Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth

École Supérieure d’Ingénieurs de Beyrouth

Chemical and Petrochemical Engineering Program

Final Year Project – 2024/2025

Optimization and Rehabilitation of the

Lebanese North Refinery

Tia Maria ASMAR 210522

Lara ADHAM 212113
Elie ELIAS NICOLAS 233957
 ABSTRACT
This project focused on the optimization and rehabilitation of the Tripoli Refinery in northern
Lebanon, originally built in the 1940s with a capacity of 21,000 barrels per day (bbl/day). Due
to decades of political instability and lack of modernization, the refinery ceased operations. Our
work successfully redesigned the storage tanks to handle an increased capacity of 146,000
bbl/day, supporting Lebanon’s energy needs, we are now able to cover approximately 75% of
Lebanon’s crude oil needs. Key process units, including Separator V100 and the Vacuum
Distillation Unit, were optimized to enhance separation efficiency, product yield, and energy
performance. We also implemented new control loops for better process control and validated
our designs using Aspen HYSYS v14 simulations, confirming significant performance
improvements. In parallel, environmental and economic studies were conducted to ensure
compliance with international standards and demonstrate the project's positive impact on local
industry and employment. By studying product constraints and properties, we ensured high-quality
outputs, positioning the refinery to play a critical role in stabilizing Lebanon’s energy market and
reducing reliance on imported refined products.

RÉSUMÉ
Ce projet a porté sur l’optimisation et la réhabilitation de la raffinerie de Tripoli, située dans
le nord du Liban, initialement construite dans les années 1940 avec une capacité de 21,000 barils
par jour (bbl/jour). En raison de décennies d’instabilité politique et du manque de modernisation,
la raffinerie a cessé ses activités. Notre travail a permis de redessiner avec succès les réservoirs
de stockage pour supporter une capacité accrue de 146 000 bbl/jour, répondant ainsi aux besoins
énergétiques du Liban, Nous sommes à présent capables de couvrir environ 75 % des besoins du
Liban en pétrole brut. Les principales unités de traitement, notamment le séparateur V100 et
l’unité de distillation sous vide, ont été optimisées afin d'améliorer l'efficacité de séparation,
le rendement en produits et les performances énergétiques. Nous avons également mis en
place de nouvelles boucles de contrôle pour une meilleure gestion des procédés et validé nos
conceptions à l’aide de simulations réalisées sur Aspen HYSYS v14, confirmant ainsi des
améliorations significatives des performances. Parallèlement, des études environnementales et
économiques ont été menées afin d'assurer la conformité aux normes internationales et de
démontrer l’impact positif du projet sur l’industrie locale et l’emploi. En étudiant les contraintes
et propriétés de chaque produit, nous avons garanti une production de haute qualité, positionnant

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ainsi la raffinerie pour jouer un rôle essentiel dans la stabilisation du marché énergétique
libanais et la réduction de la dépendance aux produits raffinés importés.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all those who supported and guided us in
completing our final year project at the Beddawi Refinery in North Lebanon.

To start with, we want to express our heartfelt gratitude to our professional supervisor, Eng.
Mohsen Ghaleb, who provided us with vital guidance, expertise, and encouragement that helped
to develop the practical aspects of this project.

The research and writing process would not have been possible without our academic supervisor,
Dr. Malek Msheik, who provided us with continuous support, insightful feedback, and academic
mentorship that we are grateful for.

Special thanks are extended to Dr. Jihane Rahbany, Head of the Department of Chemical and
Petrochemical Engineering, for her unwavering support and leadership, which has created a
favorable atmosphere for learning and achievement.

We are grateful to the jury members, Dr. Marina Daccache and Dr. Melissa Said, for their
valuable time, critical evaluation, and constructive recommendations, which contributed to
improving the quality of this work.

Lastly, we are deeply thankful for the constant encouragement, patience, and love that our families
and friends give us. Their belief in us provided the motivation needed to persevere and complete
this important milestone.

Without the contributions and support of each of these remarkable individuals, this project would
not have become a reality.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 2

RÉSUMÉ ........................................................................................................................................ 2

ACKNOWLEDGMENT................................................................................................................. 3

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 9

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ 10

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 12

1.1 History ................................................................................................................................. 12

1.2 General introduction ............................................................................................................ 12

1.3 Physical and chemical properties ........................................................................................ 14

1.3.1 Initial Products: Characterization ..................................................................................... 14

Kirkuk Crude Oil ....................................................................................................................... 14

Steam ......................................................................................................................................... 15

1.3.2 Final Products: Physical and Chemical Properties ........................................................... 16

Reformer Products..................................................................................................................... 16

Atmospheric Distillation Unit Products .................................................................................... 17

Vacuum Distillation Unit Products ........................................................................................... 19

Visbreaker Products .................................................................................................................. 20

Separator Products..................................................................................................................... 21

1.4 Usages and applications ...................................................................................................... 23

1.4.1 Solvent.............................................................................................................................. 23

1.4.2 Aromatics ......................................................................................................................... 23

1.4.3 Hydrogen .......................................................................................................................... 24

1.4.4 Water ................................................................................................................................ 25

1.4.5 Kerosene ........................................................................................................................... 25

1.4.6 Diesel ................................................................................................................................ 26

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 1.4.7 Fuel gas ............................................................................................................................ 27

1.4.8 AGO (Automotive gas oil) ............................................................................................... 27

1.4.9 Tar .................................................................................................................................... 27

1.4.10 Naphta ............................................................................................................................ 28

2. Project statement ....................................................................................................................... 28

2.1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 28

2.2 Technical and non-technical constraints ............................................................................. 29

2.2.1 API gravity ....................................................................................................................... 29

2.2.2 Sulfur content ................................................................................................................... 31

2.2.3 Paraffinic/Naphthenic/Aromatic Crude Oils .................................................................... 32

2.2.4 Energy consumption ......................................................................................................... 33

2.2.5 Economic constraints ....................................................................................................... 34

2.2.6 Legal constraints .............................................................................................................. 34

2.2.7 Environmental constraints ................................................................................................ 34

2.2.8 Safety constraints ............................................................................................................. 35

2.2.9 Geopolitical constraints .................................................................................................... 35

2.3 Codes and standards ............................................................................................................ 36

3. Process options.......................................................................................................................... 38

3.1 Replacing acid wash with the Merox process ..................................................................... 38

3.2 Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) after each cut to meet international standards ...................... 39

3.3 Optimizing storage tanks with internal floating roofs for gasoline ..................................... 39

3.4 Hydrogen recycling using adsorption for separation of H₂ and CO.................................... 40

3.5 Optimization methods for specific units ................................................................................. 41

3.5.1 Optimization of the catalytic reformer ............................................................................. 41

3.5.2 Optimization of the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU)......................................................... 43

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 3.5.3 Optimization of the Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU)..................................................... 44

3.5.4 Adding a refluxed absorber after the visbreaker .............................................................. 44

3.6 Criteria for selecting the desired optimization routes ......................................................... 44

3.7 Process description.................................................................................................................. 46

3.7.1 Preheating phase ............................................................................................................... 46

3.7.2 Desalination phase............................................................................................................ 47

3.7.3 Atmospheric Distillation Unit (CDU) .............................................................................. 48

3.7.4 Processing of VDU cuts ................................................................................................... 49

A. Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) ......................................................................................... 49

B. Reformer ............................................................................................................................... 50

3.7.5 Visbreaker and the refluxed absorber............................................................................... 52

3.7.6 General overview of the simulation ................................................................................. 53

4. Mass balance ............................................................................................................................. 54

4.1 Mass balance for the storage tank ....................................................................................... 54

4.1.1 Mass balance for 40C ....................................................................................................... 54

4.2 Mass balance for the separator ............................................................................................ 55

4.2.1 Material balance of n-butane ............................................................................................ 56

4.2.2 Global material balance .................................................................................................... 56

4.2.3 Material balance of water ................................................................................................. 56

4.2.4 Material balance of i-pentane ........................................................................................... 56

4.3 Mass balance of the vacuum distillation column ................................................................ 57

4.3.1 Overall Mass Balance....................................................................................................... 57

4.3.2 Mass Balance based on H2O ............................................................................................ 58

4.3.3 Mass Balance based on 460-480 C* ................................................................................. 58

4.3.4 Mass Balance based on 500-520 C* ................................................................................. 59

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5. Energy balance .......................................................................................................................... 60

5.1 Energy balance for heater .................................................................................................... 60

5.2 Energy balance for the separator ......................................................................................... 61

5.2.1 Global energy balance ...................................................................................................... 62

5.3 Energy balance for the vacuum distillation column ............................................................ 62

6. Design ....................................................................................................................................... 64

6.1 Storage tank design (kirkuk’s crude oil) ............................................................................. 64

6.1.1 Tank volume..................................................................................................................... 65

6.1.2 Tank Capacity .................................................................................................................. 65

6.1.3 Tank dimensions ........................................................................................................... 65

6.1.4 Shell thickness calculation by the 1-Foot Method ........................................................... 66

6.1.5 Roof design ...................................................................................................................... 67

6.1.6 Anchorage design (API 650 Section 5.12) ....................................................................... 68

6.1.7 Venting system (API 2000 Compliance) ......................................................................... 69

6.1.8 Internal floating roof (IFR) (API 650 Appendix H)......................................................... 69

6.1.9 Fire extinguishing system (NFPA Compliance) .............................................................. 69

6.2 Separator design .................................................................................................................. 70

6.2.1 Mixture Density................................................................................................................ 72

6.2.2 Separator Diameter ........................................................................................................... 72

6.2.3 Separator Inlet Nozzle Design.......................................................................................... 72

6.2.4 Vapor height ..................................................................................................................... 72

6.2.5 Separator Vessel Tan-to-Tan Height ................................................................................ 73

6.3 Vacuum distillation column design ..................................................................................... 73

6.3.1 Material and Diameter Selection for the “VDU” ............................................................. 73

6.3.2 Number of Stages and Height Determination for the “VDU” ............................................. 74

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7. Hazop study .............................................................................................................................. 76

7.1 Hazop for storage tank ........................................................................................................ 77

7.2 Hazop for the separator ....................................................................................................... 80

7.3 Hazop for the vacuum distillation column .......................................................................... 81

8. Environmental impact ............................................................................................................... 83

8.1 Emissions Standards and Disposal Limits .......................................................................... 84

8.2 Treatment of Unwanted Chemicals and Discharges ........................................................... 87

8.3 Handling of Major Chemical Accidents.............................................................................. 88

9. Economic analysis .................................................................................................................... 88

10. Control loops........................................................................................................................... 88

10.1 Pressure control loop- Vacuum distillation unit................................................................ 89

10.2 Temperature control loop- Reformer ................................................................................ 90

10.3 Feed rate control loop-storage tank ................................................................................... 90

10.4 Gas composition control loop- atmospheric distillation unit ............................................ 91

11. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 92

12. References ............................................................................................................................... 92

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 103

TABLE OF NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................... 130

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-Typical natural yields of light and heavy crude oils. ..................................................... 30
Figure 2-Energy consumption growth by energy source. ............................................................. 33
Figure 3-Total primary energy supply (TPES), 2015. .................................................................. 34
Figure 4-Schematic process flow diagram. ................................................................................... 38
Figure 5-BFD of the RCU............................................................................................................. 41
Figure 6-Image showing the swing reactor. .................................................................................. 42
Figure 7-BFD of the CDU. ........................................................................................................... 43
Figure 8-A picture representing the preheating phase. ................................................................. 47
Figure 9-Image representing the separators of the desalination phase. ........................................ 47
Figure 10-Image representing the atmospheric distillation unit. .................................................. 48
Figure 11-Image representing the vacuum distillation unit. ......................................................... 50
Figure 12-Image representing the reformer. ................................................................................. 50
Figure 13- Image representing the visbreaker and refluxed absorber ........................................... 52
Figure 14-Image representing the whole simulation. ................................................................... 53
Figure 15-Storage tank representation. ......................................................................................... 54
Figure 16-Separator representation. .............................................................................................. 55
Figure 17-Vacuum distillation unit representation. ...................................................................... 57
Figure 18-Heater representation. .................................................................................................. 60
Figure 19-Separator representation. .............................................................................................. 61
Figure 20-Image representing the dimensions of the storage tank. .............................................. 68
Figure 21-Mao of the location of major know historical earthquakes in association with the major
active faults in Lebanon. ............................................................................................................... 68
Figure 22-Schematic representation of the separator.................................................................... 70
Figure 23. BFD representation the pressure control loop-VDU ................................................... 89
Figure 24. BFD representing the temperature control loop of the reformer. ................................ 90
Figure 25. BFD representing the flow control loop of the storage tank. ...................................... 91
Figure 26. BFD representing the gas composition control loop of the atmospheric distillation
unit. ............................................................................................................................................... 91

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-Properties of kirkuk crude oil. ......................................................................................... 15
Table 2-Properties of steam. ......................................................................................................... 16
Table 3-Properties of the reformer final products......................................................................... 17
Table 4-Properties of Diesel Oil. .................................................................................................. 18
Table 5-Properties of the vacuum distillation final products. ....................................................... 19
Table 6-Properties of the light gas oil (LGO). .............................................................................. 20
Table 7-Properties of the viscous naphtha. ................................................................................... 20
Table 8-Properties of the heavy gas oil (HGO). ........................................................................... 21
Table 9-Properties of the tar. ........................................................................................................ 21
Table 10-Properties of the separator final products. ..................................................................... 22
Table 11-Properties of the fuel oil local market. .......................................................................... 22
Table 122-Crude oil classes based on API and sulfur content...................................................... 32
Table 13-Table of codes and standards with issuing bodies and functions. ................................. 36
Table 14-Summarizing the percentage of each cut in the atmospheric distillation unit. .............. 49
Table 15-Summarizing the operating conditions of the aromatization reaction. .......................... 51
Table 16-Summarizing the operating conditions of the isomerization reaction. .......................... 51
Table 17-Summarizing the operating conditions of the dehydrogenation reaction. ..................... 52
Table 18-Table representing the operating conditions of the visbreaker’s reactions. .................. 53
Table 19-Comparison between theoretical and Aspen results for the storage tank. ..................... 55
Table 20- Comparison between theoretical and Aspen results for the separator. ......................... 56
Table 21- H2O Mass Fraction in the Streams Connected to the Vacuum Distillation Unit.......... 57
Table 22-460-480 C* Mass Fraction in the Streams Connected to the Vacuum Distillation Unit.
....................................................................................................................................................... 58
Table 23-500-520 C* Mass Fraction in the Streams Connected to the Vacuum Distillation Unit.
....................................................................................................................................................... 58
Table 24- Comparison between theoretical and Aspen results for the vauum distillation column.
....................................................................................................................................................... 59
Table 25-Storage tank energy balance results. ............................................................................. 61
Table 26-Separator energy balance results. .................................................................................. 62
Table 27-Vcuum istillation comparison results. ........................................................................... 63

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Table 28-Vacuum distillation column energy balance results. ..................................................... 64
Table 29-Representation of the density of kirkuk’s crude oil and the mass flow rate. ................. 64
Table 30-Comparative table representing the mass flow rate of the old and the new one. .......... 65
Table 31-Summarizing the general specification of the designed tank. ....................................... 69
Table 32-Separator Aspen values before and after dividing by four. ........................................... 71
Table 33-Summary of the separator deisgn. ................................................................................. 73
Table 34-VDU design parameters. ............................................................................................... 76
Table 35- Guide words for HAZOP analysis. ............................................................................... 76
Table 36- HAZOP table for the storage tank [96] [97] [98]. ........................................................ 77
Table 37- HAZOP table for the separator [99] [100]. .................................................................. 80
Table 38- HAZOP table for the vacuum distillation [101]. .......................................................... 81
Table 39- The scenarios, conditions, and estimated time to upgrade the SEA. ............................ 86
Table 40-Table representing the functions of the components in the control loops. .................... 88

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1. Introduction
1.1 History
The Tripoli Refinery, located in northern Lebanon, has long stood as a significant component of
the country's energy infrastructure. Originally constructed in the early 1940s, the refinery was part
of a broader regional development spearheaded by the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a
consortium of major oil companies that sought to establish a pipeline route from Iraq’s oilfields in
Kirkuk to the Mediterranean coast [1]. The refinery, completed in 1955, was designed to process
crude oil transported via the 1,700 km-long pipeline, which terminated in the coastal city of Tripoli
[2]. In its early years, the Tripoli Refinery played a strategic role in both the Lebanese economy
and the wider Arab oil industry. It had a refining capacity of approximately 21,000 barrels per day,
and contributed significantly to local fuel supply and export revenue [3]. The infrastructure
included not only refining units but also storage tanks, a maritime terminal, and pipeline facilities
linking Lebanon to regional oil networks.

