CHAPTER – II

ROLE OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD-A
LITERARY REVIEW
2.01. INTRODUCTION

The present study, being an interdisciplinary analysis, has concerted on a wide

range of issues in addition to different perspectives with conceptual and theoretical
foundations. The contemporary research concerns being examined in the context of
sustainable livelihood through commercialization of indigenous knowledge and skill.
To be specific and precise, a wide range of literature has been reviewed pertaining to
indigenous knowledge system, resource management, protection of indigenous
knowledge literature related to government policies, and development and
dissemination of indigenous knowledge. Further the literatures which were found
relevant to the research issues from different perspectives having direct or referral
significance on our understanding of topical and thematic dimension of the present
study. But we have reviewed relevant literatures only thematically either as passing
reference or in some details depending on the certainty of the issues addressed in the
literature while reviewing edited volume of an individual papers have been discussed
in details. Needless to say, the pattern of review is not similar between the two works.
Nevertheless, a uniform pattern is apparent across the whole length of the review.
Review in details or thematically or a passing reference has been done on two counts,
such as first and foremost one relates to the availability of large body of literature due
to wide range of research topic and second related to the first is the consideration of
space and aptness in the chapter.

There is a plethora of literature available on indigenous knowledge system

(IKS), resource management, and policies relating to IKS and resource management.
But studies of IKS in policies and programs relating to resource management
pertaining to commercialization are not available. There could be studies elsewhere,
but such studies are not available particularly in Assam. In this regard, the present
study is a pioneering work in the Lakhimpur District and also in the State of Assam.
But further the study is inter-disciplinary in nature but with a dissimilarity. It is not a
study in one discipline applying the tools of other discipline but a study which has
drawn on theoretical and conceptual perspectives from different disciplines.
Understandably studies on IKS are interdisciplinary in nature. But the study has
addressed various methodological issues relating to Anthropology, Sociology,
Economics, Ecological and Developmental Anthropology. It is a contribution to
32 | P a g e
theoretical foundations relating to studies with respect to IKS in general and its
development, dissemination and usages in particular for the development sustainable
livelihood. Further, present effort is an addition to reviewing literature on the cause
effect relationship – the commercialization of indigenous knowledge as a cause and
the livelihood development as an effect. Several research, as well as impact studies,
had been conducted over the years with regard to indigenous knowledge and its
corresponding impact on livelihood in India in general and in Assam, in particular.
The basic ideas and insights were gathered from several studies, reports, files, and
publications. The works of some scholars which are related to the present study were
reviewed, thematically to draw an inference of “resemblance and divergence”.

2.02. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE – IT’S MEANING, DEFINITION

Berkes, F. (1993)1 defined indigenous knowledge (IK) as a cumulative body

of knowledge and belief, handed down through generations by cultural transmission,
about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with
their environment. Further, IK is an attribute of societies with historical continuity in
resource use practices; by and large, these are non-industrial or less technologically
advanced societies, many of them indigenous or tribal.

Stevenson M.G. (1996)2 defined traditional or indigenous knowledge (TK) as

a body of knowledge and beliefs transmitted through oral tradition and first-hand
observation. It includes a system of classification, a set of empirical observations about
the local environment, and a system of self-management that governs resource use.
Ecological aspects are closely tied to social and spiritual aspects of the knowledge
system. The quantity and quality of TK varies among community members, depending
upon gender, age, social status, intellectual capability and profession (hunter, spiritual
leader, healer, etc.). With its roots firmly in the past, TK is both cumulative and

1
Berkes, F. (1993). “Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Perspective”. In Traditional
Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases, J. T. Inglis (Ed.), Ottawa: International
Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge and International Development
Research Centre. Pp 1-9.
2
Stevenson, M. G. (1996). “Indigenous Knowledge in Environmental Assessments”. Arctic,
49(3): pp 278-291.
33 | P a g e
dynamic, building upon the experience of earlier generations and adapting to the new
technological and socioeconomic changes of the present.

Usher (2000)3 defined traditional knowledge (TK) as the knowledge claims of

those who have a lifetime of observation and experience of a particular environment
and as a result function very effectively in that environment, but who are untutored in
the conventional scientific paradigm. TK is not privileged or secret knowledge, though
certain other cultural phenomena like ritual, healing, spirituality, may sometimes be.

Warren, D. (1991)4 defines Indigenous Knowledge (IK) as local knowledge –

knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. IK contrasts with the
international knowledge system generated by universities, research institutions and
private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision-making in agriculture, health care,
food preparation, education, natural resources management, and a host of other
activities in rural communities. Such knowledge is passed down from generation to
generation, in many societies by word of mouth. Indigenous knowledge has value not
only for the culture in which it evolves, but also for scientists and planners striving to
improve conditions in rural localities.

As per Hiebert & Van Rees (1998)5, TK had many definitions but the central
theme consisted of cultural beliefs and traditions being passed on from their forefathers
to the present generation for the purpose of survival while still living in harmony with
the ecosystems. Traditional knowledge is something that is learned during a lifetime
and realizes the interconnectedness of the trees, soil and water.

Abele, F. (1997)6 defined indigenous knowledge as knowledge and values

which have been acquired through experience, observation, from the land or from
spiritual teachings, and handed down from one generation to another.

3
Usher, P. J. (2000). “Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Environmental Assessment and
Management”. Arctic, Vol. 53(2): pp 183-193.
4
Warren, D. (1991). Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development. World Bank
Discussion Paper 127. Washington, DC: World Bank.
5
Hiebert, D., and Van Rees. K. (1998). Traditional Knowledge on Forestry Issues within the
Prince Albert Grand Council. Draft. Prince Albert, SK: Prince Albert Model Forest.
6
Abele, F. (1997). Traditional Knowledge in Practice. Arctic, Vol. 50(4), pp iii-iv.
34 | P a g e
 Beverly-Qamaniruaq Caribou Management Board (1996)7 defines IK as the
body of knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close
contact with nature. It includes a system of classification, empirical observations about
the local environment, and certain rules and views that affect resource use.

Hobson, G. (1992)8 defines traditional knowledge as a systematic approach, a

methodological approach to answering questions. Science is equated with knowledge,
and it is the development of knowledge that promotes the solution of problems. The
‘western’ scientist knows that science is based upon the principles of repeatability and
predictability. In terms of the northern experience, science also equates to traditional
knowledge, and southern scientists must never forget that TK is science.

As per Emery, A. R. (1997)9, the indigenous people of the world possess an

immense knowledge of their environments, based on centuries of living close to nature.
Living in and from the richness and variety of complex ecosystems, they have an
understanding of the properties of plants and animals, the functioning of ecosystems
and the techniques for using and managing them that is particular and often detailed.
In rural communities in developing countries, locally occurring species are relied on
for many – sometimes all – foods, medicines, fuel, building materials, and other
products. Equally, people’s knowledge and perceptions of the environment, and their
relationships with it, are often important elements of cultural identity.

Dei, G. (1993)10 defines Indigenous knowledge as the body which includes the
cultural traditions, values, beliefs, and worldviews of local peoples as distinguished
from Western scientific knowledge. Such local knowledge is the product of indigenous
peoples’ direct experience of the workings of nature and its relationship with the social
world. It is also a holistic and inclusive form of knowledge.

7
Beverly Qamaniruaq Co-operative Management Board. (1996). Action Plan.
8
Hobson, G. (1992). Traditional knowledge is science. Northern Perspectives 20: 1.
9
Emery, A.R. (1997). Guidelines for Environmental Assessments and Traditional Knowledge.
Unpublished. Ottawa: Centre for Traditional Knowledge.
10
Dei, G. (1993). Sustainable development in the African context: Revisiting some theoretical
and Methodological issues. African Development 18(2):97-110.
35 | P a g e
 Stevenson, M.G. (1998)11 defines IK as a host of definitions contain some
reference to the fact that traditional knowledge is handed down through the
generations, can be acquired through firsthand experience, has a spiritual component,
is dynamic and evolving, etc. While there is a near universal agreement that Aboriginal
elders and people closest to the land have more TK than younger aboriginal people,
such definitions fail to consider that TK exists within a larger system of understanding
and cultural context from which it cannot and should not be separated.

Brockman, A., B. Masuzumi, and S. Augustine. (1997)12 defined traditional

knowledge or indigenous knowledge as a body of knowledge built up by a group of
people through generations of living in close contact with nature. Traditional
Knowledge is cumulative and dynamic. It builds upon the historic experiences of a
people and adapts to social, economic, environmental, spiritual and political change.
The quantity and quality of TK differs among community members according to their
gender, age, social standing, profession and intellectual capabilities. While those
concerned about biological diversity will be most interested in knowledge about the
environment, this information must be understood in a manner which encompasses
knowledge about the cultural, economic, political and spiritual relationships with the
land (Brockman and Legat, 1995)13. It provides a distinctive worldview of which
outsiders are rarely aware, and at best can only incompletely grasp (Greaves, 1996).

According to Seeland. K (1997)14, the term “indigenous” is an ascription from

outside, coined out of the perspective that there is paramount and presumably supreme

11
Stevenson, M.G. (1998). Traditional knowledge and environmental management: from
commodity to process. Paper for NAFA conference, Celebrating Partnerships.
September 14-18, 1998. Prince Albert, SK.
12
Brockman, A., B. Masuzumi, and S. Augustine. (1997). When All Peoples Have the Same
Story, Humans Will Cease to Exist. Protecting and Conserving Traditional
Knowledge: A Report to the Biodiversity Convention Office. September 1997. Dene
Cultural Institute. Centre for Traditional Knowledge. Unknown date. Unknown
publication information.
13
Brockman, A., Masuzumi B., & Augustine S. (1997). When All Peoples Have the Same
Story, Humans Will Cease to Exist. Protecting and Conserving Traditional
Knowledge: A Report to the Biodiversity Convention Office. September 1997. Dene
Cultural Institute.
14
K. Seeland (ed.), (1997), Nature is culture. Indigenous Knowledge and socio-cultural
aspects of tress and forests in Non – European Cultures, London: Intermediate
Technology Publications, P.102
36 | P a g e
general, i.e., modern knowledge. Indigenous knowledge means the knowledge or
wisdom of people those which must be regarded as “indigenous”. Indigenous
knowledge refers to unique traditional local knowledge existing within and developed
around the specific conditions of men or women indigenous to a particular
geographical area.

Seeland. K (2000)15 defines indigenous means that something is originating

locally within the community or society in a specific place. It emerge as people
perceptions and experience in an environment at a given time in a continuous process
of observation and interpretation in relation to the locally acknowledged every day
rationalities and transcendental power. Indigenous knowledge, is human life
experience in a distinct natural and social compound within that local and
contemporary setting with continuous process of interaction and experimentation. It is
not formally taught but perceived in a particular context at a certain stage of perceiver’s
consciousness that grows in the world of local events. Knowledge is to be called
indigenous, if it is bound to local experience and takes its local world perhaps as the
only one existing, but as the most relevant of all 16.

