Essentials of socio

CHAPTER 1

Understanding Sociology

Understanding Sociology
• Sociology is the systematic study of human society, social groups, and social interactions.
• It emphasizes the larger context in which individuals live.
• Sociologists view common human interactions as if they were plays, like the play "Boy
Meets Girl."

Key Concepts in Sociology

• Role: The expected performance of someone in a specific position.
• Social Structure: The larger structure of the play in which the roles appear.
• Sociological imagination: The ability to recognize how seemingly personal issues at least
partly reflect broader social structures.

Role of Social Structure in Sociology

• The larger structure of the play in which the roles appear.
• The interrelatedness of the roles and the power dynamics between actors and roles.
• Understanding the role of student in the context of the social structure we call education.

The Role of Sociological Imagination

• The ability to recognize how apparently personal issues at least partly reflect broader social
structures.
• It is used when we realize that some personal troubles are actually common public issues
that reflect a larger social context.
• The impact of history, economic patterns, and social structures on our own experiences is
often overlooked in everyday life.
• Poverty is more common in rural areas, in the south and southwest, on isolated Native
American reservations, and in states with many less-educated, Hispanic, and African
American residents.

The sociological imagination is a crucial aspect of understanding how outcomes are partly a
product of society and not fully within the control of the individual. It suggests that success
or failure depends to a large extent on social factors, such as conflicting roles and role
expectations. Sociology focuses on how people interact and the rules of behavior that
structure those interactions, with an emphasis on patterns of interaction and their
development, maintenance, and change.

Sociology has much in common with political science, economics, psychology, and
anthropology, all of which share an interest in human social behavior and society. They all
emphasize the scientific method as the best approach to knowledge, relying on empirical
research based on systematic, unbiased examination of evidence. Sociology differs from
other social sciences in its particular focus, as it focuses on how these and other issues affect
and are affected by social groups and social interactions.

Sociology emerged as a field of inquiry during the political, economic, and intellectual
upheavals of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Rationalism and science replaced
tradition and belief as methods of understanding the world, leading to changes in
government, education, economic production, and even religion and family life. The French
Revolution (1789) and the Industrial Revolution (1892) had an even greater impact, leading
to substantial social disorganization.

The sociological imagination suggests that to truly understand how the world works, we need
to analyze the broader social structure as well as individual behaviors and characteristics.
Empirical research is research based on systematic, unbiased examination of evidence, and it
was during these years that scientific research was a new enterprise.

In conclusion, the sociological imagination offers a new way to look at and solve common
troubles and dilemmas that individuals face. By considering both social forces and personal
choices, we can better understand how the world works and make informed decisions.

Sociology emerged in the 19th century as a discipline influenced by upheavals in Europe.

Founders include Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max
Weber. Comte, a French philosopher, coined the term sociology in 1839 and proposed that
the scientific method could be applied to social events. His philosophy of positivism posited
that the social world could be studied with the same scientific accuracy and assurance as the
natural world. Comte also recognized the importance of understanding social structure and
change, which remain central to sociological research.

Herbert Spencer, a British philosopher-scientist, believed that evolution led to the

development of social and natural life. He viewed society as a giant organism, with parts
working together to maintain it. Spencer's principles guide the study of sociology, focusing
on growth and change processes and the importance of objectivity and moral neutrality in
investigation.

Karl Marx, a German philosopher, economist, and social activist, was born in 1818 and spent
most of his adult life in exile and poverty. He viewed poverty and inequality as human-made
conditions fostered by private property and capitalism, leading him to focus on understanding
and eliminating capitalism.

Marx's theories of economic determinism and dialectics have left lasting legacies in
sociology. Economic determinism posits that the most basic task of any human society is to
provide food and shelter, and that economic relationships determine the form of family, law,
religion, and other social structures in a given society. Marx suggested that the major goal of
a social scientist is to understand economic relationships and how they affect human
relationships.

Marx's major contribution to sociology was his theory of social change, which posits that
change occurs through conflict and resolution rather than evolution. Influenced by German
philosopher Georg Hegel, Marx argued that for every idea (thesis), a counter idea (antithesis)
develops to challenge it, leading to a new idea (synthesis). He applied this model of change to
economic and social systems, predicting that conflicts between the capitalist class and the
working class would lead to a communistic economic system.