However, over the decades, the refinery faced multiple challenges that led to its gradual decline.
The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1992) and successive periods of political instability disrupted
operations and halted necessary upgrades [4]. Moreover, the regional geopolitical situation
particularly tensions between Iraq and neighboring countries resulted in the eventual shutdown of
the Kirkuk Tripoli pipeline by the early 1990s [5]. Without a steady supply of crude oil and lacking
modernization, the refinery ceased operations and fell into disrepair.

1.2 General introduction

Lebanon's energy sector has long been constrained by limited domestic refining capacity and a
heavy reliance on imported refined petroleum products. This dependence has exerted continuous
pressure on the national economy, exposing it to fluctuating global prices and supply uncertainties.
Consequently, the optimization and rehabilitation of existing refinery infrastructure have become
essential to enhancing energy resilience and supporting long-term economic development. The
Tripoli refinery, located in northern Lebanon, was selected for a comprehensive optimization and
rehabilitation study due to its strategic position and potential to support national energy demands.
The primary objective of this project was to enhance the refinery's performance by implementing
key optimization strategies and improving overall energy efficiency. Lebanon's oil consumption
was approximately 153,000 barrels per day as of 2016 [6], but the optimization for this refinery

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aims to increase the processing capacity from 21,000 to 146,000 barrels per day not 153,000 or
200,000 due to spatial limitations. Achieving a capacity of 200,000 barrels per day would require
a significantly larger site. Assuming this figure remains relatively stable, a refining capacity of
200,000 barrels per day would not only cover three-quarters of Lebanon’s petroleum needs but
would exceed the country’s entire daily oil consumption. Through these enhancements, the
refinery is expected to contribute to the stabilization of oil derivative prices in the local market,
support the development of the technical, industrial, and academic sectors, and enable the
employment of over 1,000 workers and technicians positively impacting Lebanese society.
Moreover, reducing reliance on imported oil derivatives will ease the pressure on foreign currency
reserves. By producing these derivatives locally, the government would only need to import raw
materials at lower costs, while other operational expenses such as labor, maintenance, energy
consumption, and insurance would be paid in the national currency. This shift is anticipated to
stimulate economic growth. Additionally, the oil sector would operate under the direct supervision
of the state within the framework of a distinct oil policy, particularly since refining is not subject
to traditional market competition [7].

Crude oil a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons used as the primary raw material in
refineries was modeled across all process units to optimize performance and maximize product
recovery. From the reformer, outputs such as solvents (C4–C5), aromatics (C5+), naphthenes (C3–
C4), and hydrogen were produced. The atmospheric distillation unit yielded water, offgas, light
naphtha, kerosene, naphtha, diesel, atmospheric gas oil, and atmospheric residue. The vacuum
distillation unit produced heavy and light vacuum gas oils, vacuum bottoms, and fuel gas.
Following this, the visbreaker with the addition of a refluxed absorber generated products
including light gas oil, viscous naphtha, heavy gas oil, tar, and fuel gas. The separator contributed
further by producing stabilized naphtha and crude residue [8]. These final products serve essential
roles across multiple industries. Hydrogen is utilized in hydrotreating and catalytic processes;
diesel and kerosene are used in transportation and heating; aromatics are crucial for petrochemical
production; and naphtha acts as a feedstock in gasoline blending and chemical manufacturing. By
supplying these materials domestically, the refinery will enable more reliable access to energy
while supporting industrial activity. Various optimization methods were considered during the
planning of this project. These included: acid wash using the Merox process to remove mercaptans;

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installation of hydrodesulfurization (HDS) units after each cut to align with international
environmental standards; and upgrading storage tanks with internal floating roofs to minimize
vapor losses from volatile components such as gasoline. For the reformer unit specifically, several
techniques were explored, including Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) to increase hydrogen
purity, hydrogen recycling, increasing the reactor dimensions to improve capacity, implementing
alkylation and isomerization to boost octane levels, and optimizing fractionation processes with
internal floating roofs. From all considered methods, the most effective strategies were
implemented: Continuous Catalyst Regeneration (CCR) technology was integrated into the
catalytic reformer to ensure consistent catalyst activity and product yield; the Crude Distillation
Unit (CDU) and the Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) were optimized to enhance separation
efficiency and throughput; and a refluxed absorber was added after the visbreaker to improve
product quality and energy integration. These improvements formed the core of the refinery’s
transformation plan.

Through the use of Aspen HYSYS, an optimized simulation was conducted, allowing accurate
modeling of refinery operations and confirmation of the performance improvements. The results
validated the effectiveness of the proposed strategies in increasing capacity and improving product
distribution, marking a critical step toward transforming the Tripoli refinery into a more efficient
and competitive facility aligned with national energy goals.

1.3 Physical and chemical properties

1.3.1 Initial Products: Characterization
Kirkuk Crude Oil
The refinery usability of Kirkuk crude oil depends heavily on its physical characteristics that
originate mainly from Iraq oil fields. Owing to its weight, it falls within the medium oil
classification range according to API gravity measurements that usually indicate 24-32 density
values [9]. The high viscosity of Kirkuk crude hampers transportation and production procedures
but maintains a moderate pour point that ensures better movement under specified situations [10].

Kirkuk crude oil contains paraffins alongside naphthenes and aromatics as its chemical
hydrocarbon components. Concentrated sulfur levels surpass 1 wt% in Kirkuk crude oils,
classifying them as sour crude oils, which have environmental and economic disadvantages in
refining [11] [12]. Trace metals from geological sources exist in Kirkuk crude oil while affecting
catalyst poisoning alongside causing corrosive effects on refining equipment [10] [13]. The

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knowledge of sour oil characteristics enables refineries to reach maximum operational efficiency
while minimizing negative effects that occur throughout processing.

Table 1-Properties of kirkuk crude oil.

Properties Range Unit

API gravity 24-32 °API
Density at 15℃ 0.845-0.860 g/cm3
Sulfur content ~1 wt%
Nitrogen content 0.1-0.2 wt%
Carbon residue ~2 − 3 ℃
Boiling point ~30 − 550 ℃
Viscosity at 40℃ ~10 − 20 cst
Flash point >60 ℃
Pour point ~15 ℃
Odor, color Strong petroleum smell, dark −
brown to black.

Steam
Steam serves as a crucial component during the various operations of crude oil refining when it is
used for stripping, visbreaking, and thermal cracking strategies. The cracking reactions become
more effective through the addition of steam because it decreases oil viscosity while promoting
fluidity, which enables superior thermal degradation at higher temperatures [14] [15]. Visbreaking
operations benefit from steam addition because it reduces heavy crude oil viscosity yet enables
improved product extraction during the process [15] [16]. When using strip processes, the
application of steam works as a stripping element to obtain volatile components from crude oil,
thus improving oil recovery performance [16] [17].

The physical properties of steam include essential elements, which include phase behavior and
enthalpy in addition to pressure-temperature relations. The refining process's effectiveness
depends significantly on these factors since steam alters its phase state between water and vapor
with pressure and temperature fluctuations [18] [19]. A higher oil temperature level increases oil’s

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mobility due to decreased viscosity since this is an important factor for steam-assisted recovery
methods [15] [20].

Table 2-Properties of steam.

Properties Range Unit

Temperature 200-450 ℃
Pressure 3-40 Bar
Phase Gas −
Odor, color Odorless, colorless. −
Density at 300℃ ~0.6 Kg/m3

1.3.2 Final Products: Physical and Chemical Properties

Reformer Products
The petrochemical industry makes extensive use of reformer products obtained through catalytic
reforming that yield fundamental hydrocarbons for fuel and chemical production.

Light hydrocarbon solvents from C4 to C5 consisting of elements show high volatility and
flammability characteristics. Certain C5 compounds demonstrate research octane numbers above
90, thereby making them appropriate blending components for gasoline applications [21].

Chemical production depends heavily on the use of aromatics, which belong to the C5+ category.
Benzene content in these solvents creates substantial density effects and affects their ability to
dissolve various substances. Aromatics follow typical densities from 0.87 g/cm³ to 1.06 g/cm³,
where specific compounds determine the readings [22] [23]. Aromatics exhibit different solubility
features that determine their suitable applications.

The reformate becomes more complex because naphthenes (C3–C4) contain ring structures in their
molecules. The boiling point range of these fractions extends from 40 degrees Celsius to 150
degrees Celsius, which influences their fraction separation behavior in distillation [21]. During
reforming processes, making hydrogen is very important for industry because the hydrogen
produced usually has a purity of over 95%. Hammond's reaction technology becomes functional
in diversified chemical applications due to its capacity to operate in hydrocracking systems. The
amount of hydrogen produced is directly related to the amount of carbon used, and this production
is influenced by temperature and pressure.

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 Table 3-Properties of the reformer final products.

Products Boiling Flash Density Odor, Composition Solubility

point (℃) point (℃) (g/cm³) color in water
Solvent -12 to 36 -60 to -40 0.60-0.62 Sweet, Butanes and Insoluble.
(C4-C5) at 15℃ colorless. pentanes.
Aromatics 80 to 140 10 to 30 0.87-1.06 Clear or Benzene, Slightly
(C5+) pale toluene, soluble.
yellow. xylene, etc.
Naphtenes 40-150 -80 to -60 0.62-0.65 Colorless. Cyclopropane, Insoluble.
(C3-C4) at 15℃ cyclobutane.
Hydrogen -252.87 -253 0.08988 Colorless H2 (>95%) Slightly
gas. soluble.

Atmospheric Distillation Unit Products

The Atmospheric Distillation Unit (ADU) produces multiple indispensable products that have
specific features that matter during refining operations and end use.

- The quality of the pH buffer in water byproducts from this process stays neutral and has varying
levels of dissolved solids, which depend on the type of crude oil used and how the process is run
[24]. The suitable condition of the water determines whether it can be reused as it is or needs
disposal.

- The off-gas collection containing C1–C4 components behaves as a flammable source with an
average calorific value at 35 MJ/m³, making it useful for generating energy in refineries [25].

- Naphtha derivatives contain light naphtha with Research Octane Numbers between 70 and 80
along with distillation ranges from an initial 35 degrees Celsius to a final 200 degrees Celsius [26].
The blending process requires fuel components with higher octane values for obtaining enhanced
gasoline performance quality.

- The product kerosene contains a flash point between 38°C and 65°C and a smoke point between
30 and 45, which demonstrates its compatibility for aviation and heating operations [27].

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- The diesel fuel output of ADUs exhibits 0.82-0.86 g/cm³ density together with a cetane index of
45-55, making it appropriate for compression ignition power plants [28] [29].

- The sulfur content in AGO is between 0.1 and 1.5 wt%, but its viscosity at 40°C is between 20
and 30 cSt due to the type of crude oil and temperature conditions [30] [31].

- Heavy waste residue exceeds heavy metal concentration of 0.1 weight percent, resulting in typical
Conradson Carbon Residue values between 25-35 weight percent. This excessive substance level
requires additional processing solutions [32].

Table 4-Properties of Diesel Oil.

Properties Limits Method

Flash point Pensky Martens Min 55 ASTM D - 93
(℃)
Water and sediment by Max 0.05 ASTM D - 2709
centrifuge (% vol)
Distillation temperature at ASTM D - 86
760 mm Hg, recovered :
At 250℃ (vol%) Max 65
At 350℃ (vol%) Max 85
At 370℃ (vol%) Max 95
Kinematic Viscosity at 40℃ Min 2.00 ASTM D - 445
(cst) Max 4.50
Color Yellow Visual
Ash % Mass Max 0.01 ASTM D - 482
Sulfur % Mass 10 ppm ASTM D - 2622
Corrosion, copper strip (3h Max 1 ASTM D - 130
at 50℃)
Cetane number Min 49 ASTM D - 613
Ramsbottom Carbon Min 46 ASTM D – 976 or D - 4737
Residue (on 10% residuum)
% wt

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 Density at 15℃ (kg/m3) 820-860 ASTM D - 4052
Oxidation stability (g/m3) Max 25 ASTM D - 2274
Fame 0-7 % ASTM D – 7371
ASTM D - 7963

Vacuum Distillation Unit Products

Vacuum distillation units produce various product types that display unique composition
properties. The boiling point of both HVGO and LVGO is influenced by their sulfur and nitrogen
content because these elements impact how they will perform later on [33] [34]. Product quality
relies substantially on boiling point distribution since HVGO contains a higher number of light
components than LVGO, providing a narrower boiling range [35].

Refining and processing operations face challenges because vacuum bottoms from these units
contain high asphaltene concentrations alongside significant levels of metals, along with nickel
and vanadium [36] [37]. Asphaltene fractions contain the majority of metals, which make
downstream processes more difficult [34] [38]. Variability in the BTU value and clear chemical
composition of produced fuel gases results from the methane (CH₄), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and
carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations in the distillation reaction, which depend on the crude oil
properties [39] [40]. Labs need to properly identify these elements so they can maximize both
production levels and product quality rates [41].

Table 5-Properties of the vacuum distillation final products.

Products Boiling Flash Density at Odor, Composition Solubility

point (℃) point 15℃ (g/cm³) color in water
(℃)
LVGO >360 110 -150 0.85 – 0.88 Yellow to Light Insoluble.
brown, hydcrocarbons.
oily.
HVGO 315 - 595 104 - 160 0.92 Brown. Aromatics, Insoluble.
sulfur
compounds.

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 Vacuum >560 >260 >1.0 Black. Light gases. Insoluble.
bottoms

Visbreaker Products
The special properties of Visbreaker products determine their essential use in different markets.
The processing technologies that drive product quality improvements match features of Low
Gasoil (LGO) because it has denser characteristics and lower sulfur concentration [42]. High
Gasoil (HGO) receives its primary assessments based on API gravity combined with viscosity
measurements, where higher API gravity levels coincide with lower viscosity for easier processing
and distribution purposes [43] [44].

The low flash point of viscous naphtha produced by visbreaking operations raises chemical
stability doubts because of its wide range of hydrocarbon constituents, which negatively impacts
its secure management and application [45]. Solid impurities and high asphaltene levels in
produced tar require treatment because they negatively affect refining processes [46] [47].
Visbreaking produces fuel gas with an adequate heating value that enables power generation
because the gas consists predominantly of light hydrocarbons [48].

Table 6-Properties of the light gas oil (LGO).

Properties Range
Boiling Point (°C) 250 to 350
Density (g/cm³) at 15°C 0.82 – 0.85
Flash Point (°C) 60 to 80
Viscosity (cst) at 40°C 2–5
Sulfur Content (wt%) 0.2 – 1.5 wt.%

Table 7-Properties of the viscous naphtha.

Properties Range
Boiling Point (°C) 60 to 200
Density (g/cm3) at 15°C 0.72 – 0.78
Viscosity Higher than light naphtha
Aromatic Content High

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 Solubility in Water Low

Table 8-Properties of the heavy gas oil (HGO).

Properties Range
Boiling Point (°C) 350 to 540
Density (g/cm³) at 15°C 0.89 – 0.94
Flash Point (°C) 100 to 170
Viscosity (cst) at 40°C 5 – 15
Sulfur Content (wt%) 0.5 – 3

Table 9-Properties of the tar.

Properties Range
Boiling Point (°C) >500
Density (g/cm³) at 15°C 1.1–1.2
Viscosity Extremely high (>200)
Solubility in Water Insoluble
Main Components Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons

Separator Products
The naphtha and crude residue made by oil processing plants have different structures because
their evaporation rates change. The Reid Vapor Pressure test provides information about how
stable naphtha is, as its evaporation rate affects how refineries operate and how the product is
transported [49]. High Reid Vapor Pressure results signal environmental hazards because volatile
material components turn into harmful elements that evaporate readily [50]. RVP measurement of
naphtha depends on its chemical composition because naphtha has reduced hydrocarbon content
[49].

The distillation process produces the distillate together with asphaltene and heavy compounds that
constitute the solid bulk of crude residue. These materials create processing complications because
they raise sulfur alongside metal levels in the mixture, which demands innovative solution methods

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until they fulfill safety requirements [50] [51]. Knowledge of these characteristics is critical to
enhancing operations of crude processing and decreasing the environmental effects of heavy crude
oil extraction and utilization [50].