Ellen and Harris (1996) 17 explained, “indigenous knowledge” is a mean local

environmental knowledge (the knowledge of plants, animals, soils, and other natural
components) with environmental philosophies or worldviews or even indigenous
technical knowledge in its wider sense”. They further state that local knowledge as an
appropriate means of sustainable development in particular the desire to identify the
entire cultural tradition as unambiguously consistent with the goals of sustainability.

Indigenous Knowledge or Traditional Knowledge is a cumulative body of

knowledge and beliefs, which has occurred naturally with the interaction of the
environment and being passed on to generation to generations orally. Many scholars
believe that this knowledge or wisdom is acquired through experience and it is the first

15
K. Seeland, 2000. “What is indigenous Knowledge and why does it Matter today?”, ibid.
16
Ibid, pp. 34-35
17
R.F. Ellen and Harris,1996, Concepts of indigenous environmental knowledge in scientific
and development studies literature: A critical assessment, A draft paper of East- West
environmental linkages Network Workshop 3, Canterbury 8-10 May 1996: APFT
working paper 2
37 | P a g e
hand information which is originated locally. Indigenous knowledge is important for
the development of the people as unique traditional knowledge which has been passed
on to us through our fore fathers.

2.03. CHARACTERISTICS, IMPORTANCE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF IK

Fikret Berkes (1999)18 considers four interrelated levels within TEK which he
terms the knowledge-practice-belief complex: the first includes knowledge based on
empirical observations essential for survival (species taxonomy, distribution, and life
cycles); the second focuses on the understanding of ecological processes and natural
resource management (practices, tools, and techniques); the third is the socio-
economic organization necessary for effective coordination and cooperation (rules and
taboos); and the fourth is referred to as the worldview or ‘cosmo vision’ (religion,
belief, and ethics).

Behera S. (2004)19 in the study of “Indigenous Knowledge Systems and

Livelihood: A Comparative Study of Selected Villages of Rayagada District of
Orissa”, classified indigenous knowledge from the functional point of view as (i)
Technical and (ii) Non –Technical. He further says both are interdependent on each
other and cannot exist separately; for instance, in non-indigenous or main stream
societies, the practical knowledge, which may call technical knowledge and is more
important than non-technical (supernatural or spiritual), which may exist separately as
far as material or economic aspects of livelihood is concerned. On the basis of
accumulation and performance, indigenous knowledge can be classified into (i)
exoteric and (ii) esoteric form of knowledge. The former is known to and open for all
while the latter is secret knowledge limited to the specialist or experts. Behera further
highlighted the role of the indigenous knowledge is helpful in social development,

18
Berkes, F. (1993), “Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Perspective”. In Traditional
Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases, J. T. Inglis (Ed.). Ottawa: International
Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge and International Development
Research Centre. Pp 19.
19
Behera, S. 2004, “Indigenous knowledge systems and livelihood: A comparative study of
selected villages of Rayagada district of Orissa”, Ph.D. Thesis, Centre for the Study
of Social Systems, School of Social Sciences, JNU, New Delhi.
38 | P a g e
and how indigenous knowledge is helpful in earning livelihood among the
indigenous people.

Ellen and Harris (1996)20 have given some common and unique asserted
characteristics of indigenous knowledge are as follows:

1. Indigenous knowledge is local. It is rooted to a particular place and set of

experiences, generated by people living in those places;
2. It is orally transmitted through demonstration and limitation;
3. It is consequence of practical engagement in everyday life is often reinforced
by experience and trial and error. It is tested in rigorous laboratory of survival;
4. It is empirical rather than theoretical. Its oral character hinders for the
development of theoretical Knowledge;
5. Repetitive;
6. IK is dynamic constantly changing, being produced and reproduced discovered
as well as lost, although ,it is often represented as being somehow static;
7. IK is shared too much greater degree than other forms of knowledge within a
population and preserved through distribution in the memories of that
population.it is developed through practices and interactions in which people
themselves engaged;
8. The origination is essentially functional and directly applicable; and
9. IK is situated within broader cultural traditions, separating, the technical from
the Non – technical; the rational from non-rational is problematic.

Indigenous people have acquired an intricate knowledge on the use and

management of several items over generations they may take use what is granted to
them, i.e. what is useful and docile from them at their level of capacity. The following
list of characteristics of traditional ecological knowledge is given by the various

20
Ibid.
39 | P a g e
scholars like Clarkson et al. (1992)21; Berkes (1993)22; Doubleday (1993)23; Tyler
(1993)24; Wavey (1993)25; Mitchell (1994); and Cole (nd)26. The list incorporates a
non-indigenous view of traditional ecological knowledge but is based on discussions
with, input from, and writings by indigenous people. Traditional knowledge is:

1. Holistic: all things are interconnected and nothing is comprehended in

isolation;
2. Intuitive: based on deeply held holistic understanding and knowledge;
3. Qualitative: knowledge is gained through intimate contact with the local
environment, while noting patterns or trends in its flora, fauna, and natural
phenomena. It is based on data collected by resource users through observation
and hands-on experience;
4. Transmitted intergeneration ally by oral tradition: teaching is accomplished
through Stories and participation of children in culturally important activities;
5. Governed by a Supreme Being: the Creator defines a moral universe with
appropriate Laws;
6. Moral: there are right ways and wrong ways to relate to the environment;
7. Spiritual: rooted in a social context that sees the world in terms of social and
spiritual relations among all life forms. All parts of the natural world are
infused with spirit. Mind, matter, and spirit are perceived as inseparable.

21
Clarkson, L, Morrissette V., G. Regallet. (1992). Our Responsibility to the Seventh
Generation: Indigenous Peoples and Sustainable Development. Winnipeg:
International Institute for Sustainable Development.
22
Berkes, F. (1993). “Traditional ecological knowledge in perspective”. In Traditional
Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases, J. T. Inglis (Ed.) Ottawa: International
Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge and International Development
Research Centre. Pp 1-9
23
Doubleday, N. (1993). “Finding Common Ground: Natural Law and Collective Wisdom”.
In Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases, J. T. Inglis (Ed.) Ottawa:
International Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge and International
Development Research Centre. Pp 1-9.
24
Tyler, Mary Ellen. (1993). “Spiritual stewardship in aboriginal resource management
systems”. Environments, Vol. 22(1); pp 1–7.
25
Wavey, Robert. (1993). “International workshop on indigenous knowledge and community-
based resource management”, In Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and
Cases, J. T. Inglis (Ed.). Ottawa: International Program on Traditional Ecological
Knowledge and International Development Research Centre.
26
Cole, David. (n.d.) Traditional ecological knowledge of the Naskapi and the environmental
assessment process. In Law and Process in Environmental Management. S.A.
Kennett(Ed.). Calgary: Canadian Institute of Resources Law.
40 | P a g e
 Traditional ecological knowledge, in Practice, exhibits humility and a refined
sense of responsibility; it does not aim to control nature;
8. Based on mutual well-being, reciprocity, and cooperation: these promote
balance and harmony between the well-being of the individual and the well-
being of the social group;
9. Non-linear: views time and processes as cyclical;
10. Often contextualized within the spiritual: may be based on cumulative,
collective Practical and spiritual experience. Traditional ecological knowledge
may be revised daily and seasonally through the annual cycle of activities (as
required);
11. Communal: general knowledge and meaning are shared among individuals
horizontally, not hierarchically; and
12. Promoting of stewardship: takes a proactive approach to environmental
protection and an ecosystem approach to resource management.”

According to FSC Canada (2003)27 the Traditional Knowledge includes, but is

not limited to knowledge of:
1. Local behavior, distribution or cycles of fish, wildlife and plant life;
2. broader climatic changes or cycles;
3. Local ecosystem or geomorphologic responses to natural or human
disturbances;
4. Local population densities or changes in fish and wildlife;
5. Qualitative information about the utility of a variety of medicinal, edible, or
material resource plants;
6. Requirements or activities needed to maintain or enhance local ecosystems.

Seeland. K (2000)28 in his edited book stated the utilization and Importance of
indigenous Knowledge by the Indigenous people. “The indigenous forest dwellers use
the knowledge and resources in social and spiritual accord with the prescription of his
culture. The conduct of his life- style thus a representation and pattern of resource use,
which he would rarely alter or disobey without being, forced to do so. Seeland further

27
Forest Stewardship Council Canada Working Group (FSC Canada). (2003). Regional
Certification Standards for British Columbia. Preliminary Version, July 11, 2003.
28
K. Seeland, (2000), op. cit., Pp. 38-39
41 | P a g e
states that the use of indigenous knowledge has an ethical dimension that encourages
transparency and accountability. The dispute over what is looked at to be a resource
for the whole society and what is left at the hand of the ethnic groups who claim
ancestral rights over it, is socially contested. The role of indigenous knowledge is to
be seen in the perspective to safeguard the value of country’s spiritual and intellectual
heritage not as a goal in itself, but for the sake of having common future options29.

Escobar (1995)30 in his book stated that the term modernization refers to
process of transmitting a cultural patterns of a particular society to others, in which
later are supposed to be ‘Non – modern’. The new knowledge paradigm sees non -
modern societies a helplessly ‘backward’, traditional and those they follow the
characteristics or path of modern society which is regarded as “ideal” and
“universalistic”. The concept of development is always defined in terms of modern
standard of living, urbanization, and industrialization, adoption of the values and
principles of modernity, including particular forms of order, rationality and individual
orientation31.

Sillitoe Paul (1998)32 has highlighted the importance of indigenous knowledge

in his study as a new area of research in applied anthropology and developmental
studies. The objective of this research was to introduce locally perspective into
development to promote an appreciation of indigenous power structures and know-
how. Its basic aim is to links between local understandings and practices and those of
outside researchers and development workers, notably in natural resources and health
sectors, seeking to achieve a sympathetic and indebt appreciation of their experience
and objectives and to contribute in the long term to positive change promoting
culturally appropriate and environmentally sustainable adaptations acceptable to the
indigenous people. Paul suggests that development initiatives that pay attention to
local perceptions and ways should be relevant to people's needs and to generate
sustainable interventions. It is also pointed out that a lack of respect for others

29
Ibid, Pp. 45.
30
A. Escobar, (1995), Encountering Development :The Making of the Third world, Princeton:
Princeton University Press, Pp.2
31
Ibid. p.3.
32
Sillitoe, Paul, (1998), “The Development of Indigenous Knowledge; A New Applied
Anthropology," Current Anthropology, Vol. 39, No.2, April 1998, Pp. 223-252.
42 | P a g e
perspectives, practices, needs and opinion leads to an offensive interference in
everyday life of indigenous people. It sends the message that modern technological
knowledge is a panacea to all the difficulties faced by the local population. Knowledge
is passed on by informed experience and practical demonstration. Attempts have been
made to manipulate the research findings by different 'interest groups' to use and
impose their views on others. For instance, in Nepal, Thailand and India, it is
increasingly common for politically more powerful lowland communities to blame
upland shifting cultivators for causing sedimentation. And flooding through
deforestation. This is done with a view to promote schemes involving reforestation,
resettlement, national reserves, and so on, that all this severely disrupts lives of the
indigenous people. Finally, Sillitoe has called for an increased communication
between natural scientists, social scientists and local peoples for effective negotiation.
He has also noticed the increasing focus on empowerment, participation and
indigenous knowledge in recent development practice, which is producing
Revolutionary shift m applied anthropology and development studies.