Marx's ideas on economic relationships and economic conflicts are widely accepted, but he
also argued that social scientists should be social activists, working in the courts and the
streets to change social relationships. Durkheim, a professor at the Sorbonne, embraced
society and focused on understanding how societies remain stable and foster individual
happiness. His major works are still considered essential reading in sociology, including his
studies on suicide, education, divorce, crime, and social change. Durkheim's major concerns
were the balance between social regulation and personal freedom, arguing that community
standards of morality provide a sense of belonging and integration.

Understanding the Concept of Value-Free Sociology

Durkheim's View on Social Regulation and Personal Freedom

• Durkheim identified two types of suicide: Fatalistic suicide and Anomic suicide.
• Fatalistic suicide occurs when society provides too little freedom and too much regulation,
causing individuals to feel trapped.
• Anomic suicide occurs when there is too much freedom and too little regulation, leading to
individuals feeling lost.

Durkheim's Role in Sociology

• Durkheim stressed the importance of using reliable statistics to rule out incorrect theories
and identify promising theories.
• His objective observation approach replaced Marx’s social activism as the standard model
for social science.

Max Weber's Contributions

• Weber provided the theoretical base for half a dozen areas of sociological inquiry.
• He emphasized the subjective meanings of social actions, social as opposed to economic
causes, and the need for objectivity in studying social issues.
• Weber rejected Marx’s idea that economic factors determine all social relationships.

Weber's Value-Free Sociology

• Weber argued that sociology should be value-free, establishing what is and not what ought
to be.
• This neutrality contradicts the Marxist emphasis on social activism and the importance of
understanding the meanings attached to different practices.

U.S. Sociology: Distinctive Characteristics and Current Focus

• U.S. sociology differs from European sociology in its focus on systematic, empirical data
collection.
• It emphasizes identifying, understanding, and solving social problems.
• The development of U.S. sociology was influenced by the heightened social problems in the
U.S. between the 1860s and 1920s.
• Early sociologists like W. E. B. DuBois and Jane Addams focused on social problems and
social reform.
• Today, U.S. sociologists focus on how race, class, and gender affect social life.
• They aim to solve crucial social problems by systematically studying social life and making
research findings available.
• Some sociologists work in social movements or for social change organizations to alleviate
social problems.
• A growing number of U.S. sociologists testify in court and before Congress on social issues.
• Sociology has become a part of mainstream higher education, with most colleges offering
an undergraduate degree in sociology.

Sociology is a popular field in universities, with a master's degree offered by most and
doctoral programs offered by around 125. Three dominant theoretical perspectives in
sociology today are structural-functional theory, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction
theory. Structural-functional theory focuses on the maintenance of social organization and its
relationship to individual subjective experiences. It is rooted in natural science and the
analogy between society and an organism. Sociologists who use this perspective assume three
major assumptions: stability, harmony, and evolution. Stability is the chief evaluative
criterion for any social pattern, harmony is the harmonious cooperation of society's parts, and
evolution is the peaceful adaptation of social structures to new needs and demands.

Structural-functional theory is a sociological approach that studies the nature and

consequences of social structures. It identifies positive (beneficial) consequences of social
structures as functions and negative (harmful) consequences as dysfunctions. Manifest
functions or dysfunctions are consequences of social structures that are intended or
recognized, while latent functions or dysfunctions are consequences of social structures that
are neither intended nor recognized.

For example, the concept of the "battered-woman syndrome" is a medical diagnosis that
suggests a woman who is repeatedly battered will become mentally ill. This diagnosis has
legal consequences, but manifest dysfunction may lead to legal recognition of the
psychological consequences of domestic violence. Latent dysfunction may result in women
losing custody of their children due to stigma attached to mental illness.

Structural-functional analysis examines the intended and unintended consequences of social

structures and assesses whether the consequences are positive (functional) or negative
(dysfunctional). It does not have a moral dimension to the assessment of a positive outcome,
as it merely means that the outcome contributes to the stability of society.

