The term cohesion is often confused or conflated with coherence. But it is
necessary, both from a theoretical and a practical point of view to retain this distinction
between surface and content. The term coherence concerns the ways in which the
components of the textual world, thus the concepts and relations which underlie the
surface text, are mutually accessible and relevant.
Coherence is a purely semantic property of discourse, while cohesion is mainly
concerned with morpho-syntactic devices in discourse. A coherent text is a semantically
connected, integrated whole, expressing relations of closeness, thus, causality, time, or
location between its concepts and sentences. A condition on this continuity of sense is
that the connected concepts are also related in the real world, and that the reader
identifies the relations.
In a coherent text, there are direct and indirect semantic referential links between
lexical items in and between sentences, which the reader must interpret. A text must be
coherent enough for the interlocutor to be able to interpret. It seems probable that this
coherence can be achieved either through cohesion, for instance, markers and clues in
the speakers’ text, or through the employment of the user-centred textuality standards of
intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality.
These markers are defined as all the devices which are needed in writing in order
to produce a text in which the sentences are coherently organised so as to fulfil the
writer’s communicative purpose. Byrne (1979) claims that they refer to words or
phrases which indicate meaning relationships between or within sentences, such as
those of addition, contrast (antithesis), comparison (similes), consequence, result, and
condition expressed by the use of short utterances, and exemplification (imagery and
symbolism).
Within the context of textual analysis, we may mention from a wide range of
rhetorical devices the use of imagery and symbolism; hyperbole, antithesis, similes and
metaphors; onomatopoeias, alliteration and the use of short utterances for rhythm and
effect; repetition and allusion to drawn the reader’s attention; and cacophony and slang
to make the piece of writing lively and dynamic.

3.5.3. The role of pragmatics and genre analysis.

So far, students must be aware of the relevance of using both cohesion and
coherence within the production of any text regarding its nature in order to get an
accurate and meaningful piece of writing. It is relevant, then, to mention how
knowledge of the world or of the culture, enables people to make their language
function as they intend and to understand how others do the same to them.
Genre Studies involve extensive exploration and study of one type of literature to
understand how authors develop their piece of writing. Teachers can also spend a
portion of Writing Workshop studying the different genres (books, picture books,
poetry, folklore, realistic fiction, mysteries, fantasy, biography, and autobiography).
After repeated exposure to the genre, students are asked to write in this genre. During
genre studies, students can be exposed to the forms of the different genre, the author’s
style, and the literary elements. Included in the genre studies are structures of narrative
text and expository text that writers use to entertain an audience or to communicate
information.
Genre analysis is also related to the importance of text structure and contextual
configuration on describing genres as they comprise so much of our culture repertoires
of typified social responses in recurrent situations and to the exigencies of the situation.

4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS.

Before providing a brief account of text types and their respective instances within a
literary production, it is relevant to mention those basic principles by which all text
types are interrelated as literary productions, that is, lay behind the notion of
intertextuality, as we shall see below.
Literary texts are formed from constituents that are not always immediately
recognizable, such as specific conditions of production, contradictory cultural
discourses, and intercultural processes. For such reasons, literary texts may be
polysemous, having a range of interpretive possibilities. However, there are some basic
principles of literature which have common characteristics that make it possible for
them to be classified into genres and text types.

4.1. Basic principles of literature applied to all text types.

 These basic principles are considered to be literary elements and devices to
evaluate how the form of a literary work and the use of literary elements and devices,
such as setting, plot, theme, and many more to be mentioned, contribute to the work’s
message and impact. Among the basic principles of literature applied to all text types,
we may find that the subject is expressed in terms of theme; the writer approaches this
subject with a specific point of view, both physical and psychological, and from a
definite perspective; the writer’s attitude toward a subject is expressed through his
voice, real and assumed, which is marked by a distinctive tone. Satire, irony, and
hyperbole are special attitudes and tones; furthermore, the distinctive voice of the writer
speaks through his style , which essentially is a product of language, the choice and
combination of words, sentence structures, and the rhythms of larger elements; the
writer also structures the material of experience into artistic forms and patterns;
contrast and likeness of elements are important aspects of pattern and form, and are
heightened through repetition, balance, and the internal rhythms of the piece itself.
Moreover, basic to the concept of form is the notion of order and sequence, which
can be logical, chronological, or psychological; much of literature deals with storied
elements which have their genesis in some type of conflict; plot, then, moves from
complication, through conflict, to resolution where deeper levels of meaning are
suggested through image, metaphor, and symbols; such storied literature takes place in a
real or imagined setting, within a time and a place; and finally, participants are
considered to be characters, and the reality they represent is characterization.

