Making Sense of Visuals

BLOCK 2
SOCIOLOGY AND THE PRACTICE OF
PHOTOGRAPHY

37
Sociology and the Practice of
Photography

38
 Image Making Through
UNIT 3 IMAGE MAKING THROUGH Photography

PHOTOGRAPHY

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 History of Ethnographic Filmmaking
3.2.1 Development in Film Technology
3.2.2 Development in Ethnographic Research Practices
3.3.3 The Coming Together of Film and Ethnography
3.3 Anthropological Contributions in Ethnographic Filmmaking
3.3.1 What is an Ethnographic Film?
3.3.2 Components of an Ethnographic Film
3.4 Making Ethnographic Films
3.4.1 Are Visual Methods Always Appropriate?
3.4.2 Planning Visual Research
3.5 Preserving Ethnographic Films
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 References
3.8 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
Explain what is an ethnographic film
Discuss the broad steps involved in making an ethnographic film
Explain the ethical challenges and responsibilities in ethnographic
filmmaking
Discuss the uses of ethnographic films

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The history of ethnographic filmmaking is not an easy one. From being shunned
for appearing as too subjective and thus having little academic value to being
taught in some of the most reputable universities across the world, ethnographic
filmmaking has often been kept at an in-between place between the two worlds
of art and science. One of the reasons why ethnographic films have struggled to
find a more conclusive place in academic environments is because, is because of
the reliability of the recorded material and to what extent the filmmaker has been
able to show human life in a comprehensive and neutral manner. It is because of
this, a discussion around the process of ethnographic film research and filmmaking
becomes important. It in fact becomes fundamental to comprehend the academic
value of ethnographic films and videos.

Written by Dr. Nivedita Ghosh, JMC, Delhi University 39

Sociology and the Practice of Accordingly, in this unit, we will be looking at the use of the film medium in
Photography
sociology and anthropology in a systematic manner. In section 1.2, we will briefly
discuss the history of Ethnographic cinema, its major proponents and its
relationship to anthropological research. Section 1.3 will address the main
components of Ethnographic Film and what they have drawn from the field of
anthropology. Section 3.4 will look at the process of making an ethnographic
film and the important considerations to be kept in mind for the same. Section
3.5 touches upon the importance of preserving ethnographic films and their
valuable contribution in teaching and research.

3.2 HISTORY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC FILM-

MAKING
The history of non-fiction cinema is rooted in a combination of factors led by the
then available film technology ( of 1890s), the cost of film equipment and the
several expeditions undertaken by biologists, anthropologists and other scientists
and explorers to different parts of the nonwestern world. These Explorers knew
little or nothing about ethnography and were only interested in bringing the images
of other cultures to the audiences of North America and Europe. The proper
history of ethnographic film therefore begins with the Balinese project undertaken
by Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead in the 1930s.

3.2.1 Development in Film Technology

Early film technology itself was cumbersome and would not allow for easy
movement of heavy cameras. Accordingly, much of the early ethnographic
filmmaking process entailed “performances” by bringing subjects before the
camera or placing the camera in a place that would be able to capture the scene
in a supposedly uninterrupted manner. The camera was supposed to record the
behaviour and lives of other cultures in a “scientific” manner.

As film technology attained further sophistication by becoming somewhat

lightweight, the mobility of the cameras increased. By mid 1960s, synchronous
sound film equipment had become available and overall film-technology had
become portable and reliable enough to be carried to different parts of the world.
By the 1970s, videotape equipment had also been developed which allowed not
only the simultaneous recording of sound and audio material but also the added
advantage of instant playback. By the 21st century, filmmaking equipment had
increased in sophistication and quality of recording and editing, accompanied
with a substantial drop in their cost so that now, even graduate students could
use them.

3.2.2 Development in Ethnographic Research Practices

1920s was also a period which saw the establishment of the fieldwork method
and many important ethnographic monographs started to be published during
this time. 1922 was an important year as both A.R. Radcliffe-Brown’s Andaman
Islanders and Bronislaw Malinowski’s Argonauts of the Western Pacific were
published. Yet another important monographs was written by Margaret Mead
Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), which will become the basis of one of the first
accepted ethnographic films subsequently.

40
3.2.3 The Coming Together of Film and Ethnography Image Making Through
Photography

Mead herself was familiar with the work of Robert Flaherty who through his
film Nanook of the North (1922) portrayed the lives of the Inuit people in a
manner never seen before. Although accused of rampant staging, Flaherty had
successfully showed what it meant to immerse oneself as a filmmaker, into the
lives of the respondents. This became a very significant direction for future
ethnographic filmmakers. Flaherty had also presented the respondents in a
wholistic manner, focusing on the specific acts of the individual rather than making
generalised comments about the entire community. Very importantly, Flaherty
had also taken feedback from his respondents, building real collaboration with
the members of the community. It was almost a decade after Flaherty’s films
first released for public viewing, that ethnography and film were finally brought
together by Bateson and Mead. Films of Bateson and Mead were considered to
be ethnographic in the true sense because they were descriptive of human
behaviour, they presented interactions, patterns and results of ethnographic study.
Despite criticisms and limitations, their films presented a major advance in the
practice of ethnographic filmmaking as they triggered a discussion around
objectivity and subjectivity in academic filmmaking. Subsequently, filmmakers
such as Jean Rouch, John Marshall, Robert Gardner, Timothy Asch, David and
Judith MacDougall carried forward the collaboration between ethnography and
filmmaking through decades of experimentation, contributing to the field through
their respective styles and perspectives

Box 1: Cinema Verite

Jean Rouch’sis considered the pioneer French Cinema Verite or what is
also called, “direct cinema”, which is a style of filmmaking characterized
by crude realism. Rouch was strongly opposed to the idea of embellishing
films with staging and effects and instead urged to use the cinema medium
to bring out the truth of life. This style often involved the presence of the
filmmaker on the screen and the respondent both aware and acknowledging
the presence of the camera. For Rouch, this was an important way of bringing
out the real, as objectively as possible.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Complete the following Sentences
a) Films of Bateson and Mead were considered to be ethnographic in the
true sense because..........................
b) 1922 was an important year because……………
c) As film technology attained further sophistication by becoming somewhat
lightweight, the mobility of the cameras………
2) What was the contribution of Robert Flaherty’s films in Ethnographic
Filmmaking?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
41
Sociology and the Practice of
Photography 3.3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS IN
ETHNOGRAPHIC FILMMAKING
3.3.1 What is an Ethnographic Film?
Ethnographic filmmaking broadly entails collecting information about the lives
of specific people through the means of film technology. There is however a
substantial disagreement on what the term ethnographic film means. Simply put,
it caters to the demands of ethnography on one hand and competencies in
filmmaking on the other. Very often, these demands are in conflict with each
other, primarily because ethnographic films and videos are meant to be scientific
and artistic at the same time. Furthermore, the fundamental distinction between
the two also rests from the fact that while film is an audio-visual representation,
ethnography is primarily a textual one. David MacDougall, rather than seeing
one as being better than the other argues that the two simply present different
modes of knowledges. When combined, it is argued that an Ethnographic Film:
Undertakes detailed analysis and description of human behaviour after
engaging in a long-term field-based study.
It draws a connection between observed behaviour and cultural norms rather
than portraying people’s actions as bizarre and exotic.
It presents people in a holistic manner, representing whole acts and whole
interactions thereby enabling pattern recognition and analysis.
It discourages staging, and is governed by ethical guidelines with respect to
portrayal or the respondents and interaction between the filmmaker and the
filmed.

3.3.2 Components of an Ethnographic Film

Technical: One of the most essential though not talked about enough aspects of
ethnographic film is focused and well exposed visuals along with clear audio.
Today most films are shot on digital devices and stored in digital media. This
digitisation has greatly enhanced the quality of audio-visuals however, it is
important to note that some of the earlier challenges of filmmaking continue
with respect to filming sound. This is especially true for the various kinds of
sounds encountered during the filming process, apart from language. These are
ambient sounds and in fact crucial to comprehend a location in a holistic manner.
Furthermore human language itself carries several kinds of sounds which have
no immediate possibility of translation or subtitling such as “umms and ohs”.
Malinowski called them “Phatic Communion” and these are essential in
maintaining the flow of a conversation. Additionally, subtitling and translations
continue to pose a significant challenge in filmmaking because translations are
only time-bound approximations and the original meaning maybe lost through
the medium.

