Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol.

12 (1) (2013)

HERBAL MEDICINE IN NIGERIA: HOLISTIC OVERVIEW

*Falodun, A. and Imieje, V.

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy,
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: faloabi@uniben.edu

ABSTRACT
Herbal medicine practice in Nigeria is currently attracting serious attention from the scientific and
industrial community. The World Health Organization supports the use of herbal medicine provid-
ed they are proven to be efficacious and safe. This review attempts to discuss in detail the compo-
nents of herbal medicines, pros and cons, drug-drug interactions and its role in the primary health
care system.
Keywords: Herbal medicines, extracts, interactions, practice in Nigeria
INTRODUCTION collected information on herbs and developed
People on all continents have used well-defined herbal pharmacopoeias. Indeed,
hundreds to thousands of indigenous plants well into the 20th century much of the phar-
for treatment of ailments since prehistoric macopoeia of scientific medicine was derived
times. History has it that medicinal herbs were from the herbal lore of native peoples. Many
found in the personal effects of Otzi the Ice- drugs commonly used today are of herbal
man, whose body was frozen in the Otztal origin.
Alps for more than 5,300 years. These herbs It therefore means that every culture
appear to have been used to treat the parasites has explored and used plants for medicinal
found in his intestines. Herbal medicine(s) is purposes. The presence of several plants with
receiving much attention not only in the de- medicinal properties in a Neanderthal tomb in
veloping countries of the world like Nigeria, Iraq suggests that herbs may have been used
but also in the western world where it is esti- therapeutically for more than 60 000 years
mated that about 50 percent of the population (Solecki, 1975).
uses herbal medicines. Similarly, the World The first records come from China,
Health Organization (WHO) has estimated where the Emperor Shen Nung compiled Pen
that about 4 billion people, 80% of the world Tsao (The Great Herbal, or Chinese Materia
population presently use herbal medicine for Medica) in about 3000 BC. This book had
some aspect of primary health care. Certainly many subsequent editions, and many of the
herbal medicine is gaining prominence the thousand or more drugs described are still
world over. used in China (Guthrie, 1945). Ancient Egyp-
tian medicine of 1000 B.C. are known to have
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND used garlic, opium, castor oil, coriander, mint,
Herbal medicine is the oldest form of indigo, and other herbs for medicine and the
healthcare known to mankind. Herbs had been Old Testament also mentions herb use and
used by all cultures throughout history. It was cultivation, including mandrake, vetch, cara-
an integral part of the development of modern way, wheat, barley, and rye. It is also on rec-
civilization. Primitive man observed and ap- ord that the Ebers Papyrus discovered in a
preciated the great diversity of plants availa- tomb in Egypt in 1862, dates from 1550 BC
ble to him. The plants provided food, clothing, and is the oldest medical text to survive. It
shelter, and medicine. Much of the medicinal contains hundreds of herbal remedies, includ-
use of plants seems to have been developed ing castor seeds and senna for constipation,
through observations of wild animals, and by and a decoction of cumin, goose fat and milk
trial and error. As time went on, each tribe for various stomach complaints. Mesopotami-
added the medicinal power of herbs in their an practice is recorded on a thousand clay tab-
area to its knowledgebase. They methodically lets dating from the 7th Century BC: over 200
1
Falodun & Imieje Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

plant-derived medicines again included castor Due to the economic predicament of these
oil and senna as laxatives (Porter, 1977). countries, the people resort to the traditional
In the written record, the study of herbs herbal system for their primary health care
dates back over 5,000 years to the Sumerians, needs. In Africa, particularly Nigeria, new
who described well-established medicinal us- drugs are not often affordable thus up to 80 %
es for such plants as laurel, caraway, and of the population use medicinal plants as rem-
thyme. edies (Kirby, 1996; Hostettmann and Marston,
In Indian Ayurveda medicine has used 2002). For instance, Nuclea latifolia is thera-
many herbs such as turmeric possibly as early peutically useful in dental caries (Falodun et
as 1900 B.C (Argawal et al., 2007). Many al., 2007). It was reported by WHO that in
other herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda Nigeria, the ratio of Traditional Health Practi-
were later described by ancient Indian herbal- tioners to the population was 1:110, while the
ists such as Charaka and Sushruta during the ratio of Medical Doctors to the population was
1st millennium BC. The Sushruta Samhita 1:16, 400 (African Health Monitor, 2003).
attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BC This gives credence to the fact that people pat-
describes 700 medicinal plants, 64 prepara- ronise Traditional medicine practitioners
tions from mineral sources, and 57 prepara- (TMPs) for their primary health needs more
tions based on animal sources (Girish and than orthodox medical doctors (WHO, 2002).
Shridhar, 2007). This condition and the fact that international
The first Chinese herbal book, the Shen- commercial orthodox medicines are becoming
nong Bencao Jing, compiled during the Han increasingly out of reach for most Nigerians
Dynasty but dating back to a much earlier contributed to the dependence of a large per-
date, possibly 2700 B.C, lists 365 medicinal centage of the Nigeria people on local herbal
plants and their uses - including ma-Huang, medicine (Sofowora, 1992). It is however
the shrub that introduced the drug ephedrine worth noting that Africa, North and South
to modern medicine. Succeeding generations America together with Asia are the areas con-
augmented on the Shennong Bencao Jing, as taining the worlds’ greatest number of plants
in the Yaoxing Lun (Treatise on the Nature of species that are not found elsewhere. From
Medicinal Herbs), a 7th century Tang Dynasty this immense reservoir of plants, herbalists in
treatise on herbal medicine. Nigeria source different herbal medicines
The ancient Greeks and Romans made which are widely used today and surprisingly
medicinal use of plants. Greek and Roman gaining recognition by government as can be
medicinal practices, as preserved in the writ- seen by the establishment of the Herbal Medi-
ings of Hippocrates and - especially - Galen, cine Board.
provided the pattern for later western medi-
cine. Hippocrates advocated the use of a few WHAT ARE HERBAL MEDICINES?
simple herbal drugs - along with fresh air, Herbal medicine -- also called botanical
rest, and proper diet. Galen, on the other hand, medicine, phytomedicine or plant medicine
recommended large doses of drug mixtures - has been defined by WHO as finished labelled
including plant, animal and mineral ingredi- medicinal products that contain as active in-
ents. The Greek physician compiled the first gredient aerial or underground parts of plants
European treatise on the properties and uses of or other plant materials - which include in ad-
medicinal plants, De Materia Medica. In the dition to herbs, fresh juices, gums, fixed oils,
first century AD, Dioscorides wrote a com- essential oils, resins, and dry powders of herbs
pendium of more than 500 plants that re- - leaves, bark, roots, rhizomes or other plant
mained an authoritative reference into the 17th parts which may be entire, fragmented or pow-
century. dered, or combinations thereof whether in the
Medicinal plants are densely distributed in crude state or as plant preparations. Herbal
the tropical rainforest zones of the world of medicines have been used to treat many condi-
which Nigeria fall into. The medical systems tions, such as asthma, eczema, premenstrual
in developing countries involve both tradition- syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine,
al herbal systems and orthodox medicines. menopausal symptoms, chronic fatigue, and