4.2. Text type classification.

Students should realize that literary works are not created merely in an individual
author’s mind. A literary work can be said to have a ‘personality’ of its own, which is
interwoven with the ruling social and cultural circumstances. However, a literary text is
influenced not only by the social and political circumstances of its time. It is also
engaged in a dialogue with other texts to which it relates, critically or affirmatively.
This process is called intertextuality.
Moreover, literary works do not occur in isolation, but as members of groups, as a
novel among novels, a poem among poems, or a drama among dramas. Historically and
structurally, they are connected to other works of the same genre, as well as other
genres. The relationship between text types and genres is not straightforward since
genres reflect differences in external format and text types may be defined on the basis
of cognitive categories (Smith 1985). For all genres, intertextuality is a basic feature. If
each literary work relates to other works and other forms, it is also influenced in subtle
ways by the form or medium in which it is presented. A literary text is capable of
changing its manner of access and presentation.
For 2,400 years there have been two traditions of classifying texts. The first one,
deriving from Aristotle’s Rhetoric, where the term rhetoric refers to the uses of
language. More specific, it refers to modes of discourse realized through text types, thus
narration, description, directive, exposition and argumentation. Within the second
tradition, rhetoric refers to communicative function as rhetorical strategies. According
to Trimble (1985) we may classify texts in two ways. Firstly, according to purpose, and
secondly, according to type or mode.
According to purpose, in terms of communicative functions, the discourse is
intended to inform, express an attitude, persuade and create a debate. According to type
or mode, the classification distinguishes among descriptive, narrative, expository,
argumentative, and instrumental modes (Faigley & Meyer 1983). Here the focus is on
functional categories or rhetorical strategies regarding abstract meaning. However,
genre refers to completed texts, communicative functions and text types, being
properties of a text, cut across genres. Thus, informative texts (newspaper reports, TV
news, and textbooks); argumentative texts (debates, political speeches, and newspaper
articles).
Analytic interpretation of texts in all genres should become part of every literary
student’s basic competence (B.O.E. 2002). There are hidden influences at work beneath
the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual, or ecological. The
literary student has to discover these, and wherever necessary apply them in further
examination. Interpreting a literary text thus calls for a fundamental interest in making
discoveries, and in asking questions. The main aims that our currently educational
system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes, as
our students must be aware of their current social reality within the European
framework.
According to Brown and Yule (1983), one of the pleasures of teaching the written
language is that it is so easy to provide good models of almost any kind of writing. We
may find models of texts and models of sentences created for different purposes. We
will deal with in this section with models of texts, as models of sentences will be
examined in section six under the heading of routines and formulae speech. In each case
the model is one which the student can profitably base his own production on and, if he
copies the model carefully, the teacher can tell him that what he produces is right. This
comfortable notion of correctness is a good deal less obvious when it comes to teaching
the spoken language since native spoken language reveals so many examples of slips,
errors, and incompleteness that we do not have when writing.
Therefore, this continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or
formal aspects of “writing down” on the one end, to the more complex act of
composing on the other end, are generally classified, as mentioned above, as mainly
narrative, descriptive, expository, argumentative and instructive texts. Accordingly,
these texts belong predominantly to the category or text types of narration, description,
exposition, argumentation and instruction. We shall provide in five subsections their
basic characteristics.

4.2.1. Narration.
The purpose of a narrative text is to entertain, to tell a story, or to provide an
aesthetic literary experience. Narrative text is based on life experiences and is person-
oriented using dialogue and familiar language (Wolpow, & Zintz 1999). Narrative text
is organized using story grammar. The genres that fit the narrative text structure are
folktales (wonder tales, fables, legends, myths, tall tales, and realistic tales);
contemporary fiction; mysteries, science fiction, realistic fiction, fantasy, and historical
fiction.
A main feature of narrative texts is the telling of a story of events or actions that
have their inherent chronological order, usually aimed at presenting facts. This story
telling involves the participation of elements such as characters and characterization,
setting, plot, conflict, and theme. Besides, we find other two relevant narratives features
which deal with the order of events, and the narrator’s point of view. Telling a story
does not mean, necessarily, that we are dealing with fiction. So, instances of narrative
texts are novels, short stories (including myths, folk tales, and legends), poetry, plays,
drama and non-fiction. Also, news story, a biography or a report are text forms that
generally adhere to the narrative text types.
Thus, regarding characters, they may be classified as main characters if they are
the protagonists, or supporting characters if they are secondary to the development of
the plot. A similar, but different term is characterization which refers to the way the
author portrays stereotypes, and it is often related to medieval literary texts where
morals were identified in a fable and folk tales. In relation to the setting, we may say it
refers to the environment, the context, and the circumstances of the story, that may
happen in real or imaginery situations. Since the plot involves the action around which
the story is developed, the conflict is directly related to it, as it is usually drawn from
complication, through conflict, to a solution, stated or open-ended. Finally, the theme is
concerned with an interesting and attractive issue which will be the starting point to
develop the story, thus love, injustice, or a murder.
The order of events that are structured by time, rather than space, is what marks a
text as narrative. The order is given by the focus on the story ending. Therefore, we may
find three types of narrative developments. Firstly, in order to know the ending of the
story, we shall find a linear development which follows a chronological order from the
beginning to the end of the story. Secondly, if the focus is not on the ending but on the
circumstances leading to the ending, events may start at the end of the story and be
described, then, in terms of flash-backs in order to attract the reader’s attention. Thirdly,
if the focus is on both the beginning and the ending, the telling may start at an
intermediate point within the story for events to be described in terms of backwards and
forwards movements. This technique is to be called in medias res narration.
Moreover, another relevant feature within narrative texts is the narrator’s point of
view. Thus, the narrator is the person who tells the story, and therefore he is in charge of
introducing the characters, and explaining the circumstances in which events may take
place. He is, in fact, the one who makes the story telling a lively and dynamic text. As a
result, there are three different perspectives depending on the point of view the narrator
describes events, thus a first-person narration where the narrator is an omniscient
character who knows every detail in the story and takes part in it as any other character,
that is, as a main or supporting character, or as a witness. When the narrator and the
main character are the same person, we refer to an autobiography. Secondly, a second
person narration where the narrator becomes both narrator and character at the same
time, addressing to himself. Thirdly, a third person narration where the narrator is the
author and it is a mere witness in the story.