Table 10-Properties of the separator final products.

Products Boiling point Density (g/cm3 ) Color, odor Compositions

(℃) at15℃
Stabilized 30-180 ~0.68 − 0.72 Pale yellow, like Paraffins,
naphtha gasoline. isoparaffins.
Crude residue >500 >0.95 Black, heavy oil Asphaltics, tars.
odor.

Table 11-Properties of the fuel oil local market.

Properties Unit Rejected IF Test Method

Density Kg/l at 15℃ >0.98 IP 160 (ASTM D – 1298)
Viscosity kinematic cst >180 IP 71 (ASTM D – 145)
at 50℃
Flash point Pensky ℃ <66 IP 34 (ASTM D – 93)
Martens Closed
tester
Sulfur content % mass >2 IP 336 (ASTM D – 4294)
Water content % volume >1 IP 74 (ASTM D – 95)
Sediment ℃ >0.2 IP 53 (ASTM D – 473)
W and S centrifuge % mass >1.5 ASTM D - 1796
Ash content % volume >0.12 IP 4 (ASTM D – 482)
Vanadium content ppm >110 IP 288 (ASTM D – 5863)
Pour point ℃ >9 IP 15 (ASTM D – 97)
Asphaltenes % mass >3 IP 143
Gross calorific value gj/tone <42 IP 12 (ASTM D – 240)
(dry oil)

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1.4 Usages and applications
1.4.1 Solvent
Solvents are typically extracted from petroleum resources and other resources that are detrimental
to the environment and well-being of living things [52].
- Unwanted components are extracted from petroleum fractions via solvent extraction. Certain
solvents, such phenol and furfural, are used to extract aromatic chemicals from feedstocks used to
make lubricating oils. The quality and functionality of base oils are greatly improved by this
procedure, especially for creating premium lubricants [53].
- Lubricating oils' cold flow characteristics are improved by solvent dewaxing. Waxes are
extracted from the oil matrix using solvents such methyl ethyl ketone, therefore guaranteeing
that the resultant product satisfies viscosity and pour point requirements suitable for different
climatic circumstances. Solvents are also used for equipment and pipeline cleaning, as well
as for the removal of hydrocarbon deposits in refineries. Effective cleaning is ensured by their
capacity to dissolve oil deposits without degrading materials [54].

- Butanes and pentanes are among the light hydrocarbons that are mostly used as feedstocks in
petrochemical reactions. In order to manufacture tires and other elastomeric products, synthetic
rubbers like butadiene and isoprene are produced in large part by them [55].

1.4.2 Aromatics
Crude oil serves as the source for most aromatics while smaller amounts originate from coals.
Benzene and toluene together with xylenes are the principal components of this chemical group.
They are used as starting materials for a wide range of consumer products: Aromatics serve as
base materials for diverse consumer products such as clothing alongside pharmaceuticals and
cosmetics and extend to computers and paints while also being integral to vehicle components and
cooking utensils as well as household fabrics and sports equipment. Aromatics-based products
decrease energy usage resulting in environmental benefits [56].

- Numerous essential chemicals such as styrene, phenol, and cyclohexane use benzene as their
starting material. Polystyrene plastics which are used in packaging materials, consumer goods, and
insulation products as their applications contain styrene as a primary component. Resins and nylon

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production depends on phenol and cyclohexane from benzene since they are essential in
automotive and textiles manufacturing [57].

- Toluene is used to create the foam found in freezers, mattresses, vehicle seats, building insulation,
and floor and furniture coverings. Additionally, jogging shoes, roller blade wheels, and artificial
sports tracks all use polyurethanes.

- Xylene is a powerful aromatic hydrocarbon solvent that is frequently used to dissolve sludges
and asphaltenes that build up in wellbores and pipelines [58]

- The design of pharmaceutical drugs relies heavily on aromatic compounds which enable
biological activity and receptor targeting. Materials science relies on them to develop advanced
materials including high-performance polymers like Kevlar that serve protective gear and
aerospace components. Aromatic compounds play a vital role in agrochemical development
because they improve the performance of pesticides and herbicides and reduce negative
environmental effects. The flavors and fragrances industry relies on these compounds to create
unique scents and flavors for consumer products. Organic electronics benefit from aromatic
compounds which provide high charge mobility in devices like OLEDs and solar cells. Certain
aromatic compounds help with bioremediation processes but others present environmental
difficulties because of their enduring nature and toxic properties [59].

1.4.3 Hydrogen
-Food industry: Hydrogen is used to convert unsaturated fats into saturated oils and fats, including
hydrogenated vegetable oils such as margarine and butter spreads.

-Medical industry: In the medical field, hydrogen is used to produce hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), a
widely used antiseptic. Currently, studies show that it can be used as a therapeutic gas for various
diseases [60].

-Fuel production: Hydrogen is used to process crude oil into refined fuels, like gasoline and diesel.
It can also remove contaminants, such as sulphur, from these fuels [61].

-Ammonia production: Ammonia is obtained on a large scale through Haber-Bosch process. The
process combines hydrogen and nitrogen to produce ammonia. Almost 90 % of ammonia goes into
fertilizer production [62].

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-Fuel cells: Fuel cells generate electricity from hydrogen and renewable energy sources, and can
provide power for vehicles like cars and buses, as well as commercial buildings [63].

-Olefin Production: Olefins are essential for manufacturing fibers, rubber, and plastics. The
process of cracking hydrocarbons to produce olefins generates large amounts of hydrogen.
Hydrogen provides considerable energy savings and environmental benefits in the olefins
production process [64].

-Glass production: Hydrogen can purify glass and, when combined with nitrogen, it can the glass
against oxidation.

-Metalworking: Hydrogen is frequently used in welding, heat-treating, and annealing processes

for metals [65].

1.4.4 Water
- The household purpose essentially uses about 15% of water, which encompasses drinking,
bathing, cooking, washing dishes, doing laundry, rinsing fruits or vegetables, and oral hygiene.
- Water is at the heart of agricultural activities as it forms the basis around 70% of water is used
for irrigation. Water is crucial for gardening, farming, and fisheries. It is consumed by plants
during photosynthesis for the creation of crops, fruits, flowers, veggies, and with the aid of manure,
sunlight, and oxygen.

- Industries make use of water during the cooling of machines, washing, or through the creation of
new products. Water is used in cooling, processing, transporting, diluting, or washing. The greatest
quantity of water is used for the preparation of food, paper, and chemicals.
- Other uses include the transport, hydroelectric power, tourism and recreation, waste remover,
and manufacturing [66].

1.4.5 Kerosene
Kerosene oil is useful in accomplishing various household activities, particularly in places where
the convenience of electricity is inaccessible.

- Kerosene lamps are one of the oldest and most convenient forms of lighting. They emit a soothing
and comforting light that is particularly useful for different outdoor activities like camping, where
electricity is not readily available. Kerosene lamps are easy to carry and can be transported during
any situation. In comparison, kerosene lamps have their positives, such as omnipresence, electric

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bulbs do have their pros, such as one click and lights are turned on, but in general are very much
dependent on power supply.

- Kerosene fireplaces can be helpful in cooking during gas or electric outage. They are very good
form lamps as they provide consistent heat, allowing for varied range on various cooking
preparations. Moreover, they can also be used as form heaters, especially in really cold regions
where centralized heating is not readily available or used.

-Currently, kerosene generators are very handy during a electricity black out. They are small in
size and can be very efficient in important things such as powering up lamps, mobile phones, and
small appliances. Although gasolines are used more frequently, their use in electricity works is not
very constant.

- In contrast to gasolines, kerosene generators are appreciated for their long lasting storage ability,
little chance of fire, and constant flow of fuel [67].

1.4.6 Diesel
The industrial sector has relied on diesel engines for many years because they offer superior
energy efficiency along with exceptional load-bearing capacity and the ability to withstand
extreme conditions. The robust design and low specific fuel consumption of diesel engines
establish them as the preferred choice for many sectors needing reliable power sources with long
operational periods.

- The freight and logistics industry depends on diesel engines for long-haul transportation since
they power freight trucks as well as diesel-electric trains in areas without electrification and
maritime vessels where ongoing operation and fuel efficiency remain essential.

- The energy sector frequently relies on diesel engines for power generation purposes in areas
where the grid is either absent or unstable. Diesel engines operate as backup power generators for
essential facilities including hospitals and data centers while functioning as independent power
systems for isolated locations like oil rigs and mining camps and acting as stabilizing elements in
microgrids when combined with renewable energy systems which utilize synthetic diesel to
promote sustainable energy solutions. Excavators, loaders, dump trucks and drilling equipment
powered by diesel serve as core operational machinery for both construction and mining sectors.

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- Just like in other industries, agriculture has also been revolutionized with the introduction of
diesel engines which now power tractors, harvesters, planters, and irrigation systems, ensuring that
these tools function even in the most isolated regions devoid of electricity [68].

1.4.7 Fuel gas

Fuel gas serves as an energy source for various vehicles including cars, motorcycles, trucks, boats
and airplanes. The mixture of fuel gas and air produces a vapor that will both compress and
explode. The explosion force drives the pistons which start vehicle motion.

- Welding operations utilize acetylene as the fuel gas. The fuel gas acetylene combines with oxygen
to achieve the necessary heat to melt metal.

- A flame heats propane to achieve the necessary temperature for metal cutting ignition. Pure
oxygen is directed onto the heated metal surface to make it burn while producing oxide debris
from the cut.

- Propane is also used for general heating. During brazing and soldering procedures alternative
fuel gases are adequate because they function without the need for extreme flame temperatures.

- Burners, heaters and camping stoves utilize fuel gases for operation [69].

1.4.8 AGO (Automotive gas oil)

- AGO is mainly utilized in diesel engines, which can be further found in transport vehicles.
- AGO is used in two vehicle types: Heavy-duty units, like buses and trucks. Light-duty units,
including vans and passenger vehicles.

- Diesel engines are additionally utilized in a wide range of industries, including construction
machinery and agricultural machines [70][71].

1.4.9 Tar
- Tar is used as a source of energy. Coal tar served as a major fuel source traditionally and still
functions as a heating and lighting fuel in certain regions today. Through gasification and pyrolysis
modern technologies transform tar into syngas which consists of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
to generate electricity or produce synthetic fuels.

-Adhesives and Binders: Foundry cores and refractory bricks rely on tar as a binder material
during their production process along with other high-temperature applications.

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-Electrodes and Carbon Brushes: The steel and aluminum industries depend on coal tar pitch as a
critical element in electrode and carbon brush production.

-Rubber and Plastics: The rubber and plastics industries utilize tar-based resins and oils to enhance
both the flexibility and strength of their materials.

-Road construction and maintenance represent the most famous application of tar. Tar combined
with gravel and additional aggregates produces asphalt for roadways and parking area
construction. Asphalt delivers a hardy surface resistant to harsh weather and heavy vehicular use.
The application of tar-based sealants to fill road cracks and potholes helps extend surface lifespans
and minimizes maintenance expenses.

Tar products serve numerous purposes which makes them essential across different industrial
sectors. The creation of advanced tar-based products that are both eco-friendly and efficient will
remain essential to support the demands of an expanding and changing planet as sustainability
becomes more significant [72].

1.4.10 Naphta
Naphtha serves as a starting material for pyrolysis to synthesize propylene, ethylene, butadiene,
and other key materials necessary for petrochemical production. These compounds later on will
be transformed into a vast array of products such as synthetic rubber, resins, fibers, etc. [73]. The
primary applications of petroleum naphtha are categorized as precursors of gasoline and liquid
fuels, solvents for dry-cleaning, cutback asphalts, paints, rubber, and industrial extraction solvents
[74].

2. Project statement
2.1 Objectives

This project's aim is to evaluate the current state of the Beddawi refinery in Tripoli, Lebanon and
develop a comprehensive plan for its optimization and rehabilitation. To address challenges like
outdated equipment, environmental concerns, and inefficiencies, the structural, operational, and
technological condition are evaluated. The project's goal is to develop strategies for modernizing
the refinery, improving energy efficiency, reducing emissions, and incorporating advanced
refining technologies to meet Lebanon's increasing demand for petroleum products.

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The focus is on economic feasibility to ensure that the proposed upgrades are financially
sustainable and beneficial to both the local and national economy. Environmental compliance will
be given priority, along with plans for controlling pollution, managing waste, and reducing
greenhouse gases. The project will provide a plan for implementing gradually, involving
renewable energy and exploring the production of cleaner fuels like low-sulfur and biofuels.

Furthermore, the project intends to incorporate the local workforce in training and capacity-
building programs to prepare them for the upgraded operations. The project is designed to restore
the refinery's functionality by addressing these objectives, while also guaranteeing sustainability,
competitiveness, and alignment with modern industry standards.

2.2 Technical and non-technical constraints

The performance and overall success of all projects are influenced by certain inherent limitations
or constraints. The parameters that are necessary for a project to function are essentially
determined by these constraints. To ensure successful project completion, it is important to manage
key constraints such as time, cost, quality, resources, and risks carefully. Additionally, constraints
include factors such as scope, schedule, and cost, as well as considerations such as risk, quality,
resources, and regulations. Nevertheless, specific constraints that must be addressed are outlined
in this project.

2.2.1 API gravity

Crude oils can be classified as light or heavy depending on their density and specific gravity.
Gravity is a commonly used measurement of crude oil density, and it is measured in comparison
to water by the American Petroleum Institute (API). The calculation is done using the formula:

141.5
𝐴𝑃𝐼 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = − 131.5
𝑆𝐺

Where SG = Specific gravity of oil.

In the refining industry, API gravity is commonly used to express oil density, which is measured
in degrees (° API). API gravity is measured in relation to density (the lighter a material is, the
higher its API gravity). Water is defined to have an API gravity of 10°.

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Figure 1: Demonstrates the quality differences between a typical light crude (35°API) and a
typical heavy crude (25°API), in terms of their natural yields of light gases, gasoline components,
distillate (mainly jet fuel and diesel) components, and heavy oils. In developed countries, the
exhibit displays the average demand profile for these product categories.

Figure 1-Typical natural yields of light and heavy crude oils.

Heavy oil yields from both light and heavy crudes exceed the need for heavy refined products, and
the natural yield of heavy oil from the heavy crude is more than twice that of the light crude. Based
on these general characteristics of crude oils, it can be concluded that refineries must be capable
of converting at least some, and possibly most, of the heavy oil into light products, and the heavier
the crude, the higher the conversion capacity required to produce specific products.

A specific constraint facing the Beddawi refinery is its limited capacity to process heavier crude
oils, which have lower API gravity. The refinery's design was originally intended to process
Kirkuk crude from Iraq, which has a API gravity of around 36–38° (moderate to light crude), but
it is not suitable for heavier or sour crudes. Modern global crude supplies frequently contain
heavier grades with lower API gravity (e.g., < 25°), which necessitate the use of advanced
upgrading units like hydrocrackers or cokers, which are equipment that the Beddawi refinery is
currently lacking because of its outdated setup.

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Unless it is upgraded to process a wider range of crude types, it will be economically less
competitive due to the limited flexibility of crude feedstock it can handle. Modernizing the refining
units would necessitate significant capital investment to address this constraint.

2.2.2 Sulfur content

The most significant effect on refining is caused by sulfur, among all the hetero-elements in crude
oil. Sufficiently high sulfur levels in refinery streams can deactivate or poison the catalysts that
promote desired chemical reactions in certain refining processes, cause corrosion in refinery
equipment, and lead to the emission of sulfur compounds, which are undesirable and may be under
strict regulatory controls. Vehicle emissions of sulfur compounds caused by sulfur in vehicle fuels
are undesirable and interfere with vehicle emission control systems that target regulated emissions
like volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, and particulates.

To mitigate these unwanted effects, refineries must be able to remove sulfur from crude oil and
refinery streams to the required extent. The sulfur content of the crude increases, resulting in a
higher degree of sulfur control and associated cost.

Crude oil and refinery streams usually contain sulfur expressed in either weight percent (wt%) or
parts per million by weight (ppmw). In the refining industry, crude oil is called sweet (low sulfur)
if its sulfur level is less than a threshold value (e.g., 0.5 wt% (5,000 ppmw)) and sour (high sulfur)
if its sulfur level is above a higher threshold. Most sour crudes have sulfur levels between 1.0–2.0
wt%, but there are some that have sulfur levels higher than 4 wt%.