2
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

irritable bowel syndrome, among others. from the knowledge of herbal medicines.
Herbs as medicines should be taken with cau- Africans and Nigerians in particular do not
tion because of some undesirable side effects just see disease as being caused by physical
associated with their use. Substances derived factors but also include the concept of spiritu-
from plants remain the basis for a large pro- al influences i.e. ancestral spirits. The tradi-
portion of the commercial medications used tional treatment has to take into account these
today for the treatment of heart disease, high various supernatural causes. The traditional
blood pressure, pain, asthma, and other prob- African healer knows a lot about physical
lems. For example, ephedra (herb) used in causes of illness and also has the great
Traditional Chinese Medicine for more than knowledge of the kind of leaves, fruits, roots
two thousand years to treat asthma and other and juices of plants and their combinations
respiratory problems. Ephedrine, the active which can be used medicinally.
ingredient in ephedra, is used in the commer-
cial pharmaceutical preparations for the relief SOME HERBAL MEDICINES IN USE IN
of asthma symptoms and other respiratory NIGERIA AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.
problems. It helps the patient to breathe more Few herbal remedies have conclusively
easily. Another example of the use of herbal demonstrated any positive effect on humans,
preparations in modern medicine is the fox- possibly due to inadequate testing (Ernst,
glove plant. This herb had been in use since 2007). Many of the studies cited refer to ani-
1775. At present, the powdered leaf of this mal model investigations or in-vitro assays
plant is known as the cardiac stimulant digital- and therefore cannot provide more than weak
is to the millions of heart patients it keeps supportive evidence.
alive worldwide. However, examples of medicinal plants in
There are over 750,000 plants on earth. use in other parts of the world and in Nigeria
Relatively speaking, only a very few of the in particular that have demonstrable some in-
healing herbs have been studied scientifically. teresting pharmacological results includes:
And because modern pharmacology looks for Aloe vera. It is traditionally used for the
one active ingredient and seeks to isolate it to healing of burns and wounds (Maenthaisong
the exclusion of all the others, most of the re- et al., 2007). A systematic review (from 1999)
search that is done on plants continues to fo- states that the efficacy of aloe vera in promot-
cus on identifying and isolating active ingredi- ing wound healing is unclear, while a later
ents, rather than studying the medicinal prop- review (from 2007) concludes that the cumu-
erties of whole plants. Herbalists, however, lative evidence supports the use of aloe vera
consider that the power of a plant lies in the for the healing of first to second degree burns
interaction of all its ingredients. Plants used as (Ernst, 2007; Vogler and Ernst, 1999).
medicines offer synergistic interactions be- Boophone (Boophone disticha) this highly
tween ingredients both known and unknown. toxic plant has been used in South African
traditional medicine for treatment of mental
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE illness (Stafford et al., 2008). Research
Herbal medicine in proper context cannot demonstrated in vitro and in vivo effect
be divorced from Traditional Medicine Prac- against depression (Pedersen et al., 2008;
tice. Therefore, it is just proper we know what Sandager et al., 2005; Neergaard et al., 2009).
traditional medicine is. The WHO define tra- Alligato pepper, Aframomism melegueta.
ditional medicine as the sum of all knowledge K. Schum (Zingiberaceae) Local names: Yo-
and practices (whether explicable or not) used ruba- oburo ata. Ata ire, Urhobo- Erhie, Huasa
in the diagnosis, prevention and elimination of - chitta, gyan’dammar yaji. The fruits, seeds,
the physical, mental, and social imbalance and leaves are used as stimulant, and as remedy
relying exclusively on the practical experience against cold.
and observations handed down from genera- Calendula (Calendula officinalis) is used
tion to generation whether verbally or orally traditionally for abdominal cramps and consti-
or in writing. From the above definition, it can pation (Gordon, 1998). In animal research an
be seen that traditional medicine practice stem aqueous-ethanol extract of Calendula offici-

