EARLY RULE OF ELIZABETH 1ST

 Became queen after Edward 6th and Mary 1st had died

Strengths she brought- she was well educated/spoke many languages, had English
parents so was free from overseas influences. She was single so she couldn’t be
controlled by a foreign husband. She was protestant and wanted to re-establish the
Protestant church in England

Problems she inherited- her sister Mary left debts of £300,000. Some feared a female
ruler would mean England would continue to be seen as a weak country. Elizabeth had
been declared illegitimate as her parents had an unlawful marriage, despite her being
restored to the line of succession under the act of succession people still saw her as
illegitimate. There were worries of who she would marry. Her cousin Mary, Queen of
Scots, has a claim to the throne, she was catholic and married to the heir of the French
throne, they could try to invade. Elizabeth’s father, Henry 8 th, had broken away from the
catholic church and started his own church of England and her brother Edward had began
to establish a protestant church

 The monarch could raise money from rents from crown lands, custom duties on
trade, special additional taxes known as subsidies which had to be agreed by
parliament and loans

Court- was a body of people who lived in or near the same house as the monarch. It was
made up of members of the nobility who were the monarch’s key advisors. Attending
court required the monarch’s permission. Their role was to entertain and advise the
monarch. Courtiers had influence with the monarch rather than actual power

Privy council- group of 19 leading courtiers/ advisors and nobles who were chosen by
the monarch and met 3 times a week, with the meetings attended by the monarch. They
advised the monarch on government policy, made sure the monarch’s final decisions
were carried out, oversaw law and order, monitored JPs.

Parliament- made up of the House of lords and House of commons. It could only be
called and dismissed by the monarch. Elections were held before each new parliament,
but very few people could vote(wealthy men) Elizabeth called parliament 10 times during
her reign. Their role was to: grant extraordinary taxation, pass laws known as acts of
parliament, offer advice to the monarch

Lords lieutenant- each county had a lord lieutenant chosen by the monarch. They were
members of the nobility. They were essential to maintaining the monarch’s power and
England’s defences. Their role was: in charge of raising and training the local militia and
overseeing county defences, oversaw enforcement of policies, were part of the local
government

JP- large landowners who kept law and order in their local areas. They were unpaid and
reported to the privy council. Being a JP was a position of status, and so was a popular
job. They had to: make sure all social and economic policies were carried out, heard
county cases every 3 months for more serious crimes, were part of the local government

Divine right- monarch believing they had the right to rule by the grace of god

Monarch- declare war and make peace, call and dismiss parliament and agree/reject
any laws they voted for, grant titles/land/money/jobs. The monarch had a right to stop
parliament discussing any issues she didn’t want them to discuss

Patronage- provide someone with an important job or position, an effective way of

getting support from people and controlling them
Royal prerogative- power and authority the monarch has (in some areas) without
needing parliament’s permission such as to declare war, giving out titles/jobs and
calling/ending parliament

Women- weren’t considered to be capable of governing. Even at home they were

supposed to be under the authority of their husband or father

Reasons people didn’t believe in a female ruler- England had allied with Spain in a
war against France and lost. England’s finances and its people were poor, there had been
several bad harvests leading to hunger/disease/poverty. Mary’s marriage to King Philip
2nd of Spain was so unpopular it led to a rebellion. Mary burned nearly 300 people for
their religious beliefs which wasn’t popular

William Cecil- Elizabeth appointed him as the Secretary of State. He was her most
important minister and guided her wisely for 40 years, he received the title Lord Burghley

Robert Dudley- Earl of Leicester and trusted adviser. Him and Elizabeth were very close

Elizabeth’s character- She was highly literate and spoke foreign languages so was able
to deal directly with foreign ambassadors. She understood the need to create the right
image and so was a skilful propagandist. She was extremely generous to those who
served her well

Elizabeth and marriage- she was expected to marry by MPs and Privy councillors to
secure the line of succession, and many foreign princes and English noblemen wanted to
marry her

Advantages to not marrying- Elizabeth could keep control of English affairs,

government and religion. She remained the focus of all power since there was no
apparent succession

Disadvantages to not marrying- uncertainty over who would inherit the throne had
the potential to lead plots and attacks to overthrow Elizabeth. The privy councillors and
MPs were frustrated because the succession wasn’t settled and they felt it made the
country vulnerable

Potential suitors:

Robert Dudley- Earl of Leicester, was an ambitious, good-looking courtier. Elizabeth

spent a lot of time with him and people thought they were in love, but he was already
married (a problem). When his wife was found dead, there was a scandal and rumours
circulated, leading to Elizabeth to withdraw from Dudley as her reputation and position as
Queen were threatened

King Philip of Spain- he was a catholic who has been married to Mary, her sister. MPs
were not in favour of this alliance for fear of causing religious unsettlement and a foreign
influence in government. Elizabeth rejected this offer

Archduke Charles- Elizabeth considered marrying Archduke Charles of Austria, but his
catholic faith meant there were the same religious differences as King Philip of Spain

Francis Duke of Alencon- marriage negotiations went on for a long time, he was heir to
the French throne. There were many political advantages to gain from this alliance, for
example influence over French policy in the Netherlands, and Elizabeth used this to her
advantage. However he died and after that there was no possibilities of other offers.

RELIGIOUS SETTLEMENT

act of supremacy- made Elizabeth the Supreme Governor of the Church, taking power
away from the catholic pope in Rome. Her title as governor implied, she would not be
dictatorial and would be more tolerant. This appealed to Catholics and puritans who were
uncomfortable with the monarch as head of religion and state

act of uniformity- made Protestantism England’s official faith and also set out rules of
religious practises and worship in a revised prayer book to be used in all churches.
Anyone who refused to use it was punished. This retained some catholic traditions which
Elizabeth hoped would make a good compromise. The act also ordered everyone to
attend church on Sunday and other holy days or would be fined 1 shilling which could be
a huge cut of a persons wages.

royal injunctions- set of instructions issued by William cecil to reinforce the acts of
supremacy and uniformity. It said: all clergy were to teach the royal supremacy. Anyone
who refused to attend church was to be reported to the privy council. Each parish was to
have a copy of the bible in English. No one was allowed to preach without a licence from
the government. Pilgrimages and monuments to go to fake miracles were banned. The
clergy were to wear special vestments. Pilgrimages to where saints were buried or where
miracles were supposed to have happened were important to catholics, but superstitions
to protestants. It referred to fake miracles to say there may have been real ones, so that
elizabeth’s religious settlement would be more acceptable. The royal injunctions also
allowed images in church, which would keep their familiar look for worshippers, to help
elizabeth’s changes less unsettling. Puritans however dislikes people praying before
saints’ statues as the bible forbade worshipping idols.

Impact of religious settlement on clergy- all members of the church had to take the
oath of supremacy under the act of supremacy if they wanted to keep their posts.
Thousands of priests and less important clegy took the oath, showing that the religious
settlement was successful. Only one bishop, however, took the oath- elizabeth appointed
new bishops in their place, giving her the opportunity to place protestants

Impact of religious settlement on people- majority of ordinary people accepted the

religious settlement and attended the church of England services, even though many
held onto catholic beliefs. Parishes in mainly catholic areas were slow to change to the
new services, but elizabeth made it clear she didn’t want the settlement enforced too
strongly.

Enforcing the religious settlement- the church was responsible for helping to enforce
the religious settlement. Visitations were inspections of churches and clergy by bishops
to ensure everyone took the oath of supremacy and were following the terms of the
religious settlement. The first visitations resulted in hundreds of clergy being dismissed,
and in some places, those carrying out the visitations caused a lot of destruction to
decorations and statues in churches which was more than elizabeth wanted. Later on,
visitations would be used to check licences of other professions such as surgeons to allow
them to practise their jobs- in this way the church was able to monitor other professions
in the government

Role of church of England- ran church courts. Legitimised power to the monarch.
Enforced the religious settlement. Gave guidance to communities as people turned to
their parish church, which was a central point in village life, in times of hardship.
Controlled what was preached as priests needed a special licence from the government
to preach, so elizabeth could ensure that the clergy preached her religious and political
messages.

Church courts- mainly focused on church matters but also dealt with moral issues such
as: making sure both bride and groom were marrying of their own free will or at a
suitable age. Sexual offences such as bigamy and slander. Church courts also dealt with
wills and inheritance
  Elizabeth’s religious settlement was to find a middle way for both Catholics and
protestants, so that it could be accepted by as many of her subjects as possible
 Recusants were people unwilling to attend church services laid out by the
religious settlement

why did the northern earls revolt- earls and their followers wanted Catholicism
restored in England. The earls had lost a lot of influence at court since elizabeth became
queen. Elizabeth refused to name an heir or marry and have a child, creating uncertainty
about england’s future. Mary queen of scots was in captivity in England, and was a
figurehead who could potentially replace elizabeth, in doing so, it would resolve the other
issues the earls had.

People involved in the revolt of the northern earls:

Earl of Northumberland- catholic. Helf an important position at court under Mary 1 st

but lost a lot of influence under elizabeth as she favoured new, protestant gentry. He also
lost the rights to a valuable, newly discovered copper mine found on his lands to the
queen

Earl of Westmorland- from an important catholic family in the north of England and the
duke of norfolk’s brother in law

Duke of Norfolk- one of england’s most senior nobles and a protestant, although had
close links to old northern catholic families too. He came from an ancient noble family.

Jane Neville- wife of Charles Neville. Key in encouraging her husband to carry on with
the rebellion.