Due to the absence of modern desulfurization units such as HDS reactors, the Beddawi refinery
cannot process high-sulfur (sour) crude oils, resulting in its limited ability to process them. The
refinery was initially designed to handle low-sulfur Kirkuk crude that contained approximately
1.9% sulfur, but it lacks the advanced technology needed to process heavier sour crudes that
typically contain sulfur levels above 2.5%. Without the proper sulfur removal infrastructure,
processing these crudes would result in high sulfur content in fuel products, which would not
comply with environmental regulations on fuel emissions.

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As the global crude market incorporates heavier and higher-sulfur blends, this constraint limits the
refinery's operational flexibility and market competitiveness. Significant upgrades in its sulfur
treatment capabilities are necessary for the Beddawi refinery to overcome this.

The scheme shown in Table 1 for classifying crude oils based on their API gravity and sulfur
content is widely used. The categories are qualitatively indicating the ranges of API gravity and
sulfur content that define every crude class [1].

Table 122-Crude oil classes based on API and sulfur content

2.2.3 Paraffinic/Naphthenic/Aromatic Crude Oils

The Beddawi refinery cannot efficiently process crude oils with high aromatic or naphthenic
content, which can have an impact on product quality and equipment performance. At first, the
refinery was intended to process medium-light Kirkuk crude, which has a balanced hydrocarbon
composition. If crudes that contain aromatics or naphthenes are fed, the existing process units may
have trouble converting these components into high-quality products such as gasoline or diesel
without producing excess heavy residues.

The presence of high aromatic content in crude oil can cause lower cetane numbers in diesel and
higher gum formation in gasoline, which are not desirable. Similarly, naphthenic crudes can cause
coking and fouling in heat exchangers and reactors, especially if not managed with advanced
upgrading and treatment technologies. Modern catalytic reforming or hydrocracking units are

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necessary for the refinery to effectively reduce these undesirable fractions, which can result in
poor fuel quality and higher environmental emissions.

To meet product quality standards and environmental regulations, it is necessary to either reduce
the intake of crudes rich in these components or upgrade the refinery to handle them.

2.2.4 Energy consumption

Over 30% of the world's energy demand has been met by petroleum, which is a vital source of
energy since 1990 (natural gas, nuclear energy, hydroelectricity, renewables, and coal are the five
other primary energy sources). From powering vehicles and electricity generation to construction
and the manufacture of plastics and other synthetics, it has had a positive impact on the economic,
industrial, and technological development of the world.

Figure 2-Energy consumption growth by energy source.

Today, the world is highly dependent on petroleum, and demand keeps rising year after year. Oil
and natural gas accounted for 36.1% and 26% of the total global energy consumption in 2015, as
per the International Energy Agency. Since 1990, oil has been the primary source of energy
consumption, followed by coal and natural gas as indicated in Figure 3. The demand for petroleum
products worldwide will remain high due to a rising global population and continued economic
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growth. In order to meet this demand, the petroleum industry needs to strategically plan and invest
heavily in optimization tools [75].

Figure 3-Total primary energy supply (TPES), 2015.

2.2.5 Economic constraints

The main reason for the economic constraints was budget limitations and money allocation. The
rehabilitation of the Beddawi refinery is greatly affected by the high investment cost required to
modernize outdated infrastructure and ensure economic viability. Given that the refinery stopped
operating in 1992 and has remained inactive, a significant amount of capital is necessary to upgrade
processing units, install modern refining technologies, and comply with environmental
regulations. The project faces challenges in securing financial resources due to Lebanon's
economic crisis and limited government funding. In order to make the refinery's operation
profitable, private sector involvement or international investment may be necessary.

2.2.6 Legal constraints

Work law, safety regulations, and supervision plans are the primary legal constraints. As for the
impact of legal constraints, on one side, it may affect the schedule and lead to project delays. It
could have an impact on the project's planning and progress, on the other hand.

2.2.7 Environmental constraints

To minimize ecological impact, rehabilitation efforts must comply with environmental regulations.
The task involves managing emissions, controlling waste, and ensuring that operations do not have

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a negative impact on air and water quality. To maintain compliance with legal standards and
promote sustainable operations, environmental considerations are essential.

The protection of the environment is required by the public's concerns and regulations, including
air protection, tree preservation, noise control, and other requirements. During the planning and
design stages of the project, the responsible individuals must go to the 'Environmental Department'
to obtain approval/justification for the project. This takes time and will have an impact on the
project's progress. The project may be delayed or even not carried out if approval is not received
on time [76] [77].

2.2.8 Safety constraints

The focus of safety constraints is to prevent harm and minimize risks to people, equipment, and
the environment. The importance of these constraints is that they ensure a system operates without
causing injury, damage, or adverse effects. Direct and indirect hazards are addressed by
operational safety constraints, which require designs that either eliminate potential dangers or
reduce their impact. Individuals who interact with the system must be safeguarded due to human
safety constraints. Due to these constraints, warnings, training, and clear instructions are often
included to guide users in safe operation. Making sure that the designs are intuitive, user-friendly,
and that the safety measures are easy to comprehend and apply. In addition, environmental safety
rules are based on how the system interacts with its surroundings [77] [78].

2.2.9 Geopolitical constraints

The Beddawi refinery is unable to operate properly due to geopolitical limitations caused by
regional conflicts, political instability, and economic pressures. Investment and infrastructure
rehabilitation have become more difficult due to Lebanon's civil war, the 2006 conflict, and
ongoing regional tensions. In addition, certain regional countries may oppose Lebanon's economic
development in the energy sector to maintain their own dominance. External suppliers benefit from
Lebanon's reliance on fuel imports, which also plays a role in foreign interests. The refinery's
restart effort is further complicated by political instability and shifting alliances, but there is still
hope that the new government can overcome these challenges.

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2.3 Codes and standards

The Lebanese North Refinery optimization and rehabilitation process requires strict adherence to
international and regional codes and standards to maintain compliance and ensure both safety and
product quality. The simulation design integrated essential standards from AICHE, API, EN ISO,
and ASTM.

- The storage tank designed according to API-650 standards for fabrication, inspection, and testing
requirements. And API-2000 standards for venting guidelines to protect against overpressure.

- The separator design complies with API-421 standards to set standards for phase separation in
industrial processes.

- The vacuum distillation column design complies with AICHE E10 to ensure efficient separation,
and process safety.

Table 13-Table of codes and standards with issuing bodies and functions.

Code and standard Issuing body Function

EN 590 :2013 / AC :2014 CEN Outlines essential criteria and

testing procedures for automotive
diesel fuel which incorporates sulfur
limits and CFPP standards.

ASTM D975-15 ASTM Establishes categories and

specifications for diesel fuel oils
based on distillation properties,
sulfur content levels and cetane
index values.

ASTM D93 ASTM The Pensky-Martens closed cup

method measures flash point to
assess fire and storage safety.

EN ISO 12156-1 ISO Defines a procedure to assess diesel

fuel's lubrication qualities which

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 helps maintain proper fuel
lubrication to avoid excessive wear
in injection systems

EN ISO 3675 / ASTM D1298 ISO / ASTM By applying the hydrometer method
fuel density measurements are taken
which help in determining energy
content and classification criteria.

EN ISO 12205 ISO Evaluates oxidation stability as a

measure of fuel's resistance to
degradation throughout storage.

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3. Process options
3.1 Replacing acid wash with the Merox process

Figure 4-Schematic process flow diagram.

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The Merox (Mercaptan Oxidation) method provides a decidedly more effective and eco-conscious
option than the conventional acid wash method for the treatment of petroleum fractions. Acid
washing includes several strong acids that generate hazardous waste, coupled with ecological
concerns, and also cause equipment corrosion. Acid washing increases the running costs across
the board. The Merox method, though, uses a catalytic oxidation reaction to change harmful
mercaptans into disulfides, which do not cause harm and can stay in the fuel without largely
affecting its quality. This method is often used in handling processes for LPG, kerosene, jet fuel,
and gasoline to comply with rigid sulfur content regulations. By implementing Merox, the refinery
can achieve reduced running costs along with increased safety as well as adherence to ecological
standards, making it a more sustainable option than customary acid washing.

3.2 Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) after each cut to meet international standards

To be completely in line with global fuel standards, it is vital to add hydrodesulfurization (HDS)
units quickly after important distillation fractions, such as naphtha, diesel, and kerosene. HDS is a
valuable catalytic process. It removes sulfur from a number of petroleum fractions via thoroughly
reacting them alongside hydrogen at elevated temperatures and large pressures in the presence of
a Co-Mo or Ni-Mo catalyst. If sulfur is entirely taken out, then sulfur oxides (SOx) will not form
at all, and these contribute completely to air that is polluted and rain that is acidic. Putting HDS
units in place all through the refining operation improves fuel quality as well as lowers effects on
the environment along with making sure that the refinery follows the rules, which makes it more
competitive in the world market. Additionally, hydrogen recycling within HDS units may improve
efficiency on top of reducing functional costs.

3.3 Optimizing storage tanks with internal floating roofs for gasoline

Storage tank design is important for minimizing evaporation losses and handling volatile
petroleum products safely. For example, gasoline (gasoline). Rather than making use of a floating
roof or a fixed roof tank, the refinery should install internal floating roofs (IFR) to cut down on
vapour emissions. IFR systems use a floating deck that sits inside a fixed-roof tank and moves up
and down with the level of liquid. This reduces the exposure of the surface area to air and thereby
minimizes evaporation. Vapor pockets won’t be formed, thus reducing product loss due to

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evaporation. Also, IFR tanks make it safer to operate since they have less risk of fires and meet
rules for the chemical vapor compounds would contain.

3.4 Hydrogen recycling using adsorption for separation of H₂ and CO

Hydrogen plays an important part in various refining reactions such as hydrodesulfurization and
catalytic reforming. In order to achieve better hydrogen use, an adsorption-based separation system
for hydrogen (H₂) and carbon monoxide (CO) and other components will have to be adopted by
the refinery. The PSA (Pressure Swing Adsorption) or membrane separation technologies can be
employed for recovering high purity hydrogen which can be recycled back to refining. This method
helps reduce the utilization of hydrogen while lowering operating costs and increases efficiency
by providing a steady stream of high-quality hydrogen. Also, recovering hydrogen effectively
helps protect the environment by reducing flaring and greenhouse gas emissions.

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3.5 Optimization methods for specific units
3.5.1 Optimization of the catalytic reformer

Figure 5-BFD of the RCU.

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Many modifications can be made to improve the working of a catalytic reformer. One important
enhancement is the arrangement of PSA unit which increases the purity of hydrogen. Hence
downstream processes using hydrogen like HDS and hydrocracking work efficiently. Another
approach is to increase reactor size and efficiently hold residence time, further helpful to improve
the reaction. Naphtha will convert into high-octane reformate. Also, isomerization and alkylation
units will be incorporated to further enhance octane quality of gasoline. This will help to improve
gasoline quality. A swing reactor system can also be introduced to guarantee smooth operations.
With this addition, once one of the three reactors reaches capacity, it can simply be switched over
while maintaining stable output. Finally, adding continuous catalyst regeneration (CCR) will boost
the reforming efficiency while lengthening catalyst life, thus reducing downtime.

Figure 6-Image showing the swing reactor.

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3.5.2 Optimization of the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU)

Figure 7-BFD of the CDU.

The Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) is the heart of refining and its internals can be modified to
improve its efficiency. Installation of sieve plates and increasing the number of plates improves
the separation of different types of petroleum. By enhancing vapor-liquid contact, sieve plates lead
to better mass transfer between different layers in a distillation column. As a result, sharper
separation will occur in cuts such as light naphtha, heavy naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and gas oil.
This makes the CDU more efficient and cost effective by getting more yields of desired products
and using low energy.

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3.5.3 Optimization of the Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU)

The performance of the VDU is closely tied to the CDU because it processes heavier fractions of
crude oil. Due to the improvement in separation efficiency in the CDU, it is recommended to
decrease the number of plates in the VDU in this optimization strategy. In addition, incorporating
sieve plates in the VDU will improve vapor-liquid interactions, resulting in better separation of
vacuum gas oil (VGO) and other heavy fractions. By minimizing unnecessary pressure drops and
energy consumption, this optimization reduces operational costs and maintains product yield and
quality.

3.5.4 Adding a refluxed absorber after the visbreaker

Lighter, more valuable products like gasoline and diesel can be made easier with the use of a
visbreaker to break down heavy residues. Insufficient separation may result in the presence of
heavier components in the lighter fractions, resulting in a decrease in the overall efficiency of the
process. In order to deal with this, a refluxed absorber should be installed after the visbreaker to
separate light and heavy products. The product's purity is enhanced by the addition of this step,
which selectively condenses heavier hydrocarbons and returns them to the visbreaker for further
processing, while allowing lighter components to be recovered efficiently. The outcome is a higher
yield of valuable products, improved fuel quality, and improved energy efficiency in the refinery
process.

3.6 Criteria for selecting the desired optimization routes

To determine the best routes for the Beddawi refinery's rehabilitation and optimization, key criteria
include technical feasibility, economic viability, energy efficiency, environmental compliance,
and operational reliability. To guarantee maximum efficiency and sustainability, the chosen routes
—continuous catalyst regeneration (CCR) in the catalytic reformer, optimization of the crude
distillation unit (CDU), optimization of the vacuum distillation unit (VDU), and the addition of a
refluxed absorber after the visbreaker— were carefully compared to these factors.

Technical feasibility is one of the main considerations to ensure that the selected processes can be
implemented with the existing refinery infrastructure and operational capabilities. Continuous
catalyst regeneration (CCR) is a technology that keeps catalyst activity in reforming processes,

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making it possible to produce sustainable high-octane gasoline. By modifying the CDU and VDU,
which involves optimizing sieve plates and the number of plates, separation efficiency can be
improved without major structural changes. The addition of a reflux absorber after the visbreaker
is similar to how it integrates seamlessly into current operations and enhances the separation of
light and heavy products. The refinery is able to adopt new technologies without any disruption or
costly overhauls due to these modifications.

The selection process requires economic viability to maintain manageable capital and operational
costs while providing strong return on investment for each optimization route. Despite its initial
capital investment, CCR technology is worth it because it extends catalyst life, minimizes
shutdowns, and increases hydrogen production, which can be recycled for hydrodesulfurization
(HDS) processes. The CDU and VDU modifications result in cost savings by improving
fractionation efficiency and product yield while requiring relatively lower capital expenditures.
Even though it has a moderate implementation cost, the refluxed absorber is capable of maximizing
the recovery of valuable light products from the visbreaker, which results in increased profitability
by reducing product losses and improving overall yield.

The selection process is heavily influenced by energy efficiency and sustainability. To maintain
high production efficiency, the refinery must optimize its processes to minimize energy
consumption and reduce its carbon footprint. By using CCR technology, it is possible to maintain
optimal catalytic activity, prevent excessive coke deposition, and reduce energy loss. The
efficiency of fractionation is enhanced by the improvements in the CDU and VDU, which reduces
heat requirements and fuel consumption. The refluxed absorber helps conserve energy by
efficiently separating and recovering light products, preventing unnecessary reprocessing. The
refinery's long-term sustainability can be improved by reducing overall energy demand and
improving operational efficiency through these optimizations.

Environmental and regulatory compliance are essential factors because of the growing global and
regional regulations on fuel quality, emissions, and environmental impact. The production of low-
sulfur fuels is facilitated by CCR technology and hydrogen recycling, which ensures compliance
with strict environmental regulations. CDU and VDU optimizations result in reduced emissions
and lower environmental impact by improving process efficiency. By preventing the waste of

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valuable light hydrocarbons, the reflux absorber minimizes unnecessary emissions and enhances
the refinery's environmental performance. These enhancements make the refinery more
sustainable and compliant in the international market.

Finally, operational reliability and maintenance are key considerations in optimizing refinery
processes. To improve plant reliability, minimize unplanned shutdowns, and reduce maintenance
costs, the selected modifications must be implemented. By using CCR, production stability can be
improved by eliminating the need for frequent shutdowns to regenerate the catalyst. The
improvements in the CDU and VDU optimize separation efficiency, preventing operational
bottlenecks and reducing downtime. The refluxed absorber is responsible for ensuring efficient
product separation in the visbreaking process, which reduces contamination and improves overall
system reliability. These optimizations work together to improve the refinery's long-term
operational stability and efficiency.