Conflict theory, derived from Marx's ideas, focuses on competition, structural inequality, and
the role of power and reward in social relationships. It focuses on how social structures work
together to create a society that runs smoothly and addresses the points of stress and conflict
in society.

Modern conflict theory posits three main assumptions: competition, structural inequality, and
social change. Competition stems from scarce resources, while structural inequality is
inherent in social structures. Social change, often sudden and revolutionary, is often
beneficial rather than harmful.
Using Conflict Theory in Sociology

Conflict Theory in Social Structures

• Conflict theorists study social structures and their benefits for certain groups.
• They focus on how these groups maintain their privileged positions.
• Examples include the analysis of domestic violence, where battering helps men retain
dominance over women.
• Conflict theorists explore how religious teachings, law, and police attitudes contribute to
this situation.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
• Conflict theorists argue that unions exist due to different interests between labor and
management.
• Symbolic interaction theory addresses the subjective meanings of human acts and the
processes through which people develop and communicate shared meanings.
• This theory is the newest of the three theoretical traditions described in this chapter.

Symbolic Interaction Theory and Its Application

Assumptions Behind Symbolic Interaction Theory

• Meanings are important and can have multiple interpretations.
• Meanings grow out of relationships and change with them.
• Meanings are negotiated between people.

Utilizing Symbolic Interaction Theory

• Symbolic interactionists study how relationships and social structures shape individuals.
• They focus on how individuals modify and negotiate relationships.
• They study how larger social structures affect our everyday lives, sense of self, and
interpersonal relationships.

Interchangeable Lenses in Symbolic Interaction Theory

• Symbolic interaction theory, conflict theory, and structural-functional theory are
interchangeable lenses for understanding the relationship between individuals and society.
• Structural functionalism and conflict theory are well suited to the study of social structures,
while symbolic interactionism is well suited to the study of the relationship between
individual meanings and social structures.

Structural-Functional Theory: The Functions of Prostitution

• Prostitution provides a sexual outlet for poor and disabled men, businessmen, sailors, and
those with unusual sexual tastes.
• It serves as a safety valve that restricts respectable sexual relationships to marital
relationships.

Conflict Theory: Unequal Resources and Becoming a Prostitute

• Conflict theorists analyze prostitution as part of the larger problem of unequal access to
resources.

Conflict theory focuses on the unequal access to resources, particularly for women, and how
they maintain a positive identity in a stigmatized occupation. Women often struggle with
poverty and sexism, leading them to rely on men for economic support. Symbolic
interactionists examine how prostitutes learn the trade and manage their self-concept to
maintain a positive self-image. For example, sociologist Wendy Chapkis (1997) interviewed
over 40 women "sex workers" and found that as long as they maintain a healthy distance
between their emotions and their work, they can maintain their self-esteem and mental health.
This theory is particularly useful for explaining why many runaway boys and girls work as
prostitutes, as they have few realistic opportunities to support themselves by regular jobs.
Overall, conflict theory provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between
women, prostitution, and their self-concepts.
Sociology is an academic discipline that studies various topics such as drug use, marital
happiness, and poverty. It aims to improve our understanding of the social world by
observing and measuring what actually happens. Sociology differs from other ways of
knowing in that it requires empirical evidence that can be confirmed by the normal human
senses. All research has two major goals: accurate description and accurate explanation. In
sociology, we seek accurate descriptions of human interactions and try to explain those
patterns.

The research process involves five steps: stating the problem, setting the stage, and analyzing
data. The first step is carefully stating the issue to be investigated, either due to personal
experiences or commonsense objections. If a good deal of research has been conducted on the
issue and good theoretical explanations have been advanced, a problem may be stated in the
form of a hypothesis. A hypothesis must be testable, meaning there must be a way in which
data can help weed out a wrong conclusion and identify a correct one.

The second step is setting the stage by selecting variables, defining our terms, and deciding
on the sampling method. Understanding these steps is crucial for an educated consumer of
research results.

The general research process involves five steps: stating the problem, setting the stage,
understanding variables, operational definitions, and sampling.

The first step is stating the issue to be investigated, either through personal experiences or
commonsense objections. A hypothesis is a statement about relationships that researchers
expect to observe if their theory is correct. Variables are measured characteristics that vary
from one individual or group to the next. To narrow the scope of a problem to manageable
size, researchers focus on variables rather than people.