Ann percy- wife of Thomas percy. Key in encouraging her husband in the rebellion

What role did religion play- much of northern England including the earls of
Northumberland and Westmorland held onto traditional roman catholic beliefs despite
Elizabeth’s religious settlement. Elizabeth appointed James Pilkington, a committed
protestant as archbishop of durham, to lessen the influence of Catholicism in the north.
His efforts to impose Protestantism were very unpopular, however, and only succeeded in
turning many northerners against him and Protestantism

What role did politics play- under Mary 1st, catholic earls of Northumberland and
Westmorland had been very influential, both at court and locally in the north of England.
Northumberland resented an up-and-coming rival northern family, the Fosters. Elizabeth
favoured Sir John Foster and have him the task of looking after the borders with Scotland.
Northumberland felt his own status was undermined, furthermore his religion made
William cecil see him as a threat. Men like William cecil and Robert dudley (earl of
Leicester) didn’t come from ancient noble families but were very close to the queen. The
northern earls resented these newcomers and the influence they had over elizabeth

Mary queen of scots and the succession- the revolt of the northern earls started as a
wider court conspiracy for her to marry the duke of Norfolk, meaning many people at the
court of elizabeth knew the plot. Although the plot wasn’t illegal or treason at first, some
of elizabeth’s courtiers began to worry or back out of the plot as: it threatened
elizabeth’s authority as marriage between the nobility required the queen’s consent. The
plan became tied to a wider rebellion such as the revolt of the northern earls, which
could become treason

Key events of the revolt- once elizabeth knew about the plot (by Robert dudley, the
earl of Leicester), Norfolk was arrested and sent to the tower of London. When the eals of
Northumberland and Westmorland head the new they became desperate and, with their
wives’ support and urging, pushed ahead with the revolt. Heading for durham, they took
control of the cathedral from James Pilkington who fled south and destroyed any
evidence of Protestantism and celebrated mass. The rebels then turned south, bearing
banners with religious symbols. Mary queen of scots was moved to Coventry on the
orders of elizabeth as she didn’t want mary to escape. The rebellion had failed, spain’s
supporting troops never arrived and elizabeth managed to raise an army of 14,000 men.
After the revolt was crushed, around 450 rebels were executed throughout the towns and
villages of northern England on elizabeth’s orders with the aim or terrifying the
population and preventing another rebellion. Westmorland escaped but Northumberland
was captured and executed and his head was put on a spike above the cities gates in
York. The privy council called for norfolk’s execution but elizabeth released him. Although
elizabeth acted harshly against many of the rebels, she hesitated when it came to the
duke of Norfolk and mary queen of scots. Executing mary would imply elizabeth accepted
the scots had otherthrown their rightful queen. Being n anointed monarch made you
god’s chosen ruler and subjects did not have the right to change that. However
elizabeth’s reluctance to deal with mary frustrated her privy council and parliament. The
failed revolt caused the pope to issue a papal bull that excommunicated elizabeth and
called on all loyal catholics to depose her, hoping it would encourage another rebellion.
Elizabeth responded by making parliament to pass acts to widen the definition of treason

Significance of the revolt of the northern earls- it was the first and most serious act
by English catholics against elizabeth. The treason laws became harsher and the
definition of treason was widened. It ended the power and influence of the percy and
Neville families in the north of England. It prompted harsher treatments of Catholics,
such as elizabeth sending the earl of huntingdon, a committed protestant, to lead the
council of the North, and he implemented laws against catholics and effectively
suppressed Catholicism. The revolt encouraged the pope to excommunicate elizabeth,
his papal bull marked a turning point for English catholics: their loyalty to elizabeth was
now always in doubt

Ridolfi plot- Roberto Ridolfi was an Italian banker living in England. He was also one of
the pope’s spies. He arranged a plot to murder elizabeth, launch a Spanish invasion and
put mary queen of scots on the throne. As with the revolt of the northern earls, the plan
was for mary to be married to the duke of Norfolk. Ridolfi left England to discuss the plot
with the pope, Philip II and the Duke of Alba who was stationed in the Netherlands. Ridolfi
had a letter signed by the duke of Norfolk declaring he was catholic and would lead the
rebellion if Philip II would support it. Philip II told Alba to prepare 10,000 men to send to
England if necessary. William cecil uncovered the plot and had enough evidence (letters
in code) to prove that Norfolk was guilty of plotting against elizabeth again. This was high
treason, Ridolfi was abroad when his plot was uncovered and never returned to England.
When parliament met again, it demanded the execution of both Norfolk and mary.
Elizabeth signed norfolk’s death warrant but wouldn’t take action against mary. The plot
came very soon after the papal bull excommunicating elizabeth, reinforcing the threat
posed by mary and catholics both at home and abroad. It also reinforced the threat to
England from spain, and because of this threat elizabeth focused on improving relations
with france

Priests and priest holes- in order to keep Catholicism alive in England and strengthen
the English catholics’ resistance to elizabeth and her protestant church, catholic priests
were smuggled into England, travelling undercover and staying with well-to-do catholic
families, celebrating mass and hearing confessions. This was highly dangerous.
Government agents increasingly kept English catholics under surveillance. Homes were
priests were suspected to be staying were raided, those priests caught risked being
hanged drawn and quartered. In many homes, secret hiding places called priest holes
were made

 Parliament passed 2 new laws against catholics. Recusants would not be fined
£20, an enormous sum that would bankrupt many families. Attempting to convert
people to Catholicism was now gtreason
Throckmorton plot- planned for the French duke of guise, cousin of mary queen of
scots, to invade England, free mary and overthrow elizabeth and restore Catholicism in
England. Philip II would provide financial support. Francis Throckmorton was a young
Englishmen who was to act as a go-between with mary. The pope also knew and
approved of the plans. Francis Walsingham uncovered the plot. His agents found
incriminating papers at throckmorton’s house and he was arrested and tortured, where
he confessed and was executed. It emphasized the threat of foreign catholic powers,
English catholics and mary queen of scots, it also showed the potential threat if the
forces of spain and france were to combine in the future. Throckmorton’s papers included
a list of catholic sympathisers in England, suggesting the government’s fears of English
catholics was real. Life became harder for catholics as they were treated with great
suspicion by the government, and many important catholics fled England after the plot
and thousands were imprisoned or kept under surveillance or house arrest. Another act
of parliament was passed that made helping or sheltering catholic priests punishable
with death

Babington plot- centred on the murder of elizabeth and encouraged English catholics to
rebel. The Duke of Guise would invade England with 60,000 men and put mary on the
throne. Both Philip II of spain and the pope supported the plot. Anthony Babington was a
catholic with links to the frence who wrote to mary queen of scots about the proposed
plot. However mary was being closely watched and her letters were being intercepted by
francis Walsingham. Once he had sufficient details about the plot, including the names of
the 6 catholics prepared to assassinate elizabeth, all involved were arrested. Babingron
and his accomplices were convicted and hanged drawn and quartered. Mary was finally
tried by the privy council and was found guilty of being in many plots and sentenced to
death. Elizabeth finally signed mary’s death warrant. The plot broke relations between
England and spain and the English were aiding dutch protestants in a rebellion against
the Spanish, so elizabeth’s situation was even more dangerous. Elizabeth’s government
became determined to crush Catholicism, with mass arrests of recusants and many
priests executed. Mary’s execution ended any hope of replacing elizabeth with a catholic
heir

Why was mary executed- a new act of parliament had been passed called the Act for
the Preservation of the Queen’s Safety. The evidence gathered by Walsingham against
mary queen of scots was enough to ensure her trial and conviction under this act.
Another reason she was executed was that it was clear to elizabeth and her privy council
that Philip II was planning a major attack against England

Significance of mary’s execution- removed an important threat to elizabeth. Philip II

had been planning to invade England. The execution of mary gave him another reason to
removed elizabeth from the English throne, mary also left her claim to the English throne
to Philip II upon her death

Walsingham’s spy network- francis Walsingham became elizabeth’s secretary of state

and developed a network of spies and informers both in England and abroad. Throughout
England, Walsingham had a range of spies and informants in every county and important
town. Some were specially trained agents, but many were ordinary people who were paid
for useful information, which turned ordinary people into spies on their neighbour.
Walsingham had agents in many towns in france, Germany, spain, Italy and other
countries. Walsingham also used ciphers in written communications to hide his plans to
catch those plotting against elizabeth. Another source of informants were the few
catholic priests captured after been smuggled into England such as John Hart who was
held in the tower, and offered his services as a spy in return for a pardon. Walsingham
also used agents provocateurs to plot and discover traitors. Walsingham didn’t approve
of torture being used against catholic priests caught in England, believing it would make
people sympathetic towards them- he would only use it in the most serious cases
Puritans- when Mary 1st was queen, around 300 protestants were burned for their
religious beliefs. Many escaped into exile in more tolerant protestant states such as the
Netherlands and returned to England when Elizabeth inherited the throne. Protestants
with extreme beliefs were called puritans, they wanted to get rid of anything that wasn’t
in the bible. Puritans congregations wanted to manage their own churches themselves
rather than bishops or the pope choosing for them

Puritan threats:

 Puritan clergymen began ignoring and disobeying parts of the religious

settlement. Elizabeth’s aim of uniformity in the conduct of church service wasn’t
met, as some puritans wanted the abolishment of organ music accompanying
hymns as well as certain holy days- which wouldn’t please ordinary people,
especially when the holy day was a holiday. One big issue was the crucifix
controversy. A crucifix is an image of Jesus dying on the cross and the symbol of
Christianity. To Elizabethan puritans, crucifixes represented idols. But elizabeth
liked them and wanted churches to keep their familiar look and feel, which was an
important part of her religious settlement where she didn’t want to anger her
catholic subjects, and so demanded each church should display a crucifix. When
some puritan bishops threatened to resign, the queen backed down as there
weren’t enough able protestant clergymen to take the place of any bishops who
were to be dismissed, she still insisted on keeping a crucifix in the royal chapel.
Another issue was the vestment controversy. Some puritans thought that priests
shouldn’t have special clothing at all, and others believed it should be very plain
and simple. Elaborate vestments suggested that priests were set apart from
ordinary people, as in Catholicism priests were special because they had the
power to turn the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, which isn’t
what protestants believe. Elizabeth wanted the clergy to wear special vestments
as set out in the royal injunctions. It was clear that not all clergy were wearing
what the queen commanded, some were also not following instructions on how to
conduct services properly. The archbishop of canterbury, Mathhew Parker, issued
further guidelines for priests in his book of advertisement, which followed
elizabeth’s commands, and he also helf a special exhibition in London to show
priests what vestments they must wear and hwn
 William Strickland was the leader of the Puritan group in parliament who wanted
to reform Elizabeth’s new prayer book and ban clergy vestments (known as the
Vestarian controversy). Elizabeth silenced him by closing parliament so that his
ideas couldn’t be discussed
 Some puritan clergy started organising prayer meetings known as prophesyings
which displeased Elizabeth. In these meetings, Puritans took a freer approach to
prayer and did not follow what Elizabeth had specified. She was concerned ideas
might spread that challenged the religious settlement. Elizabeth ordered her new
archbishop of Canterbury, Edmund Grindal, to ban the meetings but he protested.
She suspended him and 200 puritan priests were expelled from their roles
 The puritan John Stubbs published a pamphlet, criticising Elizabeth’s on-going
marriage negotiations with the brother of the Catholic French King. Stubbs was
found guilty of causing trouble and sentenced to have his right hand cut off
 Towards the end of her reign, one by one the old Puritan leaders died. By 1590
most people accepted the Church of England as the national church

CHALLENGES TO ELIZABETH’S RULE

Mary queen of Scots- became queen of Scotland at a young age. Her first 2 husbands
died and she was implicated in the second one’s murder. She was forced to abdicate and
imprisoned. She managed to escape and fled to England where she sought refuge from
Elizabeth. She was a threat to Elizabeth as many thought Elizabeth was illegitimate and
so felt she had no right to the throne- her father had divorced his first wife as she
couldn’t provide him a male heir, Catholics refused to acknowledge his divorce because
the pope had not agreed to it so his second marriage wasn’t recognised. Elizabeth had
converted England’s official religion to Protestantism. Mary was a catholic and many
viewed her as their figurehead. Mary had a legitimate claim to the throne

Mary queen of scots’ arrival in England- mary married her second husband Lord
Darnley. Darnley was murdered and Mary was suspected of being involved. This scandal
led to the protestant Scottish lords rebelling again, forcing Mary to abdicate in favour of
her baby son James. She was imprisoned in a castle but managed to escape and raised
an army in an attempt to win back the throne but her forces were defeated and she fled
to england

What should Elizabeth do to Mary- she could send Mary back to Scotland or France,
however It may backfire as she would be able to gather more support to challenge
Elizabeth. Mary could be imprisoned which would allow Elizabeth to keep control, but
unlawfully imprisoning Mary could provoke international outcry and attacks. She could be
executed, however it could also provoke international attacks. Elizabeth decided to keep
Mary as a closely guarded guest. MPs were pressuring Elizabeth to have Mary executed
to keep England secure

Plot and rebellion- not only would elizabeth not name an heir, she refused to discuss
marriage either. A plot was hatched at court that seemed to deal with the problem of
mary as well as the succession. The plan was to marry Mary to the duke of Norfolk,
england’s most senior noble who was a protestant so any children would also be too.
They would also have a strong claim to the throne. Mary liked the plot and some of
elizabeth’s favourites like the earl of Leicester were involved at first, but as the plan
developed, he changed his mind. The earl of Leicester eventually told elizabeth of the
plan which confirmed how dangerous mary was, even in captivity and she was moved to
Coventry.

Events leading to Spanish armada- Spain was Catholic and England was Protestant.
King Philip of Spain was rejected in marriage to Elizabeth. English sailors attacked and
stole treasure from Spanish ships in the New World, King Philip was furious but Elizabeth
encouraged and awarded adventurers. France was the traditional enemy of both England
and Spain, meaning that they united against the country, however France was in civil war
and preoccupied with its own issues and so wasn’t a threat; the alliance between Spain
and England wasn’t necessary. There was evidence of Spanish support for plots to restore
Catholicism to England. Protestants in the Netherlands began a revolt against Spanish
rule, Elizabeth secretly supported the Dutch rebels because she knew the Dutch revolt
would keep the Spanish too busy to threaten England. Elizabeth sent an army to help the
Dutch rebels fight Spain, they were now at war.

Spanish armada- fleet of armed ships sailing towards England in a crescent formation

Spain- Duke of Medina Sidonia was the commander, who had little sailing experience.
130 ships, many were bulky. 30,000 men on the fleet and around 30,000 soldiers on land.
6 months’ worth of supplies were stored on ships. 2,000 large cannons, which could only
fire heavy cannon balls only over a short distance and were slow to load. The tactic was
to get close so men could board and capture enemy ships. £3 million annual income.
Spain’s armada wasn’t well supplied. Provisions were stored in barrels made of inferior
wood as drake’s raid on cadiz destroyed many barrels that the new ones had to be made
quickly. Delays in sailing and bad weather meant by the time the English engaged the
armada, it had already been at sea for a long time. The armada was low on supplies of
the necessary cannon balls and some of them were also of very poor quality. The food
supplies were also rotting.

Philip’s strategy- the armada would sail along the English channel to the Netherlands
where it would join up with the duke of parma and transport nearly 30,000 troops to kent
and then Parma would march on London, depose elizabeth and impost a new catholic
government in england

Planning and communications issue- Philip’s plan of joining with parma was a
weakness because: the duke of parma didn’t control any deep-sea ports, which large war
ships needed, in the Netherlands, instead he has to use lots of small ships meaning it
would take many hours to load, man and set sail once medina-sidonia would join his
fleet. Communications between medina-sidonia and Parma had to go by sea and were
therefore unreliable, by the time information would get to Parma, it would be outdated.
Parma’s fleet would also not be ready to set sail for another 2 days and the English were
ready to attack. The armada was spotted in the English channel and the English fleet
kept at a safe distance and chased the armada down the channel, however there were
some exchanges of heavy cannon fire off the isle of wight. This exchange was useful as
medina-sidonia had hoped to anchor safely off the isle of wight, and stopping for a few
days might have meant Parma received Medina-sidonia’s messages in enough time to
get the dutch fleet ready for his arrival. During the engagement off the isle of wight, the
English were able to fire 6 times as more cannon balls than the Spanish and from further
away

Battle of gravelines- the English sent fireships amongst the Spanish ships, scattering
the armada. When it regrouped, the English engaged the Spanish in the battle of
gravelines. Medina-sidonia had to fight without Parma’s ships which weren’t ready. More
mobile English ships with cannons that were easier to load defeated the armada. Most of
the destruction was done by the gales that wrecked Spanish ships as they tried to return
home through the waters off the Scottish and irish coasts, with thousands killed

 Philip II did consult his military commanders before the armada sailed, but had
seemed to ignore their suggestions, their criticisms and their concersn. On the
other hand, elizabeth left the key decisions to her commanders

consequences of English victory over Spanish armada- gave elizabeth a

propaganda victory as she said god seemed to favour Protestantism. England had also
survived an attack by a more powerful enemy, helping to nurture a feeling of English
pride and encouraged the dutch rebels to renew their fight against the Spanish. Also
showed the strength of the English navy which gave England the confidence to trade and
explore more widely on the sea. The defeat costed spain a lot, financially and in terms of
its power

England- Lord Howard of Effingham was the commander who had little experience of
fighting at sea, but Drake and Hawkins were both very experienced. 200 ships which
were strong/light/fast and many of them were converted merchant ships. Fresh food was
supplied daily. 200 smaller cannons which could fire over long distances and were quick
to load. Their tactic was to destroy enemy ships by firing cannons at them from a
distance. £300,000 annual income but parliament did grant taxes to top this up. John
Hawkins had advised Elizabeth years before that English warships needed to be fast and
easily manoeuvrable so they could turn their guns on the enemy quicker. Knew ships
known as galleons were built to do this. In English ships, the cannons were mounted on
smaller gun carriages. When a cannon is fired it recoils a long way. The decks on English
ships had enough space for cannon to recoil and be quickly reloaded by a small team of
men and then pushed back through the gun port. This meant English ships could fire
more cannon balls at the Spanish with more speed. However England only had a small
number of galleons so isn’t the primary reason of englands victory

Philip’s strategy- the armada would sail along the English channel to the Netherlands
where it would join up with the duke of parma and transport nearly 30,000 troops to kent
and then Parma would march on London, depose elizabeth and impost a new catholic
government in england
Events of the armada- Armada leaves Lisbon in 1588, it’s delayed by storms and
repairs. The armada is sighted by the English from Lizard Point in Cornwall, warning
beacons are lit along the English coastline. It continues through the English Channel, now
chased by English ships but takes little damage. The armada anchors near Calais where
more troops are meant to join, led by the Duke of Parma, but the English send fire ships
into the fleet and the Spanish ships panic and are scattered out of formation. The
Spanish ships are blown towards dangerous sandbanks and the English attack again in
the battle of Gravelines, this time they battle at close range and significant damage is
inflicted to the Spanish fleet. The armada is forced north around the east coast of Britain
and the English fleet turn back after food and ammunition supplies run low. The armada
sets sail for home but are forced around Scotland and Ireland, many ships are wrecked in
storms and thousands of sailors drown. The surviving ships arrive back in Spain with
almost half their fleet lost. England wins

Casualties- Spain lost 51 ships and 20,000 men and England lost only 100 men but
several thousand died from illness and disease after the battle