3
Falodun & Imieje Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

nalis flowers was shown to have both spas- (HSV-2) in vitro (Koch et al., 2008).
molytic and spasmogenic effects, thus provid- Ginger (Zingiber officinale), administered
ing a scientific rationale for this traditional use in 250 mg capsules for four days, and effec-
(Bashir et al., 2006). tively decreased nausea and vomiting of preg-
Goat weed (Ageratum conyzoides L nancy in a human clinical trial used for colds,
(Compositae) Local name: Yoruba – ime-esu, toothaches, asthma, rheumatism, piles and
imi-ewure, Ibo- akwukwo-nwa osi nake, headaches. The ripe fruit is given as laxative.
Urhobo- Ikpamak. The whole plant leaves and Seeds boiled with milk are believed to be
seeds are used in herbal formula. The juice powerful abortificient and remedy for diabe-
from fresh plant is used for dressing wounds, tes.
ulcers, craw craw and as a remedy for inflam- Grapefruit (Naringenin) components may
mation. A decoction of the root is a remedy prevent obesity.
for abdominal pains and the raw root is Green tea (Camelia sinensis) components
chewed for digestive disorders. may inhibit growth of breast cancer cells and
Garlic (Allium sativum) L.Liliaceae, Hau- may heal scars faster (Belguise et al., 2007;
sa- Tafarnwa, The bulbs and leaves parts are Zhang et al., 2006).
used in ethnomedicine. It has diuretic proper- Honey may reduce cholesterol and wound
ties and is given in fevers, coughs, flatulence, healing (Al Walili, 2004).
disorders of the nervous system. It has been Lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus), Lo-
used as a remedy for asthma and hoarseness cal name: Isoko- eghu. When administered
of the chest. The bulb juice is used as a broad daily, the aqueous extract of the fresh leaf, has
spectrum antibiotic against fungi and bacteria. lowered total cholesterol and fasting plasma
It may also lower total cholesterol levels glucose levels in rats, as well as increasing
(Ackerman et al., 2001). HDL cholesterol levels. Lemon grass admin-
Echinacia (Echinacea angustifolia, istration had no effect on triglyceride levels
Echinacea pallida, Echinacea purpurea) ex- (Adeneye and Agbaje, 2007).
tracts is used for the treatment of rhinovirus Morinda citrifolia (noni) is used in the Pa-
colds (Shah et al., 2007). cific and Caribbean islands for the treatment
Feverfew (Chrysanthemum parthenium) is of inflammation and pain (Pande et al., 2005).
sometimes used to treat migraine headaches Human studies indicate potential cancer pre-
(Shrivastava et al., 2007). Although many re- ventive effects (Wang et al., 2009).
views of Feverfew studies show no or unclear Black cumin (Nigella sativa) has demon-
efficacy, a more recent RTC showed favoura- strated analgesic properties in mice. The
ble results (Silberstein, 2005). Feverfew is not mechanism for this effect, however, is unclear.
recommended for pregnant women as it may In vitro studies support antibacterial, antifun-
be dangerous to the fetus (Yao et al., 2006; gal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and im-
Modi and Lowder, 2006). mune modulating effects (Hajhashemi et al.,
Gawo (Faidherbia albida), a traditional herbal 2004).
medicine in West Africa, has shown promise Pawpaw (Carica papaya L Caricaceae)
in experimental animal tests (Tijani et al., local name: Hausa- gwanda, Ibo- okwulu ezi,
2008). Yoruba- ibepe, sigun, gbegbere is used as in-
German Chamomile (Matricaria chamo- secticide use for wound dressing (Regnault et
milla) has demonstrated antispasmodic, anxio- al., 2004).
lytic, anti-inflammatory and some antimuta- Peppermint oil is used in Nigerian ethno-
genic and cholesterol-lowering effects in ani- medicine as remedy against irritable bowel
mal research (Mckay et al., 2006). In vitro syndrome (Capello et al., 2007).
chamomile has demonstrated moderate anti- Pomegranate contains the highest percent-
microbial and antioxidant properties and sig- age of ellagitannins of any commonly con-
nificant antiplatelet activity, as well as prelim- sumed juice. Punicalagin, an ellagitannin
inary results against cancer. Essential oil of unique to pomegranate, is the highest molecu-
chamomile was shown to be a promising anti- lar weight polyphenol known. Ellagitannins
viral agent against herpes simplex virus type 2 are metabolized into urolithins by gut flora,

4
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

and have been shown to inhibit cancer cell trial and is approved for this use in Germany.
growth in mice (Heber, 2008). Willow bark (Salix alba) can be used for a
Rauvolfia serpentina, high risk of toxicity variety of anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial
if improperly used extensively for sleepless- purposes due to presence of salicylic acid and
ness, anxiety and high blood pressure and has tannins. Has been in use for aprox. 6000 yrs
been widely used in Nigeria in the manage- and was described in the 1st century AD by
ment of psychiatric problems. Dioscorides (Mahdi et al., 2006).
Rose hips – Small scale studies indicate that Cam wood Baphia nilida Latal
hips from Rosa canina may provide benefits in (Papilionaceae) local name: Yoruba-owiwi,
the treatment of osteoarthritis. irosun, Hausa- majiga, Urhobo- orhua. In
Saw Palmetto can be used for (high blood urhobo land a paste of its leaves is applied to
pressure ) BPH. The fat soluble extract of this the lower portion of the abdomen of pregnant
berry has become a leading natural treatment women to prevent miscarriage.
for BPH. This extract when used regularly, Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina, L
has been shown to help keep symptoms of (compositae) local name: Yoruba- ewuro,
BPH in check (Schneider et al., 1995). Hausa-shiwaka, Urhobo- olugbo. A decoction
Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) are of the leaves is used for stomach pains. Also
edible mushrooms that have been reported to used for skin infections, as an antipyretic, lax-
have health benefits, including cancer- ative and antidiabetic.
preventing properties (Fang et al., 2006). In Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) has been used in
laboratory research a shiitake extract has in- traditional medicine to treat circulatory disor-
hibited the growth of tumor cells through in- ders and enhance memory. Although not all
duction of apoptosis. Both a water extract and studies agree, ginkgo may be especially effec-
fresh juice of shiitake have demonstrated anti- tive in treating dementia (including Alzhei-
microbial activity against pathogenic bacteria mer's disease) and intermittent claudication
and fungi (Hearst et al., 2009). (poor circulation in the legs). It also shows
St. John's wort, has yielded positive re- promise for enhancing memory in older
sults, proving more effective than a placebo adults. Laboratory studies have shown that
for the treatment of mild to moderate depres- ginkgo improves blood circulation by dilating
sion in some clinical trials (Kuznetsov et al., blood vessels and reducing the stickiness of
2005). A subsequent, large, controlled trial, blood platelets. By the same token, this means
however, found St. John's wort to be no better ginkgo may also increase the effect of some
than a placebo in treating depression (Gaster blood-thinning medications, including aspirin.
and Holroyd, 2000). However, more recent Kava kava (Piper methysticum) is said to ele-
trials have shown positive results (Davidson vate mood, well-being, and contentment, and
or positive trends that failed significance. A produce a feeling of relaxation. Several stud-
2004 meta-analysis concluded that the posi- ies have found that kava may be useful in the
tive results can be explained by publication treatment of anxiety, insomnia, and related
bias but later analyses have been more favora- nervous disorders. However, there is serious
ble. The Cochrane Database cautions that the concern that kava may cause liver damage. It's
data on St. John's wort for depression are con- not clear whether the kava itself caused liver
flicting and ambiguous. damage in a few people or whether it was tak-
Stinging nettle in some clinical studies ing kava in combination with other drugs or
effective for benign prostatic hyperplasia and herbs. It's also not clear whether kava is dan-
the pain associated with osteoarthritis. In-vitro gerous at previously recommended doses, or
tests show antiinflammatory action. In a ro- only at higher doses. Some countries have tak-
dent model, stinging nettle reduced LDL cho- en kava off the market. It remains available in
lesterol and total cholesterol. In another rodent the United States, but the Food and Drug Ad-
study it reduced platelet aggregation. ministration (FDA) issued a consumer adviso-
Umckaloabo (Pelargonium sidoides): an ry in March of 2002 regarding the "rare" but
extract of this plant showed efficacy in the potential risk of liver failure associated with
treatment of acute bronchitis in a controlled kava-containing products.

