Lecture Notes

on
Communicative English
1st/2nd Semester of all Engineering Branches

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 CONTENTS
1- Unit I:Literature Appreciation

2- Unit II: Vocabulary

3- Unit III :Application of Grammar

4- Unit IV:Formal writing skills

5- Unit V: Elements of Communication

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UNIT I: LITERATURE APPRECIATION
Reading Comprehension
1. Skimming and Scanning:

Skimming is a task of finding out the important details of a written text without
giving a close reading to it. The word ‗skimming‘ is derived from ‗skum‘
implying the thick layer floating on liquid. Similarly by skimming a text we take
out all the key points out of it in one look. But scanning is not overlooking - it
searches for those details which are not apparent on the surface. Scanning skill
operates in the manner a scanner takes the photos of what is not seen on the
ground.

2. Inference and Evaluation:

Inferential and evaluative analysis of the text relates more to close

reading. A reader, here, examines the text to find out what the written
text conveys and how it can be accessed. This is some kind of an
analytical task done by the reader

3.Guessing the meanings of Unfamiliar Words

Good readers tackle unknown words in a text by trying to guess their
meanings from the context. It is not possible to look up the meanings of all
unknown words in the dictionary. If the reader attempts to do that the flow
of reading is interrupted. However, this is possible only when the text does
not have too many difficult words.

4.Note-Making

Note-making is a sub-skill of reading that is highly useful for study purposes. It

involves understanding the organization of the text and being able to identify the main
points and the supporting details, in skeleton or outline form.

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UNIT 2: VOCABULARY
Synonyms
Words with similar meanings are called synonyms .

Synonym examples:

 big / large
 affection / love
 smart / clever
 buy / purchase

Word origin: Greek, syn = same, onyma = a name

Short list of synonyms in English, listed by the part of speech

Synonyms of Nouns

 belly / stomach
 children / kids
 disaster / catastrophe
 earth / soil
 father / dad
 happiness / joy
 instinct / intuition

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  mother / mom
 present / gift
 sunrise / dawn

Synonyms of Verbs

 answer / reply
 beat / defeat
 behave / act
 begin / start
 close / shut
 leave / exit,depart
 provide / supply
 select / choose
 shout / yell
 speak / talk

Synonyms of Adjectives

 big / large

 annual / yearly
 complete / total
 correct / right
 crazy / mad
 foolish / silly
 happy / glad
 hard / difficult
 ill / sick
 last / final
 near / close
 sad / unhappy
 stable / steady

Synonyms of Adverbs
 almost / nearly
 badly / poorly
 fast / quickly / rapidly
 intentionally / on purpose
 out / outside
 rarely / seldom
 sometimes / occasionally
 surely / for sure
 very / highly / extremely

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Words with similar meanings are called synonyms . But nothing in nature is hundred percent similar to
anything else . for example,

Pretty, beautiful, handsome... What's the difference?

Pretty Beautiful Handsome

Beautiful = (of a
Pretty = Handsome =
woman or
delicate and (of a man)
girl)extremely
pleasant to look at. pleasant to look at.
pleasant to look at.

Lovely Ravishing Good-looking

Lovely =
(of someone that
makes you have a Ravishing = very Good-looking =
strong feeling for them) beautiful. physically pleasant to
graceful and very look at.
pleasant to look at.

Cute Adorable Gorgeous

Cute = Adorable =
(of someone young or Gorgeous =
very pleasant to
something small) impressive and
look at and very
charming and extremely pleasant
easy to love.
pleasant to look at. to look at.

Here is another example to illustrate this point:

"To ask" means to say or write what you wish to happen.

"To request" means to say or write what you wish to happen, but it has a
formal use.

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In other words, you would use "ask" and "request" in different situations and
contexts.

So it's not enough just to study a word's meaning and synonyms. You should
also be aware of the subtle difference, nuances, and usage issues of each
individual word.

Additional example:

One of the meanings of "hurt" is to "to be painful."

For example, "My back hurts like hell."

One synonym of "hurt" is "ache."

"To ache" means "to be painful, in a dull way." A dull pain means that it is
not very strong, but it is continuous.

For example, "I've been standing for so long that now my feet ache."

So you see, "hurt" and "ache" are synonyms. Their meanings are indeed
very similar, but not identical.

Antonyms
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word.

Antonym examples:

 old / new

 able / unable

 load / unload
 black / white
 strong / weak
 break / fix

Word origin: Greek, anti = opposite, onym = name

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Short list of antonyms in English, listed by the part of speech

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Nouns

 day / night
 east / west
 enemy / friend
 failure / success
 guest / host
 health / disease
 question / answer
 speaker / listener
 summer / winter
 top / bottom

Verbs

 agree / disagree
 arrive / leave
 begin / end
 fall asleep / wake up
 gain / lose
 lend / borrow
 love / hate
 open / close
 remember / forget
 start / stop

Adjectives

 asleep / awake
 beautiful / ugly
 big / small
 black / white
 cheap / expensive
 dead / alive
 dry / wet
 easy / difficult
 full / empty
 good / bad
 hot / cold
 intelligent / stupid
 sad / happy
 sick / healthy
 thin / fat

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Adverbs

 always / never
 angrily / happily
 fast / slowly
 here / there
 inside / outside
 likely / unlikely
 near / far
 partly / fully
 seemingly / actually
 yesterday / tomorrow

Prepositions

 above / below
 against / for
 before / after
 in / out
 like / unlike
 on / off
 plus / minus
 to / from
 towards / away
 with / without

Conjunctions

 and / or
 therefore / nevertheless

Interjections

 bravo / boo
 hello / goodbye
 holy cow / duh
 phew / oops
 thanks / no thanks
 yes / no
 yippee / oh my

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 Homonyms

Homonyms are two words that are spelled the same and sound
the same but have different meanings. ... Therefore, a homonym is
a word that has the same name as another word, meaning that the
two words look and sound exactly alike.

In English language, there are many words that spell the same but differ in
meaning as per their usage. These are also called homographs. Based on
their usage and functions, words are categorized into eight parts of speech.
These words change their meaning in accordance to their usage. However
the change in the meaning of the word occurs only when the word is used as
a noun, adjective, verb and adverb.
To understand this better, let us look at some examples:

CLEAN

1. The cottage needs a good clean.

2. He clean forgot about dropping the letters in the post box.
3. The entertainment was good clean fun for the whole family.
4. He cleaned up his act and came off drugs.

In the above example, we have used the word clean and used it in 4
different sentences, each signifying a different meaning, along with its usage
as different parts of speech.
Sentence A - The cottage needs a good clean. The word clean in this
sentence means the act or an instance of cleaning. Since this is an act,
hence it is a noun.
Sentence B - He clean forgot about dropping the letters in the post box.
The meaning of the word clean in this sentence is completely, and since it is
modifying the word forgot which a verb (action word) is, it is an adverb.
Sentence C - The entertainment was good clean fun for the whole family.
In this case, the meaning of the word clean is fit for everyone, nothing

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obscene. The word in this case is modifying fun, which is a noun; hence the
word here is an adjective.
Sentence D - He cleaned up his act and came off drugs. In this case the
word cleans means to rid of undesirable features. Clean has been used to
denote an action, and hence in this case it is a verb.

LIGHT

1. The new lamp had good light for reading.

2. Magnesium is a light metal.
3. Rahul likes to travel light.
4. The choice lighted on me.

Sentence A - The new lamp had good light for reading. In this the word
light is being is used to mean a particular quality or type of light. And also it
has been used as a noun.
Sentence B - Magnesium is a light metal. In this the word is used to mean
having relatively low density, also since it is used to describe the word metal
which is a noun, it is an adjective.
Sentence C - Rahul likes to travel light. In this, the word light means little
equipment, baggage, etc.
Sentence D - the choice lighted on me. In this the word light is used to
denote an action thus it is verb and it means to strike or fall on.
Some of the similar kinds of words are:

LOVE

We love you. (Here, love is a verb as it is showing the action in terms of

expressing an emotion)
Love is blind. (Here, Love is a noun as it is a name of an emotion)

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WATER

We drink water. (Here, water is a noun as it is name of the thing)

They water the plants. (Here, water is a verb as here it means giving water
to plants i.e. an action)
This is a water pipe. (Here, water is a adjective as it is describing pipe
which is a noun)

ABOVE

The heavens showered blessings from above. (Here, ‘above’ is used as a

noun)
She is above average in intelligence. (Here, above is a preposition as here it
is showing the position or the status of the pronoun ‘she’)
Analyze the above sentence. (Here, above is an adjective as it telling
something about the noun ‘sentence’)

FAST

He did not take anything during the fast. (It names something, so it is a
noun)
Muslims fast during Ramazan. (This is an activity, so fast is a verb)
She speaks fast. (This becomes adverb here as it is describing a verb i.e. )

BACK

I have pain in the back. (It is a noun here)

I will come back in 5 minutes. (It is an adverb here, as it describes verb-
come)
Have you closed the back door.(It is describing a noun-door, so it is an
adjective)
He backed his car through the gate. (Back is used as a verb here)

NEAR

He lives near the station. (Near is a preposition here)

He got nervous as the examinations neared. (Here, it is a verb)
Most of my near relatives live abroad. (Here, it is used as an adjective for

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noun-relatives)
I went near enough to see over it. (Near is an adverb here which described
enough)
Thus from these examples it is implicit that with different usage, the same
word in English language can have different meanings.

One word Substitution

One word Substitution is one of the integral parts of vocabulary. It simply
means that a sentence has to be replaced with a single word.