4.2.2. Description.
The purpose of a descriptive text is to describe and present the attributes and
features of people, animals, items and places, or to provide a detailed, neutral
presentation of a literary situation. Descriptive texts are usually based on material
objects, people or places, rather than with abstract ideas or a chronological sequence of
events. In opposition to narrative texts, descriptive texts tend to be structured in terms of
space, rather than time (Halliday and Hasan 1976). The genres that may fit into the
descriptive text structure are brochures, descriptions of animals, or descriptions of
scientific and technical concepts.
Yet, the descriptive process is to be compared to the painting process because of
the details the reader may perceive through most of the senses.
We may distinguish first, types of descriptions regarding the description of people
and animals (prosopographic), the description of landscapes (topographic), and the
description of objects. On the other hand, there are other types of description concerning
the mode of discourse, thus scientific, literary, static and dynamic. Firstly, the scientific
description is concerned with the notions of objectivity and rigour. Mechanisms,
different phenomena, or reactions are accurately described in terms of external
appearance, elements, and features, mainly in technical and scientific research.
Secondly, the literary description is concerned with the writer’s subjectivity, where his
or her point of view is emphasized, regarding practical and sensorial things, such as the
five senses: hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and seeing. Within the static
description, the writer describes in a precise way the object which is placed statically at
a certain distance. It is depicted by means of photographic techniques, giving details on
shape, size, colour, material, among other aspects. Finally, the dynamic description is
featured by movement. Thus, the object is progressively described as the writer sees it
passing by. In it, the writer describes the reality in front of him by means of a
cinematographic technique through which he makes the reader discover the object at the
same time as him.
Descriptive texts are usually aimed at precision and clarity. The choice of words
may range from metaphors, similes or comparisons in order to give as many details as
possible in terms of colour, height, length, beauty, or material type. The vocabulary
used can therefore be expected to be exact and precise, the overall style neutral,
unemotional and sometimes technical and dry to the point of boredom. Qualifying
adjectives and relative sentences may also enrich the descriptive process.
Usually in descriptive writing, the main topic is introduced and then the attributes
are included in the body of the paragraph. An organized structure may be used to map
the individual characteristics or traits of the topic being introduced. This structure can
be expected to be mirrored in the text by means of different paragraphs which would
deal with different parts of the object described. For instance, in the description of a
person’s physical appearance, the first paragraph may deal with an overall impression of
the individual regarding average age, beauty, height, or weight; the second with his head
description in detail, thus hair, eyes, mouth, or eyebrows; the third with his body, thus
arms, legs, and so on; and the fourth with special body features.

4.2.3. Exposition.
Expository texts are usually written in attempts at analysing, explaining, describing
and presenting events, facts and processes that may be quite complicated. Besides, they
may be used to persuade as well. Their structure would be determined mainly by logical
coherence, but aspects of time and space may also be quite important, depending on the
subject-matter. It is thus not always easy to differentiate between expository texts and
narrative or descriptive texts, especially as expository texts sometimes include elements
of narration or description. An expository essay should be fairly detailed and precise in
order to convey accurate and objective information.
The organization of the structure of expository text is dependent upon the form or
genre, and, therefore it may include a letter, a brochure, a map, essays, speeches, lab
procedures, journal entries, government documents, newspaper and magazine articles,
and directions, among other things. Moreover, the language used in expositions is
virtually always neutral, objective and analytical. You would not expect to find
emotionally loaded terms or subjective comments in an expository text.
First, students need to understand the characteristics of an expository text. A
narrative text includes such elements as a theme, plot, conflict, resolution, characters,
and a setting. Expository texts, on the other hand, explain something by definition,
sequence, categorization, comparison-contrast, enumeration, process, problem-solution,
description, or cause-effect. Where the narrative text uses story to inform and persuade,
the expository text uses facts and details, opinions and examples to do the same. There
are, however, seven basic structures of expository text and researchers recommend that
teachers begin to teach expository text structure at the paragraph level. Heller (1995)
lists the following text structures: definition, description, process (collection, time
order, or listing), classification, comparison, analysis, and persuasion. Included for
each type of text structure will be designed questions that can be asked for each text
structure. Expository text is subject-oriented and contains facts and information using
little dialogue.