5
Falodun & Imieje Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

Nigeria, it’s no exception the Nigerian people

HERBAL MEDICINES IN NIGERIA: and even the government equally are aware of
PAST AND PRESENT the role and need for an alternative means of
Traditional medicine had in the past been health care for the people. This awareness
seen as a fetish way of curing diseases. It is gave birth to the establishment of the
believed that poor and illiterate individuals are “Nigerian Natural Medicine Development
the patronisers of traditional medicine. This Agency” (NNMDA).
thought is buttressed by the point that most of Herbal medicine/traditional medicine
its practioners were regarded as witch doctors practice in Nigeria permeates every tribe. In a
who took care of their patient with occultic research involving Eighty nine species, plants
powers. Practioners of traditional medicine belonging to forty six families were identified
were not in any way seen as doctors; even the from fifty respondents, with herbal recipes
western trained doctors saw them as a threat recorded for thirty five ailments or therapeutic
to the well being of their patient. indications/uses. Individual plant species with
It should be however be noted that before highest frequency of prescription include Nau-
now, quacks bedevilled the Nigerian tradition- clea latifolia and Pilliostigma thonningii, Ag-
al medicine practice. This was largely due to eratum conyzoides, Newlboldia laevis, Phyl-
lack of necessary legislations to control and lanthus muererianus Cochlospermum plan-
regulate the practice. But regulation of herbal chonii, Ocimum gratissimum and Parkia bi-
medicines was introduced in Nigeria in 1993 globosa. This research indicates that for the
in Decree No.15 and was revised in 1999. Un- Igede people in Benue state traditional medi-
der this decree herbal medicines are regulated cine have wide acceptability and a long histo-
as dietary supplements, health foods, function- ry (Igoli et al., 2005).
al foods and as an independent regulatory cat-
egory. As reported in the WHO global survey THE PROS AND CONS OF HERBAL
on National policy on traditional medicine and MEDICINES.
regulation of herbal medicines, May 2005, Increasing cost and distrust of modern
Nigeria, the expert committee on TM/CAM western medical care in recent years has pro-
was created in 1978. The work of this com- moted the use of alternative and traditional
mittee led to the creation of two national re- therapies. Many of these herbal remedies in-
search institutes on TM/CAM and herbal clude some form of herbal or homoeopathic
medicines, founded in 1988 and 1992. They remedy that is not medically regulated for
are the Nigeria Natural Medicines Develop- safety or efficacy (Ernst and White, 2000).
ment Agency in Lagos, Nigeria and the Na- In most developed countries herbal medi-
tional Institute for Pharmaceutical Research cines are gaining popularity. However, usually
and Development. In recent years, the treat- herbal medicines in most places are not regu-
ments and remedies used in traditional Afri- lated as medicines. Problems might arise as a
can medicine vis- a-vis Nigeria have gained result of the lack of adequate regulations, the
more appreciation from researchers in West- pharmacological complexity of herbal prod-
ern science. Developing countries have begun ucts and the paucity of information on the
to realize the high costs of modern health care pharmacological and toxicity of these com-
systems and the technologies that are required, pounds. Herbal medicines can be purchased
thus proving Africa's dependence to it from outlets ranging from health food stores
(Helwig, 2010). Due to this, interest has re- to internet sites and thus crucial evaluation of
cently been expressed in integrating tradition- their safety is relevant and important.
al African medicine into the continent's na- The upsurge of global awareness and use
tional health care systems. of herbal medicines has created the multiplici-
Today, in some Asian and African coun- ty of markets of these herbal remedies and
tries, up to 80 % of the population relies on increase in herbal preparation and formulation
traditional medicine or practices for their pri- in the Nigerian market. Listed below are few
mary health care needs (WHO. Fact Sheet, of such preparations:
Traditional Medicine, Geneva, May 2003.). In · B-Success 28 plant, a Powder, use as an

6
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

antibiotic with aleo vera Pothomorphe umbellata, a well known tradi-

· Operation sweep, a Powder, use for Rheu- tional Brazilian antimalarial plant could not be
matoid arthritis confirmed using the standard intraperitoneal
· Aloe vera Tablets, an Antioxidant Plasmodium berghei mice model (De Ferreira
· Zarausmacine, Powder, an Antibiotic da Cruz, 2000).
· Virgy-virgy computer Worm expeller, One herbal product worth mentioning
powder, worm expeller come by the trade name Jobelyn an extract of
· Dorasine powder, Powder, Typhoid fe- Sorghum bicolor, a NAFDAC registered herb-
ver, malaria, al product presented in the form of capsules
· Man power Powder, Watery of sperm, low and syrup, marketed by “Health Forever” in
sexual energy sperm count, diabetes Nigeria. The product has high antioxidant rat-
ing, promotes heart health, regenerates red
The popularity and availability of these blood cells and thus has been used in the Ni-
remedies has generated concerns regarding the gerian health care system as an adjunct in the
safety, efficacy and responsibility of praction- management of sickle cell disease. It promotes
ers using the Nigerian traditional remedies. immune response and healthy joint function.
These influx of herbal remedies into the Nige- The above notwithstanding, "adulteration,
ria market, with some meeting and some not inappropriate formulation, or lack of under-
meeting the requirements set by the standard standing of plant and drug interactions have
organization of Nigeria (SON) and the nation- led to adverse reactions that are sometimes
al agency for food and drug administration life threatening or lethal.
and control (NAFDAC), is a matter of con- Herbal remedies can also be contaminated,
cern that some cases of poisoning by unidenti- and herbal medicines without established effi-
fied chemicals and concoctions might have cacy, may unknowingly be used to replace
been due to inadequate or improper labelling medicines that do have corroborated efficacy
requirements of these remedies (Obi, 1997). (Ernst, 2007). Although not frequent, adverse
Several herbs used in traditional medicine reactions have been reported for herbs in
have been validated by scientific evidence for widespread use (Sal, 2006). On occasion seri-
their efficacy and safety (Okunji et al., 1997). ous untoward outcomes have been linked to
Attempts to isolate the active constituents and herb consumption. A case of major potassium
develop them into therapeutic agents have depletion has been attributed to chronic lico-
posed far more challenges than was anticipat- rice ingestion, and consequently professional
ed. The usual sequence in drug discovery herbalists avoid the use of licorice where they
based on traditional medicine is the identifica- recognise that this may be a risk.
tion of the herbs used by traditional healers
and subjecting them to in vitro bioassay. This NAME CONFUSION
has not been as successful as would be ex- The common names of herbs (folk taxono-
pected given the resources and time expended my) may not reflect differences in scientific
in bioassay guided separation of plant ex- taxonomy, and the same (or a very similar)
tracts. Due to reasons which are not complete- common name might group together different
ly well understood, some plant extracts appear plant species with different effects. For exam-
to have biological activities that are superior ple, in 1993 in Belgium, medical doctors cre-
to that of the isolated pure compounds. The ated a formula including some Traditional
organic fraction of the alcoholic extracts of Chinese medicine (TCM) herbs for weight
Enantia chlorantha and Ancistrocladus spp. loss. One herb (Stephania tetrandra) was
for example, showed greater antiplasmodial swapped for another (Aristolochia fangchi)
activity than the individual compounds isolat- whose name in Chinese was extremely similar
ed from them. In other cases, the in vivo labor- but which contained higher levels of a renal
atory results did not correlate with either the toxin, aristolochic acid; this mistake resulted
ethnomedical evidence or the clinical observa- in 105 cases of kidney damage.
tions. The in vivo antiplasmodial activity of, Note that neither herb used in a TCM con-