List of One Word Substitution

List of One Word Substitution for “Individual Character/ Person/People”

PHRASE ONE WORD

One who is not sure about God's Agnostic

existence./

A person who deliberately sets fire to a Arsonist

building

One who does a thing for pleasure and not Amateur

as a profession

One who can use either hand with ease Ambidextrous

One who makes an official examination of Auditor

accounts

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A person who believes
Anarchist
in or tries to bring
about a state of
lawlessness

A person who has changed his faith Apostate

One who does not believe in the Atheist

existence of God

A person appointed by two parties Arbitrator

to solve a dispute

One who leads an austere life Ascetic

One who does a thing for pleasure Amateur

and not as a profession

One who can either hand with ease Ambidextrous

An unconventional style of living Bohemian

One who is bad in spellings Cacographer

One who feeds on human flesh Cannibal

A person who is blindly

Chauvinist
devoted to an idea/ A person
displayingaggressive or
exaggerated patriotism

A critical judge of any art and craft Connoisseur

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One who is recovering health after Convalescent
illness

A girl/woman who flirts with man Coquette

A person who regards the whole Cosmopolitan

world as his country

One who is a centre of attraction Cynosure

One who sneers at the beliefs of Cynic

others

A leader or orator who espoused the Demagogue

cause of the common people

A person having a sophisticated Debonair

charm

A leader who sways his followers by Demagogue

his oratory

A dabbler (not serious) in art, Dilettante

science and literature

One who is for pleasure of eating Epicure

and drinking

One who often talks of his Egotist

achievements

Someone who leaves one country to Emigrant

settle in another

A man who is womanish in his Effeminate

habits

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One hard to please (very selective Fastidious
in his habits)

One who runs away from justice Fugitive

One who is filled with excessive Fanatic

enthusiasm in religious matters

One who believes in fate Fatalist

A lover of good food Gourmand

Conferred as an honour Honorary

A person who acts against religion Heretic

A person of intellectual or erudite Highbrow

tastes

A person who is controlled by wife Henpeck

One who shows sustained Indefatigable

enthusiastic action with unflagging
vitality

Someone who attacks cherished Iconoclast

ideas or traditional institutions

One who does not express himself Introvert

freely

Who behaves without moral Immoral

principles

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A person who is incapable of being Impregnable
tampered with

One who is unable to pay his debts Insolvent

A person who is mentally ill Lunatic

A person who dislikes humankind Misanthrope

and avoids human society

A person who primarily

Mercenary
concerned with making
money at theexpense of
ethics

Someone in love with himself Narcissist

One who collect coins as hobby Numismatist

A person who likes or admires Philogynist

women

A lover of mankind Philanthropist

A person who speaks more than one Polyglot

language

One who lives in solitude Recluse

A person who is indifferent to the Stoic

pains and pleasures of life

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 A scolding nagging bad-tempered Termagant
woman

A person who shows a great or Uxorious

excessive fondness for one's wife

One who possesses outstanding

Virtuoso
technical ability in a particular art or
field

One Word Substitution List for “Collection/ Group”

PHRASE ONE WORD

A group of guns or missile launchers Battery

operated together at one place

A large bundle bound for storage or Bale

transport

A large gathering of people of a Bevy

particular type

An arrangement of flowers that is Bouquet

usually given as a present

A family of young animals Brood

A group of things that have been Cache

hidden in a secret place

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A group of people, typically
Caravan
with vehicles or animals
travellingtogether

A closed political meeting Caucus

An exclusive circle of people with a Clique

common purpose

A group of followers hired to applaud Claque

at a performance

A series of stars Constellation

A funeral procession Cortege

A group of worshippers Congregation

A herd or flock of animals being Drove

driven in a body

A small fleet of ships or boats Flotilla

A small growth of trees without Grove

underbrush

A community of people smaller than Hamlet

a village

A group of cattle or sheep or other Herd

domestic mammals

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 A large group of people Horde

A temporary police force Posse

A large number of fish swimming Shoal

together

A strong and fast-moving stream of Torrent

water or other liquid

One Word Substitutes List for “Research/ Profession”

PHRASE ONE WORD

The medieval forerunner of Alchemy

chemistry

A person who presents a Anchor

radio/television programme

A person who is trained to travel in Astronaut

a spacecraft

The scientific study of the

Botany
physiology, structure, genetics,
ecology,distribution,
classification, and economic
importance of plants

A person who draws or produces Cartographer

maps

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A person who writes beautiful Calligrapher
writing

A person employed to drive a Chauffeur

private or hired car

A person who introduces the

Compere
performers or contestants in a
varietyshow

A keeper or custodian of a museum Curator

or other collection

The branch of biology

Chronobiology
concerned with cyclical
physiologicalphenomena

A secret or disguised way of writing Cypher

The study of statistics Demography

The use of the fingers and hands to Dactylology

communicate and convey ideas

A person who sells and arranges cut Florist

flowers

A line of descent traced Genealogy

continuously from an ancestor

The therapeutic use of sunlight Heliotherapy

The art or practice of garden Horticulture

cultivation and management

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 One who supervises in the Invigilator
examination hall

The theory or philosophy of law Jurisprudence

A person who compiles dictionaries Lexicographer

The scientific study of the structure Odontology

and diseases of teeth

One who presents a radio programme Radio Jockey

The art of effective or persuasive Rhetoric

speaking or writing

The branch of science

Petrology
concerned with the origin,
structure, andcomposition of
rocks

One who study the elections and Psephologist

trends in voting

An artist who makes sculptures. Sculptor

The scientific study of the

Zoology
behaviour, structure,
physiology,classification,
and distribution of animals

Important One Word Substitution for “Spot/ Venue”

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PHRASE ONE WORD

A collection of historical
Archives
documents or records providing
informationabout a place,
institution, or group of people

A large cage, building, or enclosure Aviary

for keeping birds in

A building where animals are Abattoir

butchered

A place where bees are kept; a Apiary

collection of beehives

A building containing tanks of live Aquarium

fish of different species

A place or scene of activity, debate, Arena

or conflict

A collection of weapons and military Arsenal

equipment

An institution for the care of people Asylum

who are mentally ill

A hole or tunnel dug by a

Burrow
small animal, especially a
rabbit, as adwelling

A collection of items of
Cache
the same type stored in
a hidden orinaccessible
place
A public room or building where Casino
gambling games are played

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A large burial ground, especially one Cemetery
not in a churchyard

A room in a public building

Cloakroom
where outdoor clothes or
luggage maybe left

A place where a dead person's body Crematorium

is cremated

a Christian community of nuns living Convent

together under monastic vows

Nursery where babies and

Creche
young children are cared for
during theworking day

A stoppered glass container into Decanter

which wine or spirit is decanted

A large bedroom for a number of Dormitory

people in a school or institution

The nest of a squirrel, typically

Drey
in the form of a mass of twigs
in atree

A room or building equipped

Gymnasium
for gymnastics, games, and
otherphysical exercise

A storehouse for threshed grain Granary

A large building with an

Hangar
extensive floor area, typically
for housingaircraft.

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A box or cage, typically with a
Hutch
wire mesh front, for keeping
rabbitsor other small
domesticated animals

A place in a large institution for the Infirmary

care of those who are ill

A small shelter for a dog Kennel

A place where wild animal live Lair

A place where coins, medals, or Mint

tokens are made

A collection of wild animals kept in Menagerie

captivity for exhibition

A building or buildings
Monastery
occupied by a community of
monks livingunder religious
vows

A place where bodies are kept for Morgue

identification

A piece of enclosed land planted Orchard

with fruit trees

A large natural or artificial lake used Reservoir

as a source of water supply

A small kitchen or room at the

Scullery
back of a house used for
washingdishes and another
dirty household work

A close-fitting cover for the blade of Sheath

a knife or sword

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 A room or building for sick children Sanatorium
in a boarding school

A place where animal hides are Tannery

tanned

A large, tall cupboard in which Wardrobe

clothes may be hung or stored

One Word Substitution PDF for “Government/ Systems”

PHRASE ONE WORD

A state of disorder due to absence

Anarchy
or non-recognition of authority or
other controlling systems

A form of government in which Aristocracy

power is held by the nobility

A system of government by one Autocracy

person with absolute power

A self-governing country or region Autonomy

A system of government in
Bureaucracy
which most of the important
decisionsare taken by state
officials rather than by elected
representatives

A system of government by the

Democracy
whole population or all the
eligiblemembers of a state,
typically through elected
representatives
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 A state, society, or group governed Gerontocracy
by old people

A state or country run by

Kakistocracy
the worst, least
qualified, or most
unscrupulous citizens

Government by new or Neocracy

inexperienced hands

Government by the populace Ochlocracy

A small group of people having Oligarchy

control of a country or organization

Government by the wealthy Plutocracy

Government not connected with Secular

religious or spiritual matters

A form of government with a Monarchy

monarch at the head

A political system based on Thearchy

government of men by God

New One Word Substitution for “Fear/ Phobia”

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PHRASE ONE WORD

An extreme or irrational fear of Acrophobia

heights

An irrational fear of fresh air or Aerophobia

drafts of air

Fear of being egotistical, being alone Autophobia

or isolated

A phobia of pain Algophobia

An abnormal fear of heights Altophobia

An emotional disorder
Anorexia
characterized by an obsessive
desire to loseweight by refusing
to eat

An extreme or irrational fear of open Agoraphobia

or public places

An abnormal and persistent fear of Bathophobia

depths

Fear or hatred of books Bibliophobia

Fear of ugliness and things that are Cacophobia

ugly

A dislike of being in the centre Centrophobia

An extreme fear about beauty Cellophobia

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Fear of time Chronophobia

Fear of dogs Cynophobia

An extreme or irrational fear of Claustrophobia

confined places

A delusion of being possessed by Demonomania

evil spirits

An abnormal and persistent fear of Dipsophobia

drinking alcohol

An abnormal and persistent fear of Ergophobia

work or finding employment

Fear of getting married, being in a Gamophobia

relationship, or commitment

Physical or psychological
Genophobia
fear of sexual relations
or sexualintercourse