4.2.4. Argumentation.
Argumentative texts are intended to convince, or only to persuade, the reader of a
certain point of view, or to understand the author’s reason for holding certain views on a
matter under discussion. This subject-matter may often be a controversial issue, but that
is not a necessary requirement of argumentative texts. Argumentative texts include
demonstration brochures, government speeches, debates, face-to-face discussions, thesis
and the research field.
The author will analyse the question or problem he wishes to discuss and will
present his own opinion to the reader, along with the arguments that lead him to this
opinion. Most argumentative texts weigh the pros and cons of the issue, but simpler
argumentations may restrict themselves to merely one side of the debate. The
argumentation in these simpler texts would thus be linear in nature, while more
complex argumentations can be expected to be dialectical
A framed layout is to be applied in these types of texts. Firstly, the writer starts by
stating the idea that constitutes the starting point of the argumentation, and besides he
also holds a subjective position regarding the stated issue. Secondly, within the
development body of the text, the writer must support his assertion by means of
presenting good, convincing and solid arguments for, and poor, unconvincing and
dubious if the arguments are against the issue. Also, the writer illustrates his view with
several examples to prove the assertion made above. His aim is to persuade the reader
about the rejection or acceptance of the theory stated. Finally, the author concludes by
presenting his arguments in a neutral or balanced way on the conviction of persuading
the reader through his line of reasoning. His line of argumentation must be consistent,
logical and conclusive.
In any argumentative text, the language used by the author will, to a greater or
lesser degree, reflect his personal views on the subject-matter. It is generally less neutral
than the style employed in other non-fictional texts and may, in some cases, make use of
devices such as irony or sarcasm, as well as rather emotional terminology and phrases
that express a clear opinion. You would also expect to find more of the stylistic devices
common in fictional texts in argumentation than in any other type of non-fictional text.

4.2.5. Instruction.
Instructive texts exist for the sole purpose of telling their reader what to do in a
clearly specified situation, usually referring to future activities (Wolpow, and Zintz,
1999). While an argumentative text may very well try to persuade the reader to engage
in a certain course of action, the author of an instructive text assumes that the reader
knows very well what he wants to do, but he needs to be told how to do it.
A typical example of an instructive text might be a recipe in a cookery-book or the
user’s manual giving instructions for a high-tech product. The author’s style and choice
of words are generally fairly objective and unemotional although decisions the author
makes about structure and word choice contribute to the effect of the literary production
on the reader, as assembly and operation instructions.
The style in instructive text is simple, straight-forward and aimed at utmost
precision. However, sometimes the reader may find a sheet of instructions that has been
translated from Korean into Japanese, which in turn, has been translated from English
into German, in which case the language tends to make no sense. This fact may leave
the reader with an emotional sensation of feeling helpless and confused.
You can often recognize instructive texts simply by the fact that the syntax is
dominated by simple imperatives, sentences in the passive form, and suggestive
remarks. Besides, stage directions take the form of simple present tense. Regarding the
use of vocabulary, there is an emphasis on technical and impersonal use of vocabulary.

5. STRUCTURE AND FORMAL ELEMENTS.

In standard grammars (Quirk et al. 1972) there are certain structures that are
expected to be produced by our students when speaking English, thus simple and
complex sentences, sentence connection, coordination, and apposition among others.
The importance of text structure is stated by a quotation by van Dijk & Kintsch (1983),
saying that on full analysis there are probably few surface structure items that are not
produced in order to signal a semantic, pragmatic, cognitive, social, rhetorical, or
stylistic function. Thus, at this level, little is left of the old Saussurian arbitrariness in
the relations between expressions (signifiers) and their meanings (signifieds).
Therefore, they add, nearly all underlying (semantic, pragmatic, etc.) information can
be mapped onto surface structures and parallel paratextual action.
However, the relation between surface structures and their semantic, pragmatic, or
interactional functions on the one hand, and their relevance for production on the other,
cannot be too strict as some languages have quite varied surface structures, and it
remains to be seen whether this will always directly presuppose different
comprehension and production strategies. Further work regarding these relationships
between the (functional) structures of sentences in different languages and their
cognitive processing is necessary – especially taking into account the textual relevance
of these functions. (Dijk & Kintsch 1983).
On the other hand, discourse analysis theorizes that written text (in this case,
English written text) is naturally organized into several types of patterns. Some of the
characteristic patterns in written discourse analysis are the Problem/Solution structure,
discussed in Hoey (1994), the Claim/Counterclaim structure covered in McCarthy
(1993), and the General/Specific structure discussed in Coulthard (1994). So far, we
will offer a general overview of the structure and elements that take part in written
discourse.

