Journal(of(Materials(and(( J. Mater. Environ. Sci.

, 2021, Volume 12, Issue 02, Page 183-191

Environmental(Science( !
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Chemical implications and environmental impacts of COVID-19

pandemic in Burkina Faso

Yacouba Sanou (1), Muhammad Mumtaz (2)

(1)! Laboratory of Analytical, Environmental and Bio-Organic Chemistry, UFR/SEA, Sciences and Technology
Doctoral School, University Joseph KI-ZERBO, 03 BP 7021, Burkina Faso.
(2) Department of Management Sciences, The University of Haripur, Pakistan.!

Received 10 Dec 2020, Abstract

Revised 10 Feb 2021,
Accepted 13 Feb 2021 The study was focused on chemical implications and environmental impacts of
corona virus pandemic in Burkina Faso. The objective was to describe the
Keywords contribution of chemists, plant users and assess the disadvantages of covid-19 in the
! Chemical implications ; environment. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected and treated using
! Corona virus ; Active Method of Research and Participative Planning. Results showed the increase
! Environmental impacts ; of positive cases up to September 2020 with the increase of cured capacity. Plant
! Plant users.
users and scientists proposed some medicines such as Apivirine, chloroquine,
prosperyacson@gmail.com; artemisinin and others. Environment pollution (air, water, life medium, etc.) by
Phone: +22672191530; wastes, plastics, masks and others.
Fax: +22625307242
!

1. Introduction
Pandemics in general are not merely serious public health concern, rather these trigger disastrous socio-
economic and political crises in the infected countries. COVID-19, apart from becoming the greatest
threat to global public health of the century, is being considered as an indicator of inequity and deficiency
of social advancement. Coronavirus is a single stranded RNA virus with a diameter ranging from 80 to
120 nm. The first modern COVID-19 pandemic was reported in December 2019, in Wuhan, Hubei
province, China and most initial cases were related to source infection from a seafood wholesale market
[1]. Since then, the disease rapidly circled the globe and has eventually affected every continent except
Antarctica. In less than four months, it has spread to more than 210 countries around the world. Africa
got his first case of COVID-19 the 14th of February in Egypt and the first confirmed case in sub-Saharan
Africa was in Nigeria. In Burkina Faso, the first cases appear the 9th of March. It has been categorized
as a pandemic by the World Health Organization [2]. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
(ICTV) named the virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 noted SARS-CoV-2 [3].
Coronaviruses belong to a large diverse family of viruses. These can be categorized into four genera
namely, α-, β-, γ-, and δ. All the previously discussed coronaviruses responsible for worldwide spread
of pandemic, namely SARS, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are β-coronaviruses. As of April 2020, some
93% of the global population (about 7.2 billion people) live in countries with some form of movement
restrictions in place [4]. A new coronavirus disease, officially named COVID-19 by the World Health
Organization (WHO), has caused a global pandemic with profound impacts on many aspects of human
life [5].

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 183
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 Figure 1: Image of corona virus
On 11 February 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses announced severe acute
respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as the name of the new virus [6]. Unlike all previous
pandemics in modern history, COVID-19 is truly a global crisis. Never before have we seen the health
care systems of some of the world’s most industrialized nations on the verge of collapse [7]. Coronavirus
disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a new virus that has never been identified
in humans before. This virus causes respiratory illness with symptoms like cough, fever and, in the most
severe cases, pneumonia. The new COVID-19 is mainly spread through contact with an infected person,
when they cough or sneeze, or through droplets of saliva or nasal secretions.

Fig. 2. Transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 infection in People

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Description of study area
Burkina Faso (13°00' N, 2°00' W) is located in West Africa (Figure 3) with an estimated population of
21,510,181 [8]. It covers an area of 274,200 km2 with a density of 76 inhabitants/km2. Located in Sub-
Saharan Africa, Burkina Faso's political capital is Ouagadougou (12°22′ N, 1°31′ W). Apart from the
north, Sahelian, the country belongs to the so-called Sudanese zone, which is tropical. Having a tropical
climate, the country has only two seasons, a dry season and a rainy season. A dry season, from mid-
October to mid-June, and a rainy season, which has its peak in August. The harmattan, a dry wind, blows
from November to February, the temperatures are then mild (25°C - 30°C) and the period favorable for
travel. March, April and May are scorching hot.

2.2. Data collection and analysis

Qualitative and quantitative data were collected using literature review, key exchanges and discussions
with people. Field surveys include physical observations in the field and interviews with local
populations closed to the river. Quantitative survey was carried out with a focus group using Active
Method of Research and Participative Planning.