Fear of old age Geraphobia

Fear of knowledge Gnosiophobia

Fear of women Gynaephobia

Fear of writing or handwriting Graphophobia

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 An irrational and intense fear of Hodophobia
travel

An excessive fear or aversion to Hedonophobia

obtaining pleasure

An obsessive fear of words Logophobia

An extreme fear of wind or drafts Menemophobia

An extreme or irrational fear of the Nyctophobia

night or of darkness

Fear of death Thanatophobia

Extreme superstition regarding the Triskaidekapho

number thirteen

All One Word Substitution for “Murder/ Death”

PHRASE ONE WORD

A solemn procession, especially for Cortege

a funeral

A poem of serious reflection, Elegy

typically a lament for the dead

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A phrase or form of words
Epitaph
written in memory of a person
who hasdied

Killing of one's son or daughter Filicide

Destruction or abortion of a fetus Foeticide

Killing of one's brother or sister Fratricide

Killing of a large group of people Genocide

Killing of one person by another Homicide

Killing of infants Infanticide

Burial of a corpse in a grave or Interment

tomb

Killing of one's mother Matricide

A room or building in which dead Mortuary

bodies are kept

A news article that reports the Obituary

recent death of a person

Killing of a parent or other near Parricide

relative

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 Killing of one's father Patricide

An examination of a dead body to Postmortem

determine the cause of death

Action of killing a king Regicide

Killing of one's sister Sororicide

Act of intentionally causing one's Suicide

own death

Killing of one's wife Uxoricide

List of One Word Substitution for “Sound”

PHRASE ONE WORD

The branch of physics concerned Acoustics

with the properties of sound

The sound of Alligators Bellow

The sound of Deers Bell

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The sound of Crows Caw

The sound of Geese Cackle

The sound of Hens Cluck

The sound of Dolphins Click

The sound of Frogs Croak

The sound of Crickets Creak

The sound of Monkeys Gibber

The sound of Camels Grunt

The sound of Owls Hoot

The sound of Penguins Honk

The sound of Cattle Moo

The sound of Horses Neigh

The sound of Nightingales Pipe

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 The sound of Ducks Quack

The sound of Parrots Screech

The sound of Rats Squeak

The sound of Birds Twitter

The sound of Elephants Trumpet

The sound of Mosquitoes Whine

List of One Word Substitution for Competitive Exam Related to“Generic Terms”

PHRASE ONE WORD

An act of abdicating or renouncing Abdication

the throne

An annual calendar containing

Almanac
important dates and statistical
information such as astronomical
data and tide tables

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A cold-blooded vertebrate animal
Amphibian
that is born in water and breathes
with gills

A story, poem, or picture that

Allegory
can be interpreted to reveal a
hiddenmeaning, typically a moral
or political one

A statement or proposition on
Axiom
which an abstractly defined
structureis based

A nation or person engaged

Belligerent
in war or conflict, as
recognized byinternational
law

An examination of tissue removed

Biopsy
from a living body to discover the
presence, cause, or extent of a
disease

The action or offence of speaking

Blasphemy
sacrilegiously about God or
sacredthings; profane talk

The arrangement of events or dates Chronology

in the order of their occurrence

A vigorous campaign for political, Crusade

social, or religious change

Lasting for a very short time Ephemeral

Spoken or done without preparation Extempore

Release someone from a duty or Exonerate

obligation

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Fond of company Gregarious

Making marks that cannot be Indelible

removed

Incapable of making mistakes or Infallible

being wrong

Certain to happen Inevitable

A sentimental longing or wistful Nostalgia

affection for a period in the past

A solution or remedy for all Panacea

difficulties or diseases

A doctrine which identifies God with Pantheism

the universe

Excessively concerned with minor Pedantic

details or rules

The practice of taking

Plagiarism
someone else's work or ideas
and passingthem off as one's
own

Safe to drink Potable

The emblems or insignia of royalty Regalia

Violation or misuse of what is Sacrilege

regarded as sacred

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A position requiring little or no
Sinecure
work but giving the holder status
orfinancial benefit

A thing that is kept as a reminder of Souvenir

a person, place, or event

An imaginary ideal society free of Utopia

poverty and suffering

Denoting a sin that is not regarded

Venial
as depriving the soul of divinegrace

In exactly the same words as were Verbatim

used originally

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 Unit 3
APPLICATION OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Countable an Uncountable Noun

Countable nouns have two forms: singular and plural. Singular

countable nouns refer to one person or thing:

a teacher a book a wish an idea

Plural count nouns refer to more than one person or thing:

teachers books wishes ideas

Singular countable nouns

Singular count nouns cannot be used alone. They must have a determiner:

the English teacher that book a wish my latest idea

Plural countable nouns

We usually add –s to make a plural noun:

book > books

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 school > Schools

friend > Friends

We add –es to nouns ending in –s, –ch, –sh, –ss, –x and –o:

class > Classes

watch > Watches

gas > Gases

wish > Wishes

box > Boxes

potato > Potatoes

When a noun ends in a consonant and –y, we make the plural with –ies:

lady > Ladies

country > Countries

41
 party > Parties

If a noun ends in a vowel and –y, we simply add –s:

boy > Boys

day > Days

play > Plays

Some common nouns have irregular plurals:

man > Men

woman > Women

child > Children

person > People

foot > Feet

Plural count nouns do not have a general determiner when they refer topeople or things in
general:

42
Computers are very expensive. Do you
sell old books?
But they may have a specific determiner:
Those computers are very expensive.
The books in that shop are very expensive.
Her sisters live there.
or a quantifier:

some new books a few teachers lots of good ideas

or a numeral:

two new books three wishes

Uncountable nouns

Some nouns in English are uncountable nouns. We do not use

uncountable nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite
article a/an:
We ate a lot of food. (NOT foods)
We bought some new furniture. (NOT furnitures)
That's useful information. (NOT a useful information) We can use

some quantifiers with uncountable nouns:

He gave me some useful advice. They gave

us a lot of information.

Uncountable nouns often refer to:

Substances: food, water, wine, salt, bread, iron
Human feelings or qualities: anger, cruelty, happiness, honesty, pride
Activities: help, sleep, travel, work
Abstract ideas: beauty, death, fun, life

Common uncountable nouns

43
Some common nouns in English like information are uncountable nouns even
though they have plurals in other languages:

advice accommodation baggage equipment

furniture homework knowledge luggage

machinery money news traffic

Let me give you some advice. How much

luggage have you got?

If we want to make these things countable, we use expressions like:

a piece of ... a bit of ... an item of ...

pieces of ... bits of ... items of ...

Let me give you a piece of advice. That's a

useful piece of equipment.
We bought a few bits of furniture for the new apartment. She had six
separate items of luggage.
However, accommodation, money and traffic cannot be made countable inthis way. We need to
use other expressions:
I've lived in three flats/apartments. (NOT bits of accommodation) Smith received
three large sums of money. (NOT pieces of money)We got stuck in two traffic jams.
(NOT pieces of traffic)

44
 Determiners and quantifiers

Determiners and quantifiers are words we use in front of nouns. We use determiners to
identify things (this book, my sister) and we use quantifiersto say how much or how many (a
few people, a lot of problems).
Specific and general determiners

Determiners are words which come at the beginning of noun

phrases. They tell us whether a noun phrase is specific or general.

Specific determiners

The specific determiners are:

 the definite article: the

 possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose,your
 demonstratives: this, that, these, those
We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly
what we are referring to:
Can you pass me the salt, please? Thank you
very much for your letter.Whose coat is this?
Look at those lovely flowers.

General determiners

We use a general determiner when we are talking about things in general and the
listener/reader does not know exactly what we are referring to.

The general determiners are:

a/an 0 (no determiner) any Another other

The most frequent general determiner is the indefinite article a/an used with singular
nouns:

45
A man came this morning and left a parcel. He was
wearing a big coat and a cap.
We use no determiner with plural nouns and uncountable nouns:
Girls normally do better in school than boys. (plural nouns)
Milk is very good for you. (uncount noun)
Health and education are very important. (uncountable nouns)
We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncountable
noun when we are talking about all of those people or things:
It's very easy. Any child can do it. = All children can do it. With a full licence
you are allowed to drive any car. = all cars I like bananas, oranges, apples –
any fruit. = all kinds of fruit

(Note that any is also used as a quantifier in negative and interrogative

sentences.)
We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional personor thing:
Would you like another glass of wine?
The plural form of another is other:
I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.

The indefinite article: 'a' and 'an'

We use the indefinite article, a/an, with singular nouns when

the listener/reader does not know exactly which one we are referring to:
Police are searching for a 14-year-old girl.
We also use it to show that the person or thing is one of a group:
She is a pupil at London Road School.

Police have been looking for a 14-year-old girl who has been missing sinceFriday.
Jenny Brown is a pupil at London Road School. She is 1.6 metres tall, with short, blonde
hair. When she left home, she was wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse, dark
blue jeans and blue shoes.
Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800 349781.

46
 We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns or uncountablenouns:
She was wearing blue shoes. (plural noun)
She has short, blonde hair. (uncountable noun) We use a
before a consonant sound:

a banana (starts with /b/) a university (starts with /j/)

and an before a vowel sound:

an orange (starts with /o/) an hour (starts with /au/)

Note that the choice of a or an depends on sound, not spelling.

The definite article: 'the'

The definite article the is the most frequent word in English.

We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the
listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring to:

 because there is only one:

The Pope is visiting Russia.
The moon is very bright tonight. Who is
the president of France?
This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective:

He is the tallest boy in the class.

It is the oldest building in the town.

 because there is only one in that context:

We live in a small house next to the church. (= the church in our village)
Dad, can I borrow the car? (= the car that belongs to our family)
When we stayed at my grandmother’s house, we went to the beach everyday. (= the beach
near my grandmother’s house)
Look at the boy over there. (= the boy I am pointing at)

47
  because we have already mentioned it:
A young man got a nasty shock when he tried to rob a jewellery shop in Richmond. The man
used a heavy hammer to smash the windows in theshop.