How did England defeat the armada- The duke of Medina Sidonia led the Spanish
fleet, but he was inexperienced in naval battle and so made fatal errors in his
planning/tactics. The strength of the Spanish fleet came from its crescent formation- but
the English broke it up with their fireships and the Spanish became exposed to attack.
The Spanish plan relied on stopping to pick up the Duke of Parma’s army, but the fleet
was unable to anchor and so never picked them up. Spanish tactics were to get close to
English ships and board them, whereas English tactics was to attack from a safe
distance. Spanish ships were slower and less equipped for the bad weather than English
ships. The English ships had cannons they could fire at a safe distance and reloaded
quickly, the design of the Spanish cannon meant that they could only fire over short
distances and were slow to re-load. The Spanish underestimate the level of support there
would be in England for Spanish control and a return to Catholicism. The lack of a secure
port where the Spanish could take shelter meant that the Spanish ships were damaged
by the wind, the thinking was that God intervened and the windy weather was a sign that
God was on Elizabeth’s side

Threat of France- Elizabeth inherited a bad relationship with France from Mary 1 st, as
she had been in an anti-French alliance with her husband King Philip of Spain, she had
also lost the strategic town of Calais which had been in control of England, so France now
controlled the entire northern coastline and left England more vulnerable to attack.
France were also big supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots, as she had been married to the
King of France before he died so they supported her and her claim to the throne, however
Elizabeth had her executed. However the civil war in France meant that French monarchs
were preoccupied with home affairs to pose a threat to Elizabeth. Although Elizabeth
tried to regain control of Calais, she still managed to keep peace and a good relation with
France and even entered negotiations to marry Duke of Alencon to strengthen this.
France was the ally of England’s traditional enemy Scotland, known as the auld alliance.
Elizabeth signed the treaty of Troyes to confirm that Calais belonged to France, and
irritated Philip II of Spain by supporting protestant rebels in France during the religious
war

Threat of Scotland- Scotland was independent and a traditional enemy of England.

England’s border with Scotland was remote and hard to defend, meaning it saw constant
fighting and raids

Treaty of Edinburgh- elizabeth helped scotland’s protestant lords defeat Mary of Guise.
The Scottish protestant lords rebelled because they didn’t like the French catholic
influence brought to Scotland by Mary of Guise. Elizabeth was wary of sending help to a
rebellion which could see the deposing of an anointed monarch but she was under
constant threat, as with French help, Mary Queen of scots could take her throne.
Elizabeth secretly sent money to help the rebels and eventually troops too, with the
encouragement of her advisors. The rebellion ended with the Treaty of Edinburgh where
mary queen of scots would give up her claim to the English throne. Mary herself never
approved the treaty and maintained that she had a claim to the English throne

Calais- England used to hold the French port of Calais. It was useful as it meant that
England had a military base in France and was an important trading post, it was lost in
war.

English reformation- religion was central to life. Catholicism had dominated western
Europe. Confession of sins and taking part in mass were vital to keeping your soul from
eternal damnation in hell, and even after you were dead, prayers from others could still
help you. Religion guided people’s morals and behaviour as well as their understanding
of the world. The reformation began in Europe because a growing number of people
believed that the roman catholic church had become corrupt, greedy and no longer
represented a true Christian life. This led to protestants to abandon the roman catholic
faith and establish their own churches, without the pope. The English reformation began
when henry 8th created the church of England to divorce his first wife.

Protestantism- most ordinary people couldn’t read of write in Latin and so couldn’t read
the bible as it was in Latin. This meant ordinary people had to accept whatever the
church told them was god’s will. Protestants believed the bible should be translated into
their own languages so that people were able to more easily engage with their religion.
Once people were able to understand the bible for themselves, extreme protestants
wanted to base their religion solely on what was in the bible. Only some of the traditional
church ceremonies and decorations were in the bible. The roman catholic church focused
on strengthening the catholic faith, under this threat. It led to persecutions and wars

Roman Catholicism: pope is head of church. Underneath the pope are cardinals,
archbishops, bishops and priests. The bible and church services should be in Latin. The
church acts as an intermediary between god and the people. The church can forgive
sins. During mass, a miracle happens when the bread and wine become the body and
blood of Christ. Priests are special and should wear vestments. Churches should be highly
decorated in honour and glory of god. Priests are forbidden to marry

Protestantism: there shouldn’t be a pope. It isn’t necessary to have cardinals,

archbishops or bishops. The bible and church services should be in your own language.
People have their own, direct relationship with god through prayer and bible study. Sins
can only be forgiven by god. The bread and wine simply represent the last supper in the
bible, there is no miracle. Priests aren’t special and shouldn’t wear vestments. Churches
should be plain and simple to not distract from worshipping god. There are only 2
sacraments, baptism and holy communion. Priests are allowed to marry

Clergy- changing the religion of the country needed an act of parliament. The house of
commons would be likely to agree with what Elizabeth wanted, but there were many
catholic bishops in the house of lords, some were committed Catholics and wouldn’t
agree to work in a protestant church

 Areas part of the north west such as Lancashire were catholic, as they are further
away from London. The more remote a community was, the more likely it was to
be catholic. London, east Anglia and the south-east were more protestant

Catholic challenge by the papacy- the catholic church supported local communities,
persecuted heretics and encouraged war against protestants. This campaign against
Protestantism was known as the counter-reformation. The pope issued an instruction that
English catholics shouldn’t attend church of England services
Spain and the Spanish Netherlands- the Netherlands belonged to the Spanish king
Philip 2nd who was a strict roman catholic. He banned the import of English cloth to the
Netherlands as he believed English merchants were encouraging the spread of
Protestantism there. Elizabeth retaliated by ceasing trading with the Netherlands. This
trade embargo affected both countries economically, but only lasted for a year

The Dutch revolt- there was growing unhappiness in the Netherlands about Spanish
interference in Dutch affairs. Although Netherlands belonged to spain, they were used to
governing themselves. When Philip II decided to reorganise the dutch government and
church, he also brought the Spanish inquisition to the Netherlands (a religious body set
up to keep Spanish territories true to Catholicism, anyone caught by the inquisition who
wasn’t catholic could be tortured or burned alive in a public execution). These actions
united both catholics and protestants against spain, leading to the dutch revolt. Philip
sent the duke of Alba with an army of 10,000 men to the Netherlands to put down the
revolt and it was soon defeated. Alba established a Council of Troubles in the Netherlands
to enforce both Catholicism and obedience to the Spanish crown. It was made of loyal
dutch nobles and Spanish officials, ignoring local law and legal processes- condemning
thousands to death, mainly protestants who had been protesting violently against
Catholicism. Alba’s actions led to thousands of dutch protestants to flee into exile, many
to England. Elizabeth was concerned about Alba’s presence in the Netherlands because:
Alba’s large army with its mission against Protestantism was within easy striking distance
of England. Elizabeth didn’t want to become seen as europe’s leading protestant
monarch, and wished to ovoid war- openly condemning the dutch rebels. Many
protestants, including those in the privy council saw events overseas as an international
struggle between Protestantism and Catholicism. Elizabeth therefore was coming under
increased pressure to deal with the threat posed by Alba’s presence in the Netherlands.
However she wanted to avoid war as England didn’t have the resources to take on spain
or even france and spain together, and a war fought on religious differences could trigger
a civil war in England. But elizabeth was still aware of the dangers posed by spain in the
Netherlands. Some dutch rebels fled by taking to the water, known as the Sea Beggars
who attacked Spanish ships in the English channel that were carrying men and resources
to Alba’s armies in the Netherlands and elizabeth began allowing the Sea Beggars to
shelter in English harbours. Spanish ships carrying gold to pay Alba’s troops in the
Netherlands also took refuge in English ports from the Sea Beggars. The money was a
loan to Philip II from bankers in the Italian city of Genoa. Elizabeth took the gold, arguing
that since it was a loan it didn’t belong to spain but to the Italian bankers. This event is
known as the Genoese loan

What was elizabeth trying to achieve- elizabeth was trying to protect English
interests without going to war. By making spain’s task in the Netherlands as difficult as
possible, she hoped to encourage Spanish forces to leave and allow the dutch to continue
governing themselves

LIFE IN ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND

Society- nobility, gentry, yeomen, tenant farmers, labourers, vagrants. Most of the
population lived in the countryside. Yeomen had a small amount of land that they owned,
tenant farmers rented land usually owned by yeomen or the gentry. In towns it was:
merchants, professionals, business owners, skilled craftsmen, unemployed. Skilled
craftsmen organised themselves into guilds, which were trade associations to monitor
working conditions/wages, set standards for quality of work/goods. In Elizabethan society,
you owed respect for those above you and a duty to care to those below you. The
husband was head of the household, his wife, children and any servants were expected
to be obedient to him

Leisure- your social class and gender could determine what sports and leisure activities
you could participate in. the wealthier classes had more opportunities to enjoy leisure.
There were more options for men than women. Some sport was played by men of all
social classes, although they wouldn’t take part together. Wrestling and swimming were
popular with men of all clases. Noble men would wrestle in private, men of a lower social
class would take part in public wrestling matches. Gambling on the outcome was very
popular. The nobility and gentry would often bet and watch alongside the other classes.

Nobility and gentry- hunting on horseback (men and women), hawking (men and
women), fishing (men and women), fencing (men), real tennis (men)

Working people: craftsmen, farmers and labourers- football was a lower class
game for men. It was extremely violent. It was not unknown for men to be killed during
matches which could last for hours. The aim of the game was to get the ball into the
other side’s goal. However the goals themselves came in all shapes and sizes. There
were no rules against: picking up the ball and running with it. The number of players.
Tripping up the opposing team’s players. The size of the pitch. Sometimes the streets
were pitches, sometime it was the countryside between 2 opposing village teams.