5.1. Textual structure.

As it has been stated above, a text is not an undifferentiated sequence of words,
much less of bytes. For different purposes, it may be divided into many different units,
of different types or sizes. A prose text such as this one might be divided into sections,
chapters, paragraphs, and sentences. A verse text might be divided into cantos,
stanzas, and lines. Once printed, sequences of prose and verse might be divided into
volumes, gatherings, and pages (Swales 1990).
Structural units of this kind are most often used to identify specific locations or
reference points within a text (the third sentence of the second paragraph in chapter
ten or page 582), but they may also be used to subdivide a text into meaningful
fragments for analytic purposes (how many paragraphs mention a specific word or how
many pages a book has).
Other structural units are more clearly analytic, in that they characterize a section
of a text. For instance, a dramatic text might regard each speech by a different character
as a unit of one kind, and stage directions or pieces of action as units of another kind.
Such an analysis is less useful for locating parts of the text (the 72nd speech by Horatio
in Act 4) than for facilitating comparisons between the words used by one character and
those of another, or those used by the same character at different points of the play.
In general, a prose text one might similarly wish to regard as units of different
types passages in direct or indirect speech, passages employing different stylistic
registers (narrative, polemic, commentary, and argument), passages of different
authorship and so forth. And for certain types of analysis (most notably textual
criticism) the physical appearance of one particular printed or manuscript source may be
of importance: paradoxically, one may wish to use descriptive markup to describe
presentational features such as typeface, line breaks, use of white space and so forth.
These textual structures overlap with each other in complex and unpredictable
ways. Particularly when dealing with texts as instantiated by paper technology, the
reader needs to be aware of both the physical organization of the book and the logical
structure of the work it contains. Many great works cannot be fully appreciated without
an awareness of the interplay between narrative units (such as chapters or paragraphs)
and page divisions. For many types of research, it is the interplay between different
levels of analysis which is crucial: the extent to which syntactic structure and narrative
structure mesh, or fail to mesh, for example, or the extent to which phonological
structures reflect morphology.

5.2. Basic language structures.

Some basic language structures are subject pronouns, subject-verb agreement,
noun-adjective agreement, negatives, interrogative and question formation, word order
(subject – object – verb), gender, articles, use of the possessive adjectives and pronouns
to indicate possession, tense (past, present and future), and reflexive verbs among the
most relevant features to be mentioned (Halliday & Hasan 1976).
It is important to focus on language structures used correctly, not only on errors.
At this level, sentence and verb formation should be given more weight in determining
control of basic language structures. In formative assessments which ask students to use
recently taught advanced structures, such as the conditional tense, these structures
should be considered basic language structures for the purpose of scoring the
performance.
In summative assessments, such as those given at the end of the year, students are
asked to demonstrate the skills acquired over the whole language learning experience.
Although students have been taught more advanced language structures, such as the
conditional tense, these structures may not have been internalized. Therefore, lack of
control of advanced structures should not heavily impact the student’s score in a
summative assessment. More emphasis should be placed on basic language structures

5.3. Elements common to all text types.

By studying the textual and lexical elements of text types, one can learn to
regularly recognize the overall structure of a text. For example, if one finds lexical
signals that indicate situation-problem-response-result (Hoey 1994), we can know with
some certainty that we are dealing with a Problem-Solution test. When one identifies
vocabulary items that signal doubt or skepticism, (words such as appear, suggests,
speculation, etc.), we know we are dealing with a Claim-Counterclaim structure. In fact,
while the sequence of these structures may be varied, we should always find all the
elements we are looking for in a well-formed text.
Following a general division of any kind of text we may sometimes begin with a
brief heading or descriptive title, with or without a byline, an epigraph or brief
quotation, or a salutation, such as we may find at the start of a letter. They may also
conclude with a brief trailer, byline, or signature. Elements which may appear in this
way, either at the start or at the end of a text division proper, are regarded as forming a
class, known as divtop or divbot respectively.
The following special purpose elements are provided to mark features which may
appear only at the start of a division. Firstly, the head, which may contain any heading,
such as the title of a section, a list or a glossary. Sometimes regarding text type, the
heading may be categorized in a meaningful way to the encoder. Secondly, an epigraph
which contains a quotation, anonymous or attributed, appearing at the start of a section
or chapter, or on a title page. Thirdly, an argument in terms of a formal list or prose
description of the topics addressed by a subdivision of a text. Finally, an opener which
groups together dateline, byline, salutation, and similar phrases appearing as a
preliminary group at the start of a division, especially of a letter. The conclusion will be
characterized by a brief trailer of the subject matter as a summary of facts. A byline or a
signature may also conclude any piece of writing.