The other kind of sound is narrations which is often used by documentary

filmmakers. Narration, although, may enhance the understanding of context and
the lives of the community being filmed has also been criticised for guiding the
viewer into a one-dimensional argument of how the audience should see the
film. Many ethnographic filmmakers therefore refrain from using narration in
their films. Another kind of sound usually found in films is music. Any music
42
which is not from the location is seen as a distraction from the film and the only Image Making Through
Photography
acceptable music in ethnographic films is considered to be the one which is
taken from the location.

Relation to text: It is important for ethnographic films to draw insights from

Sociological research and writing, especially in terms of concepts and theories.
The relationship to printed materials allow the film to be more than a set of
visuals and rather exist in a dialogue with sociological generalisations.

Point of view:The question regarding whose story the film is representing is an

important one. Is it the filmmaker’s point of view or is it the respondent’s voice?
When a film becomes a filmmaker’s sole voice, it is usually labelled as propaganda
film. It is thus acknowledged that a film may carry more than one perspectives
or view-points. According to MacDougall, an ethnographic film must strive at a
balance between the filmmaker’s and the respondent’s perspectives. In fact, in
ethnographic filmmaking, the respondent’s explanation/ feedback/ interpretation
is an important data for the researcher as it allows her to enrich the ethnographic
basis of the analysis.

Contextualisation: Representing the respondents in a holistic manner entails

both behavioral and physical contextualisation. The emphasis of holism is in
order to show the compatibility between things, events and behaviours rather
than portraying them in isolation, thereby making the film both unexplainably
intrusive, simplistic and at the risk of stereotyping. Scholars have argued that
depicting “whole acts” also enables the viewer to see events unfold from
beginning, middle to the end thus enabling a closure and at the same time accessing
adequate density of information. Therefore, filming whole bodies, whole
interactions, whole people etc. lessen the scope of distortions in the filmmaking
process.

Distortion in filmmaking:Distortion is an inescapable aspect of any filmmaking

process. This is because, the filmmaker, on the editing table, selects and omits
visuals and audio in order to construct a story. Ethnographic films therefore
necessarily remain adequate representations of reality rather than insignia of
complete truth. Apart from editing, there are other ways in which the filming
process may get distorted. This can happen with the mere presence of the
filmmaker on the location. Therefore, contemporary ethnographic films critique
the traditional fly on the wall/observational filmmaking method that would believe
that it was possible to make films in an unobtrusive/objective manner by a trained
anthropologist. Films are seen necessarily as products of negotiation and encounter
between the filmmaker and the filmed and therefore the idea that films attempt
to capture some kind of an objective reality “out there” is rejected. It is also
rejected that the filmmaker, the filmed and the field remain unaffected with the
filming process, and rather it is argued that the culmination of filmmaking marks
a permanent alteration of all three categories.

Check Your Progress 2

2) Complete the following Sentences
a) When a film becomes a filmmaker’s sole voice, it is usually labelled as
....................................................
b) Representing the respondents in a holistic manner entails ………………
43
Sociology and the Practice of c) Any music which is not from the location is seen as a ………………
Photography
………………………………………….
3) What is an Ethnographic Film?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

Activity1
Record, through your camera, any process from beginning to end. Eg.
Making tea.

3.4 MAKING ETHNOGRAPHIC FILMS

In this section we will discuss the research requirement and the context for which
an ethnographic film needs to be made. An understanding of the society in which
the subjects are located is as important as the logistics involved and costs etc.
We shall take detailed look at these issues in the sub sections below.

3.4.1 Are Visual Methods Always Appropriate?

In developing an understanding about visual research methods, it is important to
remember that they are neither appropriate nor ethical in every research context.
Accordingly, the very first step of practicing visual research is to identify whether
visual research is required or appropriate in the specific research context. Before
attempting visual research, it is therefore important to read up other ethnographies
on similar topics or read up on the visual methods used by other ethnographers.
The assessment regarding the decision to use films for research also rests on
how the people respond to the presence of the camera around them. Accordingly,
prior knowledge about the culture may be exceptionally useful and sufficient
time must be spent on rekeying locations and speaking to prospective respondents
about the use of camera in the field.

Furthermore, researchers should not have fixed ideas about what they can access
from the field. Many a times inflexibility on part of the filmmaker may be
detrimental to the larger film project and the filmmaker may end up with material
ill-focused, uninteresting material which cannot be finally used in the film at all.
Besides, using visual research methods in inappropriate environments can put
both the filmmaker and the filmed in political danger or become subject to moral
criticism. Accordingly, the decision to use visual research method for a topic
depends upon the evaluation by the researcher about the cultural norms and ideas
regarding the sensitivity towards the presence of cameras.

3.4.2 Planning Visual Research

The key to a well-made ethnographic film is an understanding of the context
where filming will take place. This is done through pre-filed surveys of literature
44
and of the location in order to decide the larger methodology to be undertaken. Image Making Through
Photography
This also gives the filmmaker an idea about the cost to be incurred and people to
be contacted.

3.4.3 Choosing the right equipment

Like research topics, equipment too is of a variety of kinds and are not necessarily
appropriate in a uniform manner. The decision to choose a certain kind of film
equipment rests on available funds, camera portability, available filmmaking
professionals, to battery life etc. Furthermore, different kinds of equipment may
also impact the relationship between the filmmaker and the friend in different
ways. It has been observed that professional cameras that are accompanied with
professionally light and sound equipment create an environment where the
filmmaker cannot necessarily not work alone. This kind of an environment is
going to have are more distancing effect between the filmmaker and filmed as
opposed to the small handheld camera which allow a filmmaker to work single-
handedly and thereby create a rapport that maybe much richer and more
meaningful.

3.4.4 Ethics in Filmmaking

If there is one aspect of filmmaking that creates a distinctive identity for
ethnographic films, it is the question of ethics. The 1960s saw a general reflexive
turn in Sociology and Anthropology and its effect was seen in the world of
ethnographic filmmaking as well. Before this, filmmakers did not worry too much
about ethnical questions involved in their relationship and portrayal of their
respondents. The primary issues that got attention post 1960s, were around the
question of informed consent, covert research, confidentiality, harm to informants,
exploitation, bribery/paying money/giving something back, ownership of data,
protection of informants from potential harm.

Accordingly, it becomes obvious that the issue of ethics in ethnographic

filmmaking goes beyond the matter of ethical conduct of the researcher. Rather,
it requires an understanding of the ethical context in which the filmmakers or the
researcher is working. It is therefore a matter of acquiring a reflexive approach
towards one’s own belief system and of those who are under study. The question
of ethics is thus tied with the moral and philosophical beliefs of the researcher
and how they can potentially impact her views on the culture she is trying to
study.

Furthermore, scholars have argued that an ethnical approach in filmmaking should

be driven by a belief in maintaining the integrity of the individual respondent
such that no threat either physical or moral may be inflicted on him/her. This
includes the researcher herself making moral judgements about the respondents
as that can compromise the quality of the research. Additionally, ethical research
also entails protecting the informants from being represented in a problematic
way, especially if it can put them in danger or harm their reputation.

Yet another ethical issue raised by scholars has been the practice of covert research
where the beahaviour of the respondent is filmed in a secretive manner or where
the researcher has not revealed her true identity to the respondent. This entails a
serious rupture of trust invested by the respondent in the researcher and goes
against the very idea of collaborative filmmaking, which is seen as an important
45
Sociology and the Practice of way of incorporating multiple voices within a film. To counter this, sociologists
Photography
propose the tool of ‘informed consent’ which entails clarifying the intentions
and capacities of the researcher. Although it is understood that the respondent
may not be bombarded with every nitty gritty detail of the research project,
however, keeping the broad agenda of the researcher must be revealed.

Additionally, yet another ethical requirement to keep in mind is to ask for

permission before filming a respondent in both public and private environments.
It may also be that official permissions are required in some cases. It must be
noted that simply by asking for permissions to film, one does not necessarily
have the ownership over the filmed materials. Permission to publish involves
the question of ownership of research materials and it may be so that the materials
may be owned by research sponsoring agencies or by joint research team.