7
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)
Falodun & Imieje
text would be used for weight loss or given pressure, making it dangerous for those trying
for long periods of time. In Chinese medicine to keep their blood pressure under control.
these herbs are used for certain forms of acute Ginseng, garlic or supplements containing
arthritis and edema (Dan Bensky et al., 2004; ginger, when taken with the blood-thinning
Vanherweghem et al., 1993; Lin et al., 2003). drug, Coumadin, can cause bleeding episodes.
Coumadin is a very powerful drug that leaves
INTERACTIONS OF HERBAL MEDI- little room for error, and patients taking it
CINES WITH ORTHODOX MEDICINES. should never take any medication or otherwise
Many people have the mistaken notion before consulting a qualified health profes-
that, being natural, all herbs and foods are sional.
safe. This is not so. Very often, herbs and In rare cases, ginseng may over stimulate
foods may interact with medications you nor- the CNS resulting in insomnia. Consuming
mally take that result in serious side reactions. caffeine with ginseng increases the risk of
Experts suggest that natural does not mean it overstimulation and gastrointestinal upset.
is completely safe. Everything you put in your Long term use of ginseng may cause menstru-
mouth has the potential to interact with some- al abnormalities and breast tenderness in some
thing else. The medication that is taken by women. Ginseng is not recommended for
mouth travels through the digestive system in pregnant or lactating women.
much the same way as herbs taken orally do. Ginkgo Biloba. The active ingredients in
So, when a drug is mixed with herb or another Ginkgo biloba extract account for its antioxi-
food, each can alter the way the body metabo- dant properties and its ability to inhibit plate-
lizes the other. Some drugs interfere with the let aggregation. Consequently, this herbal
body's ability to absorb nutrients. Similarly, product is promoted for use in improving cog-
some herbs can lessen or increase the impact nitive function and blood flow. To date, how-
of a drug. ever, at least four reports of spontaneous
Some dietary components increase the risk bleeding in association with use of Ginkgo
of side effects. Theophylline, a medication biloba have been published (Rosenblatt and
administered to treat asthma, contains xan- Mindel, 1997). Ginkgo biloba has potential
thines, which are also found in tea, coffee, interactions with garlic, vitamin E and medi-
chocolate, and other sources of caffeine. Con- cations with antiplatelet or anticoagulant prop-
suming large amounts of these substances erties.
while taking theophylline increases the risk of Garlic capsules combined with diabetes
drug toxicity. Certain vitamins and minerals medication can cause drastic decrease in
impact on medications too. Large amounts of blood sugars level. Some people who are sen-
broccoli, spinach, and other green leafy vege- sitive to garlic may experience heartburn and
tables high in vitamin K, which promotes the flatulence. Garlic has anti-clotting properties.
formation of blood clots, can counteract the Goldenseal is used for coughs, stomach up-
effects of heparin, warfarin, and other drugs sets, menstrual problems and even arthritis.
given to prevent clotting. However, the plant's active ingredient will
Dietary fibre also affects drug absorption. raise blood pressure, complicating treatment
Pectin and other soluble fibres slow down the for those taking antihypertensive medications,
absorption of acetaminophen, a popular pain- especially beta-blockers. For patients taking
killer. Bran and other insoluble fibres have a medication to control diabetes or kidney dis-
similar effect on digoxin, a major heart medi- ease, this herb can cause dangerous electrolyte
cation. imbalance. High amount of consumption can
Hawthorn, touted as effective in reducing lead to gastrointestinal distress and possible
angina attacks by lowering blood pressure and nervous system effects. Not recommended for
cholesterol levels, should never be taken with pregnant or lactating women.
digoxin, the medication prescribed for most Feverfew, believed to be the natural reme-
heart ailments. The mix can lower the heart dy for migraine headaches, should never be
rate, causing blood to pool, bringing on possi- taken with other migraine medications. It can
ble heart failure. Ginseng can increase blood result in the patient's heart rate and blood