Spectator sports- Elizabethans enjoyed watching sporting competitions such as

wrestling or tennis, depending on their class. Watching animals fight to the death was
also considered entertainment and people of all classes would watch, even eliabeth I.
often, large sums of money would be gambled on the outcome

Baiting- during a baiting, a bear would be chained to a post and dogs unleashed against
it. Despite the bear’s teeth being broken short so that they couldn’t bite the dogs, many
were killed as the bear lashed out with its claws or pinned them under their paws. Care
was taken not to kill the bears, if possible, as they were very expensive. Bear baiting was
so popular that special arenas were built in London to house them. All classes of people
enjoyed watching this sport. Bull baiting was also popular, many towns had a bull ring. As
bulls were neither rare or expensive, the fight was to the death. Yet again, dogs were set
upon a chained bull. The bull would use its horns to fight them off, sending the dogs
flying into the air

Cock-fighting- cockerels are aggressive birds and when cock-fighting, were made to
wear metal spurs to attack each other, as well as using their beaks. Many places, even
small towns had special arenas built for this. All classes enjoyed it and bet huge sums on
the outcomes of the fights. Baiting and cock-fighting weren’t approved by all
Elizabethans, especially puritans. The reason was because the fights were usually held on
Sundays, which they considered a holy day

Pastimes:

Literature- there was a lot of new literature written during elizabeth’s reign. History was
a very popular subject, as were accounts of voyages and discovery and translation of
latin and Greek classics. The most popular forms of creative writing were poetry and
plays. Most well-educated people wrote poetry, including the queen. Theatre was
undergoing a revolution in elizabeth’s reign

Theatre- Theatre changed during Elizabeth’s reign due to Protestant influence. Mystery
plays, which dramatized Bible stories and saints’ lives, were banned because they were
seen as too Catholic and could provoke religious conflict. This led to the rise of secular
(non-religious) plays, which became hugely popular due to their unpredictable plots and
vulgar comedy.Theatre companies formed across England, often funded by nobles like
the Earl of Leicester (Leicester’s Men) and even Elizabeth herself (The Queen’s Men in
1583). This rising demand led to the first purpose-built theatres, such as the Red Lion
(1567) and The Rose (1587), mostly in London. All social classes enjoyed theatre. While
the wealthy paid for seats, often just to be seen, poorer people could pay a penny to
stand in the pit in front of the stage. Only men acted, with boys playing female roles.
Some performances drew crowds of up to 2,000 people.
Music- Music was a major part of Elizabethan life for all social classes. Many people
played instruments, with the upper classes using expensive ones like lutes, spinets, and
harpsichords, while the lower classes preferred bagpipes and fiddles. Live music was
everywhere: the rich hired musicians for feasts, and towns paid them for public events.
Music was heard in churches, taverns, markets, and streets, and books of popular songs
were sold. Only men could be paid musicians. New music was created for the rising
number of secular theatre plays, and developments in musical instruments helped
spread music even more. Dancing was also very popular. Though the classes didn’t mix,
it brought men and women together socially

Who were the poor- In Elizabethan England, poverty was common for those who
couldn’t work due to unemployment, illness, or age. Without income, many faced
starvation, spending up to 80% of their money on bread alone. Society was especially
concerned about the homeless, beggars, and itinerants (people who moved around
looking for work), as well as those needing poor relief or charity. A survey in Norwich
revealed: 40% of the poor were under 16. Female-headed households, especially widows,
were often very poor due to lower wages for women. Even working families could be
extremely poor. Two-thirds of adults in poverty were women, and a quarter of them were
over 60. Many poor women were widowed or abandoned by their husbands

Population growth- During Elizabeth I’s reign, England’s population increased by

around 35%. Towns and cities grew fastest — especially London, which reached a
population of 150,000 by 1603, making it ten times bigger than the next largest city,
Norwich. Urban areas didn’t produce food; it came from the countryside. As demand for
food increased, food prices rose in towns — contributing to poverty and hardship,
especially for the urban poor.

Rising prices- Food prices rose, especially during bad harvests, when there wasn’t
enough to go around. Grain prices (used to make bread, the main part of most diets) rose
the fastest. Food production couldn’t keep up with population growth, even though
farming guides were published. Wages didn’t keep up with rising prices, making poverty
worse. More workers = cheaper labour, so employers often cut wages. Demand for land
increased, so rents and entry fees rose too. Some tenants were evicted or couldn’t afford
land anymore — especially where land was used for sheep farming.

Sheep farming- Wool and woollen cloth made up 81.6% of England’s exports during
Elizabeth’s reign. As wool prices rose, sheep farming became very profitable, especially
for wealthier landowners. Large-scale sheep farming grew — some farms had flocks of
over 2,000 sheep. Problems: It took over land previously used for growing crops or as
common land. It needed fewer workers than crop farming → caused rural unemployment.
Some crops were grown just to feed sheep, which angered people when many couldn’t
afford bread or food

Enclosure- Enclosure meant replacing large shared open fields with individual private
fields. led to: Small farms being merged. tenant farmers being evicted. Fewer jobs →
caused unemployment. Rural depopulation (people left the countryside to find work
elsewhere). Caused anger and resentment among the poor who lost land or livelihoods.

Why did farmers enclose the land- 1. Better farming techniques:

 New methods spread through printing presses.

 Farmers began controlling animal breeding for better livestock.

 Enclosed fields kept animals from wandering and protected crops from
being trampled.

2. Improved arable farming:

  Rising food prices encouraged more crop farming.

 Techniques like land drainage and fertiliser boosted yields.

 Enclosed fields were easier to manage for crop planting and

maintenance.

3. ‘Up and down husbandry’:

 Farmers alternated between crops and animals on the same land.

 Livestock fertilised the soil for better crops next year.

 This only worked if animals were kept in enclosed fields.

❗Why it caused resentment:

 Common land was vital for subsistence farmers.

 Enclosing it meant many lost land and survival options.

 Caused anger and social tension — seen as a major social problem in

Elizabethan England.

Why did enclosure cause poverty to increase- Job losses:

 New farming techniques and sheep farming required fewer labourers, so

many lost their jobs.

 Sheep only needed care at certain times, unlike crops that needed
constant labour.

Falling wages:

 With more people looking for work (due to population growth), wages
dropped.

 Landowners took advantage to cut pay and reduce costs.

loss of common land:

 Enclosing common land took away people’s rights to:

o graze animals

o collect firewood

o forage for food

 This was vital for survival, especially for the poorest.

Higher rents:

 Some tenants could not afford increased rents after enclosure.

 They were evicted or left landless.

land values and rents- As farming became more profitable, landowners

increased rents for tenant farmers. Tenants who could not afford the higher
rents were evicted. Often, the land they left behind was enclosed for more
efficient or profitable farming.
How big was the problem of enclosure- Sir Thomas Smith’s pamphlet in the 1560s
blamed landowners (gentry and yeomen) for preferring sheep farming over growing
crops because wool was more profitable. This caused hostility, especially when common
land was enclosed for sheep, as many believed growing food should come first. Despite
concerns, only 2-3% of England’s land was enclosed by the end of the 16th century.
Where enclosure happened, it had a big impact and was often blamed for problems like
rising food prices, increased unemployment, and the rise of vagabonds (homeless people
who begged or committed crimes to survive). Enclosure became a scapegoat for many
economic and social problems during Elizabeth’s reign

Reasons for increase in vagabondage-

 Vagabonds were homeless and without jobs, living outside Elizabethan society’s
strict hierarchy.

 They had no employer, no master, and no place to belong.

 Often living outside the law, they were feared by the government and nobility.

 Vagabonds were seen as a threat to law and order.

The urban poor-

 Rural depopulation increased vagabondage as many left villages seeking work in

towns and cities.

 Economic recessions, such as trade embargos with the Netherlands, caused high
unemployment.

 Many migrants became beggars or turned to crime.

 Poor people lived in overcrowded shacks outside city walls, beyond government
control, leading to widespread crime and disorder.

 Urban poor populations grew rapidly.

 Before Elizabeth’s reign, able-bodied poor were seen as lazy; later, unemployment
was recognized as a real problem.

 Despite this, vagrants were still treated harshly by the government.

Impotent and Able-Bodied Poor-

 Poor relief: Financial help for the very poor was funded by a local tax called the
poor rate, managed by Justices of the Peace.

 Helping the poor was seen as a Christian duty; charity was also important.

 The impotent poor (unable to work due to age or illness) were treated
sympathetically.

 The able-bodied poor (fit to work but unemployed or idle) were treated harshly,
often punished by whipping or imprisonment.

 The number of able-bodied poor rose especially in towns, where they were very
visible.

 Many rural poor moved to towns looking for work, increasing urban
unemployment.

 The cloth trade’s decline in certain years (1563-64, 1568-73, 1586-88) worsened
unemployment.
  Unemployment became recognized as a serious social and economic problem
during Elizabeth’s reign.

 Key laws to help the poor were passed

Government Action on Poor Relief under Elizabeth I

 Poor relief was mainly a local matter, with local officials collecting poor rates
weekly to support the impotent poor.

 Vagrants (homeless wanderers) who were not from the parish were often whipped
and expelled.

 Elizabeth I’s government passed new laws partly due to fear of vagrancy and
social unrest.

 These laws also reflected a shift in how the poor were viewed: unemployment was
recognized as a real issue needing action.

 The 1572 Vagabonds Act was especially important because it introduced the
first national poor rate.

 It also required towns to provide work for the able-bodied poor, rather than just
punishing them.

Statue of artificers- anyone who refused to pay the poor rates could be imprisoned.
officials failing to organise poor relief could be fined up to £20;

Vagabonds act- the Act stated that vagrants were to be whipped and a hole drilled
through each ear. vagrants were also to be imprisoned if arrested a second time for
vagrancy, and given the death penalty for the third. it established the national poor rate
for the first time. This sheltered the impotent poor. JPs were to keep a register of the
poor. towns and cities were given the responsibility to find work for the able bodied poor.