A final point ethical concerns entails an aspect of securing permissions for filming
on the promise of giving something back to the respondents. This practice of
giving something back not only throws up the question of power difference
between the filmmaker and the filmed but leaves the filmmaker searching for
respondents who would be willing to talk more than what they have been paid
for. Researchers usually work with limited resources and payments for interviews
might drain the pocket of the researcher, leaving her both without funds and
respondents.

Box 1: Do ethnographic films require a trained audience?

Although most ethnographic films are not made keeping in mind a specific
audience, scholars have noted that such films do make some demands from
the viewers. These films are not edited as per the popular conventions of
fictional films and therefore may seem to be overloaded with information,
slow-paced and complex. Much of the audience for ethnographic films are
therefore students and the films are often made for instruction rather than
entertainment.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Complete the following Sentences
a) The decision to choose a certain kind of film equipment rests on
................................................................................................................
b) The key to a well-made ethnographic film is an understanding
................................................................................................................
c) Using visual research methods in inappropriate environments can
................................................................................................................
2) Write an essay on filmmaking ethics.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
46
 Image Making Through
Activity 2 Photography

Draft out a plan for visual research, outlining the appropriateness of using
visual method for the topic.

3.5 PRESERVING ETHNOGRAPHIC FILMS

Anthropologists usually are able to preserve their findings in the form of books
and publications. Films on the other hand require archival preservation since
this material for a large part of history is available only in the form of reel stocks.
For films available in analog format, preservation involves finding a suitable
location with favourable environmental conditions so that the chemical in the
reel does not get damaged. For digital films however, preserving data in storage
drives or the cloud computing environment has proven to be extremely beneficial.
This not only allows for endless storage capacity but also preserves the quality
of the film in an excellent manner. Preservation of ethnographic films also allows
for further research on the topic and creation of more filmmaking opportunities.
For this purpose, the anthropologist in fact can also borrow from other categories
of films including documentaries, fictions, amateur and ethnographic footage.
Yet another reason for preserving ethnographic films is to use them in classroom
teaching . It must be noted however that rather than watching these films without
any context, the experience can be enriched by preparing the students with the
help of additional reading material. Since usually films are encountered as
entertainment objects, ethnographic films need to pre presented as academic
research pieces thus encouraging background reading and prior engagement with
printed materials. As noted by Karl Heider, these texts play the role of ethnographic
companions that increase the accessibility of information provided in the film.

Box 3: Handy tips to make an ethnographic film:

Familiarise yourself with the community. Longer the time spent on the
field, better is the footage.
Filming should start after adequate fieldwork.
It helps to learn the local language
Adopt an “inquiring” style of interaction, which can smoothly be
adapted during filmmaking. Changing one’s behaviour while filming
may make the respondent uneasy.
Make use of environmental objects for giving support to hand-held
cameras, eg pillars, books etc.
The film crew should learn to coordinate their communication and
action to film continuously without interruptions.
Move camera only when necessary. Camera movements can cause
distraction and loss of good quality footage.
It is important to safely backup recorded footage daily. Cloud sources
are a good option.
Detailed coverage of events is going to be helpful during the edicting
stage.
Feedback from the respondents is a great way to enrich the filming
experience for both the filmmaker and the filmed. Jean Rouch called
this “audio-visual reciprocity”.
47
Sociology and the Practice of Check Your Progress 4
Photography
1) What is contextualisation in filmmaking?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2) Why is covert research problematic?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
3) How can ethnographic films be preserved?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we began with going through a brief history of Ethnographic
filmmaking and its relationship to anthropological research. We then moved on
to discuss the main attributes and components of an Ethnographic Film that
allowed us to understand what an Ethnographic film is and what are the things to
be kept in mind while creating them. In the subsequent section, we looked at the
main steps involved in making an ethnographic films, delving closely at the
question of filmmaking ethics. We concluded this unit by mentioning the process
of preserving ethnographic films and their valuable role in classroom teaching.

3.11 REFERENCES
Asch, Timothy and Patsy Asch. (1995). ‘Film in Ethnographic Research’, in
Principles of Visual Anthropology (ed) Paul Hockings, Second Edition, Mouton
de Gruyter, pp. 335-362.
Heider, K. G. (2007). By Karl G. Heider - Ethnographic Film: 1st (first) Edition.
University of Texas Press.
MacDougall, David. (2011). ‘ Anthropological Filmmaking : An Emperical Art’
in Sage Handbook of Visual Research Methods, Eric Margolis & Luc Pauwels,
48 eds,1
 Image Making Through
3.11 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR Photography

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Films of Bateson and Mead were considered to be ethnographic in the true
sense because they were descriptive of human behaviour, they presented
interactions, patterns and results of ethnographic study.
2) 1922 was an important year as both A.R. Radcliffe-Brown’s Andaman
Islanders and Bronislaw Malinowski’s Argonauts of the Western Pacific
were published.
3) As film technology attained further sophistication by becoming somewhat
lightweight, the mobility of the cameras increased.
Check Your Progress 2
1) When a film becomes a filmmaker’s sole voice, it is usually labelled as
propaganda film.
2) Representing the respondents in a holistic manner entails both behavioral
and physical contextualisation.
Any music which is not from the location is seen as a distraction from the
film and the only acceptable music in ethnographic films is considered to be
the one which is taken from the location.
Check Your Progress 3
1) The decision to choose a certain kind of film equipment rests on available
funds, camera portability, available filmmaking professionals, to battery life
etc.
2) The key to a well-made ethnographic film is an understanding of the context
where filming will take place.
3) Using visual research methods in inappropriate environments can put both
the filmmaker and the filmed in political danger or become subject to moral
criticism.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Representing the respondents in a holistic manner entails both behavioral
and physical contextualisation. The emphasis of holism is in order to show
the compatibility between things, events and behaviours rather than
portraying them in isolation, thereby making the film both unexplainably
intrusive, simplistic and at the risk of stereotyping. Scholars have argued
that depicting “whole acts” also enables the viewer to see events unfold
from beginning, middle to the end thus enabling a closure and at the same
time accessing adequate density of information. Therefore, filming whole
bodies, whole interactions, whole people etc. lessen the scope of distortions
in the filmmaking process.

2) Yet another ethical issue raised by scholars has been the practice of covert
research where the beahaviour of the respondent is filmed in a secretive
manner or where the researcher has not revealed her true identity to the 49
Sociology and the Practice of respondent. This entails a serious rupture of trust invested by the respondent
Photography
in the researcher and goes against the very idea of collaborative filmmaking,
which is seen as an important way of incorporating multiple voices within a
film. To counter this, sociologists propose the tool of ‘informed consent’
which entails clarifying the intentions and capacities of the researcher.
Although it is understood that the respondent may not be bombarded with
every nitty gritty detail of the research project, however, keeping the broad
agenda of the researcher must be revealed.

3) Anthropologists usually are able to preserve their findings in the form of

books and publications. Films on the other hand require archival preservation
since this material for a large part of history is available only in the form of
reel stocks. For films available in analog format, preservation involves finding
a suitable location with favourable environmental conditions so that the
chemical in the reel does not get damaged. For digital films however,
preserving data in storage drives or the cloud computing environment has
proven to be extremely beneficial. This not only allows for endless storage
capacity but also preserves the quality of the film in an excellent manner.
Preservation of ethnographic films also allows for further research on the
topic and creation of more filmmaking opportunities. For this purpose, the
anthropologist in fact can also borrow from other categories of films including
documentaries, fictions, amateur and ethnographic footage.