8
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

pressure to raise dangerous levels. gredient of St. John's Wort is hypericin. Hy-
Guarana, an alternative remedy being used pericin is believed to exert a similar influence
as a stimulant and diet aid, contains 3 percent on the brain as the monoamine oxidase
to 5 percent more caffeine than a cup of cof- (MAO) inhibitors such as the one in major
fee. So, if you are taking any medication that antidepressants. Mixing MAO inhibitors with
advises you against taking any drink with caf- foods high in tyramine, an amino acid, pro-
feine, you should avoid taking this stimulant. duces one of the most dramatic and dangerous
It may cause insomnia, trembling, anxiety, food-drug interactions. Symptoms, which can
palpitations, urinary frequency, and hyperac- occur within minutes of ingesting such foods
tivity. Avoid during pregnancy and lactation while taking an MAO inhibitor, include rapid
period. Long term use of Guarana may lead to rise in blood pressure, a severe headache, and
decreased fertility, cardiovascular disease, and perhaps collapse and even death.
several forms of cancer. Some patients report that Saint John’s
Kava: A herb that has anti-anxiety, pain Wort caused excessive stimulation and some-
relieving, muscle relaxing and anticonvulsant times dizziness, agitation and confusion when
effects, should not be taken together with sub- taken with other antidepressants (Gordon,
stances that also act on the central nervous 1998).
system, such as alcohol, barbiturates, anti de- White Willow, a herb traditionally used
pressants, and antipsychotic drugs. Kava has for fever, headache, pain, and rheumatic com-
also been shown to have additive effects with plaints may lead to gastrointestinal irritation,
central nervous system depressants. A patient if used for a long time. It exhibits similar reac-
who was taking Alprazolam (Xanax), cimetid- tions as aspirin (aspirin is derived from white
ine (Tagamet) and terazosin (Hytrin) became willow). Long term use may lead to stomach
lethargic and disoriented after ingesting kava ulcers.
(Almedia and Grimsley, 1996).
Kava should not be used with benzodiaze- HERBAL MEDICINES: THE PROGRESS
pines, barbiturates, antipsychotics and alcohol. SO FAR IN NIGERIA.
In addition, patients with Parkinson's disease Health is the most precious of all things
should be discouraged from using kava prod- and it is the foundation of all happiness. Tra-
ucts. ditional medicine has developed in various
Kava dermopathy has been reported with communities in Nigeria in response to the
the use of kava as a traditional South Pacific health needs of the people. Many communities
beverage. Recently, two cases associated with have, therefore, since creation, developed var-
use of commercially available kava prepara- ious traditional systems using locally-
tions were reported. A 70-year-old man who available resources for the alleviation of their
had been taking kava extract for anxiety for health problems. The development of tradi-
two to three weeks experienced itching sever- tional medicine in Nigeria has led to various
al hours after sun exposure. Erythematous, categories of healers, the various healing
infiltrated plaques then developed on his face, methods, strategies and medicines or remedies
chest and back. A similar case involved a 52- now known. The British colonial masters
year-old woman who presented with papules brought in orthodox medicine and, today, both
and plaques on her face, arms, back and chest systems of medicine exist in the country; both
after taking a kava extract for three weeks. In have the primary objective to cure, manage or
both cases, biopsy revealed lymphocytic infil- prevent diseases and maintain good health.
tration of the dermis with destruction of the It should be recalled that Nigeria like most
sebaceous glands. Because kava is lipophilic, African states marked the African Traditional
it was hypothesized that kava can concentrate Medicine day was observed in Nigeria for the
in sebaceous oils and trigger an immune re- first time in 2003 following its inclusion on
sponse, resulting in a drug reaction (Jappe et the WHO’s calendar for observance in mem-
al., 1998). ber states, so as to promote the role of tradi-
St. John's Wort is a popular herb used for the tional medicine in the continents' healthcare
treatment of mild depression. The active in- system. The country has made "a number of

9
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)
Falodun & Imieje
mile stones" in pursuance of the objectives of NIPRD published in the Newsletter of the In-
the African Traditional Medicine Day. Ac- ternational Conference on AIDS investigated
cording to the microbiologist, that the nation the potential value of an herbal product used
is making progress can be seen in the fact that locally for the treatment of AIDS patients.
the nation found it worthy to establish the Drugs currently in use against HIV/AIDS
agency, which is a parastatal under the Feder- have cumbersome dosage regimen, unbearable
al Ministry of Science and Technology, to re- and potentially fatal adverse effects, and are
search, develop, document, preserve and pro- generally unaffordable hence the need for
mote the nation's natural medicine, which has cheaper and less toxic alternatives.
been explained to be "traditional or indige- The researchers studied the freeze-dried
nous healthcare systems, medications and non extract of the crude medicinal sample. Labora-
-medications, healing arts, sciences and tech- tory animals, as well as, clinical isolates of
nologies." Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Candida albi-
The agency pioneered the development of cans, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aure-
a pharmacopoeia, a database listing drug use us, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia
in medical practice and describing their com- coli and Mycobacterium smegmatis were used
positions, preparations, uses, dosages, effects for the experiments. Acute toxicity (LD50) was
and side effects, the Nigerian context. determined. The minimum inhibitory concen-
Another landmark is the fact that the Na- tration and minimum bactericidal concentra-
tional Agency for Food, Drugs Administration tion were determined. Immuno-active studies
and Control (NAFDAC) "has put together cri- were carried out using the passive cutaneous
teria for listing traditional medicine". And the anaphylaxis (PCA) model in rats. The results
nation currently has a Traditional Medicine indicated that no remarkable adverse reaction
Bill before the National Assembly. Once was recorded in laboratory animals within 24
passed by the relevant authorities, the bill hours. The preliminary data suggest immuno-
"Will regulate the practice and practitioners in stimulant activity of the extract. The sample
such a way that it would facilitate the integra- caused a dose dependent relaxation of both the
tion of traditional medicine into healthcare isolated guinea pig ileum, and the rabbit jeju-
system." Although Nigeria's slow progress num. No anti-TB activity was recorded, but
and little role in global natural medicine prac- significant inhibitory activity was noticed
tice can be attributed to strong resistance from against Candida albicans, Esherichia coli and
orthodox medicine practitioners in the coun- Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The product ap-
try. Hostility to the development of traditional peared to be safe and may be useful against
medicine has been coming from the orthodox some opportunistic infections. The relaxant
medical practitioners owing to their level of effect on the guinea pig ileum and rabbit jeju-
lack of understanding of what traditional med- num corroborates the use of the product since
icine is supposed to be. this could be beneficial in the treatment of
In Nigeria, the National institute for Phar- profuse diarrhoea, which is frequently noticed
maceutical Research and Development in AIDS patients."
(NIPRD), Abuja, and the Nigeria Natural Furthermore, NIPRD have developed for-
Medicine Development Agency (NNMDA), mulations from local plant extracts, which
Lagos, are blazing the trail in the development have been studied in the Institute. They in-
alternative medicines in the management of clude: A solid dosage form of NIPRISAN, a
AIDS/Malaria. They have made progress in preparation for the Management of Sickle Cell
developing herbal cures for AIDS, malaria disease; A solid dosage form of CONAVIL, a
and TB, screening is ongoing for over 20 preparation for use in the supportive Manage-
plants for diabetes, TB and hypertension ment of HIV/AIDS; A solid dosage form of
which are part of the critical projects at the NIPRD AM-1, a preparation for the treatment
NNMDA. of uncomplicated malaria; A semi solid topi-
Similarly, a study on preliminary evaluation cal preparation of NIPRISAN for the treat-
of a local phytomedicine for the management ment of fungal infections; and A solid dosage
of HIV/AIDS by a team of researchers from form of a plant extract for the management of