Poor relief act- JPs provided the able bodied poor with wool and raw materials
to enable them to work by making things to sell. those who refused work
where they were given help to be sent toa special prison funded by poor rates,
known as the house of correction

Impact of the Elizabethan Poor Laws

 Poverty remained a serious problem throughout Elizabeth I’s reign, worsened by

wars like the conflict with Spain and the revolt in the Netherlands, which badly
affected trade.

 Pamphlets increased fear of vagabonds (homeless wanderers looking for work),

but many ordinary people were actually sympathetic to their plight.

 Records show that in some towns, less than 10% of vagrants were whipped; most
were given money and sent on their way, as this was cheaper than punishment
and sending them back to their home parishes.

 The most important change was the official recognition that unemployment was a
real problem, not just laziness.

 Laws required towns to provide the poor with materials to make goods to sell,
helping them support themselves with some independence and dignity.

 This approach helped many unemployed people stay in their home towns or
villages and became a key part of poor relief until the 19th century.

 There were local differences in treatment of the poor:

 o Ipswich was ahead of many places, establishing as early as 1569:

 A school for poor children

 A hospital for the sick poor

 A special prison for the idle poor

o Some London parishes provided special help for abandoned babies, the
elderly, and the sick.

Expanding Trade

 Trade expanded rapidly as the New World (the Americas) opened new
opportunities.

 England’s traditional wool and cloth trade was weakened by conflicts with
Spain and the Netherlands.

 Since England relied heavily on cloth exports, it was vital to find new markets
and new products to sell.

 Reports from the Americas showed an abundance of crops, animal skins, and
precious metals.

 Private investors, including Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers, funded many
risky voyages of discovery hoping for big rewards.

 Spain was becoming very rich from its silver mines in Peru and the export of
exotic crops like sugar cane and tobacco.

 Much of the Americas remained undiscovered, and explorers hoped to find even
greater riches beyond the coasts.

The Triangular Trade

 Slavery has existed for thousands of years worldwide.

 During Elizabeth I's reign, English merchants began to engage in the African
slave trade on a growing scale.

 This trade involved buying or seizing hundreds of Africans to be shipped to the

New World, causing great suffering and huge profits for traders.

 John Hawkins, an English navigator and slave trader, was a key figure.

 In 1562, Hawkins bought slaves in Africa, transported them across the Atlantic,
and sold them to Spanish colonists.

 With the profits, he bought goods like ginger, animal hides, sugar, and pearls
and repeated the journey in 1564.

 These voyages helped lay the foundations of the infamous Triangular Trade —
a trade network connecting Africa, the Americas, and Europe.

Adventure

 Many young Elizabethan men, particularly from the gentry and nobility, went on
voyages of discovery and exploration.

 They were motivated by hopes of adventure and making fortunes.

 Published accounts of voyages to the Americas, describing vast treasures,

inspired more people to take risks.
  Although some stories were exaggerated or speculative, the lure of the unknown
was strong.

Navigation

 Navigation became more precise during Elizabeth I’s reign.

 In 1584, mathematician Thomas Harriot developed a simpler method to use the

Sun to find a ship’s true sailing direction, making voyages safer, quicker, and
more direct.

 Other mathematical navigation techniques were discovered and published in

books.

 Since the 15th century, navigational tools like quadrants and astrolabes had
been used to calculate a ship’s position using the stars.

 Improving navigation was essential for long voyages of discovery.

 Voyage records and printed books helped others follow mapped routes.

Maps

 Advances in navigation and voyage records led to more accurate maps.

 In 1569, Gerardus Mercator, a cartographer, developed the Mercator map.

 The Mercator map used parallel, evenly spaced lines of longitude and latitude
to place lands more precisely.

 This gave sailors a much more realistic view of the world for planning voyages.

 The invention of the printing press allowed these maps to be widely distributed
with consistent accuracy.

 Before printing, maps were copied by hand, leading to many mistakes and
inconsistencies.

Larger, More Stable Ships

 Galleons were developed in the 16th century as much larger ships compared to
traditional trading vessels.

 They could carry bigger cargoes and more supplies, making them ideal for long
voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific.

 The high, built-up bows and sterns called forecastle and aftcastle were lowered
on galleons to improve stability in rough seas.

Faster, More Manoeuvrable Ships

 Galleons combined different sail types:

o Square sails on the bowsprit, fore, and main masts for speed.

o Lateen (triangular) sails on the mizzen-mast for better maneuverability.

 More masts and sails allowed longer, faster, and more accurate voyages.

Better Firepower

 Galleons featured gun decks running along the ship's length.

  Cannons could fire from the sides, bow, and stern, important for defense against
pirates and enemy ships.

 This firepower was crucial as English and Spanish ships frequently attacked each
other.

Drake circumnavigated the globe:

 Main Aim: Drake’s initial goal was not to sail around the world but to raid Spanish
colonies in the Pacific. England’s relations with Spain were deteriorating, and
Queen Elizabeth I wanted to challenge Spanish dominance.

 Revenge Motive: Drake sought revenge against Spain because, in 1567-68, he

had sailed with John Hawkins on an expedition that ended badly. The Spanish
attacked their fleet at St Juan de Ulua, killing many English sailors and destroying
much of their fleet. Drake narrowly escaped with few survivors.

 Political and Economic Reasons: Both Elizabeth I and Drake had political
reasons—mainly to undermine Spanish power. But there was also the lure of great
profits from Spanish treasures in the Americas.

 Investment and Rewards: Wealthy investors, including people at Elizabeth’s

court, funded Drake’s expedition. Despite the long and dangerous voyage, Drake
returned rich and famous, with treasure estimated at the equivalent of £500
million today, which also made his investors very wealthy.

The significance of Drake’s circumnavigation was major for England, especially in

these ways:

1. England as a great sea-faring nation:

o Drake’s voyage, despite many hardships (starting with five ships but only
returning with one, the Golden Hind, and dealing with internal conflict such
as the execution of Captain Thomas Doughty), showed English resilience
and naval skill.

o Completing the second-ever circumnavigation of the globe made England

proud and gave a big boost to national morale.

2. Reputation and morale:

o It established the reputation of English ships and sailors as among the best
in the world.

o This was crucial as England faced growing fears of a Spanish invasion.

Demonstrating naval strength helped the country prepare psychologically
and politically against threats.

Encouraging exploration- Raiding Spanish holdings: By attacking Spanish ships and

colonies along the coast of South America, Drake disrupted Spain’s control and
showcased English naval boldness. Gathering knowledge: His crew collected valuable
information about the geography, resources, and native peoples of the Americas.
Detailed records: Drake kept thorough logs of the journey, which could be shared and
studied by other English sailors, making future voyages safer and more successful.
Expanding English reach: The voyage extended English knowledge of the west coast of
the Americas, possibly as far north as present-day Vancouver, paving the way for more
exploration and claims in the New World.

Nova Albion:
In June 1579, after exploring the Pacific coast of North America, Drake landed in a bay
likely north of present-day San Francisco. It landed there as the Golden Hind was in
urgent need of repair. The Native Americans there welcomed him warmly and performed
a ceremony that Drake interpreted as a coronation. He claimed the land for England,
naming it Nova Albion, and declared Queen Elizabeth I as its sovereign.

European claims and Native Americans:

European powers, including Elizabeth, ignored earlier papal agreements that gave rights
over the Americas to Spain and Portugal. Elizabeth authorized her explorers to claim any
land not already under Christian rule, disregarding Native American land rights, claiming
land of people who already lived there

Encouragement for colonies:

Although initial English colonization attempts in the Americas failed (like Sir Humfrey
Gilbert’s failed voyage in 1578), Drake’s successful circumnavigation and the wealth he
brought back inspired renewed interest. Gilbert planned another voyage in 1583,
encouraged by Drake’s reports and riches.

Anglo-Spanish tensions:
Drake’s raids on Spanish colonies enraged King Philip II of Spain. Elizabeth’s knighting of
Drake aboard the Golden Hind in 1581 was a bold, provocative act, signalling England’s
defiance and escalating tensions that contributed to the eventual conflict between
England and Spain.

Walter Raleigh’s significance:

 Walter Raleigh came from a gentry family and was an explorer, courtier, writer,
and historian during Elizabeth I’s reign.

 He is known for popularizing tobacco in England.

 In 1584, Elizabeth I granted Raleigh the right to explore and settle lands in North
America.

 Raleigh faced challenges because two previous attempts to colonize Virginia had
already failed, making it harder to convince people and raise funds.

 He did not lead the colonists himself due to Elizabeth’s concerns about losing a
favored courtier amid tense Anglo-Spanish relations.

 Raleigh’s main contributions were:

o Investigating, organizing, and raising money for the establishment of an

English colony in Virginia.

o Promoting the voyage and encouraging people to leave England and settle
in the new land.

o Appointing the governor of Virginia to rule on his behalf.

o Creating a “blueprint” or plan that guided future English colonization

efforts.

Investigating and promoting the virginia project- 

In 1584, Raleigh sent a fact-finding expedition to explore Virginia.

 The explorers traded tin utensils and metal knives with Native Americans in
exchange for food like game, fish, nuts, fruits, and vegetables.

 The Native Americans were friendly and welcoming, and reports described
the land as a paradise.
 Raleigh used these positive accounts to persuade English men to leave for
Virginia, promising wealth and opportunity.

 This promotion was crucial because:

 Previous expeditions had failed.

 There were fears and rumours in England about monsters and savages in
the New World.

 Raleigh’s efforts helped overcome fear and doubt, making the Virginia
colonization project more appealing to settlers.