50
 Image Making Through
UNIT 4 PHOTOGRAPHY, SELF AND Photography

SOCIETY

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Understanding Society through Photography
4.3 Photography and Subjectivity
4.3.1 Understanding Self
4.3.2 Relationship Between Self and Society
4.4 Photography and Non-Verbal Research
4.4.1 Photography and Signs
4.4.2 Tactics of Visual Data Collection
4.5 Social Interaction and Process
4.6 Risks to Rapport
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 References
4.9 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Explain the notion of self and society
Get a detailed knowledge on how photography can act as a vital research
tool in understanding various social phenomena.
Explain how photography can be an essential part of non verbal research.
Discuss the challenges faced while using a camera in qualitative research.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit looks at the relationship between photography as visual medium and
the self in the larger context of the society. We begin the unit by having a brief
overview of the entry of photography as way to understand society. The
subsequent section looks at the sociological understanding of self and the complex
relationship of self-society.Photography offers visual clues, which might have
been overlooked during field work, hence photography is increasingly seen as
valuable input in the understanding of society. The complex interplays of the
social structure, cultural aspects, interpersonal relationships and many other
insights can be captured effectively by a camera. Pictures of people mingling
offer a researcher with opportunities for measuring, qualifying and comparing,
which can help define the very patterns of people’s lives and culture

Ms. Moureen Kalita, Independent Scholar, New Delhi 51

Sociology and the Practice of
Photography 4.2 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY THROUGH
PHOTOGRAPHY
Photography as a whole is a large area of study. From its invention in the 1840s,
photography has undergone a complex and major transformation in the course
of its history. Its birth coincides with the emergence of Sociology, with Auguste
Comte’s work, in 1839 when Louis Daguerre made public his method for fixing
an image on a metal plate. Both Comte and Daguerre worked on varied aspects
of society. However, though photographs were used in early sociological journals,
visual Sociology did not emerge as a substantive sub discipline until the late
1960s. The basic visual approach has been more central in Anthropology from
the 1900 to the present day than in Sociology. In 1920s, with the emergence of
fieldwork in anthropology, there was an emergence of photographs but these
were accompanied with written text. Photographs as visuals data were not
considered as the primary source of data in sociological studies. In both Sociology
and Anthropology photographs on a stand-alone basis were not considered a
meaningful part of research. Traces of visual records as part of anthropological
field diaries were more in evidence when compared to serious academic
ethnographic texts.

Over the past few decades there has been a growing interest in visual research. A
more substantive emerging trend among both Visual Sociologists and
Anthropologists has been the need to take into account how images are
contextually mediated by socio-cultural settings. Howard Becker signalled a
paradigm shift in visual sociological research by accepting photography and other
visual means as legitimate aids in the investigation of social phenomena.The
shift in theory from a positivist to a reflexive approach has also been visible in
visual studies. There has been a move by critical and interpretative visual
anthropologists, visual ethnographers and visual sociologists to reflexively engage
with those they study (Prosser and Schwartz, 1998: 90). In this unit we will
focus on the use of photography as a research method in understanding of the
self in the context of social phenomena in society.

4.3 PHOTOGRAPHY AND SUBJECTIVITY

The photographic image is subjective in nature. The general belief that
photographs represent the objective reality did not last for long as it was evident
that what a photograph captures depends on the one capturing it. In other words,
it is the photographer’s choice of what to include and not include in a picture, the
choice of angle, lighting techniques and so on. Mainstream sociology thus found
it difficult to accept photography as a legitimate method of data collection owing
to its subjective nature.

These debates regarding the subjective vs. objective bias led to two different
viewpoints. On the one hand, for sociologists, who maintained that research and
enquiry should remain scientific and empirical in nature, photography as a method
was rendered redundant. On the other hand, there were sociologists who were of
the view that social life could be better understood by adopting photography as a
research method. According to them photography led to multidimensional social
52
reflections and insights. The use of photographs can help discover and demonstrate Photography, Self and Society
relationships that may be subtle or easily overlooked (Prosser and Schwartz,
1998: 102). The emotions and feelings imparted by activities, interactions and
so on can be efficiently communicated.

4.3.1 Understanding Self

Before diving into the relationship between the subjective nature of photography,
self and society, let us briefly discuss the idea of self from a sociological parlance.
A sociological approach of understanding self is always linked to the society.
That is, the self influences society through the actions of individuals thus creating
groups, organisations, networks and institutions. At the same time the society
also influences the self through its shared language and meanings. This enables
a person to take on the role of the other, engage in social interactions and reflect
upon oneself as an object (Stets and Burke, 2003: 1). The idea of oneself is
complex process, not only is it based on your perception of yourself but this
perception is also reflection other’s perception of you. You may consider yourself
and this perception of yourself may also be reflected back to you from the
compliments you get on your appearance from others. This location of the self in
the human interactive process was well capture by the Symbolic Interactionist
School of sociology. Charles Cooley in fact was known for his theory of the self
called “looking glass theory”. To put it in other words, you look at yourself as
though someone is looking at you, so in a way your idea of self is a reflection of
other’s gaze on you. The social interactions we have with people in our
surroundings have role to play in your assessment of ourself.

Box 1: Looking-Glass Theory

Charles Cooley, one of the symbolic interactionist theorists has come up
with a theory or perspective that explains our sense of self. According to
Cooley, our view of ourselves not only comes from our conception of
ourselves but also from the reactions interactions we have with our family
and friends and others who are close to us but also from people who may
not be very close to us. According to Cooley our view of our self comes
from what we think others think of us. He outlined three steps to this sense
of self that one develops. First we imagine how we appear to others. Second:
we imagine how others evaluate us based on their observation of us. We
revise ourselves based on their evaluation of ourselves. For instance you
may think you are intelligent but if people’s evaluation of you is that you
are not intelligent you may revise your sense of yourself as an intelligent
person.

To sum up, self thus becomes both individual and social in character. According
to symbolic interactionists, it works to control meanings to sustain itself, that
are formed from the interactions with the others in the social structure.

53
Sociology and the Practice of
Photography Activity1

(image source: http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images)

The above photograph is of a British lady walking down a street in Delhi in

1911.

What do you observe about Delhi society at that period of history? Share
your observations with other learners.

4.3.2 Relationship between Self and Society

As mentioned in the previous subsection, the self cannot exist in isolation. Both
self and society influence one another. The key to understand the link between
the two are the various patterns of behaviour within and between individuals at
different levels of analysis.At one level, we can look at the patterns of behavior
of one individual over time and come to know that individual. By pooling several
such patterns across similar individuals, we can come to know individuals of a
certain type. At still another level, we can look at the patterns of behavior across
individuals to see how these patterns fit with the patterns of others to create
larger patterns of behavior. It is these larger, inter-individual patterns that constitute
social structure (Stets and Burke, 2003:2).
The social structures do emerge from individual actions, as those actions are
patterned across individuals and over time, but individual actions also occur in
the context of the social structure within which the individuals exist. In this way,
social structure is a very abstract idea. It is not something that can be studied
directly, as it might exist in different patterns as they occur across person and
over time which we might not be directly tuned into. Nevertheless, we can become
aware of the patterns and study them.
In a qualitative research, image-based data can bring great depth to the study in
different phases. For instance, data collected from interviews or observation can
be enhanced by photographs in the form of visual quotes. These can be used in
conjunction with other evidence to support a particular theory or working
hypothesis. Researchers using photographs can be found in various disciplines;
they share common understanding about what constitutes a qualitative study and
54 that the overall motive is to contribute to a body of knowledge by marshalling
evidence to answer research questions. To study these various patterns in intricate Photography, Self and Society
details is where photography as a method comes in. The next section will put
light on how photography becomes an interesting and efficient tool in
understanding the nuances of the society.

Box 2: Visual Sociology

Sociology came into existence during the 1960s. Only a few sociologists
interested in the visual have been aware of, or involved with the parallel
movement in anthropology. Rather, the first visual sociologists tended to
be inspired by documentary photographers working on many of the issues
which sociologists felt were missing from the sociological agenda of the
times. These included the photographic studies of drugs and drug culture
(Clark, 1971); black ghetto life (Davidson, 1970); small-town southern
poverty and racism (Adelman, 1972); the southern Civil Rights Movement
(Hansberry, 1964), institutionalisation (Lyon, 1971;Jackson, 1977); social
class (Owens, 1973; Estrin, 1979); the unionisation of migrant farm workers
(Fuscoand Horowitz, 1970); the counter-cultural life (Simon and Mungo,
1972); the anti-war movement (Kerry,1971), the free-speech movement
(Copeland, 1969) and the social irresponsibility of corporate capitalism
(Smith and Smith, 1975).