We also use the definite article:

 to say something about all the things referred to by a noun:

The wolf is not really a dangerous animal. (= Wolves are not really dangerous
animals.)
The kangaroo is found only in Australia. (= Kangaroos are found only inAustralia.)
The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood aroundbodies.)
We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments:
Joe plays the piano really well. She is
learning the guitar.

 to refer to a system or service:

How long does it take on the train?I heard it
on the radio.
You should tell the police.

MODALS

It is a verb that is followed by another verb to indicate the modality of tense .

(Its indicate or express ability, possibility, permission or obligation).
There are 13 number of modal verbs ,
i.e,can,could,will,would,shall,should,may,might,must,ought to,dare,need,used to.
i. Will, Would, Shall
(Expressing requests, offers, willingness and suggestions)

Use:
(a) Expressing Requests.
Will/ Would you please open the door?
Would you mind lending me your book, please?

48
 (b) Expressing attitude, willingness/ unwillingness.
She will pay back you soon.
He won’t listen to anyone.
They wouldn’t stop making noise.

(c) Giving Consent.

I will do shopping for you.
She won’t do the mistake again.
(d) Offering Service.
Shall I get you a pen?
Shall I arrange a taxi for you?
(e) Asking for suggestions.
What shall we do about this barren land?
Where shall I spend my night?

ii. Should, Ought to.

(Expressing advice and probability) Use:
(a) Advice
We should / ought to help the one in
need. We should not tell
unpleasant truth. We ought to serve our
motherland.
(b) Necessary to observe, perform and obey.
I should do as my mother says.
I think, you should meet the doctor.
She should inform the police about the theft.
(c) Probability
They ought to have arrived by lunch time, but the train
was late.
Prashanti Express should reach at 5 pm.

iii. May, Might, Can, Could

(Expressing ability, possibility, probability)

(a) Ability
Birds can fly, but animals can’t. My
grandfather can’t walk firmly.

49
 I could swim fast while I was in school.

(b) Possibility
I could come back this evening. He may not
agree to my proposal.It may rain tonight.
She might accept the offer.

(c) Probability
The keys may be in the drawer.
The pain might belong to Goldie.
The bridge could be blocked.

(d) Asking and Giving permission

Can/could/may/might I ask you a question?

Can/may I go out, sir?
Could I talk to you over the issue?

iv. Must, Mustn’t, Need, Needn’t

(Expressing necessity, obligation)

(a) Necessity
We must obey the traffic rules. We
mustn’t play with fire.
You mustn’t work hard.I need
wearing glasses.
I can see better now. I needn’t wear glasses.

(b) Obligations
I must leave for the station at once.
One mustn’t misbehave others.
We need to be honest.

v. Used to:

50
 Used to is used to denote simple past only.
We used to live in Cuttack during my father’s
service period. There used to be a house near the
templea couple of years back. vi. Dare:
Auxiliary dare is used in sense of making a challenging
effort. It does not take an _s in third person singular number.
How dare you talk to me in my face?
He daren’t go outside in the dark.

ACTIVITY SET

Fill-in the blanks with appropriate modals.

1. They stop making nuisance. (shouldn’t, wouldn’t)

2. The old man is honest. He pay you back. (could, will)

3. I do this for you? (shall, will)

4. We obey our parents. (should, ought to)

5. Fish swim. (can, could)

6. The sky is stormy. It rain to night. (may, might)

7. I be back by 7 pm. (will, Would)

8. I go to the field, sir? (can, may)

9. It stopped raining. You carry an umbrella. (must, need(-

ve))

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 TENSE
Time and Tenses:
Time and Tenses are not identical to each other. We can divide time into three
different phases: Past, Present and Future. But when weexpress time in relation to the
action done or going to be done we call it tense. Tense is of two types: Past and
Present. Future is time not a tense.

In the simplest way, if we put, tense is the form of the verb which
denotes an action, with its degree of completeness in relation to time
period. Each tense has got four different forms showing degree of
completeness of action. They are simple, progressive, perfect and
perfect progressive. Here we will discuss them technically.

Tense Form Example showing verb form

Simple Present He writes stories.

Present Progressive He is writing a story.

Present Perfect He has written a story.

Present Perfect He has been writing a story since

Present
Progressive yesterday.
Tense

Simple Past He wrote stories.

Past Progressive He was writing stories.

Past Tense
Past Perfect He had written a story.

Past Perfect Progressive He had been writing stories.

Use:

(A) Simple Present Tense form:

1. It denotes a habitual action.

52
 It rains a lot in Andaman.
I never eat outside.

2. It denotes the present state. We live in Bhubaneswar.

My daughter loves milk-cakes.

3. It expresses universal and scientific truths.

The sun sets in the west. Oil
floats on water.

(B) Simple Past Tense form:

1. It indicates an already completed action.
She cooked.
They played hockey.

2. It denotes a past habit.

I took morning walk daily two years back. Nehru
loved roses.

(C) Present Progressive Tense form:

1. It denotes an action that continues at the time of speaking
about it.
My daughter is watching POGO. It is
raining now.
2. It denotes an action that is running simultaneously with
another action in present progressive form.

While he is singing, his sister is dancing.

(D) Past Progressive Tense form:

1. It denotes an action that is continued in past while speaking
about it. She was reading a poem.

2. It denotes an action that is continued while another action

took place in between the action that happens during the
course of continuous action remains in simple past tense form.

53
 My student rang me while I was cooking.

(E) Present Perfect Tense form:

1. It denotes an action that is just finished.
I have finished my home work.

2. It denotes an action whose state leads upto the present.

She has been ill since three days.

(F) Past Perfect Tense form:

1. It denotes an action that was finished before a particular time
in the past.
It was 11 PM then. He had gone to bed.
The house has been unoccupied for five years.

2. When two actions took place in the past, the former action
remained in past perfect and the later one in simple past tense
form.

By the time the doctor arrived, the patient had already died.

(G) Present Perfect Progressive Tense form:

It denotes an action that has started sometimes beck in the past and continues at the
time of speaking about it.
He has been working alone till the assistant arrived.

(H) Past Perfect Progressive Tense form:

It is the past equivalent of present perfect progressive tense form.
His hands were dirty. He had been washing the floors.

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 ACTIVITY SET

Fill-in the blanks with appropriate tense forms of the verbs given in
the brackets.

1. We in your native village. (stay)

2. They guitar in the function. (play)

3. She for a construction company. (work)

4. The teacher while the students . (dictate, write)

5. He out since one week. (be)

6. They finished the task. (finish – add ‘already’).

7. When we the stadium, the match . (reach, start –add

‘already’)

8. The child dance since morning. (practice)

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 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The voice of a verb shows whether the Subject is active or passive.

The verb is active if the subject performs an action, passive if the
subject receives an action; as

Subject Verb Object

The boy writes a letter.

A letter is written by the boy.

In the first sentence the subject boy acts; in the second sentence the
subject a letter receives the action.
The object a letter of the active verb becomes the subject a letter of the
passive verb. Since Transitive verbs have objects, only transitive verbs
have passive voice. The passive voice of the verb is made by adding its
particle to some form of the verb be.

Table showing passive voice

56
 Tense How to form passive Sentence

1. Simple Is/am/are + Past Particle I am helped. He is helped.

present
2. Simple past Was/were + Past Particle I was helped. We were
Shall be/will + be + Past helped.
3. Simple future
Particle I shall be helped.
Is / am/are + being + Past He will be helped.
4. Present Particle I am being helped.
continuous 5. Was/were + being + Past He is being helped.
Past continuous Particle I was being helped.
6. Present Have/has + being + Past We were being helped.
perfect Particle I have been helped.
7. Past perfect Had + been + Past Particle He has been helped.
8. Future perfect Shall/will have + been + I had been helped.
Past Particle I shall have been helped.
He will have been helped.

Note: the active voice is more direct and more forceful than the passive. But
there are legitimate uses for the passive; as,

(a) To eliminate mention of the agent:

He was found sealing.
Food was distributed among the famine-stricken.

(b) To emphasize the recipient of an action:

Raju’s house was burgled last night.
The prime minister was given a warm welcome.

From active into passive

When a sentence is turned from active voice into passive voice, the following
changes are made:

1. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice.
2. The subject in the active voice becomes the object in the passive voice.
3. The passive voice of the verb is made by adding its past particle to some
form of the verb be (is, am, are, was, were, been, being).

57
I. Simple present tense

Active : He helps me

Passive : I am helped by him.

Active : We see an aeroplane.

An aeroplane is seen by
Passive :
us.
Active : She sings a song.

Passive : A sung is song by her.

II. Simple past tense

Active : We killed a cobra.

Passive: A cobra was killed by us.

Active : The fisherman caught a fish.

Passive: A fish was caught by the fisherman.

Active : You made many mistakes.

Passive : Many mistakes were made by you.

58
III. Simple future
Active : I shall read a book.

Passive : A book will be read by me.

Active : She will like oranges.

Passive : Oranges will be liked by her.

Active : Will you deliver the letters?

Passive : Will the letters be delivered by you?

IV. Continuous test (present and past) Active : I am seeing a

tiger.

Passive : A tiger is being seen by me.

Active : They are singing songs.

Passive : Songs are being sung by them.

Active : Gurmit was driving a car.

Passive : A car was being driven by Gurmit.

V. Perfect tense (present, past & future)

Active : He has sold a horse.

Passive : A horse has been sold by him.

You have made many mistakes.

Many mistakes have been made by you.

Active : She will have read the book.

Passive : The book will have been read by her.

VI. Interrogative sentences

Active : Does he see a bird?