Zuberi, M. (1998)33 in his commentary on Sillitoe observes that the widespread

failure of the centralized or top-down approach to development in many less developed
countries has recently led to a focus on the bottom-up participatory approach. He
strongly advocates for the thorough understanding and incorporation of indigenous
knowledge and practices central to local ecological and social systems for sustainable
development. There is a need for a fresh approach - a search for the best strategy for
achieving viable participation by combining scientific and indigenous knowledge. The
linking of local peoples understanding and practices with scientific knowledge is the
more important in poor and over populated societies fully dependent on natural
resources. Zuberi also noticed the changing effects on the livelihood of the indigenous
people due to the imposition of modem methods or knowledge. The local people,
previously well adapted to their environment, find themselves ill-adapted to their own
habitat, as their indigenous knowledge has been decreed no longer useful. The once
wise farmers with experience of different soil type appropriate sites for particular
crops, and treatments for various diseases which they have had, have been

33
Zuberi, M.I. (1998), “The Development of Indigenous Knowledge: Comments”. Current
Anthropology, Vol. 39, pp 246-247.
43 | P a g e
marginalized with the imposition of modern methods. Young people no longer follow
the experienced farmers to the fields to learn nature's lessons regarding resource
management, which traditionally equipped village farmers.

Rakesh Gupta34 (2002), in his study “Indigenous Knowledge of Tribal

Farmers of Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh”, explains about how the
indigenous knowledge helpful in agriculture and how it is transferred to one
generation to another and how indigenous knowledge is indispensable and if it is
discarded with new scientific knowledge it might bring failures.

Mayor (1994)35 in his study laid down the importance of indigenous knowledge
he states that “The indigenous people of the world possess an immense knowledge of
their environments, based on centuries of living close to nature. Living in and from the
richness and variety of complex ecosystems, they have an understanding of the
properties of plants and animals, the functioning of ecosystems and the techniques for
using and managing them that is particular and often detailed. In rural communities in
developing countries, locally occurring species are relied on for many – sometimes all
– foods, medicines, fuel, building materials, and other products. Equally, people’s
knowledge and perceptions of the environment, and their relationships with it, are
often important elements of cultural identity.”

Gorjestani, N. (2000)36 ‘In his paper titled ‘Indigenous Knowledge for

Development opportunities and Challenges’, he has highlighted the importance of
indigenous knowledge for development of local communities. Indigenous institutions,
indigenous appropriate technology, and low-cost approaches can rise the efficiency of
development programs because IK is a locally owned and managed resource. Building
on IK can be chiefly effective in helping to reach the poor since IK is often the only
asset they control, and certainly one with which they are very familiar. He further
discussed about applying IK helps to intensify the sustainability of development efforts
because the IK incorporation process provides for mutual learning and adaptation,

34
Gupta, Rakesh. (2002) A Study on the Indigenous Knowledge of Tribal Farmers of
Kinnuar, Himachal Pradesh; Ph.D. Thesis, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut.
35
Mayor. 1994. Unknown publication information.
36
Gorjestani, N. (2000), ‘‘Indigenous Knowledge for Development opportunities and
Challenges”, UNCTAD Conference on Traditional Knowledge in Geneva.
44 | P a g e
which in turn contributes to the empowerment of local communities. Since efficiency,
effectiveness, and sustainability are key determinants of the quality of development
work, harnessing indigenous knowledge has a clear development business case. Early
indications point to significant improvements in development project quality if IK is
leveraged with modern technologies.

2.04. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD

The word 'sustainable livelihood' covers a whole range of sustainable

paradigms- sustainable life style, sustainable agriculture, sustainable community,
sustainable economy, etc. (Raman, 2003)37. It is also recognized that sustainability by
itself is not an end result, but a process of change, concomitant with the current and
future concerns. The challenge is to respond to the needs of those living in poverty and
ill health, the desire to help them achieve those needs, by building on what they have
and the commitment to make this happen are the core elements of a value system that
must be at the center of promoting sustainable livelihood. While taking about
livelihood the term 'sustainable development' automatically comes. The basic idea of
sustainable development is to meet the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Jabulani (2007)38 averred that indigenous knowledge is an essential resource

for any human development process. Indigenous knowledge is used to sustain the
community and its culture. Placing value on such knowledge could strengthen cultural
identity and the enhanced use of such knowledge to achieve social and development
goals, such as sustainable agriculture, affordable and appropriate public health, and
conservation of biodiversity.

37
K.V. Raman, (2003), "Sustainable Development and Sustainable Life Styles," in K.V.
Sundaram, and M. Moni (eds.) Sustainable Development and Sustainable Life Styles,
(Proceeding of an International Conference on Sustainable Development and
Sustainable Life Styles organized by Bhoovigyan Vikas Foundation, New Delhi),
New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, p.117.
38
Jabulani, Sithole. (2007) “The challenges faced by African libraries information centres in
documenting & preserving indigenous knowledge”. IFLA Journal, 33.2: pp 117-123.
45 | P a g e
 Sandbrook, (1992)39 in his paper ‘Stockholm to Rio’ has outlined the
development in the area of sustainable development and resource management in
general. But the centrality of the argument lies in the need for equity, fairness, respect
of the raw redistribution of wealth and wealth creation which implicitly emphasis on
people participation which in turn requires peoples’ knowledge. This policy
framework for the communities in third world countries, according to Sandbrook,
differs from this policy requirement of sustainable development in developed countries
whose concern is primarily on recycling, energy efficiency, conservation and
rehabilitation of damaged landscapes.

Dewan M.L (1995)40 defines "sustainable development", in the present

context," does refer to the preservation of our remaining resources for future
generations and the rehabilitation of resources that have been treated in such a cavalier
manner in the past and also does refer to the preservation of our remaining resources
for future generations and the rehabilitation of resources that have been treated in such
a cavalier manner in the past. He also adds that to these things systematically is to
follow a path of environmentally sustainable development. Sustainable development
coupled with human values, in his opinion, forms a society (Ibid, 2003)41.

The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the major objective of

development. The essential needs of vast numbers of people in developing countries
for food, clothing, shelter, and jobs- are not being meet, and beyond their basic needs
these people have legitimate aspirations for an improved quality of life. A world in
which poverty and inequity are endemic will always be prone to ecological and other
crises. Sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending
to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life. Perceived needs are
socially and culturally determined, sustainable development requires the promotion of
values that encourage consumption standards that are within the bounds of ecological
possible and to which all can reasonably aspire.

39
Sand brook, Richard (1992). ‘From Stockholm to Rio’ in Quarrie, Joyce (Ed.) Earth Summit,
London: The regency press Corporation, pp 15-16.
40
Dewan ML, (1995), Towards a Sustainable Society. Perceptions, Delhi: Clarion Books, Pp.
13
41
Ibid, 2003.
46 | P a g e
 World Commission on Environment and Development (1987)42 defines
“sustainable development", with multi-faceted and multi-disciplinary perspectives, "in
essence, is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of
investments, the orientation of technological, development, and institutional change
are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs
and aspirations". It further adds that "all would be better off if each person took into
account the effect of his or her acts upon others. Most important, effective participation
in decision making process by local communities can help them articulate and
effectively enforce their common interests."

As per the ideas and objectives of the present research are concerned
Brundtland’s concept and vision of sustainable development is the best operational
definition until now in existing global situations for the genuine alternative to the
problems faced by the whole mankind in general and the indigenous population in
particular.

The Gandhian idea of sustainable development is also applicable for a peaceful

common future in a situation of severe scarcity of resources with increasing need of
population. For Gandhiji - "Nature can satisfy everyone's need but not anybody's
greed". The violation of these principles can cause damage to human life as it appears
in the contemporary socio political and environmental conditions. The idea has already
shown its manifestations in the livelihood patterns of the forest dwellers all over. Their
environmental ethos and cosmological worldview gives ample evidence about the
facts that they are the original bearer of sustainable lifestyle.

Livelihood comprises the capabilities to acquire assets, including material and

social resources, and activity required for a means of life. A livelihood is sustainable
when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintains or enhances the
basic capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural base (Raman, 2003)43.
The history of the word 'livelihood' starts with the Brundtland Commissions Report in
1987 which stresses on the resources, ownership, and access to the basic needs, and

42
G.H. Brundtland, 1987, Our Common Future. The Report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.
43
K. V. Raman, (2003), op. cit., p. 117.
47 | P a g e
livelihood security, especially in rural areas. The scope of was enlarged by United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 by integrating it with
social, economic and ecological policy. In 1995 Social Summit, employment was
recognized as the most critical area for the implementation of socio­economic and
ecological policies, which added to the dimension of sustainable livelihood. Hence,
the word 'livelihood' and livelihood security, including sustainable livelihood became
the fundamental areas of concern.

Raman has identified five key elements related to development of sustainable

livelihood: (i). creation of gainful employment, both on-farm and off farm, (ii) poverty
reduction and enhancement of income with change in the consumption pattern, (iii)
ensuring the well-being and capabilities of individuals and communities; (iv)
livelihood adaptation, vulnerability and resilience, which include self-esteem, security,
happiness, reduction of stress, empowerment of women; and lastly (v) sustainability
of natural resource base (Sundaram & Moni, 2003)44. Among many of his valuable
suggestions on action plans a few of them are very noteworthy in the context of the
present study. They include environmental hygiene and nutrition, the gender
perspective in work force, the empowerment of women and local institutions, skill
upgradation, community resource management and respecting traditional knowledge
and wisdom45. Raman has more particularly emphasizing on the value of indigenous
technical knowledge which could be useful in for a sustainable livelihood by the
indigenous communities. He however, cautioned for these suggestions to be adopted
subject to the suitability of the areas and local conditions.

Das (2010)46 examines how conservation drive inked to the source of

livelihood creates a change in the community’s dependent on shifting cultivation and
hunting. His finding is based on the study of two villages namely Khonoma and
Leangkangro of Nagaland. He finds underlying the changes are various contradictions

44
Sundaram K.V. and Moni M., (2003), op. cit., pp. 117-18.
45
ibid, p. 119.
46
Das, Debojyoti (2010).’Communities, Conservation and the Challenges of Participation: An
Ethnographic Detour of Conservation Programme and the fate of Jhummias in Naga
Villages’. In M. C Behera & Jumyir Basar (eds) Interventions and Tribal Development
– Challenges Before tribes in India in the era of Globalization. New Delhi: Serials.
pp. 159-189.
48 | P a g e
between elites who were actively involved and others who are not in the project driven
conservation drive. The drive did not create any conservation ethics who were actively
and many villages stopped hunting in the village itself but did not hesitate to hunt
outside.