4.4 PHOTOGRAPHY AND NON-VERBAL

RESEARCH
The photography of social actions between different individuals in the society
leads us into a rich area of non-verbal research (Colliner and Collier, 1986: 77).
As mentioned in the previous sections, detailed information about any social
phenomenon and variety of reliable evidence can be analysed from the
photographs taken in the field. The complex interplays of the social structure,
cultural identity, interpersonal relationships and many other insights which
normally go unnoticed during fieldwork can be captured effectively by a camera.
Pictures of people mingling offer a researcher with opportunities for measuring,
qualifying and comparing, which can help define the very patterns of people’s
lives and culture (ibid).
Research with the help of photographic recording requires detailed attention to a
number of factors-
i) The record must contain proxemic information, that captures the spatial
relationships among people being observed.
ii) The record must also contain a temporal flow that tracks change in continuity
of behavior recorded over time. This can help a researcher in defining and
understanding the progressions of social actions, thereby understanding the
interrelationships of the actors involved in it.
iii) The researcher must also pay attention to the kinesics, the postures, gestures
and other non-verbal character of individuals and groups.
iv) Finally, in any given situation, the researcher must also keep an eye to the
intricate details that provide culture definition. These include factors such
as costumes, hair styles, accessories and any other material content that is
associated with social identity and behavior.

55
Sociology and the Practice of Check Your Progress 1
Photography
1) The year ………… is marked as the birth date of both Sociology and
Photography.
2) In the field of Sociology, .................... signalled a paradigm shift in visual
sociological research by accepting photography and other means as legitimate
aids in the investigation of social phenomena
3) Mainstream sociology thus found it difficult to accept photography as a
legitimate method of data collection owing to its ........................ nature.
4.4.1 Understanding Signs
While talking about detailed understanding of a social phenomenon or a particular
culture, the concept of signs also must be brought into account. Signs are not
inherently understood, but can be learned through living in a particular culture.
Photographs are referred to as iconic signs- those signs that closely resemble the
things they represent (Mullen, 1998: 19). According to John Tagg, the meaning
of a photographic image is built up by an interaction of codes and it can be seen
as a composite of signs. Its meanings are multiple, concrete and most importantly
constructed.

Further, it can also be stated that photographs can both be an object in itself (a
cultural sign) and also a transmitter of messages through the use of signs. Ronald
Barthes states that on one hand, a press photograph is an object worked up,
selected, composed, constructed, treated according to various professional,
aesthetic, or ideological norms and, on the other hand, this same photograph is
not only perceived, received, it is read, attached – more or less consciously by
the public which consumes it – to a traditional stock of signs (cited in Mullen,
1998: 20).

A photograph allows the researcher to study a scene for more detail than one
would be able to just by observing with naked eye. Unlike the human eye, the
vision of the lens is fixed. It is this static state of the image that allows one to see
the intricate details which may not be given importance during the actual scene.
Adding to this, photography as a research tool can also help in connecting the
researcher with their subjects. The informational character of photographic
imagery can be communication bridges between strangers can become pathways
into unfamiliar, unforeseen environments and subjects.

4.4.2 Tactics of Visual Data Collection

Before qualitative researchers begins to gather data in their field site , they need
to consider how to present themselves to their subjects. According to Bogdan
and Taylor (1984); Lincon and Guba (1985), any qualitative methods texts
examine the relative advantages and disadvantages of assuming an overt or covert
role, of participant observation or observation alone (cited in Prosser and
Schwartz, 1998: 104). Compared to other fieldworkers, visual researchers with a
camera in hand need to employ certain methods that enable them to produce
image capable of generating useful data. There is also the question of ownership
of data (especially photographs) and recognising the complexities issues relating

56
to the empowerment of subjects. At the same time they also have to make the Photography, Self and Society
assumption that the appearances of naturally occurring objects, events and
behaviours provide a gateway to the taken-for-granted and therefore unquestioned
aspects of culture which are critical to studies of society. There are also challenges
regarding the outsider status of the researcher while conducting research in the
personal domain.

However, there are a few steps that can be taken by the researchers using camera
as a tool to capture social relationships and phenomena. The initial stage or the
first day into the research field can be started with by applying what Prosser(1992)
calls the ‘softly softly’ approach. This approach entails walking around the sample
site with a camera in its ‘out of the case over the shoulder like a piece of jewellery’
mode followed by ‘safe’ photography of buildings (Prosser and Schwartz, 1998:
105). After this step the researcher can attempt ‘serious photography’ once the
subjects get accustomed to the researcher with the camera. This accomplishes
several tasks for the researcher simultaneously: it allows him/her to ease into
the new setting and role; it makes the photographer visible to community
members, opening opportunities for interaction; and it provides a visual catalogue
of the physical setting in which the fieldwork take place. Through this a vital
link between the self and the society is created, which ultimately ends up in
making the research more worthwhile.

4.5 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND PROCESS

Photographic records of events and social processes can provide insights into
the structure and form of social interactions and relationships. Such studies with
photographic imagery leads one into the examination of “microculture” and the
understanding of ‘self’ in the society. Observing and paying attention to the minute
details of how people mingle and regroup themselves is basic to understanding
of social structure in motion. In the dynamics of microculture, the details of
person-to-person relationships can be analysed through the use of still images
and film/video. As it has been mentioned earlier, photographs allow one to observe
the personal physical bearing, facial expressions, gestures and so on. A wide
range of theorists have used these still photographs to understand spatial
relationships and behavior pattern of their subjects and other social phenomena.
Some of the contributions are listed in the box below
Box.3: Photographs and Study of Social Phenomena
Hall (1966) has studied the significance of what he calls “proxemics/’ such
things as the spacing between people and body orientation, which vary
from culture to culture and according to circumstances.
Frederick Erickson (1979) has examined the subtle miscommunications of
cross-cultural counseling and job interviews, basing his analysis on proxemic
shifts, kinesic details, variations in communication pacing, and the tempo
and stresses of the accompanying verbal communications.
Still photography was used by Malcolm Collier to record a day in a bilingual
preschool, carefully tracking spatial relationships and associated behavior
through different activities
Any culture and social situation has its definite established modes for
handling space and diverse aspects of behavior and social interaction, which
can be captured well with the help of a camera. 57
Sociology and the Practice of In the preceding sections we have discussed how photographic records can be an
Photography
efficient method for data analysis. Photographs can also be used as tools which
can help obtain knowledge beyond that provided through a direct analysis of the
visual captured. When the subjects interpret and enlarge upon these photographic
contents, through interviewing with photographs, the potential data enlarges
beyond the information found in photographs. It leads to some interesting and
insightful interaction and conversation between the researchers and their subjects.
The involvement of the participants photographed, in interpretating the image
captured is an important way of going beyond the obvious. The camera does not
necessarily portray ‘reality’. The image captured and its interpretation by the
researcher is only one aspect of the reality portrayed. Participation of the
researched subjects helps us understand reality in amore holistic multidimensional
perspective.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Photographs can both be an object in itself (a cultural sign) and also a
transmitter of messages through the use of signs. True/False.
2) What do you mean by the ‘Softly Softly’ approach in image based research?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
3) .............................................. can help in understanding spatial relationships
and behavior pattern of their subjects and other social phenomena.

4.6 RISKS TO RAPPORT

Photography makes it easier to gain foothold in a community. At the same time,
it must be noted that photography can result in rejection if the researcher is guilty
of insensitive intrusion with the camera. While conducting image-based research
it must be clear that once the researcher starts photographing the inner workings
of the social structure, and peek into the subjects’ life with the camera, the public
domain is left behind. Cultural and social practices of communities are both
public and private. The activities in the public domain, the ones which take place
in the outer rings of public gatherings can be freely photographed. However,
once the researcher over a period of time develops a rapport with the community
and gets accepted, he/she may be privy to activities and rituals that are personal
and secretly guarded. The question of ethics comes into play here where the
researcher may unwittingly photograph secret rites and rituals and put them up
for public display.

For instance, in many cultures religious worship is one of the delicate functions
of a community. The church, the temple or any other religious institution are
places where the deepest values are experienced. These sites are hypersensitive
to stranger’s intrusion and to lack of respect. Personal spaces like home or any
spaces which belongs to the private domain can be difficult for a researcher
along with a camera to get proper access to. The degree to which the use of a
58
camera is perceived as a threat and thereby unwelcome can also be affected by Photography, Self and Society
the behavior of the researcher using it. This situation can happen when working
in the public domain as well, when it is not possible to introduce oneself as a
researcher to the people who may come before the lens. Such hurried and secretive
shots can arouse suspicion among the subjects. In those situations, the researcher
must take utmost care to not offend the individuals and their private space. In
most situations it is best to take time and move slowly while making shots, thereby
giving the individuals time to know about his/her presence and object if they
wish. Interactions with the subjects be it verbal/non-verbal, and one’s behavior
while taking these shots must convey a sense of respect and confidence so as to
make them feel comfortable. Unhurried recordings also allow them to make
contact with the researcher. If through such contact individuals become accepting
of the researcher’s presence, that acceptance can further conveyed to others in
the scene through their behavior and the job of the researcher gets much easier
and smooth.