Variables are measured characteristics that vary from one individual or group to the next. In
this case, race is the independent variable and unemployment is the dependent variable. To
describe a pattern or test a hypothesis, each variable must be precisely defined.

Operationalizing refers to the process of deciding exactly how to measure a given variable.
Sampling is the process of systematically selecting representative cases from the larger
population. Random samples are chosen through a random procedure, ensuring that every
individual within a given population has an equal chance of being selected.

Step Three: Gathering Data

There are many ways of gathering sociological data, including running experiments,
conducting surveys, and observing groups in action. Finding patterns in the data is the fourth
step in the research process.

Step Five: Generating Theories

After a pattern is found, the next step in the research process is to explain it. For example, if
there is a correlation between race and unemployment, the next task is to explain why being
black increases the probability of unemployment.

In summary, the general research process involves stating the problem, setting the stage,
understanding variables, operationalizing, sampling, gathering data, finding patterns, and
generating theories.

Understanding the Scientific Process and Research Methods

Theory Development and Explanation

• Theories are interrelated assumptions that explain observed patterns.
• Theory goes beyond empirical generalizations and includes untested assumptions.
• Theories can be compatible with empirical generalizations, such as the correlation between
race and unemployment.
• The scientific process is a continuous wheel that moves from theory to data and back again.

Examples of Theory Development and Data Collection

• Higher unemployment rates among African Americans are linked to educational
differences.
• To test this hypothesis, more data is needed about education and its relationship to race and
unemployment.
• Lori Reid's study tested this hypothesis for black women, focusing on the role of
educational differences in unemployment.

Research Methods
• Induction: Moving from data to theory by devising theories that account for empirically
observed patterns.
• Deduction: Moving from theory to data by testing hypotheses drawn from theory.

Experiments
• Experiments are excellent for studying cause-and-effect relationships.
• Surveys are versatile and can study any topic.
• Participant observation places behaviors and attitudes in context.
• Content analysis is inexpensive and useful for historical research.
• Use of existing statistics is inexpensive and useful for historical research.

Surveys
• Survey research involves asking a relatively large number of people the same set of
standardized questions.
• Surveys occur in very unnatural environments, making it difficult to generalize from
experiments to the real world.

Survey research is a method that allows researchers to determine the prevalence, trend, and
distribution of a behavior or pattern. It can be used to study attitudes, behavior, ideals, and
values. Most researchers employ cross-sectional designs, taking a sample of the population at
a single point in time and comparing groups based on independent and dependent variables.

In the example given, researchers found that students who own Macintosh laptops have
higher grades on average. However, this does not necessarily mean that owning a Mac causes
higher grades. A spurious relationship exists when one variable seems to cause changes in
another variable, but a third variable is the real cause of the change. Longitudinal research is
any research in which data are collected over a long period of time.
To avoid being misled by a spurious relationship, researchers should use a large sample size
to test for the effects of other possible variables. For example, comparing the grades of four
groups: drinkers under stress, drinkers not under stress, nondrinkers under stress, and
nondrinkers who were not under stress would help understand the relationship between
drinking and grades.

Collecting large, longitudinal surveys is expensive and few sociologists can afford the costs
themselves. Instead, many turn to government agencies or non-profit organizations like the
National Opinion Research Center for their General Social Survey (GSS). Sociologist Robert
Crosnoe (2006) used longitudinal data collected by the federal government from almost
12,000 middle and high school students to understand alcohol use among adolescents. By
dividing the students according to many different variables, researchers could ensure that
failing grades really had a significant impact on the students' behavior.

A large national survey found that underage drinking, including heavy drinking, is quite
common among full-time college students. However, the study also revealed that respondents
may misrepresent the truth about their drinking habits due to social-desirability bias, a
tendency for people to color the truth to appear more desirable and socially acceptable. The
data suggests that young men are more likely to drink alcohol and drink heavily than young
women. The study also suggests that survey research is not the best strategy for studying
hidden or socially unacceptable behaviors or ideas and feelings that cannot be easily reduced
to questionnaire form. Instead, participant observation is needed to understand the situations
and social contexts in which individuals drink.