In conclusion, these optimizations will not only improve the refinery’s profitability and product
quality but also extend equipment lifespan, reduce emissions, and ensure compliance with
international industry standards, making the Beddawi refinery more competitive and sustainable
in the long run.

3.7 Process description

3.7.1 Preheating phase
The refining process begins with the preheating phase, where crude oil from Kirkuk, Iraq, is heated
to ensure an adequate proportion of liquid and vapor phases before further processing. Kirkuk
crude oil is known for its relatively high sulfur content and moderate API gravity, requiring
efficient separation of impurities to enhance its processing quality [79].

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 Figure 8-A picture representing the preheating phase.

During this phase, steam is injected into the crude oil at a rate of 3-5% of the crude feed to assist
in breaking up emulsions and reducing viscosity, which enhances separation efficiency. The steam
injection also helps in preventing the formation of coke deposits and assists in the removal of light
hydrocarbons, improving the overall stability of the crude oil before desalting. Additionally,
heaters are used to further boost the preheating phase, raising the crude oil temperature to 120-
150°C to ensure optimal conditions for efficient separation and desalting.

The crude oil is preheated to achieve a liquid-to-vapor ratio of approximately 45:55, ensuring a
higher proportion of vapor phase to enhance the separation of water and salts in the desalter [80].

3.7.2 Desalination phase

Following preheating, the crude oil enters the desalter, where the desalination process and water
separation occur through multiple separators [81].

Figure 9-Image representing the separators of the desalination phase.

The removal of salts, minerals, and any residual water that may cause corrosion, catalyst
poisoning, and fouling is achieved by the essential desalination step done in the process.

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It's important to note that crude oil is first desalted by mixing it with fresh water (approximately
6% of the crude feed) followed by a series of dilution and dissolution steps. The blend goes through
numerous separation stages: Mechanical Separation, and electrostatic Coalescence

-Mechanical Separation: The crude undergoes further removal of dispersed water and remaining
impurities by passing through coalescers and demulsifiers.

-Electrostatic Coalescence: It is the process of enhancing separation efficiency by applying an

electric field into coalescing small water droplets into larger ones.

The goal is to ensure multi-stage separation process which aims at achieving maximum
effectiveness in crude desalting along with improved equipment longevity and efficiency all while
ensuring refined oil quality.

3.7.3 Atmospheric Distillation Unit (CDU)

The Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) is the heart of the refinery, serving as the most critical and
central unit in the entire refining process [82]. It handles the primary distillation of crude oil into
various hydrocarbon fractions which is the basis of all subsequent operations in the refining
process. In this optimized refinery, we have improved the configuration by increasing the number
of stages from 40 to 50, and altering the dimensions further improving the efficiency of the
separation process. These changes guarantee enhanced fractionation, increased product yield, and
improved overall refinery performance [83].

Figure 10-Image representing the atmospheric distillation unit.

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The CDU works under atmospheric pressure with a top temperature of approximately 65°C and a
bottom temperature of 400°C. A pressure of 2 to 2.7 bars must be maintained throughout the stages
to guarantee optimal separation efficiency. Most relevant products (cuts) obtained from this unit
are [80]:

Table 14-Summarizing the percentage of each cut in the atmospheric distillation unit.

Component Percentage (%)

Gases (Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane) 3%
Naphtha (Light and Heavy) 25%
Kerosene (Jet Fuel) 15%

Diesel 25%
Atmospheric Residue (to Vacuum Distillation Unit) 40-50%

The CDU is the most critical point of interest in the refinery because it dictates the efficiency of
downstream processing units. Proper operation of the CDU ensures optimal separation, minimizes
losses, and maximizes high-value product yields, making it an essential pillar in refinery
economics and overall operational success.

3.7.4 Processing of VDU cuts

Each cut from the CDU undergoes further processing to enhance its quality and maximize valuable
products :

A. Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU)

The Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) uses reduced pressure to process atmospheric residue to
avoid thermal cracking while boosting the yield of valuable products. The VDU maintains a
maximum pressure of 20 mmHg while functioning at 400°C. The key cuts obtained include [84]:

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 Figure 11-Image representing the vacuum distillation unit.

- The top most product from the vacuum distillation unit is : Fuel Gas which contains light
hydrocarbons and serves as refinery fuel.

- Light vacuum Gas Oil (LVGO) serves as a feedstock for subsequent processing in cracking units.

- Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil (HVGO) functions as the primary material for hydrocracking and
catalytic cracking processes.

- The bottom product from the vacuum distillation process serves as raw material for asphalt
production and can undergo further processing in coking units.

VDU operations ensure the greatest production of light fractions while minimizing waste material.

B. Reformer
The reformer is a vital unit responsible for upgrading naphtha into high-octane gasoline
components and aromatics used in petrochemical production [85].

Figure 12-Image representing the reformer.

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The key reactions occurring in the reformer include:

-Aromatization: Conversion of paraffins into aromatics.

Example: Hexane (C₆H₁₄) is converted to benzene (C₆H₆) with the release of hydrogen gas (H₂).

C₆H₁₄ → C₆H₆ + H₂

Operating conditions [80]:

Table 15-Summarizing the operating conditions of the aromatization reaction.

Property Value
Temperature 470°C
Pressure 15 bar
Catalyst Platinum-based (supported on alumina)
Catalyst function Facilitates dehydrogenation & aromatization of paraffins to
aromatics

-Isomerization: Conversion of straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched ones

Example: Isomerization of Normal Hexane (C₆H₁₄) to Iso-Hexane:

C₆H₁₄ → C₆H₁₄ (branched isomers)

Operating Conditions:

Table 16-Summarizing the operating conditions of the isomerization reaction.

Property Value
Temperature 300°C
Pressure 15 bar
Catalyst Platinum-rhenium (Pt-Re) on alumina support
Catalyst Function Enhances performance, especially in isomerization reactions

-Dehydrogenation

Example: Dehydrogenation of Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂) to Benzene (C₆H₆):

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C₆H₁₄ → C₆H₆ + H₂

Operating Conditions:
Table 17-Summarizing the operating conditions of the dehydrogenation reaction.

Property Value
Temperature 480°C
Pressure 3 bar (lower pressure favors dehydrogenation)
Catalyst Platinum-based (supported on alumina)
Catalyst Facilitates dehydrogenation of cycloalkanes (naphthenes) into aromatics
function

3.7.5 Visbreaker and the refluxed absorber

The visbreaker functions by applying mild thermal cracking to decrease the viscosity of vacuum
residue and generate lighter products. Key reactions occurring in the visbreaker include:
Heavy hydrocarbons break down into middle distillates and fuel oils through a process known as
thermal decomposition of long-chain molecules [86].

Figure 13- Image representing the visbreaker and refluxed absorber

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Operating conditions include [80]:

Table 18-Table representing the operating conditions of the visbreaker’s reactions.

Property Value
Temperature 450°C
Pressure 5-10
bar

Example: C₃₀H₆₂ → C₁₅H₃₂ + C₁₀H₂₀ + C₅H₁₂

Visbreaking operations decrease the vacuum residue yield by 30% while transforming it into
lighter fractions. In the refluxed absorber lighter fractions are separated and recovered from the
cracked products. The visbreaking process becomes more efficient through this step while it
protects valuable lighter hydrocarbons from being lost.

3.7.6 General overview of the simulation

Figure 14-Image representing the whole simulation.

The simulation executes refinery operations to maximize the transformation of crude oil into
valuable products. The process begins by preheating followed by desalting to remove water and
salts. The distillation units divide the crude into different components before processing heavier

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residues to produce lighter products. Through visbreaking heavy fractions reduce their viscosity
while reforming and hydrocracking processes transform naphtha into high-octane components and
heavier fractions into diesel and jet fuel. The objective focuses on increasing yield while improving
product quality and boosting refinery efficiency [87] [88].

4. Mass balance
4.1 Mass balance for the storage tank

Figure 15-Storage tank representation.

We did a system of equations in order to get the molar flow of each outlet stream of the storage
tank : 𝑛𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 [5]

𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣 + 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙

459029=𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣 +𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣 = 459029 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙 (1)

4.1.1 Mass balance for 40C

𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 0.01= 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣 ×0.1132 + 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙 ×0.01 (2)
Replace (1) in (2):

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459029 × 0.01 = 0.1132 × (459029-𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙 ) +0.01 × 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙
4590.29 = 51962.0828 - 0.1132 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙 + 0.01𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙 -47371.7928 = -0.1032 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙

𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙 = 459029 kg/h

Replace in (1) => 459029 = 459029 + 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣 => 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑣 = 0 kg/h

This means there is no vapour is leaving the reactor that is why the ventilation system is made to
prevent any accumulation of hazardous gazes in the storage tank in addition we have added an
internal floating roof to minimize vapor losses, reduce emissions, and enhance safety by preventing
flammable vapor buildup.

By comparing the values with aspen aspen HYSYS

|𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 −𝐸𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙| 459029−459029
Error = = × 100 = 0 %
𝐸𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 459029

Table 19-Comparison between theoretical and Aspen results for the storage tank.

Outlet stream Theoretical Results Aspen Results Error (%)

( kgmole/h)
(kgmole/h)
𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒗 0 0 0
𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒍 459029 459029 0

4.2 Mass balance for the separator

Figure 16-Separator representation.

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4.2.1 Material balance of n-butane
𝑛𝑖𝑛 × 𝑥𝑛−𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝑛−𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝑛−𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡

2190 × 0.0096 = 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 0.0277 + 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 0.0078 (1)

4.2.2 Global material balance

𝑛𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2190 (2)

Two equations with two unknowns :

 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 208.945 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ ; 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1981.005

𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 −𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 205.3−208.945
Error for 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = × 100 = × 100 = 1.77%
𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 205.3

𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 −𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 1985−1981.055

Error for 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = × 100 = × 100 = 0.19%
𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 1981.055

4.2.3 Material balance of water

𝑛𝑖𝑛 × 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑛𝑖𝑛 × 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡
2190 × 0.0838 − 1981.055 × 0.0430
= = 0.4706
208.945
𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑥𝐻2𝑂,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.4775−0.4706
Error = × 100 = × 100 = 1.44%
𝑥𝐻2 𝑂,𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.4775

4.2.4 Material balance of i-pentane

𝑛𝑖𝑛 × 𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑛𝑖𝑛 × 𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 × 𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡
2190 × 0.0374 − 208.945 × 0.0812
= = 0.0328
1981.055
𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.0329−0.0328
Error = × 100 = × 100 = 0.3%
𝑥𝑖−𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒,𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.0329

Table 20- Comparison between theoretical and Aspen results for the separator.

Theoretical results Aspen Values Error (%)

𝒏𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 208.945 205.3 1.77

56 | P a g e
 𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 1981.055 1985 0.19
𝒙𝑯𝟐 𝑶,𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 0.4706 0.4775 1.46
𝒙𝒊−𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆,𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 0.0328 0.0329 0.3

The errors are acceptable. Therefore, the material balance is validated.

4.3 Mass balance of the vacuum distillation column

Figure 17-Vacuum distillation unit representation.

Ms10 = 2.920 × 105 kg/h

Mvacuum steam = 9072 kg/h
Mfuel gas = 1.006 × 105 kg/h
Mvac btm = 1.065 × 105 kg/h Aspen; to be verified
MLVGO = 1.223 × 104 kg/h
MHVGO = 8.180 × 104 kg/h

4.3.1 Overall Mass Balance

Ms10 + Mvacuum steam = Mfuel gas + Mvac btm + MLVGO + MHVGO = 301072 kg/h (1)
Table 21- H2O Mass Fraction in the Streams Connected to the Vacuum Distillation Unit.

Streams H2O mass fraction

Ms10 ws10 = 0.0314
Mvacuum steam wvacuum steam = 1
Mfuel gas wfuel gas = 0.1813
Mvac btm wvac btm = 0
MLVGO wLVGO = 0

57 | P a g e
 MHVGO wHVGO = 0

4.3.2 Mass Balance based on H2O

Ms10ws10 + Mvacuum steamwvacuum steam = Mfuel gaswfuel gas + Mvac btmwvac btm + MLVGOwLVGO
+MHVGOwHVGO
18240.8 = Mfuelgas × 0.1813 (2)
Mfuel gas = 1.006 × 105 kg/h

|𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |1.006 × 105 −1.006 × 105 |

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 0%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 1.006 × 105
Table 22-460-480 C* Mass Fraction in the Streams Connected to the Vacuum Distillation Unit.

Streams 460-480 C* mass fraction

Ms10 ws10 = 0.0407
Mvacuum steam wvacuum steam = 0
Mfuel gas wfuel gas = 0.0014
Mvac btm wvac btm = 0.0001
MLVGO wLVGO = 0.0478
MHVGO wHVGO = 0.1362

4.3.3 Mass Balance based on 460-480 C*

Ms10ws10 + Mvacuum steamwvacuum steam = Mfuel gaswfuel gas + Mvac btmwvac btm + MLVGOwLVGO +
MHVGOwHVGO
11884.4 = 140.84 + Mvac btm × 0.0001 + MLVGO × 0.0478 + MHVGO × 0.1362
11743.56 = Mvac btm × 0.0001 + MLVGO × 0.0478 + MHVGO × 0.1362 (3)
Table 23-500-520 C* Mass Fraction in the Streams Connected to the Vacuum Distillation Unit.

Streams 500-520 C* mass fraction

Ms10 ws10 = 0.0376
Mvacuum steam wvacuum steam = 0
Mfuel gas wfuel gas = 0.0001
Mvac btm wvac btm = 0.0013
MLVGO wLVGO = 0.0131

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 MHVGO wHVGO = 0.1305

4.3.4 Mass Balance based on 500-520 C*

Ms10ws10 + Mvacuum steamwvacuum steam = Mfuel gaswfuel gas + Mvac btmwvac btm + MLVGOwLVGO +
MHVGOwHVGO
10979.2 = 10.06 + Mvac btm × 0.0013 + MLVGO × 0.0131 + MHVGO × 0.1305
10969.14 = Mvac btm × 0.0013 + MLVGO × 0.0131 + MHVGO × 0.1305 (4)

Mvac btm + MLVGO + MHVGO = 200472 (1)

Mvac btm × 0.0001 + MLVGO × 0.0478 + MHVGO × 0.1362 = 11743.56 (3)
Mvac btm × 0.0013 + MLVGO × 0.0131 + MHVGO × 0.1305 = 10969.14 (4)

Mvac btm = 1.06 × 105 kg/h

|𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |1.065 × 105 −1.06 × 105 |
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 0.47%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 1.06 × 105

MLVGO = 1.25 × 104 kg/h

|𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |1.223 × 104 −1.25 × 104 |

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 2.16%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 1.25 × 104

MHVGO = 8.174 × 104 kg/h

|𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |8.180 × 104 −8.174 × 104 |

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 0.073%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 8.174 × 104
Table 24- Comparison between theoretical and Aspen results for the vauum distillation column.

Theoretical values Aspen values Error (%)

MFuel gas (Kg/h) 1.006 × 105 1.006 × 105 0
Mvac btm (Kg/h) 1.06 × 105 1.065 × 105 0.47
MLVGO (Kg/h) 1.25 × 104 1.223 × 104 2.16
MHVGO (Kg/h) 8.174 × 104 8.180 × 104 0.073

59 | P a g e
5. Energy balance
5.1 Energy balance for heater

Figure 18-Heater representation.

Thermal balance equation: ΔU + ΔEc + ΔEp = W + Q [5]

To continue our calculations, we considered the assumptions below:

• Δ𝐸c= Δ𝐸p = 0

• H = U + PV

ΔḢ = ΔU + ΔPV, with ΔPV=0 (no variation of volume nor the pressure), thus ΔḢ = ΔU

There is no work, W = 0 The heater has provided the energy with a duty of Q = 30372854.7558
Kcal/hr.

The variance in molar enthalpy (Δ𝐻) between the inlet and outlet streams will be calculated and
subsequently compared to the duty provided by Aspen, based on the relationship Δ𝐻 = 𝑄.

Following this, we will determine the percentage error between our theoretical calculations and

the results obtained from Aspen, review appendix (A.5.3).

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ΔḢ = Σ(ṅ×H) outlet - Σ(ṅ×H) inlet = nout × Hout − nin × Hin

= -2190×88599.42+2190×102461.7591
= 30358456.93 Kcal/hr.

|Eexpected −Eactual| 30372854.755−30358456.93

Error = = x100 = 0.0474 %
Eactual 30358456.93

Table 25-Storage tank energy balance results.