10
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

peptic ulcer. ture need to be passed into law so that tradi-

Until now, Nigeria has developed phyto- tional medicine is fully integrated into our
medicines for ulcers, anaemia, contraception, healthcare system.
malaria and HIV, and it now holds patents for
some of these medicines in several countries. REFERENCES
Both were developed from herbal medicines Adeneye, A.A. and Agbaje, E.O. (2007).
obtained from local traditional healers. The Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects
NIPRD followed a procedure in which the tra- of fresh leaf aqueous extract of Cybopo-
ditional healers and their patients sign consent gon citratus Stapf. in rats. Journal of Eth-
forms, allowing study of the phytomedicine nopharmacology 112 (3): 440–4.
and the effects on patients. In phase 1 placebo Ackerman, R.T., Mulrow, C.D., Ramirez,
-assisted clinical trials, patients were given the G., Gardner, C.D., Morbidoni, L. and
experimental phytomedicines for both sickle Lawrence, V.A. (2001). Garlic shows
cell anemia and for HIV. After three months, promise for improving some cardiovascu-
patients in the experimental group were found lar risk factors. Archives of Internal Medi-
to be improving. The clinical trials are contin- cine 7 (6): 696–700.
uing. The NIPRD is also targeting malaria, Aggarwal, B.B., Sundaram, C., Malani, N.
and started a pilot clinical trial of a new anti- and Ichikawa, H. (2007). Curcumin: the
malarial phytomedicine in July 2000. Indian solid gold. Advances In Experi-
The HIV/AIDS phytomedicine is called mental Medicine & Biology. 595: 1–75.
Dopravil. From preliminary anecdotal and ex- Al-Waili, N.S. (2004). Natural honey lowers
perimental evidence, the new compound plasma glucose, C-reactive protein, homo-
looked promising. cysteine, and blood lipids in healthy, dia-
However, local researchers have made betic, and hyperlipidemic subjects: com-
huge progress on herbal cures for malaria. parison with dextrose and sucrose. Journal
One of such herbs used to treat malaria that of Medicinal Food 7 (1): 100–7.
efforts are currently on to study its safety lim- Almedia, J.C. and Grimsley, E.W. (1996).
its is Enatia chlorantha, a herb that bears dif- Coma from the health food store: interac-
ferent local names in Nigeria. The stem bark tion between kava and alprazolam. Annals
of this plant also known as African yellow in Internal Medicine 125: 940-1.
wood among the Yoruba speaking community Bashir, S., Janbaz, K.H., Jabeen, Q. and
is called "Iyani" or "Awopa" while in Benin it Gilani, A.H. (2006). Studies on spas-
is called "Evenbavbogo" In Nigeria, the bark mogenic and spasmolytic activities of Ca-
extract are used widely to treat malaria fever, lendula officinalis flowers. Phytotherapy
high body temperature, wounds, kick start la- Research 20 (10): 906–910.
bour in pregnant women and as a naturally Belguise, K., Guo, S. and Sonenshein, G.E.
occurring antibiotics. The plant is also used (2007). Activation of FOXO3a by the
traditionally to treat jaundice, tuberculosis and Green Tea Polyphenol Epigallocatechin-3-
leprous spots. The aqueous extract is effective Gallate Induces Estrogen Receptor Ex-
in the treatment of conditions like ulcer. pression Reversing Invasive Phenotype of
Breast Cancer Cells. Cancer Research 67
CONCLUSION (12): 5763–5770.
In conclusion, the field of herbal medicine Cappello, G, Spezzaferro M, Grossi, L,
is a ground that needed to be explored. Nige- Manzoli, L, and Marzio, L. (2007). Pep-
ria tropical rain forest abounds with medicinal permint oil (Mintoil (R) in the treatment of
plants with promising medicinal activities that irritable bowel syndrome: A prospective
need to be researched. Grants from govern- double blind placebo-controlled random-
ment to researchers and research institutes ized trial. Digestive and Liver Disease 39
will open this new field. For Nigeria to meet (6): 530 – 536.
WHO health for all by 2015, the Traditional Dan, B., Steven, Clavey., Erich S., and An-
Medicine Bill and other health related legisla- drew G. (2004). Chinese Herbal Medi-

11
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)
Falodun & Imieje
cine: Materia Medica, Third Edition. 1054- Phytotherapy Research 18 (3): 195–9.
1055 Heber, D. (2008). Multi targeted therapy of can-
Davidson, J. (2002). Effect of Hypericum perfo- cer by ellagitannins. Cancer Letters 289 (2):
ratum (St John's Wort) in Major Depressive 262–268.
Disorder. Journal of the American Medical Jappe, U., Franke, I., Reinhold, D. and
Association 287 (14): 1807–1814. Gollnick, H.P. (1998). Sebotropic drug reac-
De Ferreira-da-Cruz, M. (2000). The Intraperi- tion resulting from kava-kava extracts thera-
toneal Plasmodium berghei-Pasteur Infection py: a new entity? Journal of American Acad-
of Swiss Mice Is Not a System That Is Able emy of Dermatology 38: 104-6.
to Detect the Antiplasmodial Activity in the Kuznetsov, O., Mil'kova, E.V., Sosnina, A.E.
Pothomorphe Plant Extracts That Are Used as and Sotnikova, N. (2005). Antimicrobial
Antimalarials in Brazilian Endemic Areas. action of Lentinus edodes juice on human
Experimental Parasitology 94(4): 243-247. microflora. Zhurnal mikrobiologii, epidemi-
Ernst. E. (2007). Herbal medicines: balancing ologii, 1 Immunobiologii 80–82.
benefits and risks. Novartis Foundation Sym- Kamin, W., Maydannik V., Malek F.A. and
posium 282: 154–67; 167–72, 212–8. Kieser M. (2010). Efficacy and tolerability
Ernst, E. And White, A.R (2000). The BBC sur- of EPs 7630 in children and adolescents with
vey of complementary medicine use in the acute bronchitis: A randomised, double-
UK. Therapeutic Medicine, 8: 32-36. blind, placebo controlled multicenter trial
Fang, N., Li, Q., Yu, S., Zhang, J., He, L., Ro- with a herbal drug preparation from pelargo-
nis, M.J. And Badger, T.M. (2006). Inhibi- nium sidiodes roots. International Journal of
tion of growth and induction of apoptosis in Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 48
human cancer cell lines by an ethyl acetate (3): 184-191.
fraction from shiitake mushrooms. Journal of Koch, C., Reichling, J., Schneele, J. and
Alternative & Complementary Medicine 12 Schnitzler, P. (2008). Inhibitory effect of
(2): 125–132. essential oils against herpes simplex virus
Gaster, B. and Holroyd, J. (2000). St John's type 2. Phytomedicine 15 (1-2): 71–78.
wort for depression: a systematic review. Ar- Lin, Shih-Hua., Yang, S.S., Chau, T.,
chives of Internal Medicine 160 (2): 152–6. Halperin, M.L. (2003). An unusual cause of
Gordon, J.B. (1998). SSRIs and St. John's wort: hypokalemic paralysis: chronic licorice in-
possible toxicity. American Family Physician gestion. American Journal of Medical Sci-
57: 950-953. ence 325 (3): 153–6.
Girish, D. and Shridhar, D. (2007). History of Mahdi, J.G., Mahdi, A.J., Mahdi., A.J. and
Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher Bowen, I.D. (2006). The historical analysis
par Excellence. National Informatics Centre. of aspirin discovery, its relation to the wil-
http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/ low tree and antiproliferative and anticancer
iaet07i4p243.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-08 potential. Cell proliferation 39 (2): 147–55.
Guthrie, D.A. ( 1945). History of Medicine. Maenthaisong, R., Chaiyakunapruk, N., Ni-
Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., London runtraporn, S. and Kongkaew C. (2007).
Hearst, R., Nelson, D., McCollum, G., Millar, The efficacy of aloe vera for burn wound
B.C, Maeda, Y., Goldsmith, C.E., Rooney, healing: a systematic review. Burns 33 (6):
P.J. and Loughrey, A. (2009). An examina- 713–718.
tion of antibacterial and antifungal properties Mckay, D., L. and Blumberg, J.B. (2006). A
of constituents of Shiitake (Lentinus edodes) review of the bioactivity and potential health
and oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus) mushrooms. benefits of chamomile tea (Matricaria
Complementary Therapies in Clinical Prac- recutita L.). Phytotherapy Research 20 (7):
tice 15 (1): 5–7. 519–530.
Helwig, D. (2010). Traditional African medicine. Modi, S., and Lowder, D.M. (2006). Medica-
Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. tions for migraine prophylaxis. American
Retrieved 2010. Family Physician 73 (1): 72–78.
Hajhashemi, V., Ghannadi, A. and Jafarabadi, Neergaard, J., Andersen, J., Pedersen, M.E.,
H. (2004). Black cumin seed essential oil, as Stafford, G.I, van Staden, J. and Jäger,
a potent analgesic and antiinflammatory drug. A.K. (2009). Alkaloids from Boophone dis-
12
 Nigerian Journal of Science and Environment, Vol. 12 (1) (2013)