Choudhury (1982)47 provides various traditional practices of resource

management and conservation among the tribal communities of NE India is
interwoven in their day to day life style, customs, and belief systems. Besides he has
also presented the emerging situation of resource management and practices in
response to the forces of urbanization commercialization of resources, infrastructural
development, and population explosion and in the absence of conservation strategies
suitable for contemporary needs.

Samal (2007)48 analyses the issue in the same line drawing on his study of SCs
in Chilika Lake and STs in Keonjhar District of Orissa and argues in favor of local
level institutions in all community based efforts linking to resource management to
poverty alleviation programs.

D’Souza (2001)49 finds incompatibility between traditional practice of

conservation of forest resources and the requirements of emerging cash economy with
Angami community as a case study. He believes in the change with continuity and
argues formulation of suitable strategy incorporating both traditional ideology of
sustainable resource use and emerging market requirements.

Sharma (2003)50 considers tribal economy intimately connected with forest

economy and attributes all evils of tribal economy – marginalization, poverty and of
forest economy – forest degradation to the difference between the two. He identifies
the government policy programs as the cause of the differences in the perception of

47
Chowdhury. J.N. (1982). Arunachal through the Ages, Shillong.
48
Samal, Kishore C. (2007), Poverty, Social capital and Natural Resource Management, New
Delhi: Rawat Publication.
49
D’Souza Alphonsus (2001).Traditional Systems of Forest Conservation in North East India
the Angami Tribe of Nagaland Guwahati: North Eastern Social Research Centre.
50
Sharma, B.D. (2003), Tribal Development –The Concept and the Frame. New Delhi: Sanyog
Pustak Kuteer (Trust) first Edition 1975
49 | P a g e
the tribals from the use of forest resources. He suggests policy advocacy to integrate
the objectives of ‘people’s development’ in ‘forestry development’ for a sustainable
development of the tribal people.

The edited volume by Webb & Shivakoti (2008)51 primarily focuses on issues
resulting in the evolution of decentralized forest policies in South and Southeast Asian
countries in order to ensure just political governance and democratization process and
show regard to local users’ forests rights. A general view that forest policies succeed
the policy context in theoretical frame emphasizing on incentive for decentralization
(Webb, 2008)52 and addressing the question why countries move toward
decentralization and whether the rhetoric has met with actual decentralization of
authority (Agarwal & Ostrom, 2008)53.

Many Scholars have rightly pointed out that the development should take place
in such a way that it does not hamper the future generations. We must strike a balance
between development and conservation of natural resources which may, in turn, help
us in achieving sustainable development.

2.05. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND

RURAL DEVELOPMENT 54

Rural development in general is used to denote the actions and initiatives taken
to improve the standard of living in non-urban neighbourhoods, countryside, and
remote villages. In fact, development may be needed in any environment, but it is often
administered in rural areas due to real or perceived underdevelopment (Sundamari &

51
Webb, Edward L & Ganesh P. Shivakoti (2008). “Decentralization, Forests and Rural
Communities for Group Transformation Un development”. Communication
Monograph No.2. Honolulu: The East West Centre.
52
Webb, Edward L. (2008).’ “Forest policy as a changing context in Asia”, In E. L Webb &
G. P Shiva Kothi (eds) Decentralization, Forest, and Rural Communities- Policy
Outcomes in South and South-East Asia, New Delhi: Sage Publications, pp.22-43
53
Agarwal, Arun & Elinor Ostorom (2008), ‘Decentralized and Community Based Forestry
Learning from Experience’. In E.L. Webb & G.P. Shivakoti (Eds) Decentralization
Forest and Rural Communities – Policy Outcomes in South and South-East Asia. New
Delhi: Sage Publications, pp 44-67
54
Luseba D & van der Merwe D. (2006), Ethnoveterinary medicine practices among Tsonga
speaking people of South Africa. Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2006 Jun; 73(2):115-22.
50 | P a g e
Ranganathan, 2003)55. Underdevelopment is also often linked to poverty. Where
underdevelopment is linked to poverty, external developing agencies with funding step
in. Such an agency may be a government or a non-governmental organisation. For
many years colonial governments imposed their views on the areas, and indigenous
knowledge was frowned upon. This continued into the post-colonial period and which
is also spreading over to the current years (Kumar, 2010) 56. Therefore, many of the
initiatives were not successful. Reasons for these unsuccessful ventures are, include
(Shalini Mishra, 2006)57:
1. Technologies developed were not appropriate to address the problems of the
communities.
2. Failure to fit in with local ideas about agriculture, medicine etc.
3. Lack of knowledge about environmental constraints like climate, and soils. Ideas
often based on policies/agricultural methods that might have worked in the
northern hemisphere but are unsuitable for the ‘tropics’
4. Imposed from ‘above’ – so it automatically encountered resistance from
communities because they felt dictated to
5. Failed to take into account the human factor e.g.: perceived development needs,
labour supply, access to markets, gender issues etc.
6. Lack of cash
7. No clear benefits – so the people didn’t participate.

Later schools of thought included participatory development, which by nature

included the use of indigenous knowledge, since the wisdom of the people living in
the area under development, is obtained. Eventually actions are based on a mixture of
indigenous knowledge and external knowledge. Thus, the role of IK in developing the
rural areas in developing countries is incredible and inevitable (Sen & Khashmelmous,
2006)58.

55
Sundamari, M and Ranganathan, T.T. (2003). Indigenous Agricultural Practices for
Sustainable Farming. Agrobios (India). Jodhpur, India
56
Kumar, K. A. (2010). Local Knowledge and Agricultural Sustainability: A Case Study of
Pradhan Tribe in Adilabad District. Centre for Economic and Social Studies, 1-38
57
Shalini Misra, R. K. (2013). Indigenous Soil Management to Revive Ground Bio-Diversity:
A Case of Gahwal. 1-14
58
Sen, B., & Khashmelmous, N. A. (2006). “Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge Materials:
Efforts at Elhafeed Library, Ahfad University, Sudan: A Preliminary Study”.
International Information & Library Review, 38, 117-122.
51 | P a g e
 Development is almost certainly one of the most often used words though its
meaning can be remarkably difficult to pin down. Sustainable development, though it
undeniably includes economic components, is actually best described in terms of the
enhancement of human choices and attention to the range of human needs (Paran and
Williams, 2007)59. The formulation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in
2000 highlighted even broader criteria for development, including gender equality,
eradication of poverty and hunger, primary education, reduction of child mortality and
maternal health, control of disease, environmental sustainability and global
partnerships for development (United Nations Development Group, 2003) 60.

However, it is undeniable that a great deal of sustainable development activity

is sited among the target rural populations themselves; when it is successful, these
local populations have the on-going ability to make choices and to influence their own
circumstances for the better. The focus on such activities as health provision, education
provision and enhancement of individuals’ ability to make use of their surroundings to
meet their own ends, is based on this understanding of effective and sustainable
development. Nevertheless, our focus will be on sustainable development which
facilitate successful indigenous knowledge capture, storage, sharing and use with the
ability to evaluate new ideas and alternatives (Makinde and Shorunke, 2013) 61.

2.06. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND COMMERCIALIZATION

“With the emergence of modern biotechnologies, genetic resources have

assumed increasing economic, scientific and commercial value to a wide range
of stakeholders; . . . traditional knowledge, whether or not associated with
those resources, has also attracted widespread attention from an enlarged
audience; . . . other tradition-based creations, such as expressions of folklore,

59
Paran, Amos and Williams, Eddie. (2007) “Editorial: reading and literacy in developing
countries”. Journal of Research in Reading, 30.1(2007): 1–6.
60
United Nations Development Group, (2003). “Indicators for Monitoring the Millennium
Development Goals: Definitions, Rationale, Concepts and Sources”. United Nations,
New York.
61
Makinde, Omawumi O. and Shorunke, Oludare A. (2013), "Exploiting the Values of
Indigenous Knowledge in Attaining Sustainable Development in Nigeria: The place
of the Library". Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). Paper 908.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/908
52 | P a g e
 have at the same time taken on new economic and cultural significance with a
globalised information society”. - Announcement in the WIPO Inter-Regional
Meeting on Intellectual Property and Traditional Knowledge organized in
Chiangray, Thailand, in November 200062

Afterward, traditional knowledge (TK) is gaining commercial, industrial and

scientific significance. Lwoga et al.63, in their study of 2010, “Understanding
Indigenous Knowledge: Bridging the Knowledge Gap through a Knowledge Creation
Model for Agricultural Development”, confer that sustainable economic development
depends on the indigenous knowledge (IK) of the local communities as IK is mainly
used as the basis for local-level decision-making.

Hart (2007)64 agrees with this. He states that the potential role of IK in
improving agricultural performance is widely recognized in developing countries since
the agricultural sector is the backbone of many developing economies.

Warren (1996)65 notes that IK has been utilized in various ways by the local
people and it has worked for them whether in areas of agriculture, health, food storage,
processing and preservation system, environmental management, erosion control and
biodiversity conservation, which at times can be pretty strange to scientists.

Akullo et.al, (2007)66 stated that the indigenous knowledge of the people is
very effective in meeting their food requirements, effective in areas of soil enrichment,

62
WIPO Inter-Regional Meeting on Intellectual Property and Traditional knowledge, (2000),
Meeting Statement: A Policy and Action Agenda for the Future (Nov. 9-11, 2000).
63
Lwoga, E. T., Ngulube, P., & Stilwell, C. (2010). “Understanding indigenous knowledge:
Bridging the knowledge gap through a knowledge creation model for agricultural
development”, SA Journal of Information Management, 12(1), 8-pages.
64
Hart, T., & Mouton, J. (2007). “Indigenous knowledge and its relevance for agriculture: a
case study in Uganda”, Indilinga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems,
4(1), PP 249-252
65
Warren, D. M. (1996). “Indigenous knowledge, biodiversity conservation and
development”. Sustainable Development in Third World Countries: Applied and
Theoretical Perspectives, PP 81-88.
66
Akullo, D., Kanzikwera, R., Birungi, P., Alum, W., Aliguma, L., & Barwogeza, M. (2007).
Indigenous Knowledge in Agriculture: A Case Study of The Challenges in Sharing
Knowledge of Past Generations in A Globalized Context in Uganda. Durban, South
Africa. http://WWW. ifla. Org/iv/ifla73/index. htm.
53 | P a g e
land clearing, sowing, harvesting, weeding and mound/ridge making. She further
states that their mixed farming mixed cropping, crop rotation and shifting cultivation
helps tremendously in their bumper harvest. The utilization of IK does not stop at
farming, health and security alone. There are a number of uses that IK offers to
communities who employ it. This is a clear manifestation that IK usage has no physical
boundaries although it’s commonly seen in the agriculture and medicinal segments.