Duty Theoretical Results Aspen Results Error (%)

(Kcal/h) (Kcal/h)
𝑸 30358456.93 30372854.755 0.0474

5.2 Energy balance for the separator

Figure 19-Separator representation.

Energy balance: ∑ 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡

̂𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛̇ 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻

𝑛̇ 𝑖𝑛 𝐻 ̂𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑛̇ 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻
̂𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡

̂𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡
2190 × (−37070) = 205.3 × (−18330) + 1985 × 𝐻

2190 × (−37070) − 205.3 × (−18330)

̂𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝐻 = −39002.59496 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙
1985
̂ 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝐻
𝐻 ̂
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −39010−(−39002.59496)
Error = ̂𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡
= × 100 = 0.018%
𝐻 −39010

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 ̂𝑖𝑛 − 𝑛̇ 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻
𝑛̇ 𝑖𝑛 𝐻 ̂𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 2190 × (−37070) − 1985 × (−39010)
̂𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝐻 =
𝑛̇ 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 205.3
= −18258.40234 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙

̂ 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡−𝐻

𝐻 ̂ 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 −18330−(−18258.40234)
Error = ̂𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡
= × 100 = 0.39%
𝐻 −18330

5.2.1 Global energy balance

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = −10.45 − 215.1 = −225.55 𝑀𝑊 = −811980000 𝐾𝐽/ℎ

𝑄𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛−𝑄 −810000000−(−811980000)

𝑖𝑛
Error = 𝑄𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛
= −810000000
× 100 = 0.24%

Table 26-Separator energy balance results.

Theoretical results (KJ/h) Aspen values (KJ/Kmol) Error (%)

̂ 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑯 -39002.59496 -37070 0.018
̂ 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑯 -18258.40234 -18330 0.39
𝑸𝒊𝒏 -811980000 -810000000 0.24
Since the errors are acceptable, the validation of the energy balance on this separator is confirmed.

5.3 Energy balance for the vacuum distillation column

Thermal Balance: ∆U + ∆Ec + ∆Ep = W + Q

Assumptions:

- ∆Ec = ∆Ep = 0

- W = 0 (there are no moving parts)

- H = U + PV; ∆H = ∆U + ∆PV, with ∆PV=0 (no volume or pressure variations)

=> Thus ∆H = ∆U

- The energy of the coolers is considered negative because it is leaving the column (out)

- The energy equation becomes:

=> Hin – Hout = Qcondensers

62 | P a g e
where:

∆Ḣ = (∑ ni Ĥi) in – (∑ ni Ĥi) out

T
Ĥi = ∆Ĥ°i,f + ∫Tref Cp dT

Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3

And Qcondenser = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

Let us calculate ∆Ḣ:

There are two inlet streams (S10 and Vacuum steam) and four outlet streams (Fuel gas, LVGO,
HVGO and Vac btm). The table “Enthalpy of the existing components” (A.4.3) represents the
results of calculations using the enthalpy of formation and the ideal enthalpy.

Table 27-Vcuum istillation comparison results.

Theoretical Results ( MW) Aspen Results (MW)

(∑ ni Ĥi) in
- +24 +27
(∑ ni Ĥi) out
Let us now calculate the energy of the condensers:

𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝐿𝑉𝐺𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 136424.3125 × 2.43119583 × (250 − 167) = 27 × 106 =
ℎ

7.67 𝑀𝑊

|𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |7.682−7.67|

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 0.15%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 7.67

𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝐻𝑉𝐺𝑂 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 320602.98 × 2.623838864 × (321 − 241) = 67 × 106 =
ℎ

18.74 𝑀𝑊

|𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |18.76−18.74|

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 = 0.1%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 18.74

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 Table 28-Vacuum distillation column energy balance results.

Hin - Hout Qcond 1 + Qcond 2 Q net = 0

Theoretical (MW) 24 26.41 -2.41
Aspen (MW) 27 26.44 0.556742576

6. Design
6.1 Storage tank design (kirkuk’s crude oil)
Current refinery specifications:

- Current refinery capacity = 22,000 barrels per day [80]

- Conversion factor = 1 barrel = 0.159 m³

- Density of crude oil = 857.6 kg/m³

- Hours per day = 24 hours

𝑚3
𝑉𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 22,000 × 0.159 = 3,498 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 𝑉𝑑𝑎𝑦 × ρ= 3,498× 857.6 = 2,999,165 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑚𝑑𝑎𝑦 242,999,165 𝑘𝑔
𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = = = 124,965
24 24 ℎ

Given from aspen HYSYS for the new optimized and rehabilitated refinery:

Table 29-Representation of the density of kirkuk’s crude oil and the mass flow rate.

Density of crude oil (kg/m³) 857.6

Mass flow rate (kg/h) 4,590,000

This quantity is designed to cover approximately 75% of lebanon’s need of crude oil

Thus, the new project increases the capacity by approximately 36.7 times compared to the existing
refinery.

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 Table 30-Comparative table representing the mass flow rate of the old and the new one.

Old refinery New Project

124,965 kg/hr 4,590,000 kg/h

Therefore, we need to increase the capacity of the storage tank to accommodate the x36 higher
processing rate of 4,590,000 kg/h, compared to the current refinery's capacity of 124,965 kg/h [80].

6.1.1 Tank volume

𝑚𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 4590000 𝑚³ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = = 5352.15 ≈ 5,350
ρ 857.6 ℎ𝑟

6.1.2 Tank Capacity

We will assume a 24 h period for storage calculations:

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 × 24= 5,350 × 24 ≈ 128,400 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦 , this volume is too large to be handled in
one tank , in term of security ,optimization and to prevent any emergency case this value will be
divided into 10 different tanks , therefore the volume is 12840 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

6.1.3 Tank dimensions

For a cylindrical tank, the volume V can be calculated using the formula [89]:

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

- r = radius of the tank

- h = height of the tank

D2
A = Vstorage = πr 2 h= π 4 h

According to the API 650 standards: H =1.5D [90]

D2
12840 = π 4 (1.5D)

D =22.17m ≈ 25m

- Using the 1:1.5 ratio:

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H =1.5× D =1.5 × 22.17 = 33.255 ≈ 35m

Total storage volume:

The total storage volume of the tank is approximately 17,180 m³

We have estimated the diameter to be 25 meters and the height to be 35 meters for the storage tank.
This approximation was made to prevent any potential slippage of the crude oil and to leave
sufficient free space in the tank. The increased dimensions ensure that the tank can accommodate
the required volume while maintaining safety and operational efficiency.

This ensures adequate space to accommodate the changes in volume due to temperature
fluctuations and material expansion under specific conditions.

By maintaining this buffer, we account for potential thermal expansion and other factors, ensuring
the safe and efficient operation of the tank without exceeding its designed capacity.

6.1.4 Shell thickness calculation by the 1-Foot Method

The 1- foot method calculates the thicknesses required:

Appendix (A permits only tills design method. This method shall not be used for tanks larger
than 61m in diameter (D =25m < 61m).

The required minimum thickness of shell plates shall be the greater of tile values computed by
tile following formulas:

4.9 × 𝐷×(𝐻−0.3)×𝐺
In SI units: 𝑡𝑑 = + Ca [3] (API 650 ,5.6.1.1, Note I)
𝑆𝑑

td: Design shell thickness, in mm

D: Nominal tank diameter, in m) = 50m

Hl: Design liquid level, in Hl = 31.5 m (10% of the actual height must be empty for security
reasons).

G: design specific gravity of the liquid to be stored, as specified by kirkuk’s source =0.85

Ca: the corrosion allowance in mm, here the material used is carbon steel for petroleum
industries, therefore Ca = 3 mm.

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Sd = Sd is the allowable stress for the design condition (Carbon steel), Sd = 88.94 𝑀𝑃a (5.6.2.1),

4,9×25×(31.5−0.3)
𝑡𝑑 = + 3 ≈45.97 mm ≈ 50mm (according to the standards from Table 29,
88,94

appendix 7) this approximation is made due to security reasons.

6.1.5 Roof design

For a 25m diameter tank, we choose a self-supporting cone roof, with 16 rafters on the top and 32
rafters in the bottom (Section 5.10) [90].

API 650 Section 5.10.2.5 states that:

- Recommended: 7 mm steel plates. for large tanks (diameter > 15m). (API 650 , S.4.11.6)

- Roof slope: <1:16 (steeper slope for better drainage). (API650 ,5.10.2.6)

Height of the external Roof (API 650 considerations)

The height of the external self-supporting cone roof is determined by the slope angle and tank
diameter. API 650 typically recommends a roof slope of < 1:16 for self-supporting roofs.
from Section 5.10.2.2 and Table 5-21

Calculation of roof height :

𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝐷
( tan𝜃= 𝑎𝑑𝑗 )𝐻𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓= 2 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

D = 25 m

θ =2.5 < 3.57 For tanks 15 m (50 ft) in diameter or greater (5.10.2.6) for better drainage

Hroof = 0.55m

So, the external roof height should be around 0.55 meters.

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 Figure 20-Image representing the dimensions of the storage tank.

6.1.6 Anchorage design (API 650 Section 5.12)

Since Tripoli is located on historical earthquake fault lines, anchorage must be provided to ensure
the tank’s stability against seismic forces.

Seismic Anchorage Requirement (API 650 - Appendix E)

According to API 650, seismic forces can induce overturning moments that may cause tank
instability. To counteract these effects, anchorage is required to:

- Prevent uplift during strong seismic events.

- Increase tank stability against lateral forces.

- Ensure compliance with seismic design standards for earthquake-prone regions.

Figure 21-Mao of the location of major know historical earthquakes in association with the major active faults in Lebanon.

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6.1.7 Venting system (API 2000 Compliance)
A venting system (API 2000 Compliance) must be in place for balance and safety considerations:

- Normal vents: Free vents and conservation vents are termed as “breathing” vents.

- Emergency vents: Explosion hatches for overpressure scenarios [91].

6.1.8 Internal floating roof (IFR) (API 650 Appendix H)

Recommended for the prevention of emission control and vapor loss:

- Reduces evaporation losses: Aggrandizes the minimization of crude oil vapor emissions.

- Enhances safety: Reduces concentration of explosive vapors [90].

6.1.9 Fire extinguishing system (NFPA Compliance)

A holistic fire protection system is needed in order to alleviate the risks of a fire:

- Foam fire suppression system: Fixed foam chambers used for fire control on the surface of a
flammable liquid.

- Water sprinkler system: Cooling spray rings to maintain the structural integrity of the unit during
a fire.

- Fire hydrants and monitors: Fire hydrants stationed externally and mobile firefighting.

- Continuous monitoring for hydrocarbons vapors: Gas detection and alarm systems.

- Shutoff valves: System that automatically isolates the contents of the tank to fire during a fire.

Table 31-Summarizing the general specification of the designed tank.

Parameter Value
Tank type Welded Steel Storage Tank (Vertical, Cylindrical)
Storage medium Crude Oil
Height 35 m
Diameter 25 m
Shell thickness 0.5 cm
Roof thickness 0.7 cm
Volume capacity 17,180 m³
Standard API 650 (11th Edition)

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 Roof type Self-supporting cone roof
Roof height ~0.55 m (based on 2.5° slope)
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
Seismic design Anchorage required (Tripoli in seismic zone)
Material Carbon steel (ASTM A36)
Internal floating roof Aluminum or stainless floating roof for vapor control
Wind resistance Wind girders required (>120 km/h winds)

N.B: This designed tank is by-passed to the existing storage tanks in order to keep the refinery
operating in maintenance operations.

6.2 Separator design

Figure 22-Schematic representation of the separator.

The separator's design calculations resulted in an impractically enormous length that does not
match the sizes used in refineries or market standards. The high inlet flow rate being processed
caused this issue. We divided the total flow rate by the four available separators to achieve a flow
rate per unit that meets industry standards.

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Using Souders-Brown equation:

Table 32-Separator Aspen values before and after dividing by four.

Before dividing by four After dividing by four

𝜌𝐿 = 702.8 Kg/m3 𝜌𝐿 = 175.7 Kg/m3

𝜌v = 28.79 Kg/m3 𝜌v = 7.1975 Kg/m3

ṁ (L) = 45080 Kg/h ṁ (L) = 11270 Kg/h

ṁ (v) = 11580 Kg/h ṁ (v) = 2895 Kg/h

QL = 514.7 m3/h QL = 128.675 m3/h

QV =16.12 m3/h QV =4.03 m3/h

The maximum vapor velocity is given by the Souders-Brown equation below:

ρ𝐿 −ρ𝑉 0.5
Uvap max = K ( )
ρ𝑉

The Souders-Brown Separator Sizing Factor, K, is determined from the following correlations:
1
K = 3.281 exp(𝐴 + 𝐵𝑙𝑛(Sf) + Cln(Sf)2 + Dln (Sf)3 + Eln(Sf)4 + Fln(Sf)5)

Where:

A= -1.942936

B= -0.814894

C= -0.179390

D= -0.0123790

E= 0.000386235

F= 0.000259550

The separation factor, Sf is calculated using the following equation:

ṁ (L) ρv 45080 28.79
Sf = ṁ (V) × (ρL )0.5 = 11580 × (702.8 )0.5 = 0.7879 N/A

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For Sf = 0.7879 N/A => K≈ 0.020
Hence, Uvap max = 0.097 m/s

6.2.1 Mixture Density

ṁ (L)+ṁ (V) 11270+2895
𝜌mix = = 128.675+4.03 = 106.74 Kg/m3
𝑄𝐿 +𝑄𝑉

6.2.2 Separator Diameter

𝑄 4.03
Area = A = Uvap𝑉max = 0.097 = 41.55 m2

Therefore, minimum required diameter:

4×𝐴 4×41.55
𝐷𝑆 = √ =√ = 7.27 𝑚
𝜋 𝜋

6.2.3 Separator Inlet Nozzle Design

The separator inlet nozzle is sized based on the following correlations for the maximum and
minimum nozzle velocities:

121.98 121.98
Unoz max = ρmix0.5 = 106.740 0.5 = 11.806 m/s

73.19
Unoz min = 106.7400.5 = 7.084 m/s

𝐿 𝑉𝑄 +𝑄 128.675+4.03
Dinlet max = 4×√𝜋×Unoz =4×√ = 9.76 m
min 𝜋×7.084

6.2.4 Vapor height

The Vapor height above the center line of the inlet nozzle to the top tan line of the vessel is
calculated based on the following correlation:

𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
hv above = 0.9 + = 5.78 ≥ 1.2 𝑚
2

Therefore, hv above = 5.78 m

The Vapor height below the center line of the inlet nozzle to the maximum liquid level is
calculated based on the following correlation:

𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
hv below = 0.3 + = 5.18 m ≥ 0.45 𝑚
2

Therefore, hv below = 5.18 m

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6.2.5 Separator Vessel Tan-to-Tan Height
L = hL + hv above + hv below

𝐿
Or 𝐷 falls within the range 3 to 5

𝐿
Meaning, 3≤ 𝐷 ≤ 5

Therefore, L = 3 × D = 21.81m

And by that, HL = 10.61m

Table 33-Summary of the separator deisgn.

𝑫𝑺 7.27 m
hL 10.61 m
hv below 5.18 m
hv above 5.78 m
L 21.81 m

6.3 Vacuum distillation column design

6.3.1 Material and Diameter Selection for the “VDU”
-The “vacuum steam” stream entering the “VDU” is composed primarily of water which is
corrosive. Therefore, it is preferably to use a stainless steel type 304 which is highly resistance to
corrosion [92] [93].
-To calculate the diameter of the column we have several steps:
𝐿 𝜌 0.5 106500 ÷ 3600 897 0.5
First, the flow parameter: 𝐹𝐿𝑉 = 𝑉 ( 𝜌𝑉) = × (1042) = 0.98
𝐿 100600 ÷3600

The flooding velocity can be estimated from the following correlation:

𝜎 0.2 𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉 0.5
𝑈𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 × ( ) ×( )
20 𝜌𝑉
With: 𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 : capacity parameter (m/s)
𝜎: liquid surface tension, mN/m (dyn/cm)
𝜌𝑉 and 𝜌𝐿 : vapor and liquid density respectively (kg/m3)

The tray spacing is 600 mm [3], 𝐶𝑠𝑏𝑓 = 0.1

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 20.17 0.2 1042 − 897 0.5
𝑈𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.1 × ( ) ×( ) = 0.04 𝑚/𝑠
20 897

𝑉 100600 ÷3600
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌 = = 0.031 m3/s
𝑉 897

The column diameter is determined by:

4𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝐶 = √
𝐴
𝑓𝑈𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜋 (1 − 𝐴𝑑 )

A value of 80 to 85 % of the flooding velocity should be used (f = 0.8).