ticha with affinity to the serotonin trans- Salix alba (Mig-RL) combination in mi-
porter. South African Journal of Botany 72 graine prophylaxis: a prospective, open-
(2): 371–4. label study. Clinical Drug Investigation 26
Obi, E. (2006). Safety warnings and first aid (5): 287–296.
instructions on Nigerian traditional herbal Stafford, G.I., Pedersen, M.E., van Staden, J.
remedies: are they adequate? World journal and Jäger, A.K. (2008). Review on plants
of medical sciences 1 (2): 108-111. with CNS-effects used in traditional South
Okunji, C.O. (1997). In this report; Kirby, African medicine against mental diseases.
G.C., Tropical Doctor, Supplement 1: 7-11. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 119 (3):
Pande, M., Naiker, M., Mills, G., Singh, N. 513–37.
and Voro, T. (2005). The Kura files: quali- Silberstein, SD (2005). Preventive treatment of
tative social survey. Pacific Health Dialog headaches. Current Opinion in Neurology
12 (2): 85–93. 18 (3): 289 – 292.
Pedersen, M.E., Szewczyk, B., Stachowicz, Solecki, R.S. (1975). Shanidar IV, A Neander-
K, Wieronska, J., Andersen, J., Stafford, thal Tower burial in Northern Iraq. Science
G.I., van Staden, J., Pilc, A. And Jäger, 190: 880-7.
A.K. (2008). Effects of South African tradi- Tijani, A.Y., Uguru, M.O. and Salawu, O.A.
tional medicine in animal models for de- (2008). Anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory and
pression. Journal of Ethnopharmacology anti-diarrhoeal properties of Faidherbia al-
119 (3): 542–8. bida in rats. African Journal of Biotechnolo-
Porter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to gy 7 (6): 696–700.
Mankind. A Medical History of Humanity Vanherweghem, J.L., Depierreux, M. and
from Antiquity to the Present. Harpers Col- Tielemans, C. (1993). Rapidly progressive
lins, London interstitial renal fibrosis in young women:
Rosenblatt, M. and Mindel, J. (1997). Spon- association with slimming regimen includ-
taneous hyphema associated with ingestion ing Chinese herbs. Lancet 341 (8842): 387–
of Ginkgo biloba extract. New England 91.
Journal of Medicine 336:1108. Vanhaelen, M., Vanhaelen-Fastre, R., But,
Sandager, M., Nielsen, N.D., Stafford, G.I., P. and Vanherweghem, J.L. (1994). Iden-
van Staden, J. and Jäger A.K. (2005). Al- tification of aristolochic acid in Chinese
kaloids from Boophane disticha with affini- herbs. Lancet 343 (8890): 174.
ty to the serotonin transporter in rat brain. Vogler, B.K. and Ernst, E. (1999). Aloe Vera:
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 98 (3): 367 a systematic review of its clinical effective-
–70. ness. British Journal of General Practice 49
Sal, H. (2006). Adverse effects associated with (447): 823–828.
herbal medicine. Austrian Family Physi- Wang, M.Y., Lutfiyya, M.N., Weidenbacher-
cian. 30 (11): 1070–5. Hoper, V., Anderson, G., Su, C.X. and
Shah, S.A., Sander, S., White, C.M., Rinaldi, West B.J. (2009). Antioxidant activity of
M. and Coleman, C.I. (2007). Evaluation noni juice in heavy smokers. Chemistry
of echinacea for the prevention and treat- Central Journal 3: 13.
ment of the common cold: a meta-analysis. Zhang, Q., Kelly, A.P., Wang, L., French,
Lancet Infectious Diseases 7 (7): 473–80. S.W, Tang, X., Duong, H.S., Messadi,
Schneider, H.J., Hanold, E. and Mashur, T. D.V, and Le, A.D. (2006). Green tea ex-
(1995). Treatment of benign prostatic hy- tract and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate in-
perplasia. Results of a surveillance study in hibit mast cell-stimulated type I collagen
the practices of urological specialists using expression in keloid fibroblasts via blocking
a combined plant-based preparation. PI-3K/AkT signalling pathways. Journal of
Fortschr Med 113:37-40 Investigative Dermatology 126 (12): 2607–
Shrivastava, R., Pechadre, J.C., and John, 2613.
G.W. (2007). Tanacetum parthenium and

13