Passive : Is a bird seen by him?

Active : Did she sing a song?

59
 Passive : Was a song sung by her?

Active : Will they help you?

Passive : Will you be helped by them?

Active : Is he reciting a poem?

Passive : Is a poem being recited by him?

Active : Was he reading a newspaper?

: Was a newspaper being read by

Passive him?

VII. Prepositional Verbs

While changing a prepositional verb from active to passive voice, the
preposition should not be dropped, as it is a part of the verb.

Active : Mothers bring up children.

Passive : Children are brought up by mothers.

They laughed at the old man.

Active : Passive :
The old man was laughed at by them.
I objected to his proposal.

His proposal was objected to by me.

VIII. Auxiliary Verbs

While changing auxiliary verbs into passive, add be and the past participle
with them.
Active : Our team may win the match.

Passive : The match may be won by our team.

Active : We should always speak the truth.

The truth should always be spoken by
Passive :
us.

60
 Active : You must not do it.

Passive : It must not be done by you.

IX. Imperative sentences
In imperative sentences, ‘let be’ is used to change the voice, if the
sentence is to remain imperative; otherwise, ‘should be’ can also be
used; as
Active : Read this story.
Let this story be read.
Passive :
Or
This story should be read.

Active : Open the window.

Let the window be opened.
Passive :
Or
The window should be opened.

Active : Don’t pick flowers.

Let flowers not be picked.
Passive :
Or
Flowers should not be picked.

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 Note:
In case of transitive verbs, the imperative sentence is changed into passive
voice like this:
Active : Please sit down.
You are requested to sit
Passive :
down.
Active : Stand up.

Passive : You are ordered to stand up.

Active : Work hard.

You are advised to work
Passive : hard.
X. Typical sentences
Active : It is time to say our prayers.
It is time for our prayers to be
Passive :
said.
Active : It is time to take exercise.

Passive : It is time for exercise to be taken.

Active : The jug contains milk.

Passive : Milk is contained in the jug.

Active : You have to do it.

Passive : It has to be done by you.

Active : The room needs sweeping.
Passive :
The room needs to be swept.
Honey tastes sweet.
Honey is sweet when tasted.
Active : Passive :

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 CONCORD (Subject-Verb agreement)
When the verb agrees with the subject in number and person, it is
known as subject-verb agreement or concord. In different situation
subject is considered as singular or plural. In this chapter we will discuss
different conditions responsible for designating the subject either to be
singular or plural and the verb following it.

1. When two singular subjects are joined by ‘and’ and denote a single
unit of meaning, together they are considered to be singular and the
verb that follows becomes singular.

Time and tide waits for none. Rice

and dal is my daily food.

2. When two singular subjects are joined by ‘and’ and express plurality,
verb that follows becomes plural.

Fish and meat are available here.

Pens and pencils are essentials for writing.

3. When two subjects irrespective of their person and number are joined
by with/together with, the verb follows the former subject.

The letter with/together with the photographs is sentback by post.

4. When two subjects irrespective of their person and number are joined
by or/either…or/neither…nor/nor, the verb agrees with the nearer
subject.
Either the students or the teacher is invited to the party.
Neither the cock nor the hens are in the yard. He or his
sisters are to manage the show.

5. A sentence beginning with each of / none of/ the number of has a

singular verb.
Each of/none of the students is to get a prize.
The number of afflicted people is increasing in the camp.

63
 6. Some nouns which are singular in meaning but plural in form, take
singular verbs with them.

Physics is my favorite subject.

The news is not correct.

7. Pair nouns take plural verbs with them. The scissors are blunt.
Your trousers do not fit me.

8. A collective noun considered as a single whole, takes a singular verb.

The Jury is not in favour of the public opinion.
The Government is ready to pass the new education bill.

9. Uncountable nouns are singular and therefore, take singular verbs

with them.
The furniture looks bright.
Honesty is the best policy.
25 kg of rice is heavy to carry.
75 km is not a long distance.

ACTIVITY SET
Supply suitable verb in agreement with its subjects to fill-in the blanks.

1. Petroleum a natural resource.

2. Either he or his wife made this plea.

3. Such information entertaining.

64
 4. The lady with her children waiting at the bus stop.

5. The thirds of the temple in twins.

6. Neither of the systems perfect.

7. Two litres of oil not a big quantity.

8. Two and two four.

9. These glasses not mine.

PARAGRAPH WRITING
A paragraph is a group of sentences written in order to convey a concept.
Look at the following two groups of sentences in A & B.
A : All soils have different water holding capacities/some soils hold a lot of
water/some soils hold a little water/sandy soils do not hold water/water
passes through sandy soils quickly/clay soils do not absorb water/water runs
off clay soils…..
B: All types of soils possess water holding capacities. Infact, some soils hold
more water in comparison to some other types. For example, sandy soils do
not retain water as it passes through too quickly. It is also observed that
clay soils do not absorb water and it runs off.

Observation:

In group-A the sentences are completed and correct but set loosely. Group-B
has an orderly lay out and present an idea in a clear way.

Paragraphs are basic unit of organization in written language. They follow

certain basic structural rules and regulations known as feature of paragraph
writing. Technical feature of paragraph writing
Topic Statement:

A paragraph develops on one idea and it is conveyed through the title or

subject or topic. The entire subject matter of the paragraph revolves around
this given idea. It introduces the paragraph and therefore is called as title or

65
topic statement. The following is a paragraph. It is followed by three possible
topic statements or topic sentences. Let us see which one best introduces
the passage.
Straw, which can absorb upto four times its weight in oil, can be thrown on
the spill and then be burned. Oil can be taken up and sunk by sand, talcum
powder or chalk. Under experimentation, some chemical have been shown to
disperse the spill into droplets which microbes can destroy them.

i. There are many ways in which oil spills in the sea can be dealt with.
ii. Contamination of the sea by oil spills is a critical problem. iii. Wind
and wave action can carry oil spills a great distance across the sea.

Observation
The paragraph gives an idea about the different method of absorbing oil
spills. Therefore, the first statement can provide a suitable topic for the
paragraph, but in a brief manner such as dealing oil spills in the sea.

Materials:

Stuffs of a paragraph are known as material. Materials of a paragraph are to

be selected carefully in relation to the main idea or the topic statement.
Unwanted details are not to be allowed into the arena of the paragraph
writing. A topic sentence like recently discovered tracks provide information
about Dinosaurs can have the following materials for growth and
development of a paragraph on it.

i. Important dinosaur tracks have been found in the same old place. ii.
Previous finding was near the ancient sea.
iii. Tracks are informative; they appear to be combination of young and
the old ones. iv. Adult dinosaurs may weigh as much as 10,000
pounds and be 2.3 ft tall.
v. The dinosaur tracks are in sequence of 8 to 10 paces.

The above points are directly related to given topic and the serve as
material for paragraph writing.

Supporting points:

Materials when arranged into well developed points, we call them supporting
points. Let us see how the above supplied materials are put as supporting
points.

66
 i. Important dinosaur tracks have been found near the ancient sea.
ii. These recently discovered track supply important information about
dinosaurs.
iii. There appear to be tracks of young dinosaurs near the older ones.
iv.
Dinosaurs may weigh as much as 10,000 pounds and be 2.3 ft tall.
v. The tracks are in sequence of 8 to 10 paces.

Unity of thought:
The writer should take enough care to maintain unity of thought while
writing the paragraph. In order to achieve the purpose,

• The topic statement should convey the theme of the paragraph;

• The supporting points should be linked directly to the theme; and
• No unwanted details are to be entertained into the plot of the
paragraph. Coherence:

The orderly arrangement or a set pattern of the supporting points provides

coherence to the paragraph. It guards against any jerks in the flow of ideas
and the reader enjoys a smooth ride.

Types of paragraph writing

Entering into the world of paragraph writing would be a varied and dynamic
attempt as paragraph on various topics from different branches of learning
demand specific skills of writing. Therefore we would here concentrate on a
couples of types of paragraph writing with reference to the requirement.

Paragraph writing is an innovative area that requires writing skills such as

vocabulary proficiency, structural efficiency and technical narrative delicacy.
These skills are to be employed within the area of technical features of
paragraph writing.

There are two types of paragraph writing:

A. General-specific
B. Process-description
A. General-specific type of paragraph writing:

67
Concept: this type of paragraph begins with a general statement on the
topic and gradually grows by adding more and more specific details to it.
Hence, it is called so.
Features: these paragraphs are written in a straight forward mode. There is
no necessity of using an indirect speech or a complex statement to present
the idea.
The writer has the liberty to opt for smooth ride of idea as well as easy flow
of reaching the conclusion.

The example below would better represent the type.

Paragraph
The Evil of Tobacco

The evil of tobacco in its myriad form has gripped our

society. There are 25 tobacco related diseases including
cancer, lung, and heart diseases that play havoc with their
deadly effects. As per the data there are 1.84 crore
smokers in India. No one is spared. This evil not only
affects this 1.84 crore active smokers, but also leaves its
marks on the passive smokers who never touched a
cigarette in its life. It seems, the recent ban on smoking
and tobacco related advertisements is of little use as the
number of tobacco smokers is growing daily. About 2200
people die daily in tobacco related diseases. There is an
urgent need to close down the tobacco industries if we
want to eliminate this evil from its root. At the same time
an awareness campaign needs to be launched nationwide
in order to save precious and innocent lives. It is quite
alarming to know that 19% smoke cigarettes, 54% smoke
bids and 27% chew tobacco. Anyone found buying or
selling tobacco and its products should be severely
punished. Only then can we rid our country of this fatal
scourge. B. Process Description Type of Paragraph
writing:
Concept: This type of paragraph conveys the description of a process
followed in doing out any kind of job or work or activity. It is a logical and
factual description of a process.
Features: These paragraphs are written in a stepwise mode. The writer
depends upon spontaneous and continuous narration of factual and objective

68
details. The steps of process lead from one to the other. These paragraphs
bear a clear scientific approach to the topic stated.