According to basic economics, supply is determined by demand. TK has

commercial value in billions of dollars. Wealth appropriated from tropical biodiversity
has been approximated at US$ 42 billion in 2000 (Finger & Philip, 2004) 67.

Commercialisation can improve the general economic status of indigenous

communities, resulting in better health, sanitation, education, standard of living,
lowering of infant immortality, better food security and nutrition, which can all result
in longer lifespan. Such communities need to be able to afford good education in order
for them to understand their ecosystem well. Scientists, conservationists, doctors,
economists, business experts and botanists should emanate from these communities.
Traditional medicine in South Africa should be promoted in line with the Ayurveda
and Siddha medicines in India or China, for example. In India, there is ongoing
research that aims at collecting these medicines so that the evidence of their healing
qualities can be documented. China has evidence-based research that is complete, and
its medicines have gained popularity in many parts of world (Patwardhan et al, 2005) 68.

People pay for these services which has created employment for many. The
system of collection and recording TK data mentioned above protects TK from direct
misappropriation in that it categorizes such knowledge as prior art. India has a
databank, the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL), which combines the
various health systems, Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha, which are documented in ancient

67
Finger, J M & Schuler Philip (2004), Poor people’s knowledge: promoting intellectual
property in developing countries, World Bank Publications 2004, available at
http://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=V64fSz5GepsC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5
&dq, accessed on 18 November 2016
68
Patwardhan Bhushan et al, (2005), “Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine: A
Comparative Overview”, Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
465-473, doi:10.1093/ecam/neh140, available at http://www.hindawi.com/journals/
ecam/2005/629537/abs/, accessed on 23 October16.
54 | P a g e
texts. India has also signed agreements with the European Patent Office (EPO), the
United Kingdom Trademark & Patent Office (UKPTO), and the United States Patent
and Trademark Office (USPTO) to reduce misappropriation by giving patent
examiners access to the TKDL database for patent search and examination purposes
(Padmini, 2002a69, 2002b70). Parties which have signed and ratified CBD are assured
of ABS through agreements entered into with indigenous communities. These benefits
can be monetary and non-monetary, such as setting up of schools and medical clinics
or provision of clean drinking water, all from royalties earned from the use of TK
(Dutfield, 2004)71.

However, given the nature of intellectual property (IP) and the complexities
that come with it, mainstream IP protection is inadequate in protecting such indigenous
IP. It is for this reason that alternative modes of protection have been fronted. These
modes take into consideration the facets of commercialisation in this regard, namely
both appropriation regime and asset regime (Teece, 1996)72. For the former, defensive
protection is appropriate where existing IP and related legislations are amended to
protect TK from being misappropriated by providing for such mechanisms as Material
Transfer Agreements (MTA). The other facet is where such IP is considered an asset
deserving protection irrespective of complexities surrounding its ownership and as
such can be negotiated through the institution of trusts. The evidence of
misappropriation of TK is seen, for example, in the Hoodia plant in the Republic of
South Africa (Ilze, et.al. 2011)73, and Turmeric, Neem, Basmati etc. from India (Finger
& Schuler, 2004)74. Often, even where consent of traditional communities is sought,

69
Padmini, Jayashree (2002a), "CSIR to commence clinical trials on herbals," Express Pharma
Pulse.
70
Padmini, Jayashree (2002b), "Knowing one’s “Intellectual Property rights," Express
Pharma Pulse.
71
Graham Dutfield, (2004), op cit (n4) 21
72
Teece, David J. (1996), "Firm Organization, industrial structure, and technological
innovation," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 31, 193-224.
73
Ilze Vermaak, Josias H Hamman, Alvaro M Viljoen Hoodia Gardonii (2011), “An Up-to-
date Review of a Commercially Important Anti-Obesity”, Plant Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology,
Pretoria, South Africa, available at http://www.eating-less.com/wpcontent/uploads/
2011/09/Hoodia-New-Review.pdf, accessed on 14 October 2016.
74
Finger JM, Schuler Philip, (2004), Poor People’s Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual
Property in Developing Countries (2004) at Ch 7, pp 161, available at
http://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=V64fSz5GepsC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5
&dq, accessed on 18 November 2016.
55 | P a g e
they are usually too ignorant of the consequences of their actions. The truth is that
these communities have very complex traditional intellectual property systems which
do not fit into the mainstream IP systems. Indigenous communities know the concept
of individual rights and respect this concept. However, this is inseparable from the
concept of collective responsibility (Correa, 2005) 75.

Due to a disconnect with the post-colonial way of life and total disregard of the
way of life and appreciation of these concepts among the indigenous communities,
there has been misappropriation of these TK by undeserving recipients of proceeds
from commercialisation of TK at the expense of indigenous communities (Dutta,
2001)76. It is worth noting that in most parts of the world and in South Africa,
indigenous groups mostly live in poverty and are marginalised and cut off from the
socio-economic activities which other dominant groups enjoy. If there can be well
coordinated mechanisms to enforce various recommendations and treaties, ratified by
the state, that apply to indigenous communities, their economic status can be greatly
improved (Mukundi, 2009)77.

2.07. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE COMMERCIALISATION AND ITS

MARGINALIZATION

Indigenous knowledge has defied common definition, and as a result connotes

different things to different people. It is widely recognized as knowledge that is
possessed by local people used for local level decision making in agriculture, culture
transmission healthcare, food preparation, education, natural-resource management,
and a host of other activities in rural communities, food preservation etc. (Briggs,

75 Correa, Carlos M (2005), ‘Traditional knowledge and intellectual property: issues and
options surrounding the protection of traditional knowledge’, commissioned by the
Quaker UN Office (QUNO), Geneva, with financial assistance of the Rockefeller
Foundation, available at http://www.tansey.org.uk/docs/tk-colourfinal.pdf, accessed
on 18 November 2016
76
Datta, Nandita (2002), "No more a sneeze," Outlook Money, Vol. 2003.
77
Mukundi, G Wachira (2009), ‘South Africa: constitutional, legislative and administrative
provisions concerning indigenous peoples’, available at
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/chr_old/indigenous/country_reports/Country_reports_South
Africa.pdf, accessed on 2 April 2017
56 | P a g e
2005)78 IK is holistic and encompasses the physical and spiritual aspects of life
(Arunachallam, 2007))79. Tella (2007)80 states that IK is important for a number of
reasons:
1) it provides problem solving strategies for communities;
2) it contributes significantly to global development knowledge;
3) it is relevant for the development process; and
4) it is an under-utilized resource in the development process.

The vast applicability of IK was captured in the work of Tella (2007:186), on

this premise we aver that IK encompasses all human interaction that can be captured
shared and used for developmental purposes. However, Ocholla (2007) 81 stated that
IK continues to be marginalized in development plans, and that this has resulted in its
limited use in the development process. One of the reasons that IK is marginalized is
because of the tacit nature of IK. It resides in people’s memories and is largely
transmitted through word-of-mouth, this means that it is in many senses endangered
as its custodians (who are mostly elderly) die and those that remain do not have the
whole story or look down upon IK as backward. IK is also viewed in some quarters as
the knowledge of the poor and illiterate. An effect of colonialism was the adoption of
a different way of knowing that devalued most of the indigenous knowledge present
in communities82.

Dei (2000)83 posited that the colonized were encouraged to enter formal
education and to abandon their traditional ways, and integrate instead the Western
modern ways that relied on science to explain phenomena where they could, and

78
Briggs, John. (2005). “The use of indigenous knowledge in development: problems and
challenges” Progress in Development Studies, Vol. 5.2 (2005): Pp 99–114
79
Arunachallam, Sathasivan, (2007), “Global Village: A View from the Periphery”.
Background paper commissioned by International Development Research Network
(IDRC).
80
Tella, Rama D. (2007), “Towards promotion and dissemination of indigenous knowledge: a
case of NIRD”, International Information and Library Review, 39. 3-4: Pp 185-193.
81
Ocholla, Dennis. (2007) “Marginalized Knowledge: An Agenda for Indigenous Knowledge
Development and Integration with Other Forms of Knowledge”, International Review
of Information Ethics, Vol 7: Pp 237-243.
82
United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.) “Indigenous Knowledge”. UNEP Website.
Assessed on 30, September 2016.
83
Dei, George S. (2000) “Rethinking the role of IKS in the Academy”, International Journal
of Inclusive Education 4.2: 111-32
57 | P a g e
invoked religion where they could not. IK is marginalized in the conventional
processes of knowledge. However, Dei (2000) points out that the problem arises from
separating traditional and modern knowledge as though they have no relation or impact
on each other. Many writers tend to invoke the differences between IK and Western
system of knowledge in order to explain what IK is. For example, they will state that
IK is holistic, orally communicated, and experiential in nature and very much linked
to spiritual and social values. Western system of knowledge is said to be
compartmental, written, theoretical and value free. IK is affected by and affects other
forms of knowledge, thereby emphasizing the collaborative dimension of knowledge,
which would seem to point to the need to merge or synthesize the two systems of
knowledge (Chakravarty, 2010)84.

2.08. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE- DEVELOPMENT & DISSEMINATION

Unfortunately, most of the traditional knowledge is not documented. Karter

(1993)85 observes that IK is gradually disappearing in most African countries including
Tanzania without any tangible efforts to recognize or manage it. Transfer of IK from
generation to generation is mostly done through oral tradition or by demonstration.
However, IK is not equally shared in the communities due to issues related to power
relationships and cultural differences. This calls for urgent interventions in the
management of IK to salvage the situation surrounding it (World Bank, 2006)86.

As earlier stated, IK is preserved in the memories of elders. Consequently,

Indigenous knowledge is steadily fading away due to memory lapses and death of the
elders. According to Lwoga et.al. (2010) 87, this knowledge has been responsible for
improving agricultural productivity and ensuring food security for centuries in

84 Chakravarty, Rupak. (2010) “Preserving traditional knowledge: Initiatives in India”. IFLA

Journal, Vol 36: Pp 294-299
85
Karter, A. (1993). “Indigenous Learning in Craft: A Pilot Research Effort”. Indigenous
Knowledge and Development Monitor. Vol. 1, Issue 1, 21 -23.
86
World Bank, (2006). Indigenous knowledge for Development: A Framework for Action.
Unpublished report, Knowledge and Learning Center, WB.
87
Lwoga, E. T., Ngulube, P., & Stilwell, C. (2010). “Understanding indigenous knowledge:
Bridging the knowledge gap through a knowledge creation model for agricultural
development”. SA Journal of Information Management, 12(1), 8-pages.
58 | P a g e
Uganda. However, IK is gradually disappearing in most African countries including
Uganda without any tangible efforts to recognize or manage it.

In agreement of that, Kumar (2010)88 attributes this to the fact that oral paths
are being blocked and people are no longer staying in homogenous community blocks.
The conviction here is that IK seems not to be appropriately documented and
disseminated and even the little that is in distribution is notably under looked in favor
of scientific methods.