Along with these measures, what is public, what is personal and what is
threatening becomes very important on the privacy of the photographs taken. In
general, to avoid hostility, photographs should be handled with utmost confidence
just like other field notes. Material given in confidence should be held in
confidence. Unlike pictures made in the public domain, pictures made in private
circumstances should only be showed to the people involved in those
circumstances and not to the rest of the members in the community in order to
maintain harmony between the studied selves or the trusted key informants with
the others. The researcher has to steer an uneasy course between the academic
disciplinary demands of the discipline and the trust placed by the community in
the researcher.

Activity 2
Conduct a fieldwork based study of any topic of your interest using visual
data and note down your experience.

Check Your Progress 3

1) It is easier for a researcher to capture the personal domain with a camera.
True/ False.
2) What are some of the challenges of using a camera to collect qualitative
data?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

4.7 LET US SUM UP

In the initial sections of this unit, we traced the history of image-based research
both in the fields of Sociology and Anthropology. Research based on photographs
and other visual media is gaining prominence in the present scenario, as compared
to a few decades earlier. The unit also covered the subjective nature of photography
and its relation to the self and society. It has a vital relation with how social
phenomena can be understood has been explained in detail throughout the unit. 59
Sociology and the Practice of The complex interplays of the social structure, cultural identity, interpersonal
Photography
relationships and many other insights which normally go unnoticed during
fieldwork can be captured effectively by a camera. Here we can also see the
importance of non-verbal research in analysing intricate social situations. Further,
the importance of understanding signs and gestures was also taken into account.
Photographic imagery leads one into the examination of these gestures between
individuals, the “microculture” and the understanding of ‘self’ in the society.
Observing and paying attention to the minute details of how people mingle and
regroup themselves is basic to understanding of social structure in motion. The
last section of the unit tries to delve into the difficulties and challenges one might
face while conducting image based research.

4.8 REFERENCES
Becker, H.S. (1974). “Photography and Sociology”. In Studies in Visual
Communication. 1(1): 3-26.
Bogdan, Robert, & Taylor, Steven. (1975). Introduction to Qualitative Research
Method & A phenomenological Approach to the Social Sciences. New York:
Wiley.
Collier, John and Malcom Collier. (1986). Visual Anthropology: Photography as
a Research Method, University of New Mexico Press.
Mullen, L. (1998). ‘Truth in Photography: Perception, Myth and Reality in the
Postmodern World’, Doctoral Dissertation.
Lincoln, Yvonna S., & Guba, Egon G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage.
Prosser, Jon & Dona Schwartz. 1998. ‘Photographs within the Sociological
Research Process’ in Jon Prosser ed., Image-Based Research: A Sourcebook for
Qualitative Researchers, Falmer Press, pp. 101-115.
Stets, Jan. E & Burke, Peter. J. (2003). ‘A Sociological Approach to Self and
Identity’, In Mark Leary and June Tangney (eds), Hand book of Self and Identity,
Guilford Press.

4.9 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) 1939
2) Berger
3) Subjective
Check Your Progress 2
1) True.
2) The Softly-softly approach entails walking around the sample site with a
camera in its ‘out of the case over the shoulder like a piece of jewellery’
mode followed by ‘safe’ photography of buildings in the site before moving
onto serious photography of human interactions and other social phenomena.
60
3) Still photographs Photography, Self and Society

Check Your Progress 3

1) False
2) Some of the challenges are-
i) Photography can result in rejection if the researcher is guilty of
insensitive intrusion with the camera.
ii) Personal spaces like home or any spaces which belongs to the private
domain can be difficult for a researcher along with a camera to get
proper access to.
iii) Subjects can get uncomfortable and suspicious in the presence of a
stranger.

61
Sociology and the Practice of
Photography UNIT 5 PHOTOGRAPHY AS A RESEARCH
TOOL

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Tracing the Origins
5.2.1 Photography and Modernity
5.2.2 Camera and its Role in Research
5.2.3 Ethnographic Study and Photography
5.3 Camera and the Field
5.4 Benefits of Using Photography as a Research Tool
5.5 Challenges and Limitations of Photography
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 References
5.8 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Explain the origins and development of camera and its uses.
Discuss the importance of photographs in the sociological research process.
Narrate how the camera can act as a vital tool in collecting information
from the field.
Examine the limitations of using visual research.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The camera acts as an essential equipment in gathering accurate visual
information. Its sharp focus and ability to capture meticulous details help us in
holistic and accurate observation. Photography thus becomes a valuable research
tool, with associated methodologies that extends our perceptions if we make
skilled and appropriate use of it. (Collier and Collier,1986: 5). However,
photography on its own can’t perceive what it captures, for it requires human
response for meaningful use in research.Thereby, it is necessary to understand at
the very outset, the phenomenon of observation. We will start our lesson with a
discussion on the origins of photography. In our subsequent section we will focus
on the importance of photography as tool to understand society.

Though photography as a research tool proves to be very constructive, one must

also know how to see with visual accuracy, to observe culture in its complexities

Written by Ms. Moureen Kalita, Independent Scholar, New Delhi

62
which at times can be a challenge for the fieldworker. As John Berger says, “The Photography as a Tool of
Research
way we see things is affected by what we know, or what we believe.” (Berger,
1972:8). The photographer’s way of seeing is reflected in his choice of the subject.
Similarly, a painter’s way of seeing can be understood by the marks made in his/
her canvas (ibid). Individuals tend to see only what they pragmatically need to
see. That is, an observer’s capacity for rounded vision is certainly related to the
degree of involvement with the environment. Thus, in our everyday life, we tend
to observe only a fraction of our surroundings. Whenever critical engagements
and observations do happen, it often requires the aid of technology. Many shrewd
observations are made with instruments. For instance, observing a drop of water
with a microscope, looking into celestial space with telescopes and so on.
Radarscopes, light meters, computers, cameras inter-alia has specialised our
vision.

Coming back to photography or specifically the tool used for it; the camera, by
its optical character has whole vision. It faithfully records the specialised subject
along with the other associated elements within focus and scope of the lens (Collier
& Collier, 1986:7). The adaptability of camera has made photography a standard
of accurate perception in diverse fields. However, like our field notes or any
other form of empirical data, photographs too may not provide us with data which
is unbiased and objective documentation of the social and material world (Prosser
and Shwartz, 1998: 102), but they can show definite characteristic and attributes
of people objects or events which often elude the naked eye. In this unit we trace
the origins of photography and its use as research tool. We all also discuss the
limit actions of this onedium.

5.2 TRACING THE ORIGINS

Camera, as a tool for observation has had a long history. Leonardo da Vinci,
during the Renaissance, described its principles. He was very curious about how
sunlight entering through a tiny hole on the opposite wall creates an inverted
image of whatever was outside. The camera obscura, which means the darkened
room, was the first camera where artists could study projected reality, the character
of light and delineation of perspectives (Collier and Collier, 1986:7). By the
eighteenth century it went through a lot of development which made it into a
portable two-foot box from a room sized version. It was later in 1839, when
Louis Jacques Mende Daguerre developed and perfected a photographic
technique. The daguerreotype, introduced to the world a relatively cheap,
effective and rapid imagery that brought a lot of change in the realm of visual
communication.

The excitement that greeted the invention of photography was the sense that
individuals could for the first time, see the world as it was. Before, it was images
which gave form to the reality. Visuals which earlier could only be recorded as
an art process got transformed into an optical process, thanks to photography.
The effect of photography and as an aspect of reality began to be felt in almost
all facets of modern life. Soon camera as an object began to gain much prominence
in individuals’ lives and also its importance was widely realised in anthropological
communication and analysis. In the following sub sections we will specifically
try to elaborate on photography and the role of camera in research.