0.1, 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≤ 0.1

𝐴𝑑 𝐹𝐿𝑉 −0.1
= 0.1 + , 0.1 ≤ 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≤ 1.0
𝐴 9

0.2, 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≥ 1.0

𝐴𝑑 𝐹𝐿𝑉 −0.1 0.98−0.1

In this case 0.1 ≤ 𝐹𝐿𝑉 ≤ 1.0, so = 0.1 + = 0.1 + = 0.197
𝐴 9 9

4 × 0.031
𝐷𝐶 = √ = 1.24 𝑚
0.8 × 0.04 × 𝜋(1 − 0.197)

Compared to aspen the diameter of the column is 1.5 m so approximately the same.

6.3.2 Number of Stages and Height Determination for the “VDU”

In the case of multi-component mixtures, the graphic method is no longer suitable, it becomes
necessary to use an analytical approach.

The approximate value of the theoretical minimum number of trays (at total reflux) can be obtained
from the Fenske equation:

𝑥𝐷 × (1 − 𝑥𝐵 )
log ( )
𝑥𝐵 × (1 − 𝑥𝐷 )
𝑛𝑆 + 1 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛼

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With xD = 0.1106 From Aspen
xB = 0.0002
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝛼= : relative volatility
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠

nS: minimum number of trays/stages

0.1106 × (1 − 0.0002)
log ( )
0.0002 × (1 − 0.1106)
𝑛𝑆 + 1 = = 6.3 ~ 6
188.76
log ( 68 )

𝑛𝑆 = 5

To calculate the actual number of trays N we can use the Gilliland equation:

𝑁 − 𝑛𝑆 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑚 0.566
= 0.75 × [1 − ( ) ]
𝑁+1 𝑅+1

Where: N is the actual number of trays

R is the reflux ratio = 0.4198 (from Aspen)

Rm is the minimum reflux ratio

𝑅 0.4198
𝑅 = 1.2 × 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = 1.2 = = 0.35
1.2

𝑁−5 0.4198 − 0.35 0.566

= 0.75 × [1 − ( ) ]
𝑁+1 0.4198 + 1

𝑁−5
= 0.614
𝑁+1

𝑁 − 5 = 0.614𝑁 + 0.614

0.386𝑁 = 5.614

𝑁 = 14.54 ~ 14

Compared to aspen the actual number of trays is 14 so it is the same.

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Additionally, the recommended distance between the column trays is 0.6 m [94], thus, the height
of the column is: 𝑯𝑪 = actual nb of trays × tray spacing = 14 × 0.6 = 8. 𝟒 𝐦

The table 1 below represent all the design parameters for the “VDU”:

Table 34-VDU design parameters.

Parameter Value
Material Selection Stainless Steel Type 304
Diameter (m) 1.24
Height (m) 8.4
Minimum number of Stages 5
Actual number of Stages 14
The distillation column is designed according to AlCHE E10 standards to ensure efficient
separation and process safety.

7. Hazop study
A systematic method is the Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP). It's a technological method
of analyzing and identifying potential hazards. The strategy is widely applied in a variety of
industries, including the industrial, food, pharmaceutical, chemical, and oil and gas sectors, among
many others globally. It is a method for determining any deviations and operability problems in
an industry process, as well as the reasons behind them.

An existing facility may also undergo a HAZOP study to determine what changes should be made
to lower risk and operability issues. OSHA and other international regulators acknowledge
HAZOP as a legitimate way to assess and monitor the risks encountered in the sector. Imperial
Chemical Industries (ICI) created it in 1970. Examining the process design, identifying and
assessing Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE) risks resulting from process deviations, system
malfunctions, and likely human mistake and accident are its main goals. Additionally, it identifies
operability issues that typically do not result in danger but instead limit the industry's capacity to
achieve its productivity and design intent [95].

Table 35- Guide words for HAZOP analysis.

GUIDE WORD MEANING EXAMPLE

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 None None of the design intent is No flow
achieved
More Quantitative increase More flow, more pressure,
more temperature present
than there should be
Part of Qualitative decrease Change of the composition
high or low concentration of
mixture; additional reaction
in the reactor or other
location
As well as Qualitative increase Extra phase or impurities
present
Reverse Logical opposite of the Pump reversed, delivery over
design intension occurs pressured, wrong routing,
delivery over pressured, back
siphoning

Other than Total substitution No part of the original

intention is achieved, the
original intention is replaced
by something else
Less Quantitative decrease Lower flow

7.1 Hazop for storage tank

Table 36- HAZOP table for the storage tank [96] [97] [98].

Guide Deviation Causes Possible Action

word consequences
More More level in -Expansion of oil There will be a -Top of the tank
the storage tank in case of high possibility of should be attend to.
exposure to crude oil leakage

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 higher to the -Make sure level
temperature. atmosphere, indicators with
-The level which may alarms are operating
indication is not initiate fire if correctly.
working. there is any
-Incorrect valve ignition source.
opening.
Less Low level in the -Cracking or Leakage of crude The tank should be
tank corrosion of the oil into the moved to a more
storage tank. atmosphere could secure area.
-Weak joint start a fire if there
between the tank is an ignition
shell and roof. source. As a
-Tank rupture due result, personnel
to a loss of may sustain burns
integrity. from heat
-Tank body seal radiation
damage. exposure or the
-Valve and flange surrounding tanks
damage. may become
heated.

More High -Poor ventilation. Potential Installing a

temperature in -Failure of explosion due to temperature level
the storage tank automatic an increase in indicator.
temperature temperature.
control system.
-Thermal
expansion of
product in the
tank as a result of

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 fire or intense
sunshine.
No No flow of -The outlet line -The pipeline's -Regular inspection
crude oil to the was shut down. pressure rises and maintenance of
storage tank -The outlet valve quickly. outlet valves and
is blocked. -The leak and pipelines to prevent
-Pump failure. explosion blockages.
-Pipeline rupture. probabilities grow -Ensuring emergency
up. shutdown procedures
-Release of minor are in place in case of
or substantial pipeline rupture.
flammable liquid. -Implementing a
preventive
maintenance schedule
for pumps to avoid
failures.
-Installing pressure
sensors and alarms to
detect pressure build-
up early.
Less Less flow of -Opening the -Pressure - Checking the outlet
crude oil to the output valve accumulation in valves to ensure full
storage tank partially. the storage pipe is opening.
-A rupture in the a possibility. - Installing leak
inlet pipeline is -Small amount of detection systems to
caused by crude oil released identify minor leaks
mechanical into the early.
damage. atmosphere. - Implementing a
-There is a small monitoring system to
pipeline leak. track flow rates and
detect deviations.

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 - Ensuring proper
filtration and cleaning
procedures to prevent
partial blockages.

7.2 Hazop for the separator

Table 37- HAZOP table for the separator [99] [100].

Guide word Deviation Causes Consequences Actions

High High flow Level control -Reduction in Installation of
fails the rate of high level
separation. detector.
-Turbulence of
the flow.
Less Less flow -Pipe blockage. -Reduction in -Pipe
-Pipe failure. the separation maintenance.
rate. -Installation of a
low level
detector.
No No flow -Blockage of the No separation -Installation of
stream. process. flow detector.
Less Liquid level low -Insufficient - Priming in -Frequent
condensation. pump. maintenance and
-Leakage. -Low yield of operation of
product. instruments.
-Increase coolant
flow into the
reactor.
High Liquid level high -Blockage at -Escaping of oil -Perform
outlet. through the gas maintenance of

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 -Failure of level discharge vessel and
sensors. section. instruments.
-Pump failure -High pressure -Calibrate
build-up within sensors.
the vessel.
More Increased -Significant -Minimize the Install
temperature reduction in need for more temperature
pressure across frequent sensors and
the separator. maintenance, alarms.
-Lack of possible damage,
temperature and equipment
control systems. longevity.
-High
temperatures can
affect the
effectiveness of
separation.

7.3 Hazop for the vacuum distillation column

Table 38- HAZOP table for the vacuum distillation [101].

Guide word Deviation Causes Possible Actions

consequences
High High pressure in -High vapor -Low efficiency -Install pressure
the vacuum flow rate. of separation. relieve valve.
distillation -High -Rupture of -Install high
column. temperature in column or other pressure alarm.
the top of the related -Shutdown the
condenser. equipment. process.

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 -Loss of fuel gas
production.
Low Low pressure in -Vapour line -Decrease in the -Fixing leakage
the vacuum leakage. efficiency of the issues.
distillation -Issues in the separation. -Install pressure
column. condenser or -Change in the indicators.
reboiler. boiling point. -Process
-Low -Loss of product. shutdown
temperature. followed by a
corrective
maintenance.
No No flow -Pipe blockage. -Column dry out, -Shutting down
-Control valve -Possible the pumps.
shut. dangerous -Install low level
-Tube leakages concentration. alarm.
and blocking. -No operation. -Make bypass.
-Pump failure. -Check
maintenance
procedure and
schedule.
Less Less flow in the -Partial blockage -Changes in -Install low level
vacuum of a pipe. product quality. alarm.
distillation -Column dry -Check
column. out. maintenance
procedure and
schedule.
-Emergency
plant shut down.
-Make by pass.
More More flow in the -Malfunction of -Flooding in the -Install high
vacuum a pump, column. level alarm.

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 distillation compressor or -Changes in the -Install control.
column. valves. fuel gas quality. -Check
-Temperature maintenance
decrease. procedure and
-Rise in the schedule.
bottom flow.
High High The feed inlet -Decrease in the -Install high
temperature in temperature is efficiency of the temperature
the vacuum too high. separation. alarm.
distillation -Risk of thermal -Check
column typically degradation. maintenance
in the reboiler. procedure and
schedule.
-Reducing the
reboiler
difficulties.
Low Low temperature The feed inlet -Decrease in the -Install low
in the column temperature is efficiency of the temperature
too low. separation. alarm.
- Check
maintenance
procedure and
schedule.

8. Environmental impact
Lebanon must prioritize environmental protection as it prepares to examine its offshore oil and gas
assets. The pursuit of oil and gas development in Lebanon poses significant environmental dangers
that threaten marine mammals and turtles as well as fish populations alongside air and sea water
quality and underwater archaeological sites while also putting human health at risk and
contributing to climate change impacts. The direct impact of the situation will affect all Lebanese

83 | P a g e
citizens while communities near the Lebanese coast and businesses in fisheries, tourism and
shipping industries along with environmental non-profits will face the highest risks.

Industry best practice together with international standards mandate that petroleum operations
must develop a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) to comprehend and mitigate potential
risks. Through the SEA process governments gain an understanding of environmental limitations
and impacts while developing solutions and distributing relevant information to stakeholders.
Through a robust SEA system, the Lebanese government would be able to detect legislative
deficiencies while implementing new regulations for petroleum enterprises and community
stakeholders. This process establishes an official framework for civil society involvement and
typically results in multi-stakeholder groups that track oil and gas company performance. The SEA
serves as an essential assessment mechanism for effective policy and environmental planning.

A thorough environmental impact analysis of the Beddawi refinery depends on operational data
that remains inaccessible to the public. We can offer a summary of environmental factors that
impact petroleum refineries in Lebanon with respect to emission controls, waste management
procedures and accident response protocols.

8.1 Emissions Standards and Disposal Limits

Petroleum refineries are major contributors to emissions and waste discharges. In Lebanon, the
regulation of such environmental impacts is governed by a range of legislative frameworks.
Following an in-depth evaluation of Lebanon’s Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), an
independent reviewer determined that the existing SEA report and its process failed to achieve the
anticipated outcomes and should therefore be redone. This action is strongly recommended to
enhance environmental protection and reduce potential negative impacts. It is advised that a
revised SEA process should build upon the 2012 SEA, integrating additional data, thorough
analysis, and broader stakeholder engagement. The key reasons for this recommendation are:

- Incomplete and non-compliant report: The 2012 SEA report lacks several essential elements and
does not align with European Union (EU) or international standards.

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- Insufficient collaboration and public participation: An effective SEA process requires active
cooperation between the Lebanese government, relevant ministries, authorities, and civil society.
The updated SEA must include extensive stakeholder and public consultations during both the
development and finalization stages.

- Non-compliance with updated Lebanese environmental laws: Since the adoption of new SEA
and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) legislation in 2012, the existing SEA report no
longer meets the current legal requirements.

- Outdated and incomplete environmental data: Completed three years prior, the SEA contains
significant data gaps. Incorporating more recent information could greatly enhance its quality
[102].

To address these issues, three potential scenarios have been proposed to help Lebanon upgrade its
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA):

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 Table 39- The scenarios, conditions, and estimated time to upgrade the SEA.

# Scenario Conditions Estimated Time

01 Short licensing round Data gaps from 2012 SEA has been - 3-6 months for new
delay collected since then. SEA Report
- 2-3 months for public
participation, potential
correction of the SEA
Report and adoption
process.
02 No delay of licensing Data gaps from 2012 SEA has not been - 6 months for new SEA
round: update SEA in collected and is still not available. Report.
parallel to licensing round Data collection will be required in next
oil and gas development phases, and - 3 months for public
will involve a more intensive participation, potential
environmental monitoring plan. correction of the SEA
Insert clause in the licensing round Report and adoption
conditions making new SEA process.
conclusions binding to all operators.
03 Long licensing round Data gaps from 2012 SEA has not been - 1-2 years for data
delay until new data is collected and is still not available. collection
collected Develop new SEA based on newly
collected data. - 3-6 months for new
SEA Report

- 2-3 months for public

participation, potential
correction of the SEA
Report and adoption
process.

Lebanon is also a party to the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea
Against Pollution, which obligates participating countries to implement measures aimed at
preventing and minimizing pollution originating from land-based activities. The Convention

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establishes allowable limits for a range of pollutants, such as Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD),
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH), and heavy metals. To
meet these requirements, refineries must install efficient wastewater treatment systems and carry
out regular monitoring to ensure compliance with the established environmental standards [103].

8.2 Treatment of Unwanted Chemicals and Discharges

In Lebanon, the management of hazardous chemicals and effluents from petroleum refineries is
regulated through national laws and international environmental agreements aimed at reducing
pollution. In 2013, the Ministry of Environment, with support from international partners,
launched an industrial wastewater management policy that mandates refineries and other industries
to pre-treat their wastewater prior to discharge and to renew an Environmental Compliance
Certificate (ECC) every three years [104].

Wastewater treatment at refineries typically integrates physical, chemical, and biological methods
to eliminate contaminants. Physical processes like sedimentation and filtration are used to remove
suspended solids and hydrocarbons, while chemical treatments such as coagulation, neutralization,
and pH correction target harmful substances. Biological approaches, including activated sludge
systems and biofilters, help break down organic pollutants. For instance, the Tripoli Wastewater
Treatment Plant utilizes an activated sludge process, sludge thickening, biogas recovery for
electricity production, and ultraviolet (UV) disinfection before releasing treated effluent through
a marine outfall [105]. Effective sludge management is also essential; Lebanon is developing
master plans to evaluate sludge characteristics and promote sustainable disposal strategies, such
as land application, energy recovery, or secure landfill disposal.

Furthermore, the Lebanon Environmental Pollution Abatement Program (LEPAP) offers financial
and technical support to industries, including refineries, to encourage the adoption of cleaner
production technologies and ensure compliance with environmental regulations [104]. Through
the application of advanced wastewater treatment methods and strengthened regulatory
frameworks, Lebanese refineries can significantly lower their environmental impact and move
closer to international environmental standards.

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8.3 Handling of Major Chemical Accidents

In Lebanon, the handling of major chemical accidents, particularly those related to petroleum
refineries, is governed by a robust framework designed to safeguard human health, natural
resources, and the environment. A key component of this framework is the National Oil Spill
Contingency Plan (NOSCP), which was developed to ensure readiness and an effective response
to oil spill emergencies. The NOSCP outlines clear command structures, resource coordination
strategies, and communication protocols among governmental and non-governmental
organizations, promoting a coordinated approach to incident response. Its primary objectives
include enabling prompt action during oil spills, identifying vulnerable areas, and establishing
mechanisms for international collaboration. A draft decree is currently under preparation to
enforce and implement the NOSCP [106].