While indigenous knowledge is of immense value in improving sustainable

livelihood, its documentation and dissemination remain a big challenge. Indigenous
knowledge has an important role in global knowledge economy (Williams &
Muchena, 1991)89. It encompasses the skills, experiences and insights of people,
applied to maintain or improve their livelihood. Indigenous knowledge is developed
and adapted continuously to gradually changing environments and passed down from
generation to generation and closely interwoven with people’s cultural values. The
same Indigenous knowledge is also the social capital of the poor, their main asset to
invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide shelter or achieve control
of their own lives (World Bank, 1997).

Since IK is stored in people’s memories and activities, it’s dissemination is

mainly through individual or communal expressions such as in stories, songs, folklore,
proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local
languages, agricultural practices, equipment, materials, plant species and animal
breeds as noted by (Van Damme, 2012)90.

In terms of its relevancy, Indigenous forms of communication are important to

local level decision making processes and for the preservation and spread of IK. This

88
Kumar, K. A. (2010). Local Knowledge and Agricultural Sustainability: A Case Study of
Pradhan Tribe in Adilabad District. Centre for Economic and Social Studies, 1-38
89
Williams, D.L. and O.N. Muchena. (1991). “Utilizing Indigenous Knowledge Systems in
Agricultural Education to Promote Sustainable Agriculture”, Journal of Agricultural
Education. Winter, 52-6.
90
Van Damme, P. (2012). “Review of indigenous knowledge in Uganda: implications for its
promotion”. Afrika Focus, 25(1), 29-38
59 | P a g e
body of knowledge has developed over generations through the process of human
interaction and its continuity depends on its transmission and the ability of the young
generation to acquire and practice it (Atteh, 1980)91.

One of the greatest consequences of the underutilization of indigenous

knowledge systems, according to Atteh (1989, p. 30) 92, is the: “Loss and non-
utilization of indigenous local knowledge [which] results in the inefficient allocation
of resources and manpower to inappropriate planning strategies which have done little
to alleviate rural poverty. With little contact with rural people, planning experts and
state functionaries have attempted to implement programmes which do not meet the
goals of rural people, or affect the structures and processes that perpetuate rural
poverty. Human and natural resources in rural areas have remained inefficiently used
or not used at all. There is little congruence between planning objectives and realities
facing the rural people. Planners think they know what is good for these 'poor',
'backward', 'ignorant' and 'primitive' people”.

Lakshmanan (1989)93 provided examples to support Atteh's observations

(1989, p. 12): “Lack of local people participation was observed in all stages of the
community forestry projects. In Sivaganga, the community forestry field staff planted
the trees in the dried ponds during the dry season without consulting local people for
the selection of sites. Most of the trees were dried off due to the lack of water. Had the
local people been consulted earlier, they would have suggested some potential sites for
planning. Moreover, local people were not informed about the community planning
program such as tree species and use of such planted trees. In Dindugal, Palani
Environmental Protection Group, a local organization is found to be very effective in
planning and implementing tree planting projects. The local organization has so far
planted thousands of acres of different varieties of trees. This organization claims that
they receive no support from the community forestry officials. Community forestry

91
Atteh, O. D. (1980). “Resources and decisions: peasant farmer agricultural management and
its relevance for rural development planning in Kwara State, Nigeria”. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation. University of London.
92
Atteh, O. D (1989). “Indigenous local knowledge as key to local-level development:
possibilities, constraints and planning issues in the context of Africa”. Seminar on
Reviving local self-reliance: challenges for rural/regional development in eastern and
southern Africa. Arusha, Tanzania, 21-24 February.
93
Lakshmanan, S. (1989). Growing forest trees [in Tamil]. Thuglak 13(6) 28-31.
60 | P a g e
officials were not aware of the impact of planting Eucalyptus sp. The level of ground
water table has gone down severely due to the quick absorption of water by Eucalyptus
sp. in Pudukottai” (Prance, 1989)94.

IKSs have been influenced by a series of changes because of the adoption and
diffusion of agricultural technologies. Expensive mechanized conservation methods,
high labour requirements to carry out maintenance for which farmers do not have
enough time, and top-down approaches which rely on legislation and regulation to
enforce conservation have all aggravated the situation (Reij et, al. 1987)95. The lack of
an interdisciplinary approach to agricultural and forest management problems that
includes farmer participation has been one of the several causes for the underutilization
of indigenous natural-resource management systems by national planners. Budowski
(1989)96 noted that little concern was given by forecasters to the knowledge of people
who live in or near forests. Foresters are more concerned with products of economic
importance, such as timber and exotic species. Technologies developed at research
stations may fail because they do not fit in with the local knowledge. Natural resource
policy-makers tend to pay little attention to what traditional technologies have to offer.
They prefer to base management practices on technologies that have worked in other
settings, but may not be suited to the local conditions (Hiraoka, 1989)97.

2.09. NEED FOR CONSERVATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

The need for policies for regulating indigenous resource management can be
traced to the colonial rule. The policies and regulation specifically forest acts which

94
Prance, G. (1989). 'Economic prospects from Tropical rainforest ethnobotany'. In Browder,
J. O. (ed.), Fragile Lands of Latin America: Strategies for Sustainable Development.
Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 61-74.
95
Reij, C., Turner, S. and Kuhlman, T. (1987). Soil and Water Conservation in Sub-Saharan
Africa: Issues and Options. Amsterdam: Center of Development Cooperatives, Free
University of Amsterdam, IFAD.
96
Budowski, G. (1989). 'Forest Development and Conservation'. Speech made at conference
on Global Tomorrow: Transforming the Ecological Crisis.' Iowa State University,
Ames, Iowa 8 November.
97
Hiraoka, M. (1989). “Agricultural systems on the floodplains of the Peruvian Amazon”, In
Browder. J. O. (ed.), Fragile Lands of Latin America: Strategies for Sustainable
Development. Boulder: Westview Press. pp. 75-101.
61 | P a g e
served the interest of the colonial rulers during British rule business elites in recent
years.

Shiva (1991)98, but when the emphasis is laid on policies relating to resource
management in recent years, it argues for the policies to serve the interest of the IKS
holders whose knowledge has conserved the resources from the distant past.

Baviskar, (1994)99 observes that the mandate of 'environmental conservation'

has been given to bureaucracy that has so far managed the forest for profit, both public
and personal. It is now expected that forest officials, who have so far only been trained
to measure diameter at breast height (DBH) and determine if a tree is ready for felling
or not, will be competent judges of the ecological "carrying capacity' of the forest ....
There has been no evidence so far that the forest department has the knowledge, skills
or sympathies to manage the forests for their conservation."

Li (2000)100 with the help of two analytical concepts, namely positioning and
articulation has defined the relation between the community and resource perception
in framing an identity. The author drawing on comparative data from two location in
habituated by Lauje and Linda, in hilly interior of Central Sulawan, Indonesia has
outlined a theoretical position.

Karlsson, B.G. (1997)101 also adheres to the above view that the main practice
of IK conservation is still based on the colonial idea of 'exclusion'. For example, unless
forest-dwellers and other local communities are drawn into the management of the
forest, it cannot be saved. He asserts that today with an alarmingly decreasing forest
cover in India, most experts agree that more sustainable usage of the remaining forests

98
Shiva, Vandana, (Ed.) (1991), Ecology and Politics of conflicts and Survival in India , Sage
Publication, New Delhi
99
Baviskar, A. 1994. ‘The Fate of the Forest: Conservation and Tribal Rights’, Economic
and Political Weekly. 29 (38): 2493-501.
100
Li Tania, Murray (2000), ‘Articulating Indigenous Identity in Indonesia, Resource Policies
and Tribal Slot’, Journal of Society for Comparative Study of Society and History,
Vol. 42, No. 1, pp 149-179.
101
Karlsson, B. G., 1997. “Contested Belonging. An indigenous people's for forest and
identity in Sub-Himalayan Bengal”, Lund Monographs 4, Dept. of Sociology,
Lund University
62 | P a g e
has to be worked out with the help of the tribal people, who possess the needed
knowledge.

Ellen and Harris (1996)102 have negated 'top down' approach. There is a
symbiosis of forest dwelling tribes and their surroundings and every fabric of their
social and cultural life, knowledge and skill seems to be interwoven with so many
aspects of the natural environment.

Patnaik N. (1989)103 and Roy Burman, B.K. (1989)104 have argued that
tribal people, who often live in forests close to nature, possess an 'indigenous
wisdom' of respect for all living creatures. A wisdom that among other things,
offers other communities in India, a vision of future survival through a life style
in harmony with nature.

Ellen (1998)105 has emphasized on the value of indigenous knowledge and its
reflections in 'shifting cultivation' or swiddening, extraction of non-timber forest
production including other things based on literature. The historical denial of
indigenous knowledge and its subsequent resurgence is explored in this paper. He also
examined the difficulties of blanket endorsement of local knowledge as an appropriate
means of achieving sustainable development and in particular the desire to identify
entire cultural traditions as unambiguously consistent with the goals of sustainability.
Ellen has argued that the practical experience and potential of people in particular
places embodied in traditional practices is much more than the generic knowledge
bearing institutions and their wholesale codification of abstract knowledge. He also
stated that the way development professionals have contextualized and scientised
indigenous knowledge by codifying it and rejecting the cultural context, has simply
repeated what has happened in previous scientist encounters with traditional
knowledge. He hints at the danger of turning local knowledge into global knowledge.

102
Ibid.
103
Patnaik, N., 1989. "Environmental changes affecting Tribal women," ADIBASI, Vol.
XXIX, No.3 & 4, September and December, pp. 5-15.
104
B.K. Roy Burman, 1992, "Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, Global Hegemonies and
Government of India," Mainstream, September 5, p. 33.
105
Ellen, R.F., 1998. "Local knowledge and sustainable development in developing
countries" in Allan Holland, Keekok Lee and Desmond McNeil (ed.) Global
Sustainable Development.
63 | P a g e
 Brokensha, (1995)106, in her study highlighted the importance of indigenous
knowledge is important because it forms the information base for a society during the
past decade or so when ignorance of local knowledge often resulted in failure of
development projects, more professionals have begun to see the value of documenting
the existing systems and of working with and through the local systems to improve
upon them. On global scale, indigenous knowledge systems as a prime part of culture
have come to play an important role in the international debate on cultural policy and
development planning. Indigenous knowledge system is dynamic in nature. It is in the
sense that people are constantly creating and experimenting in response to constantly
changing circumstances. As the world's population becomes more concerned with
environmental issues, sensitivity to the value of indigenous knowledge grows. It has
been realized that the existing systems represent a critical resource base for the process
of development.