63
Sociology and the Practice of
Photography Box 1: Daguerrotype Photography
Daguerre type photography is the invention of a French man Louis Jacques
Mande Daguerre who was born in France in 1787. “Louis Daguerre called
his invention “daguerreotype.” His method, which he disclosed to the public
late in the summer of 1839, consisted of treating silver-plated copper sheets
with iodine to make them sensitive to light, then exposing them in a camera
and “developing” the images with warm mercury vapor. The fumes from
the mercury vapor combined with the silver to produce an image. The plate
was washed with a saline solution to prevent further exposure” (https://
www.fi.edu/history-resources/daguerreotype-photography)

(Pic by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (1801-1881) - [1], Public Domain, https://

commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3112794)

Activity-1
Trace the evolution of camera throughout different periods in history.
Compare your list with other students from your centre.

5.2.1 Photography and Modernity

Photography was born in a critical age; it was both a carrier and shaper of
modernism. Walter Benjamin during 1920s and 1930s wrote extensively on the
power of photography and its status as the most important modern form of
communication. The ‘photo-eye’ was seen as revelatory, dragging facts into the
light of the day (cited in Wells, 1996:21). Along with this, photography also
offered new perceptions of viewing from different angles of vision. This helped
in seeing the world as it was never seen before through modern technology.
Moreover, photography validated one’s experience of ‘being there’, which is not
merely one of visiting an unfamiliar place but of capturing the authentic experience
of a strange place (ibid: 22).

64
Photographs are records and documents which meticulously detail the changing Photography as a Tool of
Research
world. In this respect, both photography and film were implicated in the act of
seeing as revelation. In addition, during the early years of the twentieth century,
photography was greatly impacted in the flourishing of print media. This led
Walter Benjamin to conceptualise photography as a democratic medium.
Arguably, what was happening in the printed page excited imagination in the
beginning of the twentieth century. Posters, photomontage and photographic
magazines offered opportunities for experimentation with combination of images
and modes of visual story telling (Wells, 1996: 22).

One of the important elements in the photographic records is that because of the
impartial process of the camera’s vision, even if edited it contains sufficient
amount of non-verbal truths. This allows its audience to reconstruct schematic
reality and also to form concepts that have changed social thinking dramatically.
For instance, the documentary records of Mathew Brady, commissioned by
Abraham Lincoln, were among the first photographic images of war. Brady
recorded the effects of war including the records of fallen bodies, the burnt
wreckage of buildings and so on which gave a realistic picture of war instead of
just the dramatic actions. Likewise, sociologist Lewis Hine recorded the entry of
the original look of Europeans before acculturation into American life. His other
images of children at the same time were influential in passing the first child
labour laws (cited in Collier and Collier 1986: 9).

Box 2: Sociology and Photography: The Parallels

Photography and Sociology have approximately the same date of birth, if
you count sociology’s birth as the publication of Comte’s work which gave
its name, and photography’s birth-date and Sociology have approximately
the same date of birth. Photography’s birth-date as the date in 1839, when
Daguerre made public his method for fixing an image on a metal plate.
From the beginning, both worked on a variety of projects. Among these,
for both, was the exploration of society.

From its beginnings, photography has been used as a tool for the exploration
of society, and photographers have taken that as one of their tasks. At first,
some photographers used the camera to record far-off societies that their
contemporaries would otherwise never see and later aspects of their own
society. Sometimes they even conceived of what they were doing as
sociology, especially around the turn of the century when both sociologists
and photographers agreed on the necessity of exposing the evils of society
through words and pictures.

5.2.2 Camera and its Role in Research

As it has been mentioned in the previous section, a cameras ability to capture
something depends largely on the attitudes of its operator. However, this
machinery proves to be a great tool in research. Using a camera for recording
has several perks-
The instrument or machine allows one to see without fatigue; the last
exposure is just as detailed as the first.

65
Sociology and the Practice of The memory of film replaces the notebook and ensures complete quotation
Photography
under the most trying circumstance.
The reliably repetitive operation of the camera allows for comparable
observations of any event and as many times as required.
The mechanical field observation extends the possibilities of critical analysis
as the camera record contributes a control factor to visual observation.
It also allows for an absolute check of position and identification in congested
and changing cultural events.
Photography though can be compared to a fieldworker’s inscribed notebook can
at the same time also have contrasting features from the same. Unlike a fieldworker
who notes down information from the field in literate code, the information
photography gathers are specific. They are precise records of material reality.
Moreover, photographs are documents that can be filed and cross-filed, enlarged,
reduced and fitted into many diagrams and statistical designs. The notion of
photographs as visual diary reintroduces the researcher and the qualities of the
medium into the research process. That is, a diary is a self-reflexive and media-
literate chronicle of the researcher’s entry, participation in, and departure from,
the field. The images generated within this paradigm are acknowledged to be the
unique result of the interaction of a certain researcher with a specific population
using a particular medium at a precise moment in space and time (Prosser &
Schwartz, 1998: 109).

5.2.3 Ethnographic Study and Photography

The various perks of a camera made it a favourite among the early ethnographers.
It helped a great deal in gathering descriptive details in the material inventory
phase of Anthropology. However, there is also a huge challenge associated with
this- the issue of whole and accurate human observation. This challenged is faced
even more by anthropologists as well as sociologists. Seeing the stranger as he/
she really is, comes along with the scrutiny of personal values, bias and incomplete
observation. Social scientists do acknowledge that there is nothing much one
can do about this bias in photographic records, like the bias in observation of
societies or any phenomenon researched. Thus, modern anthropologists unlike
early ethnographers use photographs strictly as illustrations, because they fear
that an overload of photographic detail would interfere with more controlled
analysis. Thus, there is little research in Anthropology which is based on
photographic data. To add to it, anthropologists also have not trusted the mechanics
of camera to trump value manipulation of vision. It thereby remains as an
important tool in the domain of physical anthropology and archaeology to make
fine research records.
According to anthropologists, until fieldworkers know what to photograph, when
and how many times to photograph- and why – anthropologists will see no
functional way to use the camera. Along with informational complexity, there
already exists in Anthropology an established belief system about non-white
indigenous people. Photographic imagery can reveal sensitivity of native people
which challenge classical ethnographic texts, methods and conceptualisation
(Collier and Collier, 1986:13). However, there are some cases in which some
anthropologists and fieldworkers have carried out organised interventions with
cameras, film and video (see box 2). But in anthropology as a whole, still
66 photography remains a less used and unusual research method.
Check Your Progress- 1 Photography as a Tool of
Research
1) What do you understand by a daguerreotype?
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2) What are some of the perks of using camera as a research tool in the field?
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3) Photographs gather specific information unlike field-notes which mainly
gather information in literate codes. True/ False?
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Box 3: Ethnographic Research and Photography

Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead made the first saturated photographic
research in another culture, the results of which were published in Balinese
Character (1942). After this work, both continued to use photography, Mead
in her continuing concerns with child development (for example, Mead
and Macgregor 1951) and with ethnographic and research film, and Bateson
in the study of nonverbal communication (1963; and Ruesch and Kees 1956).
Richard Sorenson, the founding anthropologist of the National Film
Research Archives, is one of the few anthropologists who followed the
footsteps of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson. Thirty years after the
publication of Balinese Character, Sorenson published On the Edge of the
Forest (1976), a photographically researched text on child development in
New Guinea

5.3 CAMERA AND THE FIELD

As it has been discussed in the earlier section about the challenges of using
photographic data in research, there are still ways in which the camera can act as
a valuable tool to explore and analyse. In this way one can use photography can
be used not only to show what has been already found out by other means, but
67
Sociology and the Practice of also to extend ones visual process and help in finding out more about the nature
Photography
of humanity and its multifaceted cultures.

The practical place of photography or use of the camera in fieldwork can be

demonstrated by relating its functions to the development of a field study.

Initial Phase:
During the initial phases of research, photography can be of great importance as
it has the ability to record large areas authentically, rapidly and also with great
detail. It thus becomes a means of storing complex descriptions for future use. In
other words, photography can accelerate the entry process of research. With the
mechanical memory of the camera, it is possible to rapidly gather valuable data.
There are various challenges which are faced in an unfamiliar environment.
Writing down notes can be difficult in a complex environment and overtime in
the long field visits the responses may deaden through monotony. Photography
proves as an aid in these situations. It can vividly preserve these first impressions
in a responsible and usable form. These records can be decoded and analysed
later by any native collaborator or read significantly by the investigator as the
research progresses and makes more sense. Such photographic overview can
yield vital and detailed information which otherwise might take months for
fieldworkers to gather via traditional means.

