Respiratory System Bronchi/Bronchioles - distribute air to lungs

1. Processes of Respiration • Alveoli - site of gas exchange

• Pulmonary ventilation - movement of air in 5. Regulation of pH Balance

and out of lungs (breathing)
• CO2 combines with water in blood to form
• External respiration - gas exchange between carbonic acid.
lungs and blood.
• Lungs regulate CO2 levels, helping control
Transport of gases - oxygen and carbon dioxide blood acidity (pH).
in blood.
6. Respiratory System in Vocalization
• Internal respiration - gas exchange between
blood and tissues. • Air from lungs passes through the larynx.

Cellular respiration - cells use oxygen to • Vocal cords vibrate, producing sound (speech
produce ATP or phonation).

2. Functions of Respiratory System 7. Nasal Cavity Structures

Gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out) • Nares (nostrils): Openings for air entry.

Regulation of blood pH • Nasal septum: Divides left and right nasal

passages
• Sound production (phonation)
• Conchae: Increases surface area for
• Smell (olfaction) warming/filtering

• Protection (mucus and cilia filter pathogens) • Mucosa: Traps dust/pathogens, humidifies air

3. Structures of Respiratory System 8. Regions of Pharynx

• Upper: Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx • Nasopharynx: Behind the nasal cavity.

• Lower: Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, • Oropharynx: Behind the mouth.

lungs, alveoli
• Laryngopharynx: Above the larynx/esophagus.
4. Functions of Respiratory Structures
9. Bronchi
• Nose/Nasal cavity - filters, warms, and
moistens air • Trachea divides into right and left primary
bronchi.
• Pharynx- passage for air and food
• These further divide into secondary and
• Larynx- houses vocal cords tertiary bronchi, conducting air

• Trachea - windpipe, transports air 10. Alveoli

deeper into lungs. • Amylase: Breaks down starch into sugars.

• Microscopic sacs where oxygen enters and • Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and
carbon dioxide exits the blood glycerol

• Surrounded by capillaries and lined with • Pepsin: Breaks proteins in the stomach.
surfactant to reduce surface tension.
• Trypsin: Breaks proteins in the small intestine
11. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
4. Accessory Organs and Their Functions
Tidal Volume (TV): Normal breath (around 500
mL). • Liver: Produces bile to emulsify fats.

• Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Extra air • Gallbladder: Stores and releases bile
inhaled after a normal breath. • Pancreas: Secretes digestive enzymes and
• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Extra air bicarbonate
exhaled after a normal breath. • Salivary glands: Secrete saliva containing
• Residual Volume (RV): Air remaining in lungs amylase
after full exhale. 5. Hepatic Duct
Vital Capacity (VC): Total air that can be exhaled Drains bile from the liver and joins the cystic
after full inhalation (TV + IRV + duct from the gallbladder to
ERV). form the common bile duct.
Digestive System 6. Chemical Breakdown of Nutrients
1. Structures of Digestive System Carbohydrates: Broken to glucose by amylase.
• Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small • Proteins: Broken to amino acids by pepsin,
intestine, large intestine, trypsin.
rectum, anus - work in sequence to break down • Fats: Emulsified by bile, broken by lipase into
food fatty acids and glycerol
2. Process of Protein Digestion 7. Absorption
• Starts in stomach with pepsin • Glucose and amino acids: Absorbed into
• Continues in small intestine with trypsin, capillaries.
chymotrypsin (from pancreas), • Fatty acids/glycerol: Absorbed into lymph via
• Proteins are broken into amino acids for lacteals.
absorption. 8. Purpose of Mechanical & Chemical Digestion
3. Enzymes in Digestive System
• Mechanical: Breaks food into smaller pieces • A ball of capillaries where filtration of blood
(chewing, churning) occurs.

• Chemical: Enzymes break down molecules 5. Loop of Henle

into absorbable units
• Descending limb: reabsorbs water.
9. Digestive Processes
Ascending limb: reabsorbs salts, impermeable
• Ingestion →propulsion →mechanical to water.
digestion → chemical digestion→
6. Functions of Kidneys
absorption → defecation
Remove waste (urea, creatinine)
10. Mechanisms of Absorption
• Regulate fluid/electrolytes.
• Active transport: Requires energy (e.g.,
glucose, amino acids). Control pH.

• Passive transport/diffusion: No energy (e.g., Release erythropoietin (RBC production) and

water, some vitamins) renin (BP regulation)

• Facilitated diffusion: Uses a carrier protein. 7. Renal Circulation

• Endocytosis: Absorbs large molecules Blood supply system of kidneys; key to filtration
and reabsorption.
Urinary System
8. Hormones
1. Nephrons
• ADH: Promotes water reabsorption.
Microscopic filtering units in kidneys; each
kidney has -1 million. • Aldosterone: Promotes Na' and water
reabsorption.
• Filters blood, reabsorbs needed substances,
forms urine. • Renin: Raises BP.

2. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus Erythropoietin: Stimulates RBC production.

• Regulates BP and glomerular filtration. 9. Urinary Bladder Function

• Secretes renin when blood pressure drops. • Stores urine until micturition (urination).

3. Order of Blood Flow in Kidney Detrusor muscle contracts to expel urine

Renal artery → afferent arteriole → glomerulus 10. Structures of Urinary System

→ efferent arteriole→ • Kidneys: Filter blood
peritubular capillaries → renal vein. • Ureters: Carry urine to bladder
4. Glomerulus
• Bladder: Stores urine. • Orgasm: Muscle contractions, ejaculation
(male)
• Urethra: Excretes urine
Resolution: Return to normal state
11. Specific Gravity of Urine
7. Sertoli (Sustentacular) Cells
Measures concentration; normal is 1.005-1.030
• Support/nourish developing sperm.
Low = diluted; high = concentrated
(dehydration or disorder). • Secrete inhibin to regulate sperm production

Reproductive System Form blood-testis barrier.

1. Female Reproductive Parts 8. Fertilization

• Ovaries (produce eggs & hormones), fallopian • Union of sperm and egg in fallopian tube to
tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina form zygote.

2. Male Reproductive Parts 9. Perimetrium Function

• Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal Outer uterine layer; provides protection and
vesicles, prostate, penis reduces friction.

3. Estrogen 10. Normal Vaginal pH

• Hormone from ovaries; develops female 3.8- 4.5, acidic to prevent infection
features, thickens endometrium
11. Ovulation
4. Structures of Reproductive System
Release of mature egg (ovum) from ovary,
• Organs involved in gamete production and typically around day 14 of menstrual
fertilization (e.g., ovaries/testes,
cycle due to LH surge.
ducts, external genitalia).

5. Purpose of Alkaline Semen

• Neutralizes vaginal acidity to protect sperm

and enhance fertility.

6. Sexual Response Cycle

· 4 Phases:

Excitement: Increased blood flow,

Plateau: Heightened arousal.