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 184
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 Figure 3: Map of Burkina Faso

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Institutional management and measures in Burkina Faso
In Burkina Faso, there is a center of operations and response for health emergencies (CORUS). To
mitigate the COVID-19 disease, authorities of Burkina Faso have adopted a number of measures. These
include the creation of a disease management committee which includes a technical sub-committee
headed by a coordinator and an administrative committee headed by the prime minister. The sub-
technical committee works closely with CORUS to take in charge the contact and positive cases of
corona virus in Burkina Faso and to take stock of the daily health situation. Regarding the negative
consequences on various sectors of activity slowing down development, the government adopted a
response plan to covid-19 with a budget valued at 177,900,426,041 F CFA [9]. This budget should make
it possible to help the populations with the payment of electricity and water bills, to support bankrupt
companies, market and yaar traders, cultural actors and road transporters. In addition, a humanitarian
response plan has been adopted by the authorities of Burkina in conjunction with the United Nations
Food and Agriculture Fund in order to manage internally displaced persons due to insecurity [10]. As
part of adopted measures, the Burkina Faso government has proposed the compulsory wearing of masks
to inhabitants of areas affected by the disease, the quarantine of affected towns, the closure of schools
and universities, the social distancing, the screening test for contact cases, the isolation of positive cases
and their immediate treatment by CORUS. In Burkina Faso, 11 regions are affected such as Cascades,
Mouhoun Boucle, Haut-Bassins, South-West, Central Plateau, Central, Central-East, Sahel, North,
Central-South and East as colored in Figure 4.

3.2. Situation of Covid-19 in Burkina Faso

Since the apparition of first cases of COVID-19 in Burkina Faso on March 9th, 2020 up to the date of 9
Avril, 2020, Burkina Faso was one of the West African countries most affected by the pandemic with
443 cases including 146 cured and 19 deaths. However, with the governmental measures and at the date
of 7 October, 2020, it was noted 2167 positives cases, 1419 cured and unfortunately 59 deaths (See
figure 5). One notices the decrease of deaths when the time increase indicating the control of the disease
by the Burkina Faso authorities. They proposed preventive solutions such as: wearing of masks, social
distancing of 1.5 m, restriction of movement, etc., and curative solutions such as: use of Apivirine,
chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, Azithromycin and some pharmacopoeia products (nime leaf,
artemisia, covid-organics, etc.). In addition, other measures have been adopted such as hand washing
with soap, disinfection of houses with bleach, use of alcohol or hydroalcoholic solution and management
of biomedical waste, domestic waste and wastewater.

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 185
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 Figure 4: Cartography of contaminated areas in Burkina Faso [11]

In addition, we remark that the positive cases are mainly males with age between 15 and 59 years as
indicated in Figure 6. That can be explained by mobility and more activities of male in Burkina Faso,
combined to high content of this teenagers in the population indicating the young population in Burkina
Faso.
1000
900 Positive!cases cured!cases Deaths
800
700
Number!of!cases

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Month

Figure 5: Coronavirus situation in Burkina Faso from March to October

3.3. Mitigation and adaptations measures

Human corona viruses (HCoV) are respiratory pathogens and their primary transmission mode is person-
to-person contact through respiratory droplets generated by breathing, sneezing, coughing, etc., and
contact (direct contact with an infected subject or indirect contact, trough hand-mediated transfer of the

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 186
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virus from contaminated fomites to the mouth, nose, or eyes).Waterborne transmission has never been
demonstrated in humans, however detection of HCoV in the feces of infected patients has been reported
suggesting the fecal-oral route may contribute to HCoV transmission [12].

Figure 6: Distribution of number of cases per age and sex

Concerning the mitigation measures, the research showed that coronaviruses can be inactivated within
one minute by disinfecting surfaces using 62-71% alcohol, or bleach 0.5% hydrogen peroxide or
household bleach containing 0.1% sodium hypochlorite sodium. Some measures including hand washing
with soap, disinfection of houses with bleach, alcohol or hydroalcoholic solutions, biomedical waste
management, domestic waste management and wastewater management
For adaptation, there are the local production initiatives include innovators, inventors and volunteers for
product preparation and making equipment. For the preparation of hydroalcolic gel and soap, there was
important to know the composition and the production protocol, and to control the quality. In addition,
the use of respirometer manufacturing, automatic pedal hand washer, mask making, fabric quality tests,
and ABNORM standards that contribute to increase the resilience of populations in Burkina Faso.

3.4. Chemical implications

-The plant users (tradipracticiens, pharmacopeia) have contributed to the research of medicament au
covid-19 and they proposed some plants which are effective against contagious diseases. We give some
of which in Table 1 [13]:

Plant Used part Use

Cajanus indicus Leaves Boil, drink and wash

Scoparia dulcis Leaves Boil, drink and wash

Guiera Senegalensis Leaves Boil, wash and drink for the whole family just once

Balamites aegytiaca Roots and bark 1 glass and rub with the cow cream

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 187
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-Apivirine is extracted from a plant by decoction at 100 °C and which is used in the manufacture of an
antiretroviral drug of immediate effectiveness as monotherapy on HIV / AIDS. The treatment offered
by this medication consists in lowering the viral load (number of copies of viral RNA per milliliter of
blood) to make it undetectable and to restore the immune system destroyed by HIV and therefore the
patient regains his perfect health. . The natural origin of this active substance makes it a medication that
escapes the possibility of resistance development on the part of HIV ... The technique consists of bathing
the plant in water brought to the boil for 45 minutes and leaving for 6 hours. The liquid is filtered and a
second extraction is carried out. After filtration, the process proceeds to dehydration and to obtaining
“APIVIRINE”. One hundred kilograms (100 kg) of treated plant yields 3100 grams of pure APIVIRINE
with a pH between 3 and 4 and a moisture content of less than 10 % [14].
-Artemisinin (Figure 7): Faced with the increasing contamination of the coronavirus disease (COVID-
19) initiatives are being developed to stem the evil. Madagascar officially launched on April 20, 2020
"Covid-Organics", a remedy based on local medicinal plants, capable of preventing and curing patients’
sick with the new coronavirus. It is an organic decoction and herbal tea made from Artemisia and other
Madagascan plants kept secret [15].

CH3
H

O O

CH3
O H
H
H
O
CH3

O
Figure 7: Chemical formula of the Artemisinin

-Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine (Figure 8) are synthetic derivatives of quinine, isolated by French
pharmacists at the beginning of the 19th century. Chloroquine has long been used as a treatment for
malaria, but mutations in the disease have gradually made it resistant to this treatment in some areas.
Chloroquine (nivaquine) and hydroxychloroquine are in fact particularly indicated for the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, or the prevention of lucites [16].
OH

N
HN N
HN

N
Cl N
Cl
Chloroquine Hydroxychloroquine
Figure 8: Chemical formula of chloroquine (left) and hydroxychloroquine (right).
Those chemical compounds could be synthetized using the equation shown in Figure 9.

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 188
!
 O H
Cl NH2 Cl N
O
+
O O

O O
3-Chloroaniline O O
diethylethoxymethylenemalonate O
!
!
Cl N
O Cl N
NaOH OH

O
OH
Ethyl-7-chloro-4-hydroxy-3-quinoline-carbonylate O
OH !
!
H2N
N Cl N
Cl N

1)
SO 42-
180°C HN
2) HO- +
HN
OH
Ethyl-7-chloro-4-hydroxy-3-quinoline-carbonylate
Chloroquine sulfate

Figure 9: Equation of chloroquine synthesis

3.5. Environmental impacts

Faecal contamination of water supplies has been historically recognized as a risk for human health: water
can provide a vehicle for pathogen spread, creating the conditions for outbreaks or sporadic cases of
infection. Human pathogenic viruses are often detected in water environments and are deemed to be
responsible for a considerable proportion of waterborne diseases [17-20]. Viruses of concern for their
potential waterborne transmission belong mainly to the group of enteric viruses, a diverse group of non-
enveloped viruses, which can multiply in the gastrointestinal tract of humans. They can be mostly
responsible of gastrointestinal illness, but also of a wide spectrum of other diseases, such as
conjunctivitis, respiratory symptoms, viral hepatitis, and infections of the central nervous system.
Wastewater monitoring has been a successful strategy pursued to track chemical and biological markers
of human activity including illicit drugs consumption, pharmaceuticals use/abuse, water pollution, and
occurrence of antimicrobial resistance genes [21-24]."
Viral diseases have been also surveilled by the detection of genetic material into wastewater as for enteric
viruses [25, 26]. As SARS-CoV-2 virions are excreted in COVID-19 patients’ faeces, sewage can also
be an important point of surveillance for wastewater based epidemiology. Importantly, detection of
SARS-CoV-2 RNAin wastewater does not imply that the virus is viable and able to infect humans.
Coronavirus in wastewater is relatively short-lived, with 3-log10 reduction in virus titre reportedly
occurring within 2–3 days [27]. With further development and using well-designed sampling campaigns
with suitable spatio-temporal resolution, wastewater monitoring could well become a useful tool to
monitor and assess the incidence of COVID-19 disease within populations to inform related public health
policy.

Y. Sanou and M. Mumtaz, J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2021, 12(2), pp. 183-191 189
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Conclusion
This work revealed the situation of covid-19 in Burkina Faso where almost of regions (11 regions) have
been contaminated by this pandemic. The main positive cases are male whose the age is ranged between
15 and 49 years. In addition, it is noted a low percentage of morbidity in Burkina Faso and that is due to
climate. The resilience of populations were due to the barrier measures adopted by the government. The
leaves, roots and bark of plants have been developed as medicine to treat the positive cases. Other
medicines such as Apivirine, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, and Artemisinin have been used in
Burkina Faso. As environmental impacts, we noted the pollution of wastewater, air and environment
with many wastes.

Acknowledgement - Authors are thankful to University Joseph KI-ZERBO and Ministry of Health for
their technical help in data collection with populations.

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