Manteo and Wanchese

🌍 Who were they?

 Two Native American men from the Algonquian-speaking tribes.

 Brought to England after the 1584 expedition to Virginia.

📚 Why were they important?

 Helped communication between English and Native Americans:

o Thomas Harriot (a mathematician) learned Algonquian from them.

o He also taught them English.

o Harriot created an English–Algonquian dictionary.

 Assisted colonists in:

o Making contact with local tribes.

o Understanding local customs and language.

🤝 Significance:

 Improved early relations between the English and Native Americans.

 Showed the potential benefits of cooperation—though this would not last

in future colonisation efforts.

Raising Funds for the Virginia Project:

💰 High Costs, Big Rewards

 Colonising the New World was very expensive—trade alone couldn’t fund
the trip.

 But Raleigh promoted clear economic benefits:

o Native Americans would barter cheap English goods (like woollen

cloth) for food or resources.

o It would create jobs for English cloth makers and merchants.

o The colony could bring back valuable materials like gold and
tobacco.

o Profits could mean more tax revenue for the English government.
👑 Royal Involvement

 Elizabeth I refused to fund the project—she had other priorities (e.g.

Spain).

 But she gave her symbolic support:

o Suggested naming the colony Virginia after her (the “Virgin

Queen”).

o Gave Raleigh a ship and gunpowder worth £400.

o This royal backing gave the plan prestige and helped attract
investors.

💼 Encouraging Investment

 Raleigh promised to attack Spanish ships and seize their treasures—

appealing to merchants hoping for quick profits, like Drake’s in 1580.

 He also invested a lot of his own money, proving his commitment.

 Other courtiers, like Sir Francis Walsingham, joined in.

 By 1585, Raleigh had enough resources to launch the expedition.

Raleigh’s Role

 Raleigh couldn’t lead the voyage himself:

o Elizabeth I thought it was too risky.

o She wanted him to stay in England due to the threat from Spain.

 Instead, he planned, raised funds, and appointed leaders.

Recruiting Colonists

 Only 107 men joined, though Raleigh hoped for 300.

 All were male.

 Almost half were soldiers.

 Others included:

o Landowners

o Farmers

o Skilled craftsmen (artisans)

o A mathematician

 Many joined hoping to make their fortune in Virginia.

Richard grenville- expedition commander. Grenville was a very experienced sailor and
soldier. He didn’t get on with ralph lane, governor of virginia. He was known to be feared
than loved

Ralph lane- governor of virginia. Expert in fort building. An explorer and a battle
hardened soldier who could rise up to a challenge. He enjoyed hardship
Thomas Harriot- translator and catographer. He worked with manteo and Wanchese,
the native americans brought to England to learn Algonquin, with whom he formed a
strong bond. He understood navigation and was skilled at making maps

Ships and Timing of the 1585 Virginia Expedition

The Fleet

Raleigh sent five ships:

 Tiger – the largest ship; carried all the perishable supplies (meat, vegetables,
beer, wine, seeds, grain).

 Roebuck

 Lion

 Dorothy

 Elizabeth

📅 Departure and Timing

 Left England: 9 April 1585

 This was already too late in the year for planting some essential crops needed
to survive the winter.

 As a result, the colonists struggled with food shortages.

📍 Arrival

 The English landed at Roanoke Island in late 1585.

 Roanoke and the surrounding area became the first English settlement
attempt in North America.

Undermining Spain- One of the main reasons why the colonisation of Virginia at this time
was significant was because it provided England with a base from which to attack
Spanish colonies in the New World. Virginia was ideally placed — not too far from Florida
and the Caribbean for attacks to be launched, but far enough away to be reasonably safe
from the Spanish. So, the early colonisation of North America was part of the England's
conflict with Spain, but not just for the short term. In the longer term, England hoped to
rival Spain’s overseas empire and undermine its influence in the New World. A successful
colony in Virginia would serve as an example for other ventures. It would also offer the
Native Americans an alternative to Spanish domination: they could choose to turn to
English settlers for trade instead, or to help them against the Spanish.

The roots of the British Empire

In the next century, the English did indeed succeed

in establishing a strong presence in North America. Although these early attempts to

settle in Virginia failed (as explained below), they did provide an opportunity to learn
from the mistakes they made. The roots of

the British Empire that developed in the 18th and

19th centuries can be found in these 16th-century experiments on settling in new and
foreign lands.

Economic benefits

Trade was vital to the English economy. Elizabeth | had hoped to encourage English
merchants to find new markets as the conflict with Spain

made trading in Europe increasingly difficult

Elizabeth’s foreign policy aims- developing and improving trade to benefit the
English economy. Protecting england’s borders. Protecting the English throne. Avoiding
war which would cost a lot of many and could lead to elizabeth being overthrown

The new world, privateers and drake- English merchants began to explore new
markets and trading partners. They went to multiple countries around the world. There
were also huge profits made In the new world but English merchants faced problems In
developing trade: spain controlled the Netherlands, englands main route into European
markets. Spain controlled most of the new world where there were valuable, new trading
opportunities. Spain claimed much of the Americas as its own. The profits to be made in
the new world were potentially enormous. There were valuable crops such as tobacco
and sugar cane and huge supplies of silver. However anyone who wanted to trade there
needed a licence from spain which were very had to come by. Many English merchants
ignored spain’s rules and traded illegally without licences. Some of them even attacked
Spanish ports and shipping. Francis drake was an English merchant who made huge sums
of money for people who invested in his voyages. However much of what he did could be
considered piracy. Elizabeth hired Drake as a privateer, and got a good return on the
money she invested in his voyage, but her decision to back him was risky as it could
have provoked further conflict with spain. Philip’s anger at what he saw as English piracy
meant elizabeth didn’t publically welcome drake home but was impressed with his
achievements privately. Drake set off again for the new world, and elizabeth’s official
plan was for him to sail around the tip of south America to its pacific coastline and bring
valuables back to England. Elizabeth also issued drake with secret orders to attack
spain’s colonies in the new world. Ango-spanish relations were getting worse and
therefore elizabeth wanted to enrich England and disrupt spain’s valuable trade with its
colonies and send a message that elizabeth wouldn’t allow England England to be
dominated by spain. Drake’s actual route home led him to circumnavigate the globe, and
was the first englishan to do so, which was a major achievement as long sea voyages
were exceptionally dangerous. He set off with 5 ships and only had 1 left, the Golden
Hind, by the time he reached the pacific ocean

Outcome of drake’s voyage- once in the pacific, drake plundered Spanish ports and
ships along the coastline of chile and peru. He claimed a region of north California calling
it New Albion. It is estimated he brought £400,000 of Spanish treasure with him back to
England, with some going to the investors who funded the voyage and also brought a
great sum to the English crown. Elizabeth was so impressed by his achievements that
she knighted him on the deck of the Golden Hind.

Significance of drake’s actions- drake’s actions against spain and their colonies along
with his claim to land in north Carolina made it clear that England didn’t accept spain’s
domination of the Americas. Only one other sailor had successfully circumnavigated the
globe so drake’s success gave England a national hero and strength as a seafaring
nation. Drake boosted the crown’s finances. Elizabeth’s public knighting of Drake also
sent a strong message of defiance to spain

 France wanted to be allied to England because france was surrounded by Spanish

territory. Spain wanted to be allied to England because elizabeth’s fleet could help
protect its ships sailing In the channel to the Netherlands
 Elizabeth put pressure on the Spanish to return the Netherlands back to how they
had been governed by: indirectly helping dutch protestants resist the Spanish.
Allowing Spanish shipping and colonies to come under attack by English
privateers. Pursuing friendly relations with france. Encouraging others to fight the
Spanish in the Netherlands

Spanish fury and pacification of Ghent- the Spanish government in the Netherlands
was bankrupt. Despite the silver and riches being brought in from the new world, the cost
of war was too great for spain to continue at the same pace. Spain’s forces in the
Netherlands finally mutinied after months without pay, rampaging through dutch
provinces and finally robbing (with violence) Antwerp, which was known as the Spanish
fury. The violence in Antwerp united all dutch provinces, protestants and catholics
against spain. They drew up the pacification of ghent which demanded: all Spanish
troops were to be expelled from Netherlands. Restoration of political autonomy. End to
religious persecution. Elizabeth sent a loan of £100,000 to the dutch rebels and agreed to
send an expeditionary force to the Netherlands to help ensure the pacification of ghent
was carried out. Philip II’s brother arrived in the Netherlands and agreed to all the terms.
Despite this, shortly after agreeing terms, Philip II sent a new army to attack the dutch,
eliminating any hopes that elizabeth had achieved her aims in the Netherlands. She hired
a mercenary and financed him to raise an army of 6,000 english and scottist volunteers
to help the dutch. This was important as it meant elizabeth wasn’t officially sending an
English army to fight the Spanish in her name, and so England and spain weren’t
officially at war. The plan backfired as the mercenary’s forces devastated dutch catholic
churches, helping to persuade Dutch catholics to make peace with spain. Privy
councillors like the earl of Leicester urged elizabeth to intervene in the Netherlands
directly, as the situation in the Netherlands was potentially promising enough for a
complete dutch victory and an independent Netherlands would be a strong protestant
ally for England against spain, elizabeth hesitatesd and the dutch asked france for help-
the duke of Alencon sent an army to fight the spanish. However the situation in the
Netherlands had changed as the duke of parma had been sent into the Netherlands who
was a far more effective military leader than the previous, and the Spanish soon had the
upper hand. Alencon withdrew from the Netherlands

 Spain gained Portugal, along with its empire and naval forces. Its new strength
and wealth alarmed elizabeth which may have been the reason she still refused to
intervene in the Netherlands.