Paragraph:

Preparation of Rice-husk Cement

Rice-husk cement is a low-cost product used as a house

building material. At first equal weight of rice-husk and
limesludge (waste lime in sugar and other industries) are
taken. Initially they are mixed thoroughly to get a smooth
dough. Particular size cakes are prepared from this dough
and left under sunlight until they are completely dried.
Then these cakes are carried to an open place and
arranged properly. The arrangement looks like a building
in structure and the structure in burnt into ashes. Ash is
collected after the fire extinguishes to a cool point. Finally
this ash is taken into the grinding chamber to be ground
to fine powder.
Subsequently this fine powder is used as rice-husk cement.

69
UNIT-IV: FORMAL WRITING SKILLS

Notice
Notices are a means of formal communication targetted at a particular person
or a group of persons. It is like a news item informing such person or persons
of some important event. This can be an invitation to a meeting, an
announcement of any event, to issue certain instructions, make appeals etc.

It is generally written and then displayed at a public place, where it is

accessible to all. They can be pasted on notice boards. If it is meant for a
wider audience it can even be published in a newspaper. The government when
it issues notices must publish it in national and local papers.

Format

Since notices are a formal document it should follow a structure or a format.

Keep in mind there is no one correct rigid format. Different formats used by
different people/organizations can show some variations. But it is ideal to
follow a somewhat similar format for ease of understanding and uniformity.
Let us look at the most used format of notices.

1. Name of Issuing Organization/Authority: Right at the very top, you print

the name of the person or company that is issuing the said notices. This
will help the reader identify the notices as important or unimportant to
him.

2. Title: When writing notices we mention a title “NOTICE” at the top. This
helps draw attention to the document. Notices are generally posted at a
public place or published in newspapers. It is important that they do not
get lost in a sea of information. So a bold title clearly mentioned helps
draw the attention.

3. Date: After the tile to the left-hand side we print the date on which the
notices have been published. Since this is a formal document date is an
important aspect of it since these documents stay on record.

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4. Heading: Then we move on to an appropriate heading to the notices. This
heading should make abundantly clear the purpose of the notices.

5. Body: After the heading, we write the brief and to the point body of the
notice. The main content of the notice features in the body.

6. Writer’s Name: At the end of the notices we write the name and
designation of the notice-writer. The notices have to also be signed by
the same person to lend it authority and validity.

Content

Notices should cover some important points that are to be communicated to

the readers. Let us summarize the five points that the content of the notice
will cover, the five W’s

1. What: What is the notice about? The notice should be clear about what is
going to happen (event), or what has already happened (occasion). This
is the crux of the message and should be written clearly. There should
not be any ambiguity.

2. Where: If the notice is about an event, then the location of such an

event must be written clearly. The venue or the location are important
details, so make sure to include this in the notice.

3. When: This is the time and the date of the event or meeting. If possible
the duration of the event should also be mentioned to people can
schedule their time accordingly.

4. Who: This will be who the notice is addressed to. Who all are suppose to
adhere to the notice should be clearly mentioned to avoid confusion.

5. Whom: And final detail should be whom to contact or get in touch with.
This mentions who the appropriate authority is to contact.

Tips to Remember regarding Notice Writing

 Be precise and to the point. The ideal length of notice is 50 words, so

precise language is appreciated.

 It is a formal form of communication so the language used should be

formal as well. No flowery text.

 Keep the sentences short and use simple words. Since notices are fairly
brief it is best to keep it simple.

71
 Use passive voice as far as possible.

 Present your notices in a proper format in a box. The presentation should

be neat and thus be appealing to the eye.

Solved Example for You

Q: On the occasion of Diwali your housing society has planned a feast for all
its members. As the chairman of your society write a notice inviting all the
members of the society to this gathering. Provide all the necessary details.

Ans:

ABC Co-operative Housing Society

NOTICE

25th October 2017.

Diwali Gathering

On the auspicious occasion of Diwali, the Society has organized a gathering

followed by dinner. All members of the society are requested to attend the
event in the clubhouse of the society at 8:00 pm on the 30th of October.

XYZ

Chairman of ABC Co-operative Housing

Society

72
 Agenda
An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be
taken up, beginning with the call to order and ending with adjournment. It
usually includes one or more specific items of business to be acted upon. It
may, but is not required to, include specific times for one or more activities.

73
74
75
 Report Writing

What is a Report?

Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for

a particular purpose and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a
situation or problem, often making recommendations for future action. It is a
factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-structured.

Report Writing Format

Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format:

 Title Section – This includes the name of the author(s) and the date
of report preparation.

 Summary – There needs to be a summary of the major points,

conclusions, and recommendations. It needs to be short as it is a
general overview of the report. Some people will read the summary
and only skim the report, so make sure you include all the relevant
information. It would be best to write this last so you will include
everything, even the points that might be added at the last minute.

 Introduction – The first page of the report needs to have an

introduction. You will explain the problem and show the reader why
the report is being made. You need to give a definition of terms if you
did not include these in the title section, and explain how the details of
the report are arranged.

 Body – This is the main section of the report. There needs to be

several sections, with each having a subtitle. Information is usually
arranged in order of importance with the most important information
coming first.

 Conclusion – This is where everything comes together. Keep this

section free of jargon as most people will read the Summary and
Conclusion.

 Recommendations – This is what needs to be done. In plain English,

explain your recommendations, putting them in order of priority.

76
  Appendices – This includes information that the experts in the field
will read. It has all the technical details that support your conclusions.

Sample Report

Typical structure template for writing a committee report:

 Members to which the report is meant for

 [Name, institution, location, Chair]

 [Name, institution, location, member]

 [Date, Time, and Location]

 [Provide simple documentation of any meetings of the

committee or subset of the committee, in whatever mode and
format, e.g., in person, conference call, etc.]

 Purpose

 [Here you mention the purpose of the report in a brief. This

enables the reader to understand the purpose behind writing the
format.]

 Issues [Write different issues as sub headings and explain their

highlights in bullet points below the respective sub headings]

 Current Status

 •

 •

 Accomplishments / Issue 1

 •

 •

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  Future Goals

 •

 •

 Near-Term Plans / Main Body of the Report [Use Sub Headings as

and where needed. In bullet form, outline near-term actions and plans
as well under those sub headings.]

 Informal Recommendation(s) [An opportunity to make

recommendations, suggestions, and comments to the Board and
Executive Director]

Respectfully Submitted,

[<Author’s Name>]

Business Letter

Business Letter Template Fields:

Date: Use month, day, year format, e.g., March 3, 20xx or 3 March 20xx

Sender's Address: It is a good idea to include sender's email and url, if

available. Don't include this information if it's already incorporated into the
letterhead design. This will allow customers to find your small business more
quickly.

Inside Address: Use full name. Mr./Ms. is optional

Salutation: Be sure to use a colon at the end of the name, not a comma as
in personal letters

Body Text: State why you are writing. Establish any connection/mutual
relationship up front. Outline the solution, providing proof in the way of
examples and expert opinions. Group related information into paragraphs

78
Closing "Call to Action": State what the reader needs to do and what youwill do to follow up

Signature Block: Sign your letter in blue or black ink

Enclosures: Use if you have an enclosure

Carbon Copy: Use if you are sending a copy to additional person(s)

Sample #1

6123 Farrington Road

Apt. B11
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
January 11, 2005

Taylor, Inc.
694 Rockstar Lane
Durham, NC 27708

Dear Human Resources Director:

I just read an article in the News and Observer about Taylor’s new
computer center just north of Durham. I would like to apply for a
position as an entry-level programmer at the center.

I understand that Taylor produces both in-house and customer

documentation. My technical writing skills, as described in the
enclosed resume, are well suited to your company. I am a recent
graduate of DeVry Institute of Technology in Atlanta with an
Associate’s Degree in Computer Science. In addition to having taken
a broad range of courses, I served as a computer consultant at the
college’s computer center where I helped train users to work with
new systems.

I will be happy to meet with you at your convenience and discuss

how my education and experience match your needs. You can reach
me at my home address, at (919) 233-1552, or at
krock@devry.alumni.edu.

Sincerely,

79
Raymond Krock

Sample #2

6123 Farrington Road

Apt. G11
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
January 11, 2005

Taylor, Inc.
694 Rockstar Lane
Durham, NC 27708

Dear Ms. Jones:

I am seeking a position in your engineering department where I may

use my training in computer sciences to solve Taylor’s engineering
problems. I would like to be a part of the department that developed
the Internet Selection System but am unsure whether you have a
current opening.

I expect to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in Engineering from

North Carolina State University in June and by that time will have
completed the Computer Systems Engineering Program. Since
September 2000, I have been participating, through the University,
in the Professional Training Program at Computer Systems
International in Raleigh. In the program I was assigned to several
staff sections as an apprentice. Most recently, I have been a
programmer trainee in the Engineering Department and have gained
a great deal of experience in computer applications. Details of the
academic courses I have taken are included in the enclosed resume.

If there is a position open at Taylor Inc., please let me know whom I

should contact for further information. I look forward to hearing from
you soon. I may be reached at my office (919-866-4000 ext. 232) or
via email (Brock@aol.com).

Sincerely,

Rebecca Brock

80
 Job application letter
A job application letter (also known as a cover letter) is a letter you
send with your resume to provide information on your skills and experience.
This letter is your chance to “sell” yourself to an employer, explaining why
you are an ideal candidate for a position.