6. RULES GOVERNING WRITTEN DISCOURSE.

We as teachers should expect learners not only to be able to read authentic texts, but
also to write in ways that can clearly express their ideas to native readers. There are the
traditional methods that usually involve a very heavy emphasis on English grammar,
vocabulary and sentence construction. And while these elements of the English
language are very important, we do a disservice to our students if we teach only these
aspects of the language. There is something lacking in merely teaching about the
building blocks of written text. What is missing is a larger model of what goes into
successfully handling text itself. This larger framework where we find solutions to
understanding and teaching text beyond the sentence level is called Written Discourse
Analysis.
Written text conforms to rules that most successful writers unconsciously follow and
native readers unconsciously expect to find. It is relevant, then, to address the term
textuality in written and oral texts as it is involved in rules governing written discourse.
In the approach to text linguistics by de Beaugrande & Dressler (1981), text, oral or
printed, is established as a communicative occurrence, which has to meet seven
standards of textuality. If any of these standards are not satisfied, the text is considered
not to have fulfilled its function and not to be communicative.
Cohesion and coherence are text-centred notions, designating operations directed at
the text materials. Cohesion concerns the ways in which the components of the surface
text (the actual words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence (de
Beaugrande & Dressler 1981). Coherence on the other hand concerns the ways in which
the components of the textual world, thus the concepts and relations which underlie the
surface text are mutually accessible and relevant.
The remaining standards of textuality are user-centred, concerning the activity of
textual communication by the producers and receivers of texts:
 Firstly, intentionality concerns the text producer attitude that the set of
occurrences should constitute a cohesive and coherent text instrumental in
fulfilling the writer intentions.
 Secondly, acceptability concerns the receiver attitude that the set of occurrences
should constitute a cohesive and coherent text having some use or relevance for
the receiver.
  Thirdly, informativity concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the text
are expected vs. unexpected or known vs. unknown or uncertain.
 Fourthly, situationality concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a
situation of occurrence.
 Fifth, intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilisation of one text
dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts.

The above seven standards of textuality are called constitutive principles (Searle
1965), in that they define and create textual communication as well as set the rules for
communicating. There are also at least three regulative principles that control textual
communication: the efficiency of a text is contingent upon its being useful to the
participants with a minimum of effort; its effectiveness depends upon whether it makes a
strong impression and has a good potential for fulfilling an aim; and its appropriateness
depends upon whether its own setting is in agreement with the seven standards of
textuality (de Beaugrande & Dressler 1981:11).

7. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE SPEECH.