Box 4: Efficient Orientation to a Field via Photography

We can speed up orientation with the aid of photography by making an
overview journey through our research territory, recording geographical
and cultural phenomena met in this introductory survey. Local assistants in
many cultures have proven ability to read photographic records accurately,
identifying landscape, interpreting cultural processes, and even defining
ethnicity and personalities. In a few interview sessions, photographs can
provide accurate geographic names and identification of towns and
technologies. We can begin assembling a file of demographic, social, and
economic information immediately.

Second phase:
During the second phase, fieldwork narrows its focus in search of particular
evidence according to the set goals of the research. At this point the initial
ethnography done via notes and photography can prove to be a viable asset and
also guides and provide a setting for further research. As a result, the research
methods become specialised and structured.

Final Phase:

In the final phase the research gets developed into conclusions. In this phase
photographic evidence like all other data are abstracted, translated into statistics
in order to become a genuine part of the research process.

Activity 3
Make a list of some difficulties that the researcher might face while using a
camera in the field?

68
 Photography as a Tool of
5.4 BENEFITS OF USING PHOTOGRAPHY AS A Research

RESEARCH TOOL
In the previous section we have seen how the camera as a tool can be used
efficiently in different phases of the research process. Now, let us try to understand
in detail on how photographic images can further enhance various studies done
in social science research. It is quite familiar by now that qualitative researchers
prefer to use camera to capture images of social processes, social interactions
and relationships. Most of these social relationships which are discussed are
normally in verbal communications assuming that the social positions of the
participants in the interaction is self-understood (Collier and Collier, 1986) but
there are also a lot of facets during these social interactions which goes unnoticed
or which the researcher might not be aware of. Visual imageries are very essential
to understand such non-verbal communications which goes on during a research
process. For instance, Collier and Collier (1986) notes that photographs of clothing
provide evidence for the comparison of ethnic groups and social organisations
(cited in Pandey, 2016: 83).

The camera at times also becomes an important means of entering into the social
life of a particular community. As Swartz (1989) points out from her own
ethnographic study, making the residents aware of photographing the area makes
them curious and makes them ask questions about the doings of the researcher. It
acts as a good measure to start up a conversation with the residents which might
give viable data for the research. This process can make them comfortable with
the researcher and make them help the researcher with understanding community/
family activities as well. (Shwartz, 1989). Even while interviewing with
photographs (i.e. photo elicitation) differs from conventional verbal interviews.
Use of photographs during interviews brings the participants closer to the
interviewer as the very process of viewing photographs becomes an interactive
process. Schwartz (1989) feels it becomes more instrumental while tapping
sensitive information from difficult situations in the field by creating a reflexive
environment based on trust and mutuality.

In a similar vein, it can be pointed out that the practicality of using photos also
rest on the nature of meanings they impart. As it has been already mentioned
interpreting photographs is an interactive process. This leads to the construction
of meanings through the interaction of the image, the viewer and the photographer,
which is one of the most important element in constructivist understanding in
Sociology. (see box 4).

Box 5: Constructivist Understanding in Sociology

Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge given by Peter
Berger and Thomas Luckmann in 1966. According to this theory human
development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through
interaction with others. In other words, a constructivist view of Berger and
Luckmann believe substantively that the reality is the result of individual
construction collectively through gestures (verbal and non-verbal) etc in
certain social communities. The continuous action and interactions in which
an individual is a part of, creates a reality that is owned and experienced
together subjectively
69
Sociology and the Practice of Check Your Progress 2
Photography
1) Photography can speedup the research process and make it more efficient.
True/False.
2) Use of photographs during interviews brings participants ................. to the
interviewer.
3) Interpretation of photographs is an interactive process which leads to the
construction of meanings through the interaction of the .............................

5.5 CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS OF

PHOTOGRAPHY
After going through the previous sections, one might be familiar with the
limitations of using a camera in the research process. As it has already been
mentioned, photography is not free from bias or personal projection. There is a
general claim that photographs mirror reality due to the mechanism of photo
development process. However, with the countless advancements in the field of
technology, photographs can also be altered ( e.g by the use of graphic editing
software). To overcome this, Becker suggests including anthropological texts in
description of photographs such as persons may be ‘posed’, artefacts ‘arranged’
and so on. (Kobayashi, Fisher and Gapp, 2008:9). Secondly, the presence of a
researcher as a photographer may influence the reactions of the research
participants. Along with this the ethical and privacy considerations must also be
taken into account. Similar to participant observation the role of the researcher
with a photo taking activity must be clearly explained with informed consent.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Photography becomes instrumental while tapping sensitive information from
difficult situations in the field by creating a reflexive environment based on
. . . . . . . and . . . . . . . .
2) What are some of the main challenges of using photography as a research
tool? Explain in a few sentences.
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5.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we tried to understand the role of photography as a research tool. We
first started off with the unit by understanding the phenomenon of observation as
one must know how to see with visual accuracy while using a camera. We then
went on to explicate the history of the development and use of camera in Social
Science research. Next, we took a glance into the critical age of photography and
how it became a carrier and shaper of modernism. Both photography and film
during this period meticulously detailed the changing world.
70
After detailing on modernity and the development in the visual industry we tried Photography as a Tool of
Research
to explicate the efficacy of using camera in the field. Using a camera for recording
has several perks like detailing every aspect without fatigue, it can also be a very
reliable source for data collection. At times it also gives a boost to the traditional
way of doing research using field-notes. We then went on to detail about
photography and its evolution in ethnographic research. Though photography as
a method is at times viewed sceptically there are ways in which it can provide
effective results in the field. Further we moved on to the different phases in
research where camera as a tool plays a vital part. It can also play a very beneficial
role in delicate and complex social situations and creating bonds with the
respondents which have been detailed in the next section. Finally, we went on to
understand some of the challenges which can be faced while using this method
in the field to gather information.

5.7 REFERENCES
Becker, H.S. (1974). “Photography and Sociology”. Studies in Visual
Communication. 1(1): 3-26.
Berger, J. (1973). Ways of Seeing. Penguin Books: London
Collier, John and Malcom Collier. (1986). Visual Anthropology: Photography as
a Research Method, University of New Mexico Press, Chaps 1, 2.
Kobayashi, K; Fisher, R and Gapp, Rodney. (2008). The Use of Photographs in
Operations Management Research. Working Paper.
Pandey, K.P. (2016). ‘How useful photography is in Sociological researches on
Ethnic Identity Studies.’ Himalayan Journal of Sociology and Anthropology . 7.
Pp. 75-95.
Prosser, Jon & Dona Scwartz. (1998). ‘Photographs within the Sociological
Research Process’ in Image-Based Research: A sourcebook for Qualitative
Researchers, Jon Prosser ed., Falmer Press, pp. 101-115.
Scwartz, D. (1989). ‘Visual Ethnography: Using Photography in Qualitative
Research’, Qualitative Sociology, 12 (2). Pp. 119-154.
Wells, Liz. (1996). Photography- A Short Introduction, Routledge: New York.

5.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

i) The Daguerreotype was the first publicly available and successful

photographic process which was largely used during the 1840s and 1850s.
It is named after the inventor Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre.

2) the machinery used in camera allows one to see without fatigue; the last
exposure is just as detailed as the first. The memory of film efficiently replaces
the notebook under trying circumstances. It also allows comparable
observations of any event and can help in critical analysis. Finally it also
allows for an absolute check of position and identification in congested and
changing cultural events 71
Sociology and the Practice of 3) True.
Photography
Check Your Progress 2

1) True

2) Closer

3) image, the viewer and the photographer.

Check Your Progress 3

1) trust and mutuality

2) Some of the challenges of using photographic images in research are-

a) With the countless advancement in the field of technology, photographs
can also be altered (e.g by the use of graphic editing software).
b) The presence of a researcher as a photographer may influence the
reactions of the research participants.
c) Along with this the ethical and privacy considerations must also be
taken into account. Similar to participant observation the role of the
researcher with a photo taking activity must be clearly explained with
informed consent.

72