Sample Job Application Letter

Elizabeth Johnson
12 Jones Street
Portland, Maine 04101
555-555-5555
elizabethjohnson@emailaddress.com

January 14, 2018

Mark Smith
Human Resources Manager
Veggies to Go
238 Main Street
Portland, Maine 04101

Dear Mr. Smith,

I was so excited when my former coworker, Jay Lopez, told me about your
opening for an administrative assistant in your Portland offices. A long-time
Veggies to Go customer and an experienced admin, I would love to help the
company achieve its mission of making healthy produce as available as
takeout.

I’ve worked for small companies for my entire career, and I relish the
opportunity to wear many hats and work with the team to succeed. In my
latest role as an administrative assistant at Beauty Corp, I saved my
employer thousands of dollars in temp workers by implementing a self-

81
 scheduling system for the customer service reps that cut down on canceled
shifts. I also learned web design, time sheet coding, and perfected my Excel
skills.

I’ve attached my resume for your consideration and hope to speak with you
soon about your needs for the role.

Best Regards,

Handwritten Signature (for a hard copy letter)

Elizabeth Johnson

CV

The term CV is an abbreviation of the Latin word Curriculum Vitae, whichis literally translated
to “the course of your life”.

A CV is a very in-depth document that describes your career journey step-

by-step, including all sorts of personal information. You can look at the CV
as a comprehensive description of everything you have ever done, all the
achievements you are proud of, and all the publications that bear your
name.

You need to update your CV every time you accomplish something new
academically or professionally. Meaning, whenever you get a new job,
publish something new, obtain a new certificate, and so on.

There is no rule of thumb on how long a CV should be - depending on the

amount of experience, it can range from 2 to 8 pages.

What to Include on a CV
1. Full name
2. Contact information
3. Professional title, resume summary, or resume objective
4. Research interests
5. Education
6. Publications (both academic papers and books)

82
7. Teaching or lecturing experience
8. Work experience
9. Conferences and courses
10. Skills
11. Certificates
12. Languages
13. Grants of fellowships
14. References
Curriculum Vitae Example

Gloria Gonzalez
3204 Windover Way
Houston, TX 77204
ggonzalez@email.com
000.123.4567 (Cell)

RESEARCH INTERESTS

Hispanic Literature, Latin American Literature, Peninsular Literature

EDUCATION

Ph.D. in Spanish (US Hispanic Literature), 2018 – University of Houston.Dissertation: Quixote

Reborn: The Wanderer in US Hispanic Literature.
Sancho Rodriguez, Chair

M.A. in Spanish, June 2015 – University of Houston

B.A. in Spanish, June 2013 – University of Houston

APPOINTMENTS

Adjunct Lecturer: University of Houston, Department of Hispanic Studies,

September 2018 to Present.

PUBLICATIONS

Book

Gonzalez, Gloria. Quixote Reborn: The Wanderer in US Hispanic Literature.

New Haven: Yale University Press (forthcoming)

Peer-reviewed Journals

83
Gonzalez, Gloria. “Mexican Immigrant Stories from the Central Valley,” Lady
Liberty Journal, 6(1): 24-41.

Gonzalez, Gloria. “Comparing the Hispanic and European Immigrant

Experience through Story,” Hispanic Literature Today 12(3): 25-35.

Gonzalez, Gloria. “Yearning to Be Free: 3 Hispanic Women’s Diaries,”

Hispanic Literature Today: 11(2): 18-31.

CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS

2020. Gonzalez, Gloria. “Storytelling Methods in the Central Valley.” Hispanic

Storytelling Association Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA

2019. Gonzalez, Gloria. “When Cultures Merge: Themes of Exclusion in

Mexican-American Literature.” US Hispanic Literature Annual Conference,
Tucson, AZ.

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

Adjunct Lecturer, University of Houston

 Mexican-American Literature, Spanish 3331

 Women in Hispanic Literature, Spanish 3350
 Spanish-American Short Story, Spanish 4339

Graduate Teaching Assistant, Northwestern University

 Elementary Spanish 1501, 1502, 1505

 Intermediate Spanish 2301, 2302, 2610

HONORS / AWARDS

Mexico Study Abroad Summer Grant, 2018

UH Teaching Awards, 2017, 2018, 2020
Dissertation Fellowship, 2017

LANGUAGES

English (native)
Spanish (bilingual oral and written fluency)
Classical Latin (written)

MEMBERSHIPS / AFFILIATIONS

84
National Association of Latino Arts and Cultures
Asociación Internacional de Literatura y Cultura Femenina Hispánica
Modern Languages Association

85
UNIT-V: ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share” is the act of

conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through
the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules.

Elements of Communication

Communication may be defined as a process concerning exchange of facts or

ideas between persons holding different positions in an organisation to

achieve mutual harmony. The communication process is dynamic in nature

rather than a static phenomenon.

Communication process as such must be considered a continuous and

dynamic inter-action, both affecting and being affected by many variables.

1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes

place. This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural.

86
 Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the
message to communicate within a context.
2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the
message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual
aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For
instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of
employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization.
The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge
of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non
verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of
the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the
sender.
3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to
communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient.
Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be
conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message
is clear.
4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the
message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for
transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to
the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of
communication is essential for making the message effective and
correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication
medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For
instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be
conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen
when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as
misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the
message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the
decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors
such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message,
and the reliance of encoder on decoder.
6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication
process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the
message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of
message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or
non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form
also in form of memos, reports, etc.

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Steps of communication process

The communication process refers to the steps through which

communication takes place between the sender and the receiver. This
process starts with conceptualizing an idea or message by the sender and
ends with the feedback from the receiver. In details, communication process
consists of the following eight steps:

1. Developing idea by the sender: In the first step, the communicator

develops or conceptualizes an idea to be sent. It is also known as the
planning stage since in this stage the communicator plans the subject
matter of communication.
2. Encoding: Encoding means converting or translation the idea into a
perceivable form that can be communicated to others.
3. Developing the message: After encoding the sender gets a message
that can be transmitted to the receiver. The message can be oral,
written, symbolic or nonverbal. For example, when people talk, speech
is the message; when people write a letter, the words and sentences are
the message; when people cries, the crying is the message.
4. Selecting the medium: Medium is the channel or means of
transmitting the message to the receiver. Once the sender has encoded
his into a message, the next step is to select a suitable medium for
transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be
speaking, writing, signaling, gesturing etc.
5. Transmission of message: In this step, the sender actually transmits
the message through chosen medium. In the communication cycle, the
tasks of the sender end with the transmission of the message.
6. Receiving the message by receiver: This stage simply involves the
reception of sender’s message by the receiver. The message can be
received in the form of hearing, seeing, feeling and so on.
7. Decoding: Decoding is the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s
message. Here the receiver converts the message into thoughts and
tries to analyze and understand it. Effective communication can occur

88
 only when both the sender and the receiver assign the same or similar
meanings to the message.
8. Feedback: The final step of communication process is feedback.
Feedback means receiver’s response to sender’s message. It increases
the effectiveness of communication. It ensures that the receiver has
correctly understood the message. Feedback is the essence of two-way
communication.

The Communication Model

The diagram above, also known as the Communication Model is quite simple,
yet thorough, in its representation of the communication process. It covers
all types of communication. For our purposes today, we shall focus on
interpersonal communication.

All communication begins with the sender and ends with the receiver. There
needs to be a receiver for the message to be successfully conveyed, but that
does not guarantee success. The sender is responsible for successful
conveyance, but that does not mean that he or she has absolute control over
the process. Clarity of message is obviously important, but not always easy
to know beforehand. The sender’s personality, beliefs, cultural, education all
influence the message and it is important for the sender to be aware of this
as he or she is encoding the message. Simply put, encoding is translating
information into symbols that represent the ideas or concepts of the
message that needs sending. These symbols are usually words in written or
spoken form. To ensure successful communication, the sender should know
as much about his or her audience – the receiver – as possible in order to
focus and support the encoding process. A lesson by an instructor will be
encoded differently for a university classroom compared to an elementary
classroom.

In addition to this awareness of self and encoding, the sender must choose
the properchannel to convey the message. Using the wrong channel may
result in miscommunication. A channel can take many forms and can

89
change depending upon the type of message being sent and the desired
outcomes of the message. If one of those desired outcomes is immediate
feedback, a hand-written, postal-delivered letter would probably not be the
best choice. Written and oral channels can take on a variety of
forms. Telephones and computers, email and texting are everywhere today;
however, social protocols need to be considered. There are times when an
email or a text are not appropriate or when a face-to-face communication is
preferred over a phone call.

Like the sender, receivers are influenced by internal factors: their

personality, their receptivity to the message or their relationship to the
sender, their current feelings, mood, or state of mind can affect a message.
Their education, culture and prior knowledge can also alter successful
message reception.

Once the message moves through the channel, the receiver then decodes it.
The receiver interprets the sent symbols and attempts to assign some
meaning to them and to the message in general. The receiver uses his or
her own experience and the contextof the message to interpret its meaning.

Feedback is the return message from receiver to sender – a response to the

message that can take any number of forms. Even a non-response can be
interpreted as feedback. It is the feedback that enables the sender to know
whether the message was received successfully or not. Therefore it is
essential to the communication process.

This process, though very common, is fraught with potential breakdown at

every turn. Spoken or written language is inherently easy to
misinterpret. Even a certain look or facial expression can be misinterpreted
and cause breakdowns. A misplaced comma, or a thoughtful pause in
response to a question can be mistaken for another intention. All of these
possibilities (and many more!) are considered “noise,” which is anything that
can interfere with any part of the process of communication. Noise can be
literally “noise” that comes from some outside source. It can also come
internally from a sender’s or receiver’s thoughts or
presuppositions. Effective Communication is when the sent message was

90
successfully received and the receiver provides the sender with desirable
feedback.

This is a rather laborious explanation of the Communication Process; a

process that can take quite some time to explain, and can oftentimes take a
split second to occur. In our next article, we’ll discuss some of the things
that can get in the way of theCommunication Process.