Gadgil and Guha (1992)107 have discussed human-nature relationship in

historical perspective within unifying framework of four themes namely; prudence,
profligacy, strategies of resources use and conflicts which they give rise to. They have
located the restraining practices of resources use in specific cultural and historical
contexts in India. Precisely, they have presented the new interpretation of emergence
of cultural and ecological mosaic of Indian society and a sociological analysis of the
emerging modes of resource usages and associated conflicts during British period.
Theoretically, the authors have forwarded an analytical scheme, i.e. ‘modes of
resource use’, to supplement to the concept of ‘mode of production’ for broad
historical periodization of human-natural resource relationship. The authors (1995) in
another work have presented the contemporary conflicts in resource use in the process
of development. They have argued for a new environment friendly agenda for
development in which the focus should be on sustainable use of India’s environmental
resources, particularly the forest resources, in interest of the masses. There is a strong
appeal for people’s involvement and implicitly the focus is on people’s knowledge.

106
Brokensha, D., Warren, D.M. & Werner, O. (ed.), 1980. Indigenous Knowledge Systems
and Development, Lanham M. A: University Press of America.
107
Gadgil, Madhav & Guha, Ramachandra (1992). This Fissured land-An Ecological History
of India, Delhi: oxford university press.
64 | P a g e
Taking the argument of sustainable use, a little further, Guha (2008)108 questions the
relevance of large scale resource consumption in the west and attributes resource
conflicts, and regulated regime in resource use, planning, management and
conservation strategies in western societies to the higher and growing level of
consumption requirements in the west.

Sharland (1995)109 focuses on the facts that studying indigenous knowledge (of
Moru tribe) can increase the effectiveness of communication in two major ways: first,
by targeting the right section of population; and second, by using the proper vernacular
terms in relation to explanations rooted in the formal knowledge sector. Understanding
indigenous knowledge and perceptions can point to important ideas and practices that
are necessary for subsistence. Need for documentation of indigenous knowledge is
recognized all over the globe (Warren and Mckierman, 1995) 110. Ideas that are already
embryonic can be used in combination with scientific understanding to point to
measures that are needed. Recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge does not
imply that solutions from outside the traditional system are not beneficial or relevant
to the problems of the indigenous people. Understanding indigenous knowledge can
point to gaps in local knowledge where outside ideas can be applied in a sensitive
manner relating to existing conditions.

Seeland and Schmithusen (2000)111 observe that the implementation of

indigenous knowledge into practical development has produced encouraging results.
Indigenous knowledge is more a life-style than merely a set of traditional skills and
know-how. Self-esteem and empowerment of the local socio-economic and political
structures will ultimately depend upon the civilizational values (indigenous or local

108
Guha, Ramachandra (2008). How Much Should a Person Consume? Thinking through the
Environment. New Delhi: Permanent Black. (Frist Published in 2006)
109
Sharland, W. R., (1995). "Using Indigenous Knowledge in a Subsistence Society of Sudan,"
M.D. Warren, L.J. Slikkerveer & D. Brokensha (ed.) The Cultural Dimension of
Development, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, London: Intermediate Technology
Publications.
110
Warren, M.D., L. J. Slikkerveer & D. Brokensha (ed.) (1995). The Cultural Dimension of
Development, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, London: Intermediate Technology
Publications.
111
Seeland, K. and F. Schmithusen (ed.) (2000). Man in the Forest. Local Knowledge and
Sustainable Management of Forests and Natural Resources in Tribal Communities in
India, New Delhi: O.K. Print world (P) Ltd.
65 | P a g e
knowledge) in times of rapid globalization. Exploration of more and more indigenous
knowledge, in fact, leads to social development.

Agrawal, Arun (1995)112 states that indigenous knowledge systems are

disappearing primarily because of the pressures of modernization and cultural
homogenization, under the auspices of modem nation-state and international trade
system. Such a situation threatens the life-styles, practices and cultures of nomadic
population, small agricultural producers, and indigenous peoples.

Zemer (1994)113 based on his study of the Moluccan Island of Indonesia and
its customs of Sasi observes how the institution of Sasi is used in the protection and
conservation of resources by imposing prohibitions on harvesting at critical period in
the growth and reproduction of resources. The customs of Sasi were integrated into
national development plans, celebrated at national level in the discourse on
development and redefined as people's science, as a form of resource management and
conservation.

Ruchi Pant (2000)114 shows that two traditional mountain communities of the
Apatani and Nishi tribes of Arunachal Pradesh resolve the conflicts over resource-use
efficiently by appropriating their local institutions. She has cited several case studies
on the successful functioning of traditional institutions for resource management vis-
a-vis the institutions of the State.

Behera, S. (2000)115 shows how the Lanjia Soara, a tribal community of Orissa,
perceives resources in material, social and spiritual contexts of their life-world. The

112
Agrawal, Arun 1995. "Dismantling the Divide between Indigenous and Scientific
Knowledge," Development and Change, 26: pp. 413-39.
113
Zemer, Charles 1994. "Through a green lens: the construction of customary environmental
law and community in Indonesia's Maluku islands", Law and Society Review 28(5):
1079-1122
114
Pant, Ruchi, 2000. "Conflicts, Resolution and Institutions in forest Resources Management:
Experiences from the Traditional Mountain Communities of Arunachal Pradesh", in
K. Seeland and F. Schmithusen (ed.) Man in the Forest. Local Knowledge and
Sustainable Management of Forests and Natural Resources in Tribal Communities in
India, New Delhi: D.K. Print world (P) Ltd.
115
Behera, S. 2000. "Forests, Tribes and Resources," in K. Seeland and F. Schmithusen (ed.)
Man in the Forest. Local Knowledge and Sustainable Management of Forests and
66 | P a g e
most intriguing aspect is that social resources are made part of natural resources. Social
resources are meant to enhance social cohesion, equity, cooperation and solidarity
among its members.

Fernandes, (1988)116 provides statistical figures on the rate and cause of

deforestation. He shows that the development activities in Orissa have caused large-
scale deforestation in tribal belts, causing several social and economic hardships to the
indigenous population. Due to deforestation the native people are encountering many
problems like cultural erosion, land alienation, bonded labour, displacement and
exploitation, and adverse effects on women.

Felix (1998)117 observes that the tribes of Central India put more emphasis on
knowledge that comes out of life-long experience and is passed down to the next
generation. Tribal who live in the interior still depend on such knowledge for fulfilling
most of their day-to day needs. Knowledge is rooted into agriculture, hunting, fishing,
and forest foods and materials. He also observes that the indigenous tradition of
medicine and health care practices has a unique importance in indigenous societies.
Living inside the forests the indigenous people have deep-rooted knowledge of various
plants, roots, leaves, herbs and some parts of animal bodies, which are available in
their immediate surrounding used as medicine to cure several common as well as
serious diseases.

Similar observation is made by Anuradha (1998) 118 regarding the esoteric

knowledge and value of indigenous medicine of the Kannis of Kerela. She observed
that through the continuous and age-old interaction with natural eco-system Kannis
have accumulated knowledge on a local plant called arogyapachama (Trichopus
zeylanicus travancoricus), from which an anti-stress drug aeevani) has been developed

Natural Resources in Tribal Communities in India, New Delhi: D.K. Print world (P)
Ltd, pp. 291-305.
116
Fernandes, Walter, 1992. National Development and Tribal Development, New Delhi:
Indian Social Institute.
117
Padel, Felix 1998. "Forest Knowledge: Tribal People their Environment and the Structure
of Power" in R. Grove, V. Damodaran and S. Sangwan (ed.) Nature and Orient. The
Environmental History of South and South-East Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
118
Anuradha, R.V. 1998. "Mainstreaming Indigenous Knowledge; Developing Jeevani",
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIII, no. June 27, pp. 1615-19.
67 | P a g e
in collaboration of the Kannis and government. The drugs been used for treatment of
diabetics and tuberculosis. She found problems in benefit sharing and superficial
exercise of government agency and expressed. Concern over the unilateral of theses
agency to maximize profit and 'market sustainability' ignoring for participatory
approach.

In his paper on Paraja adivasis of Orissa, Dash (1986)119 has observed that the
medicinal knowledge of the people have been evolved through intuitive and
observational experience. The occurrence of diseases is not only the cause of abnormal
or disturbed physiological functions, but ecological and cultural imbalances too have
cause physical problems. He has reported some of the useful medicinal knowledge of
Paraja in treatment of snake bite, filaria, yellow-fever, scabies and tonsillitis.

Thirumalai (2003)120 Talks about resource conservation by using relevant

technology especially in construction and power generation sectors so that it becomes
eco- friendly and compatible to sustainable development. He goes to the extent of
suggesting borrowing ideas from ancient scriptures which invariably bring out the
philosophy of harmonious living with nature.

In similar line of thinking 50 articles edited in the volume of Kumar (2003)

focus on the interdependent, mutually reactive and interrelated character of organism
and environment. This relation is translated into practice through harmonious living of
man in particular with nature. The articles have discussed various components of
nature, their significance in understanding sustainable development and various
strategies which could be helpful in environmental protection and conservation.

Godbole (1996-1997) has discussed the application of indigenous knowledge

by Wancho community of Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh in mountain resource
management for jhum cultivation, maintenance of bamboo groves and varieties of
useful tress.

119
Dash, Jagannath, 1986. "The Concept and Treatment of Disease in Tribal Orissa," in B.
Chaudhuri (ed.) Tribal Health: Socio-Cultural Dimensions, New Delhi: Inter- India
Publications.
120
Thirumalai. Ramanujan, (2003). Resource Management for Sustainable Development
Mumbai: Himalayan Publishing House.
68 | P a g e
 Sunkel (1990)121 argues for incorporation of environmental dimensions at
different levels of development planning, namely in regional, sectoral, urban planning
and in project evaluation and implementation in order to ensure sustained long –term
development. They emphasize on ‘horizontal cooperation’, meaning environmental
cooperation among the nations, to ensure “the collective use of scarce resources and
experience”.

Menon et.al. (2007)122 have assessed initiatives for community based natural
resource Management (CBNRM) from case studies in Gopalpura, Rajasthan,
Lingmuteycchu watershed in Bhutan, and work of doodah toil Lok Vikas Sansthan. In
Gopalpur they have focused on Tarun Bharat Sangha’s (TBS) efforts of community
formation around the revival of tradition water harvesting structures. The rejuvenation
of the tradition is linked to the wider process of developmental intervention aiming at
improvement of livelihood options for rural communities in arid and semi-arid reasons
of Rajasthan through water conservation. In contrasts to Gopalpura experience, the
authors have focused interventions than village level, with respect for customary water
rights, and village level interventions as opposed to the watershed as a whole. Further
studying the work of Doodha Toli Lok Vikas Sansthan in CBNRM in the central
Himalayas, the authors found diverse issues like the homogeneous nature of the
community, power relations among the castes, people’s attitude towards greater
material consumption, independently and combined, incorporation of the IK in the
development planning and policies in order to minimize adverse impact of
development on social setup and the environment.