Turning point in anglo-spanish relations- the duke of Alencon died and William of
orange, leader of the dutch protestant rebels was assassinated. Elizabeth still preferred a
cautious approach with the situation in the Netherlands. Cecil agreed, others led by the
earl of Leicester urged elizabeth to intervene. The French Catholic League signed the
Treaty of Joinville with Philip II to secure his help against French protestants. This meant
catholic france and spain were now allies against Protestantism. After this treaty was
signed, elizabeth could no longer avoid direct intervention in the Netherlands

Elizabeth takes direct action- dutch protestant representatives came to England,

offering elizabeth the sovereignty of the Netherlands. She refused as it would mean
deposing King Philip II which she was still unwilling to do. Elizabeth refused to depose an
anointed monarch and instead signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the dutch protestants
which effectively put England and spain at war. Elizabeth agreed to intervent directly in
the Netherlands on the side of the rebels. Philip II thought the English should stay out of
the Netherlands as it belonged to spain. England would finance a large army of engllish
troops under a commander of her choosing, who would work with the revels’
government. She chose Robert dudley, earl of Leicester. Elizabeth also sent francis drake
to raid Spanish new world settlements with the aim of disrupting Philip II’s flow of
resources and finances. However, rather than deterring Philip, Drake only angered him.
Philip told the pope he intended to invade England. England’s intervention in the
neverlands wasn’t a great success. Elizabeth was still hoping to negotiate with spain.
Leicester was therefore not given enough money for men or supplies to mount a large
campaign. The campaign started badly. Leicester accepted the title of Governor general
of the Netherlands on elizabeth’s behalf. Elizabeth was furious as this implied she was
deposing Philip II as king of the Netherlands. English forces only managed to slow down
the Duke of Parma’s advance through the neverlands. They did take some forts however
did lose one when it was handed over by an English captain who defected to the Spanish
along with sir William stanley. Stanley had been governor of a town and gave it to the
Spanish. After this, the dutch found it hard to trust Leicester, especially because he had
appointed stanley. Leicester was called back to England but returned to the Netherlands.
He still didn’t have enough men or supplies, but he managed to cause the Duke of Parma
enough problems to prevent him from taking a major, deep-water port.

English campaign in the Netherlands wasn’t successful because- elizabeth was

never fully behind the rebels, she hoped to negotiate with spain and didn’t give Leicester
the funds necessary to mount a large campaign. Leicester and elizabeth had different
aims in the Netherlands, as Leicester wanted to liberate the Netherlands from the
Spanish to make it independent, but elizabeth wanted a return to how the Netherlands
had previously been governed. Relations between the English and dutch leaders were
poor because of elizabeth’s lack of commitment

Drake singes the king of spain’s beard- spain had been preparing the Spanish
Armada. Elizabeth ordered francis drake to attack spain’s navy. He sailed into Cadiz
harbour, spain’s most important Atlantic port and over 3 days destroyed 30 ships as well
as a great deal of the fleet’s provisions. The attack on cadiz is known as the singeing of
the king’s beard. Drake then spent several weeks attacking the coast of Portugal. His aim
was to capture Spanish treasure ships bringing silver from spain’s new world colonies.
Even though he only captured one, spain had to break off from building the armada to
defend itself against drake, delaying the armada by a year which brought England more
time to prepare

Why did Philip II launch the Spanish armada- papacy wanted elizabeth overthrown.
Pope ppromised to forgive the sins of those taking part in the armada. Treaty of joinville.
Treaty of nonsuch. England would be a useful addition to Philip II’s empire. Spain acquired
Portugal. Duke of parma’s success in the Netherlands. Elizabeth’s hesitation to intervene
in the Netherlands indicated england’s weakness compared with spain. Drakes actions in
the new world. Elizabeth’s support for dutch rebels

EDUCATION

Attitudes to education- education was becoming increasingly valuable in Elizabethan

England. The education you received was aimed at preparing you for the life you were
expected to lead. This meant it was usually focused on practical skills but could include
basic literacy. Only a small percentage of children (mainly boys) went to school. A very
few girls received any formal education

New influences on education- humanists believed learning was important. The didn’t
believe people should just be educated for practical reasons. They studied the work of
ancient philosophers and mathematicians to develop a better understanding of the
world. To them, education was important if people were to stop being so superstitious.
Protestants believed people should be able to read the bible in their own language to
develop their own relationship with god which encouraged more people to become
literate. As business and trade developed, a basic education became more important to
more people, especially in towns. Education was limited according to people’s place in
the social hierarchy and in rural areas where farming remained a way of life.

Nobility- children of nobility learned a variety of subjects such as foreign languages,

history, philosophy and government. As elizabeth was highly educated in these subjects,
many noble families ensured their daughters were too. They also learned a variety of
skills expected of upper class women such as dancing, needlework and archery. Boys
were taught to be skilled in fencing, swimming, wrestling and other sports thought fitting
only for men. The children of noble families were often sent to another noble household
to finish their education. The eldest sons would inherit their father’s titles and so would
have to learn how to become future noble men. Girld who went to another noble family
would make useful social contacts as well as perfect skills expected of them as a noble
woman

Middling sorts and grammar schools- many grammar schools were founded during
Elizabethan England. Previously, the church provided most of the minimal education
available to children. Grammar schools were private schools set up for boys considered
bright, who largely came from well-off families in towns- the sons of middling sorts: the
gentry, professionals or wealthy business owners. Girls couldn’t attend grammar schools
and were usually educated at home by their mothers, preparing them for married life and
running a household. Fees for grammar schools varied and were often based upon how
much property the boy’s family owned. Some lower class boys who showed promise
could also attend, and they didn’t have to pay fees- their places were funded by people
who left money to the schools in their will to provide education for those who wouldn’t be
able to afford to go without help. The school year was long, with holidays only at
Christmas and easter. School days were also long, beginning at 6 or 7am and lasting
almost10 hours. The focus of the curriculum was latin. Boys also studied ancient,
classical historians and philosophers and writers such as Plato and Aristotle. There would
also be time allocated for archery, chess, wrestling and running. In a grammar school
timetable, there was a great emphasis on memorising huge quantities of texts, especially
bible passages- many of which focused on teaching morals and manners. Debating was
also important, 2 or 3 boys would be expected to debate a topic set by the teacher,
public speaking and debating were thought essential for a well-educated Elizabethan
gentleman. The school day ran Monday-saturdayy

Discipline and punishments in grammar schools- the teacher maintained discipline

in the classroom. Outside the classroom,, 2 boys were made monitors and had to report
misbehaviour inside and outside school grounds, including in the street. Any boys
reported would be questioned on Mondays at 9am and punished unless their behavour
was more serious, then punishment was immediate. Punishments included: being kept in
at break time. After warnings to the parents of a misbehaving child, it was possible for a
pupil to be expelled. Corporal punishment including caning. Exclusion from school.

Merchants and craftsmen- some grammar schools ran an alternative curriculum for
sons of merchants and craftsmen. These focused on more practical academic subjects,
such as English, writing, arithmetic and geography. This shows education reflecting what
the economy needed but also still focused on preparing boys for the life they were
expected to lead

Skilled craftsmen and yeomen- there were grammar schools available for the children
of craftsmen and yeomen farmers, although much of their education would come in the
form of apprenticeships, where they’d learn what was necessary to run the family
business or farm. For boys, whether children could go to school or not often depended on
whether their family could manage without having them help in the family business or in
the home. As school wasn’t compulsory, a child’s education depended on whether the
parents valued a school-based education. Even then, some children would have to leave
school at an early age to go to work or become an apprentice to a master craftsman

Petty schools- set up and run in a teacher’s home. Boys whose parents could afford to
send them to school began their education here, or in the case of girls, in dame schools.
They would learn reading and writing In English, as well as basic arithmetic. Punishment
was often harsh. Beating for poor behaviour or not doing well in lessons was common.
After attending the petty school, bright or well-off boys would go to a grammar school

Schools for girls- girls of all classes didn’t often go to school. If they did, they would
attend a dame school. Dame schools provided a basic education for girls, and were often
run by a local educated woman. Women weren’t expected to go out into the world, but
would go from being under their father’s care to their husband’s. they weren’t expected
to support themselves. For most girls, education was focused on the home. As wives and
mothers, they would need a wide variety of skills, such as knowing how to preserve food,
bake, brew, sew and treat simple aliments and injuries

Labourers and poor children- most Elizabethans, had no formal school-based

education as most of the population were farmers or labourers. They learned what they
needed from their families, working on the land or in the home. In most cases, children
needed to contribute to the family income from as early an age as possible, and the jobs
they could expect to find didn’t require literacy or numeracy

Impact of schools on Elizabethans- increased male literacy rate by 10 percent but

not for women. Leading thinkers and writers increasingly believed in women having a
good education, however the main problem was the cost of schooling. There weren’t
only fees to consider, but the loss of family income from children not working. This might
explain why people’s attitudes of educating their daughters hasn’t changed as girls were
expected to marry, not to work outside the home. Boys were expected to find paid
employment and support their wives and children- a little education could help them find
a better job

Education in universities- Elizabethan England had 2 universities: oxford and

Cambridge for people who were able to go on to higher education. You would start
university at 14 or 15. The curriculum included geometry, music, astronomy, philosophy,
logic and Rhetoric as well as medicine, law and divinity. The highest university
qualification was the doctorate. Doctorates could be taken in medicine, law or divinity.
Oxford and Cambridge universities are made up of different colleges, many of which
founded by the tudors. Elizabeth founded jesus college in oxford to educate welsh boys.
Elizabeth wanted her college to educate more protestant clergymen to increase their
well-educated numbers. In ondon, the inns of court trained lawyers. Some young men
went to study and practise law at the inns of court rather than oxford or Cambridge for
their higher education