Formal communication is a system of passing messages and information

between positions within an organization through officially designated
channels.

Formal communication refers to interchange of information officially. The

flow of communication is controlled and is a deliberate effort. This makes it

possible for the information to reach the desired place without any

hindrance, at a little cost and in a proper way. This is also known as

‘Through Proper Channel Communication.’

Characteristics
Following are the chief characteristics of the formal communication:

(1) Written and Oral:

Formal communication can both be written and oral. Daily works are handled

through oral communication, while the policy matters require written

communication.

(2) Formal Relations:

This communication is adopted among those employees where formal

relations have been established by the organisation. The sender and the

receiver have some sort of organisational relations.

(3) Prescribed Path:

91
The communication has to pass through a definite channel while moving

from one person to another. For example, to convey the feelings of a worker

to the manager, the foreman’s help has to be sought.

(4) Organisational Message:

This channel is concerned with the authorised organisational messages only

and the personal messages are out of its jurisdiction.

(5) Deliberate Effort:

This channel of communication is not established automatically but effort

has to be made for its creation. It is decided keeping in view the objectives

of the organisation.

Advantages
The formal communication has the following advantages:

(1) Maintenance of Authority of the Officers:

Formal communication maintains constant relations among the superiors and

the subordinates as a result of whom the dignity of the line superiors is

maintained. Consequently, it is convenient to control the subordinates and

fix their responsibility which is absolutely needed for effective and successful

control.

(2) Clear and Effective Communication:

In formal communication, there is a direct contact among the managers and

the subordinates. Both understand the capability, habits, feelings, etc. of

one another. Managers know as to when and under which conditions their

subordinates need information. In this way, this communication is capable of

making available timely information. Hence, it is clear and effective.

92
(3) Orderly Flow of Information:

The information has to pass through a definite route from one person to

another. Hence, the flow of information is systematic.

(4) Easy Knowledge of Source of Information:

In this type of communication, the source of each information can be easily

located.

Limitations
Following are the disadvantages or limitations of the formalcommunication:

(1) Overload of Work:

In a modern business organisation much information, many messages and

other things have to be communicated. Under formal communication, they

are routed through a definite channel and this consumes much of the time of

the superiors and thus some other important works are left unattended.

(2) Distortion of Information:

This method can be a hindrance in the flow of information. Sometimes the

distance between the sender and the receiver is so big that the information

has to pass through many hands and by the time it reaches the receiver it is

distorted. Thus it fails to serve its purpose.

(3) Indifferent Officers:

The officers do not pay much attention to the suggestions and complaints of

the subordinates. In such a case a subordinate may come lose his faith in

the effectiveness of communication.

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Types of Formal Communication

Formal communication is of two types:

(1) Vertical Communication:

(i) Downward Communication

(ii) Upward Communication

(2) Horizontal Communication. All these types have been clarified in the
following diagram:

(Downward Communication) (Horizontal Communication) (Upward

Communication)

(1) Vertical Communication

Vertical communication is of the following two types:

(i) Downward Communication:

The communication by top hierarchy with their subordinates is called

downward communication. This communication includes orders, rules,

information, policies, instructions, etc. The chief advantage of the downward

communication is that the subordinates get useful timely information which

helps them in their work performance,

(ii) Upward Communication:

This is quite the reverse of the downward communication. This flows from

the subordinates to the superiors. The subject-matter of this communication

includes suggestions, reactions, reports, complaints, etc. This sort of

communication helps the superiors in taking decisions.

94
 (2) Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication takes place when two individuals of the same level

exchange information. Horizontal communication is used by the same level

officers to solve the problems of similar nature and profit by the experience

of other people. The subject-matter of horizontal communication includes

information, requests, suggestions, mutual problems and coordination-

related information.

Nonverbal Communication

What is nonverbal communication?

Nonverbal communication is the transfer of information through the use of

body language including eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and more.
Verbal communication is the use of language to transfer information through
written text, speaking or sign language.

Nonverbal communication is important because it gives us valuable

information about a situation including how a person might be feeling, how
someone receives information and how to approach a person or group of
people.

Paying attention to and developing the ability to read nonverbal

communications is an invaluable skill you can leverage at every stage ofyour
career.

The Importance Of Non-Verbal Communication

1. Repetition – They can reinforce what is already being said

2. Contradiction – They can contradict the message and make the speaker
seem untruthful
3. Substitution – They can take the place of words
4. Complementing – They can compliment a verbal message, for instance, a
pat on the back

95
5. Accenting – They can underline a certain point in the message
Types of Nonverbal Communication

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal

communication.1 Consider how much information can be conveyed with a
smile or a frown. The look on a person's face is often the first thing we see,
even before we hear what they have to say.

Gestures

Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate

meaning without words.2 Common gestures include waving, pointing, and
using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and
related to culture.

In courtroom settings, lawyers have been known to utilize different

nonverbal signals to attempt to sway juror opinions. An attorney might
glance at his watch to suggest that the opposing lawyer's argument is
tedious or might even roll his eyes at the testimony offered by a witness in
an attempt to undermine his or her credibility. These nonverbal signals are
seen as being so powerful and influential that some judges even place limits
on what type of nonverbal behaviors are allowed in the courtroom.

Paralinguistics

Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual

language.3 This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection,
and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the
meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might
interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone
of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.

Consider all the different ways that simply changing your tone of voice might
change the meaning of a sentence. A friend might ask you how you are
doing, and you might respond with the standard "I'm fine," but how you
actually say those words might reveal a tremendous amount of how you are
really feeling.

A cold tone of voice might suggest that you are actually not fine, but you
don't wish to discuss it. A bright, happy tone of voice will reveal that you are

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actually doing quite well. A somber, downcast tone would indicate that you
are the opposite of fine and that perhaps your friend should inquire further.

Body Language and Posture

Posture and movement can also convey a great deal of

information.4 Research on body language has grown significantly since the
1970s, but popular media have focused on the over-interpretation of
defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after
publishing Julius Fast's book Body Language.

Proxemics

People often refer to their need for "personal space," which is also an
important type of nonverbal communication.5 The amount of distance we
need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influencedby
a number of factors including social norms, cultural expectations, situational
factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity.

For example, the amount of personal space needed when having a casual
conversation with another person usually varies between 18 inches to four
feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a
crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.

Eye Gaze

The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and such things
as looking, staring and blinking are important nonverbal behaviors. When
people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking
increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range
of emotions including hostility, interest, and attraction.

People also utilize eye gaze as a means to determine if someone is being

honest.6 Normal, steady eye contact is often taken as a sign that a person is
telling the truth and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and an inability to maintain
eye contact, on the other hand, is frequently seen as an indicator that
someone is lying or being deceptive.

Haptics

Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior.

There has been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch
in infancy and early childhood.

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Harry Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated how deprived touch and
contact impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers
experienced permanent deficits in behavior and social interaction. Touch can
be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy, and
other emotions.

In her book Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, author

Julia Wood writes that touch is also often used as a way to communicate
both status and power.7 Researchers have found that high-status individuals
tend to invade other people's personal space with greater frequency and
intensity than lower-status individuals. Sex differences also play a role in
how people utilize touch to communicate meaning.

Appearance

Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting

appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication.8
Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors can
evoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions,
judgments, and interpretations.

Just think of all the subtle judgments you quickly make about someone
based on his or her appearance. These first impressions are important,
which is why experts suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for
interviews with potential employers.

Researchers have found that appearance can play a role in how people are
perceived and even how much they earn. One 1996 study found that
attorneys who were rated as more attractive than their peers earned nearly
15 percent more than those ranked as less attractive.

Culture is an important influence on how appearances are judged. While

thinness tends to be valued in Western cultures, some African cultures relate
full-figured bodies to better health, wealth, and social status.

Artifacts

Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate
nonverbally. On an online forum, for example, you might select an avatar to
represent your identity online and to communicate information about who
you are and the things you like. People often spend a great deal of time
developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects
designed to convey information about the things that are important to them.

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Uniforms, for example, can be used to transmit a tremendous amount
of information about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a police
officer willwear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a white lab coat. At a
mere glance,these outfits tell people what a person does for a living.

What is body language?

While the key to success in both personal and professional
relationships lies in your ability to communicate well, it’s not the words
that you use but your nonverbal cues or “body language” that speak
the loudest. Body language is the use of physical behavior,
expressions, and mannerisms to communicate nonverbally, often done
instinctively rather than consciously.

Whether you’re aware of it or not, when you interact with others,

you’re continuously giving and receiving wordless signals. All of your
nonverbal behaviors—the gestures you make, your posture, your tone
of voice, how much eye contact you make—send strong messages.
They can put people atease, build trust, and draw others towards you,
or they can offend, confuse, and undermine what you’re trying to
convey. These messages don’t stop when you stop speaking either.
Even when you’re silent, you’re still communicating nonverbally.

In some instances, what comes out of your mouth and what you
communicate through your body language may be two totally different
things. If you say one thing, but your body language says something
else, your listener will likely feel that you’re being dishonest. If you
say “yes” while shaking your head no, for example. When faced with
such mixed signals, the listener has to choose whether to believe your
verbal or nonverbal message. Since body language is a natural,
unconscious language that broadcasts your true feelings and
intentions, they’ll likely choose the nonverbal message.

However, by improving how you understand and use nonverbal

communication, you can express what you really mean, connect better
withothers, and build stronger, more rewarding relationships.

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References:

i) Technical Communication: Principles and Practice by Meenakshi Raman

and Sangeeta Sharma, Oxford Publications.
ii) Effective Technical Communication by M Ashraf Rizvi, The McGraw-Hill
companies.
iii) Understanding Body Language by Alan Pease.
iv) Communicative Grammar of English by Geoffrey Leech and Ian
Svartik.
v) Better English Pronunciation by J.D.O’Connor.

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