Das (2010)123 in the edited volume, entitled cultural diversity, indigenous

knowledge and biodiversity conservation has included 13 papers out of which 9 papers
relate to IKS in participatory development (Atal, 2010)124 with a provision for

121
Sunkel, Osvaldo 1990. The Environmental Dimensions in Development Planning. Santiago,
Chilie: United Nations Economic commission for Latin America and Caribbean
122
Menon, A., P. Singh, E. Saha, S. Lele, S. Paranjape, K. J. Roy, 2007. Community–based
Natural Resource Management –issues and cases from South Asia. Sage, New Delhi.
123
Das N. K. (2010). Cultural Diversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity
Conservation, New Delhi: Serials.
124
Atal, Yogesh (2010),’On Studying Indigenous Knowledge’. In N. K Das (ed) Cultural
Diversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Bio Diversity Conservation, New Delhi: Serials
Publication. pp. 23-29
69 | P a g e
alternative livelihood option (Kumar, 2010125) and modern scientific knowledge
(Nwaka, 2010)126; mutually supportive relationship among IK, language including
medicinal plants (Mathur, 2010)127. The relationship between sacred and conservation
practices (Kumar, ibid), and cultural heritage and biodiversity linked technical
knowledge (Mathur, ibid.); environmental degradation consequent upon government
regulations, industrialization, urbanization and commercialization of forests products
leading to declining symbiotic relationship between tribes and forests.

Many scholars have pointed out that conservation of IKS is important because
it is so interlinked and so, connected with our religion and culture that it has become
indispensable and also many scholars have pointed out that negligence of IKS has
always led to policy paralysis of the government.

2.10. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES AND LEGAL PROTECTION OF

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

Dimitrov (2006)128 broadly examines the role of scientific information in the

formation of policy agreements. The centrality of enquiry focuses on whether shared
knowledge derived from scientific research can help explain collective action in
environmental policy. Basically, he has focused inter-governmental initiatives to
address problems having global dimension such as ozone depletion, acid rain,
deforestation, and coral reef degradation. In his analysis, he finds gaps that persists
between theoretical explanations and empirical findings in response to global
environmental politics.

125
Kumar, Umesh (2010). ‘Biodiversity, Anthropogenic Pressure and conservation: The case
of the Khangchndzonga Biosphere reserve’. In N. K Das (ed) Cultural Diversity,
Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity Conservation. New Delhi: Serials
Publication. pp. 137-160.
126
Nwarka, Geoffrey (2010). “Tradition as a Modern Strategy: Indigenous as local response
to Globalization in Africa”, in N. K Das (ed) Cultural Diversity, Indigenous
Knowledge and Biodiversity conservation. New Delhi: Serial Publication. pp 121-126.
127
Mathur, P.R.G. (2010).’Indigenous Knowledge, Forest Ecosystems and Native Medicine
Vision of Biodiversity Conservation among Tribes of Kerala’ In N. K Das (ed)
Cultural Diversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity conservation, New Delhi;
Serials Publication. pp. 31-62
128
Dimitrov, Radoslav S. (2006). Science and International Environment: Regimes and Non-
regimes in Global Governance. Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield.
70 | P a g e
 Mauro and Hardison (2000)129 have reviewed international law and policy
regarding the rights of indigenous people and local communities. However, their focus
lies on analyzing the role of traditional and indigenous knowledge in management and
conservation of biodiversity with reference to the convention on biological diversity
and working group on indigenous populations. What is evident in there is
complementary role of IK to western scientific knowledge. The complementarity is
evident in UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) program. The important elements
are community based conservation (CBC) and management strategies of biological
resources.

Kothari et al (2000)130 in their edited volume have presented this perspective

through country overviews, issue based papers, case studies which have primarily
explored decentralized and community based conservation while Pimbert and Pretty
(2000) have tried to locate diversity and sustainability in CBC Practice. According to
Khare (2000)131, science and resource management in various degrees despite the fact
that the regions in central Himalayas have had the long tradition of community based
conservation practices.

Pant, R (2008)132, in her study titled ‘Protection and Empowerment of

indigenous plant breeder communities in India’, has highlighted that despite the use of
the knowledge and genetic- resource base of the IPBCs in modem and industrial
agriculture, these indigenous plant breeder communities have not received any
payments in return. This knowledge of the indigenous plant breeder communities is
under threat. The study amply suggests that their knowledge is being misappropriated.

129
Mauro, Francesco and Preston D. Hardison (2000), ‘Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Local Communities’. International Debate and Policy’, Ecological Application, Vol
10, No. 5 (Oct 2000), pp. 1263-1269. Accessed on 04/11/2016, 03:14 Downloaded
from http:// www.jstor.org/stable 2641281
130
Kothari, Ashish, R.V. Anuradha & Neema Pathak (2000). ‘Community–Based
Conservation: Issues and Prospects’. In A. Kothari, N. Pathak, R.V. Anuradha, B.
Taneja (eds) Communities and Conservation –Natural Resource Management in
South and Central Asia. New Delhi: Sage Publications. pp. 25-57.
131
Khare, Arvind (2000), ‘Community- Based Conservation: Experiences from Pakistan’. In
A Kothari, N. Pathak, R.V. Anuradha, B. Taneja (eds) Communities and Conservation
–Natural Resource Management in South and Central Asia. New Delhi: Sage
Publications. pp.148-169. (First edition in 1998)
132
Pant, R. (2008), ‘Protection and Empowerment of Indigenous Plant Breeder Communities
in India’, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi.
71 | P a g e
The illicit use of this knowledge in research and commercialization thereof is resulting
in huge profits to some corporations are patenting the knowledge and thus trying to
curtail farmers from using this knowledge. At the same time, these indigenous plant
breeder communities are also facing the threat of loss of some of this knowledge due
to various reasons. Existing IPR laws to protect knowledge in public domain or
knowledge belonging to the farmer are inadequate. In addition, new laws such as the
proposed seed law in India is likely to lead to further erosion in TK as it prohibits use
of unregistered local varieties.

Kuriakose, T. (2010)133 in her study titled ‘Legal Analysis of International

Policy Response to the Protection of Traditional Knowledge’ has highlighted that legal
framework needed for the protection of traditional knowledge. She further highlighted
that the existing traditional and indigenous communities to provide intellectual
property (IP) protection for a broad range of subject-matters including new ones such
as plant varieties, biological materials, lay-out designs and computer software, it is
only equitable that traditional knowledge should be given legal recognition.

Naresh (2012)134 in his study titled ‘Intellectual Property Rights with Special
Reference to Biodiversity Management and Sustainable Development’ has discussed
intellectual property rights, biodiversity and its relationship with sustainable
development. He further highlighted that from a broad sustainable development
viewpoint, intellectual property rights might relate to a number of aspects of a
country’s social and economic development. Its impact can be felt in industrial,
agricultural health, education, food security, environmental, biodiversity and related
traditional knowledge intellectual property rights are conceived as a tool to reward
innovators and creators for their contributions to the society, for a statutory period of
time. They are intended to provide the necessary incentives for the generation and
dissemination of knowledge as well as to encourage the transfer of technology.

133
Kuriakose T. (2010), ‘Legal Analysis of International Policy Response to the Protection of
Traditional Knowledge’, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Jawahar Lal Nehru
University, New Delhi.
134
Naresh, (2012), ‘Intellectual Property Rights with Special Reference to Biodiversity
Management and Sustainable Development’, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Maharshi
Dayanand University, Rohtak
72 | P a g e
 Pathak, N. (2008)135 in his study titled ‘Protection of Traditional Knowledge
Comparative Study of India and Bangladesh’ has highlighted the importance of
Protection of Traditional Knowledge and further said Traditional Knowledge has
positioned developing countries against the developed countries where the issue is the
interplay between the patent based and the sovereign- based system of ownership of
genetic material. Supporters of property rights suggest that IPRs through patents
ensure biodiversity conservation.

Poffenberger, et al. (2007)136 while discussing indigenous forest steward of

North East India have highlighted on the marginalization of indigenous communities.
As a result, the efforts of these communities to raise resource management concerns
to the national policy level have not yielded much. So, the authors have suggested for
special community forest management policy reflecting the historic rights and
contemporary conflict faced by the forest users from conservation stand point.

2.11. CONCLUSION

Increasing pressure for food production due to the rapidly growing population
has led to the gradual disappearance of numerous indigenous knowledge systems
(IKSs) related to natural-resource management. This process exposes the earth's
natural resources to constant ecological instability (such as loss of genetic diversity)
and severe environmental vulnerability (such as soil degradation and soil erosion).
Recent research on indigenous natural-resource management systems indicates that
they are highly sophisticated and complex, reflecting generations of careful
observations of the natural and physical environment (Rajsekaran et.al, 1991)137.

Indigenous Knowledge is important for sustainable livelihood, but absence of

any stringent policies have made it vulnerable. While going through the works of many

135
Pathak, N. (2008), ‘Protection of Traditional Knowledge Comparative Study of India and
Bangladesh’, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New
Delhi.
136
Poffenberger, M. &B. McGean (eds) 1996.Village Voices, Forest Choices-Joint Forest
Management in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
137
Rajasekaran, B., D. M. Warren, and S. C. Babu. (1991). “Indigenous natural-resource
management systems for sustainable agricultural development: A global perspective”.
Journal of International Development, Vol. 3 (4): 387-402
73 | P a g e
scholars have cited that absence of any rigid legal framework is hampering the
Indigenous Knowledge System. The present study reviewed above provides valuable
understandings on indigenous knowledge systems and diverse aspects of this
knowledge that exists among the indigenous communities. They have stressed tribe-
forest interdependency and how the idea of sustainable development/ livelihood is
established in their livelihood patterns. The survival of adivasis depends on forest and
vice versa. Further, many scholars perceive that the significance and use of indigenous
knowledge of forest-dwellers are not only helping for the survival of indigenous
communities but for the whole mankind in a sustainable manner (Rajasekaran, Warren,
and Babu, 1991).

Although the above studies are informative and insightful they are not free
from gaps. The facets covers in their studies are exclusive. They are not systematically
interlinking from multi-dimensional perspectives to every aspects of indigenous
societies for the study of their livelihood. To study the livelihood of indigenous
communities many scholars have concentrated on economic or material aspects
exclusively by ignoring the role of non-material or psycho-cultural aspects. The
uniqueness of indigenous societies in contrast to the mainstream societies is that all
the aspects of their life are controlled and guided by the supernatural agencies, hence
functions interactively; therefore, while studying and assessing the livelihood of
indigenous population the integrative analysis of supernatural or non-technical aspects
of the community must be taken into consideration.

Second, many scholars is in favor of that indigenous knowledge system as the

most viable substitute for the development of indigenous people. But they disregard to
evaluate the present position of indigenous knowledge and its significance in present
socio-political and ecological conditions which needs to be given emphasis in this
study. Many of them overemphasis the relationship between people and forests based
on the historical facts by ignoring the. Present conditions of forest and natural
resources. Last· but not the least, complete rejection of modernists' knowledge
paradigm in the situation where outside suggestions are essential without which the
promotion or coordination for sustainable development of the livelihood of indigenous
communities will be difficult task. Hence, the idea of modernity can be useful in a non-
dominant manner to earn positive results in the process of development.
74 | P a g e