According to Myles (2002), the ability to write well is not a naturally acquired skill
but rather learned or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal instructional
settings or other environments. Writing skills, thus reading and writing, must be
practiced and learned through experience. Besides, writing involves composing, which
implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives
or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in directive, expository or
argumentative writing.
The study of texts as genres is closely related to the use of routines and formulae
speech in written discourse, as genres embrace each of the linguistically realized
activity types which comprise so much of our culture (Martin 1985). Genre is a
macrolevel concept, a communicative act within a discursive network. It makes
reference to repertoires of typified social responses in recurrent situations -from
greetings to thank yous to acceptance speeches and full-blown, written expositions of
scientific investigations – genres are used to package speech and make it recognizable
to the exigencies of the situation (Berkenkotter & Huckin 1995).
Rhetorical scholars have given genre a more central place, recently focused on
social constitution of non-literary forms of writing and speaking. Ethnographers concern
about which labels are used to type communications, in order to reveal elements of
verbal communication which are sociolinguistically salient (Saville-Troike 1982). There
has been growing interest in the sociocultural functions of disciplinary genres, for
instance, legal and scientific communication. Genres reflect differences in external
format and situations of use, and are defined on the basis of systematic non-linguistic
criteria. Registers are divided into genres reflecting the way social purposes are
accomplished in and through them in settings in which they are used.
Students are encouraged to recognize a submerged network of meaning beneath
what seems apparent. This is done by inquiring about a culture’s patterns of communal
living and production, patterns that often take concrete form in specific institutions.
Many categories of institutional place are associated with kinds of meaning that shape a
culture, and with the production of such meaning. An important method used here is the
semiotic analysis of signs: instead of talking in general terms about “culture” or
“reality”, it is more efficient to study signs which refer to a specific sociocultural reality.
In writing a text, every author uses signs, consciously or unconsciously. Thus, the
culture which becomes tangible in these signs speaks through the author and
communicates with us in his or her text. It is the literary student’s task, accordingly, to
identify within a text the embedded signs and their meanings.
It is in this context where routines and formulae speech come into force for a foreign
language learner. With the time at our disposal at the elementary level, we will
concentrate on giving our students training and practice in writing down what they
would say in various circumstances, with some attention to the differences between
cultural conventions in spoken and written style. At the more advanced level, we will
encourage them to express themselves with some finesse regarding more significant
subjects, and then, to write their ideas, with careful attention to lexical and structural
choice.
Skill in writing in an elegant fashion in a foreign language, according to the canons
of an educated elite, is achieved by means of expressing meaning clearly and accurately
in addition to specialized compositions. Distinctions made among types of writing
activities reflect the major areas of learning involved in the writing process. The
graphic system must be learned and spelt according to the conventions of the language,
if what it is written is to be comprehensible and acceptable to a native speaker. Students
must learn to control the structure according to the canons of good writing.
The organization of the structure of a text is dependent upon the form or genre
(letter, postcard, journal entry, newspaper article, an editorial, a brochure, or a map).
Then, each type of text shares certain characteristics with the others, they each make
their own demands on the reader through the unique use of structure, devices, features,
and conventions. Therefore, we need to teach students how to read and write each type
of text as they encounter it in order to achieve effectiveness in communication.
They must learn to select from among possible combinations of words and phrases
those which will convey the meanings they have in mind, and, ultimately, they must be
able to do this so that nuances in the appropriate linguistic register are expressed
through their writing. To reach this stage, students must have such a control of the
mechanisms of good writing that they are able to concentrate all their efforts on the
process of selection among possible combinations.
8. NEW DIRECTIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
From a practical perspective in education, providing experiences for contact with
language in context proved difficult for foreign language teachers as they were forced to
rely on textbooks and classroom materials in teaching language. However, nowadays
new technologies may provide a new direction to language teaching as they set more
appropriate context for students to experience the target culture. Present-day approaches
deal with a communicative competence model in which first, there is an emphasis on
significance over form, and secondly, motivation and involvement are enhanced by
means of new technologies.
Regarding writing skills, there is a need to create classrooms conditions which
match those in real life and foster acquisition, encouraging reading and writing. The
success partly lies in the way the language becomes real to the users, feeling themselves
really in the language. Some of this motivational force is brought about by intervening
in authentic communicative events. Otherwise, we have to recreate as much as possible
the whole cultural environment in the classroom.
This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in
particular, the Spanish Educational System which establish a common reference
framework for the teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry
out several communication tasks with specific communicative goals within specific
contexts. Thus, foreign language activities are provided within the framework of social
interaction, personal, professional or educational fields.
Writing skills are mentioned as one of the aims of our current educational system
(B.O.E. 2002). It is stated that, students will make use of this competence in a natural
and systematic way in order to achieve the effectiveness of communication through the
different communication skills, thus, productive (oral and written communication),
receptive (oral and written comprehension within verbal and non- verbal codes), and
interactional role of a foreign language as a multilingual and multicultural identity.
This effectiveness of communication is to be achieved thanks to recent
developments in foreign language education which have indicated a trend towards the
field of intercultural communication. The Ministry of Education proposed several
projects within the framework of the European Community, such as Comenius projects
and Plumier projects. The first project is envisaged as a way for learners to experience
sociocultural patterns of the target language in the target country, and establish personal
relationships which may lead to keep in contact through writing skills. Besides, the
Plumier project uses multimedia resources in a classroom setting where learners are
expected to learn to interpret and produce meaning with members of the target culture.
Both projects are interrelated as students put in practice their writing and reading skills
by means of keeping in touch through e-mails with their friends and read their
messages, apart from fostering the oral skills.
Current research on Applied Linguistics shows an interest on writing skills, such as
on the pragmatics of writing, narrative fiction and frequency on cohesion devices in
English texts, among others. We may also find research on intercultural communication
where routines and formulaic speech are under revision of contrastive analysis between
English and Spanish. However, the emphasis is nowadays on the use of multimedia and
computers as an important means to promote a foreign language in context.

9. IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

With so much writing in foreign language classes over so many years, one would
expect to find highly effective methods for teaching this skill and marked success in
learning it. Unfortunately, examination papers in composition the world over are, with
few exceptions, disappointing. Many college and university students with four, five,
even six or more years of study of another language behind them are still unable to
express themselves in a clear, correct, and comprehensible manner in writing (Rivers
1981).
We would do well to examine critically the role of writing in foreign and second-
language learning, to analyse what is involved in the process of writing another
language, and to trace out the steps by which this skill can be progressively mastered.
At this stage it may be well to recall two facts often ignored by language teachers, who
traditionally have expected students to write something as a demonstration of learning:
first, that many highly articulate persons express themselves very inadequately in
writing in their native language, and, second, that only a minority of the speakers of any
language acquire the skill of writing it with any degree of finesse, and then only after
years of training in school and practice out of school. We must realize that writing a
language comprehensibly is much more difficult than speaking it.
However, following Widdowson (1978), and more recently, the guidelines of the
Ministry of Education (B.O.E. 2002), the writing skill is to be given a prominent role,
over past years, in acquiring a foreign language within the framework of a
communicative competence theory. Yet, there is a need for integrating writing with
other language skills such as reading, speaking and listening, in the belief that this leads
to the effectiveness of communication.
Byrne (1979) says that writing serves a variety of pedagogical purposes to be
enumerated as follows. First, writing enables us to provide for different learning styles,
needs and speeds. Especially learners who do not learn easily through oral practice
alone feel more secure if they are allowed to read and write in the target language.
Secondly, it also satisfies a psychological need since written work serves to provide the
learners with some evidence that they are making progress in the language. Thirdly,
being exposed to more than one medium is likely to be very effective.
Thus, writing provides variety in classroom activities and increases the amount of
language contact through work that can be done out of the class. Finally, we have to
speak about a practical reason. Writing is often needed for formal and informal testing.
Due to the limit of time available for exams and to the large number of students per
class we are often forced to use some form of written test.
All the above considerations on the advantages and disadvantages of writing
strongly suggest that while still concentrating on aural oral skills in the early stages, we
can make good use of writing, as part of an integrated skills approach to language
learning because it seems it has valuable pedagogical applications.
It is in listening comprehension and reading that a sophisticated level is required for
handling the language, because in these areas there will be no control over the
complexity of the material they encounter. These are the skills through which we can
improve our knowledge of the language at a later stage. However, in speaking and
writing, the non-native speaker rarely achieves the same degree of mastery as the native
speaker, even after living in a country where the language is spoken. What students
most need in these production areas is to be able to use what they know flexibly,
making the most of the resources at their command to meet the occasion.

10. CONCLUSION.
The role of writing skills in our present society is emphasized by the increasing
necessity of learning a foreign language as we are now members of the European
Community, and as such, we need to communicate with other countries at oral and
written levels. Written patterns are given an important role when language learners face
the monumental task of acquiring not only new vocabulary, syntactic patterns, and
phonology, but also discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic
competence, and interactional competence.
Students need opportunities to investigate the systematicity of language at all
linguistic levels, especially at the highest level of written discourse. Without knowledge
and experience within the discourse and sociocultural patterns of the target language,
second language learners are likely to rely on the strategies and expectations acquired as
part of their first language development, which may be inappropriate for the second
language setting and may lead to communication difficulties and misunderstandings.
One problem for second language learners is not to acquire a sociocultural
knowledge on the foreign language they are learning, and therefore, have a limited
experience with a variety of interactive practices in the target language, such as reading
a complaint sheet, writing a letter to a department store, or writing a letter to an English
person with the appropriate written patterns. Therefore, one of the goals of second
language teaching is to expose learners to different discourse patterns in different texts
and interactions. One way that teachers can include the study of discourse in the second
language classroom is to allow the students themselves to study language, that is, to
make them discourse analysts (see Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000), by learning in
context.
By exploring natural language use in authentic environments, learners gain a greater
appreciation and understanding of the discourse patterns associated with a given genre
or speech event as well as the sociolinguistic factors that contribute to linguistic
variation across settings and contexts. For example, students can study speech acts by
searching information on Internet about a job application, address patterns, opening and
closings of museums, or other aspects of speech events (written discourse).
To sum up, we may say that language is where culture impinges on form and where
second language speakers find their confidence threatened through the diversity of
registers, genres and styles that make up the first language speaker’s day to day
interaction. Language represents the deepest manifestation of a culture, and people’s
values systems, including those taken over from the group of which they are part, play a
substantial role in the way they use not only their first language but also subsequently
acquired ones.
The assumptions of discourse analysis, then, are important not only for
understanding written discourse patterns and the conditions of their production, but also
for a critical assessment of our own cultural situation.

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
On the origins of language and oral communication
 Crystal, D. 1985. Linguistics. Harmondsworth, England. Penguin Books.
 Juan Goytisolo (2001), Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
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A theoretical framework for written discourse

 Cook, Guy. 1989. Discourse. Oxford University Press.
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 Rivers, W. 1981. Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. Chicago: The University
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 Widdowson, H. G. 1978. Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford:
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Text types
 B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 112/2002, de 13
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 B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 113/2002, de 13
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 van Dijk, T. A. And W. Kintsch.1983. Strategies of Discourse Comprehension.
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On future directions and implications on language teaching

 Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment.
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 Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context in language
teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
 Revistas de la Asociación Española de Lingüística Aplicada (AESLA): De la
Cruz, Isabel; Santamaría, Carmen; Tejedor, Cristina y Valero, Carmen. 2001. La
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de Alcalá.
 Celaya, Mª Luz; Fernández- Villanueva, Marta; Naves, Teresa; Strunk, Oliver y
Tragant, Elsa. 2001. Trabajos en Lingüística Aplicada. Universidad de
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