To strengthen national preparedness, Lebanon has invested in capacity-building initiatives,

including hosting an International Maritime Organization (IMO) training course on oil pollution
preparedness in August 2024. This course enhanced the skills of senior officials and administrators
from various governmental institutions, focusing on international legal frameworks and oil spill
incident management systems [107].

These efforts underscore Lebanon’s commitment to improving its capacity to address major
chemical accidents, protect public health, and preserve environmental integrity.

9. Economic analysis

10. Control loops

A control loop is one of the basic building blocks through which automated and process control
systems work in the regulation of a process variable to a desired setpoint. It entails continuous
measurement, comparison, and correction for maintaining a desired state. [15]

The primary components in a typical control loop are these:

Table 40-Table representing the functions of the components in the control loops.

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 Component Function
Sensor Measures the process variable (e.g., temperature or pressure)
Controller Compares the measured value with the setpoint and determines necessary
adjustments
Actuator Implements the process adjustment (e.g., valve or heater)
Process The system or operation being controlled

This is in order to compensate for disturbances. This provides the appropriate conditions for the
reaction and separation, protecting against overheating, coking, and product degradation.

Pressure control helps ensure safe operating conditions by avoiding excessive pressure buildup or
loss of vacuum (which can limit separation performance or damage equipment).

The focus of feed rate control is to control the input of crude oil or other input materials in a manner
that keeps things running smoothly without big fluctuations that can impact product quality.
Gas composition control monitors and adjusts the mixture of gases in refining processes such as
hydrotreating or reforming, optimizing reactions, maximizing yield, and ensuring product
specifications are met.

Together, these control loops enhance efficiency, safety, and consistency in refinery operations.

10.1 Pressure control loop- Vacuum distillation unit

Figure 23. BFD representation the pressure control loop-VDU

The control loop in the VDU is accomplished to make sure that low pressure ( bar) is always held
to facilitate the distillation but also that pressure doesn't build up where it causes complexity in
operation.

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To ensure proper filtration, a pressure transducer constantly monitors the column pressure and
transmits its value to a PID controller, which compares it against a setpoint;If the difference is
above a pre-set threshold the controller responds by manipulating the vacuum system (steam
ejector flow regulation, vacuum pump speed modulationor vent valve control.) [10]

This ensures a stable vacuum, optimizing separation efficiency and maintaining safe operating
conditions.

10.2 Temperature control loop- Reformer

The Catalytic Reforming Unit (CRU) converts low-octane naphtha into high-octane reformate
using a platinum-based catalyst. Precise temperature control (500°C) is crucial to optimize
reactions, prevent catalyst deactivation, and maintain efficiency. [11]

Figure 24. BFD representing the temperature control loop of the reformer.

Since reactions are highly endothermic, heaters between reactors regulate temperatures. A control
loop adjusts heater firing rates and reactor inlet temperatures to ensure stable operation,
maximizing yield while minimizing coking.

10.3 Feed rate control loop-storage tank

A feed rate control loop for a storage tank at a setpoint of 4,590,000 kg/h can be managed using a
PID controller in conjunction with a Venturi flow nozzle and control valve. The Venturi flow
nozzle measures the flow rate accurately by detecting the pressure difference caused by the flow
of material. [1]

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 Figure 25. BFD representing the flow control loop of the storage tank.

This data is sent to the PID controller, which compares the measured flow rate to the desired
setpoint. If there's a deviation, the controller calculates the error and adjusts the control valve
accordingly, modulating the flow to maintain the setpoint.

The PID controller continually adjusts for changes in pressure, flow, or disturbances, ensuring that
the feed rate remains stable and consistent.

10.4 Gas composition control loop- atmospheric distillation unit

Gas composition control loop in an atmospheric distillation unit (CDU), which helps to ensure
that the distillate gases like propane, butanes, and other light hydrocarbons stay within desired
specifications. An advanced process control (APC) system paired with a chromatograph achieves
this. [16]

Figure 26. BFD representing the gas composition control loop of the atmospheric distillation unit.

The chromatograph continuously samples the gas stream and sends real-time composition data to
the APC system. The APC system uses this data to compare if the actual gas composition is equal
to the setpoint. When there is any deviation, the APC sytem uses reflux rate, distillation column
pressure or the temperature in the column to adjust the composition land on the set point target. It
also allows the CDU to operate efficiently and separates the products at the highest quality.

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11. Conclusion
The rehabilitation and optimization of the Tripoli Refinery represent a strategic step toward
strengthening Lebanon’s energy independence. By increasing processing capacity from 22,000 to
146,000 barrels per day, we are now able to cover approximately 75% of Lebanon’s crude oil
needs. Through the optimization of key units such as Separator V100 and the Vacuum Distillation
Unit, along with the implementation of advanced control loops, we have successfully modernized
a critical infrastructure that had long been neglected. The simulations conducted using Aspen
HYSYS v14 validated the effectiveness of our technical choices, while the environmental and
economic studies confirmed the project’s feasibility and positive impact.
This rehabilitation not only contributes to stabilizing the local energy market but also supports job
creation, industrial revival, and reduces Lebanon’s dependency on imported refined products.
Ultimately, the project lays a strong foundation for sustainable energy development and economic
resilience in Lebanon.

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https://continentalsteel.com/stainless.
[94]: kohkart, “Distillation Column Tray Spacing,” Oct. 23, 2017.
https://www.reddit.com/r/ChemicalEngineering/comments/787ihq/distillation_column_tra

[95]: PQRI, “Manufacturing Technology Committee -Risk Management Working Group Risk
Management Training Guides Hazard & Operability Analysis (HAZOP).” Available:
https://pqri.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/pdf/HAZOP_Training_Guide.pdf.

[96] : H. A. Ibrahim and H. S. Syed, “Hazard Analysis of Crude Oil Storage Tank Farm,”
International Journal of ChemTech Research, vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 300–308, 2018, doi:
https://doi.org/10.20902/ijctr.2018.111132.

[97]: M. Idris, “Safety Evaluation of Petroleum Tank Farm: An Analytical Study of NNPCL
Maiduguri Depot Plant,” African Journal of Engineering and Environment Research, vol. 4, no.
Available: https://ajoeer.org.ng/otn/ajoeer/2022/se-09/02.pdf.

[98]: S. Yadav, “Risk Assessment (HAZOP Study) Method for Decanting LPG From Dispatching
Unit to Road Tanker,” International Journal of Science Technology & Engineering, vol. 1, no. 11,
pp. 191–194, May 2015. Available: http://www.ijste.org/articles/IJSTEV1I11035.pdf.

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[99]: “FInal Project Report Plastic Pyrolysis | Download Free PDF | Polymers | Polyethylene,”
Scribd. https://www.scribd.com/document/476891574/FInal-Project-Report-Plastic-Pyrolysis.
[100]:

[101]: M. M. B. M. M. Mazri, “HAZOP for Distillation column Parameter Guideword Deviation

Possible Cause Consequence Action Flow NO No flow @BULLET Pipe blockages,”
www.academia.edu, Available:
https://www.academia.edu/33328920/HAZOP_for_Distillation_column_Parameter_Guideword_
Deviation_Possible_Cause_Consequence_Action_Flow_NO_No_flow_at_BULLET_Pipe_block
ages.

[102]: “Environmental Impact of Petroleum Activities in Lebanon.” Available:

https://logilebanon.org/uploaded/2017/10/5ODZQNGL_SEA%20Report%20final.pdf
[103]: “Management of Construction Demolition Waste in Lebanon,” LCPS, 2025.
https://www.lcps-lebanon.org/en/articles/details/4905/management-of-construction-demolition-
waste-in-lebanon.
[104]: “Industrial wastewater management in Lebanon,” Inno4sd.net, 2019.
https://www.inno4sd.net/industrial-wastewater-management-in-lebanon-442?
[105]: Libanconsult.com, 2025. https://www.libanconsult.com/en/activities/waste-water?
[106]: “HSE Framework | LPA,” Lpa.gov.lb, 2020. https://www.lpa.gov.lb/english/sector-
governance/hse-management/hse-framework?
[107]: “Lebanon Strengthens Oil Spill Preparedness with IMO Training Course | LPA,”
Lpa.gov.lb, 2024. https://www.lpa.gov.lb/english/news-amp-media/news/lebanon-strengthens-
oil-spill-preparedness-with-imo-training-course?

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 APPENDICES

A.1: Material streams

Vapour Fraction 0 0 0 0 9.37E-02 1 0

Temperature [C] 37.78 126.7 126.7 125.7018 232.2 232.2 232.2
Pressure [bar] 21.7 21.28 21.28 21.28 18.94 18.94 18.94
Molar Flow 2007 2007 183.4755 2190.476 2190.476 205.2838 1985.192
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 459029 459029 3305.33 462334.3 462334.3 11581.02 450753.3
Liquid Volume 527.5489 527.5489 3.312 530.8609 530.8609 16.1228 514.7381
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -269.967 -246.708 -14.1369 -260.845 -225.546 -10.4514 -215.094
Name S6 S7 S8 btm offgas naphtha water
stream
Vapour Fraction 1 0 0.295223 1 1 0 0
Temperature [C] 232.2 232.2 343.3 190.6 66.96805 66.96806 66.96805
Pressure [bar] 18.94 18.94 18.26 10.34 1.434 1.434 1.434
Molar Flow 205.2838 0 1985.192 188.8416 1.71E-04 728.5649 451.4912
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 11581.02 0 450753.3 3402 1.10E-02 70903.48 8133.658
Liquid Volume 16.1228 0 514.7381 3.408865 1.70E-05 101.0023 8.150073
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -10.4514 0 -173.48 -12.3734 -7.67E-06 -41.7861 -35.3843

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Name atm btm kero kerosene diesel diesel ago AGO
steam steam steam
Vapour Fraction 0 1 3.39E-03 1 2.89E-03 1 8.75E-04
Temperature [C] 319.9995 148.9 151.666 150 210.8469 148.5 235.4285
Pressure [bar] 2.53 3.447 1.638625 3.447 1.861469 3.4 2.084313
Molar Flow 652.0323 62.94719 262.6435 62.94719 216.6402 62.94719 51.49025
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 282902.3 1134 39595.21 1134 43031.6 1134 12990.83
Liquid Volume 294.8018 1.136288 50.35018 1.136288 52.15151 1.136288 15.09973
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -114.401 -4.14384 -20.8184 -4.14316 -20.764 -4.14403 -6.03505
Name steam s9 s10 vacuum Fuel gas vac btm LVGO
steam
Vapour Fraction 0 0.48054 0.858821 1 1 0 0
Temperature [C] 126.7 286.5654 404.4 260 218.7155 370.3 243.3545
Pressure [bar] 10.34 2.53 0.24 11.36 6.60E-02 8.26E-02 6.86E-02
Molar Flow 503.4665 1155.499 1155.499 503.5775 1306.533 133.0607 34.15232
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 9070 291972.3 291972.3 9072 100554.2 106453 12234.35
Liquid Volume 9.088304 303.8901 303.8901 9.090308 112.1033 102.2063 13.31851
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -38.7945 -153.195 -118.236 -32.6438 -99.3704 -38.8604 -5.62519
Name HVGO vis FG vis LGO HGO TAR
effluent naphtha
Vapour Fraction 0 0.77274 1 0 6.25E-04 6.03E-04 1.34E-02
Temperature [C] 303.2355 400.9698 53.38876 120.9004 174.5564 243.6637 395.3187
Pressure [bar] 7.37E-02 2 1.4 1.434483 1.693103 1.796552 1.9
Molar Flow 185.3299 536.3499 320.0548 2.751085 34.97169 29.44229 149.1301
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 81802.72 106829.9 11000.53 317.001 5160.515 6035.248 84316.61

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Liquid Volume 85.35238 118.6791 22.1799 0.430109 6.492138 6.960654 82.61625
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -34.337 -37.5449 -7.87765 -0.17252 -2.62618 -2.80101 -29.9265
Name S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17
Vapour Fraction 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.253247
Temperature [C] 66.96812 66.96812 66.96812 66.96818 66.96818 67.07845 120
Pressure [bar] 1.434 1.434 1.434 1.434 1.434 3.5 3
Molar Flow 728.5649 400.7107 327.8542 0 400.7107 400.7107 400.7107
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 70903.48 38996.92 31906.57 0 38996.92 38996.92 38996.92
Liquid Volume 101.0023 55.55127 45.45104 0 55.55127 55.55127 55.55127
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -41.7861 -22.9824 -18.8038 0 -22.9824 -22.9778 -20.9112
Name S18 CCR S19 S20 Stabilized S21 CCR
FEED naphtha ovhd
Vapour Fraction 0 0 0.261293 1 0 0.988694 0.995623
Temperature [C] 66.96812 66.96812 90.23375 90.23375 90.23375 209.0707 179.095
Pressure [bar] 1.434 1.434 1.434 1.434 1.434 6.60E-02 4.5
Molar Flow 219.6623 108.1919 620.373 162.0989 458.2741 1468.632 85.69094
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 21377.4 10529.17 60374.32 13230.98 47143.34 113785.2 7614.828
Liquid Volume 30.4522 14.99884 86.00347 20.07736 65.92611 132.1806 9.480427
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -12.5985 -6.20524 -33.5097 -6.70507 -26.8046 -106.075 -3.46867
Name CCR CCR ** New
ovhd liq Btm **
Vapour Fraction 0 0.476062
Temperature [C] 254.3367 259.0968
Pressure [bar] 4.7 4.9

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 Molar Flow 1.80E-02 2.41E-06
[kgmole/h]
Mass Flow [kg/h] 2.366548 7.11E-04
Liquid Volume 2.77E-03 7.18E-07
Flow [m3/h]
Heat Flow [MW] -1.11E- -5.75E-
03 07

A.2: Compositions

Name Feed s1 D S2 S3 S4 S5
water
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Hydrogen)
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Nitrogen)
Comp Mole Frac (CO) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Oxygen)
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Methane)
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Ethylene)
Comp Mole Frac 1.72E- 1.72E- 0 1.58E- 1.58E- 8.24E-05 8.91E-
(Ethane) 05 05 05 05 06
Comp Mole Frac (CO2) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Comp Mole Frac (H2S) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Propene)
Comp Mole Frac 6.93E- 6.93E- 0 6.35E- 6.35E- 2.53E-03 4.39E-
(Propane) 04 04 04 04 04

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Comp Mole Frac (i- 7.27E- 7.27E- 0 6.66E- 6.66E- 2.09E-02 5.19E-
Butane) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (i- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butene)
Comp Mole Frac (1- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butene)
Comp Mole Frac (13- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butadiene)
Comp Mole Frac (n- 1.05E- 1.05E- 0 9.63E- 9.63E- 2.77E-02 7.76E-
Butane) 02 02 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (cis2- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butene)
Comp Mole Frac (tr2- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butene)
Comp Mole Frac (i- 4.08E- 4.08E- 0 3.74E- 3.74E- 8.12E-02 3.29E-
Pentane) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (1- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pentene)
Comp Mole Frac (2M-1- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
butene)
Comp Mole Frac (n- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pentane)
Comp Mole Frac (3M-1- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
butene)
Comp Mole Frac (2M-2- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
butene)
Comp Mole Frac (2M- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13-C4==)
Comp Mole Frac (tr2- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pentene)

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Comp Mole Frac (cis2- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pentene)
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Cyclopentane)
Comp Mole Frac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(Cyclopentene)
Comp Mole Frac (22- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mpropane)
Comp Mole Frac (33M- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1-butene)
Comp Mole Frac (H2O) 0 0 1 8.38E- 8.38E- 0.477529 4.30E-
02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (36- 1.13E- 1.13E- 0 1.03E- 1.03E- 2.13E-02 9.21E-
40C*) 02 02 02 02 03
Comp Mole Frac (40- 3.00E- 3.00E- 0 2.75E- 2.75E- 5.22E-02 2.50E-
50C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (50- 3.25E- 3.25E- 0 2.98E- 2.98E- 5.00E-02 2.77E-
60C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (60- 3.51E- 3.51E- 0 3.22E- 3.22E- 4.74E-02 3.06E-
70C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (70- 2.49E- 2.49E- 0 2.28E- 2.28E- 2.94E-02 2.21E-
80C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (80- 2.62E- 2.62E- 0 2.40E- 2.40E- 2.72E-02 2.37E-
90C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (90- 2.73E- 2.73E- 0 2.50E- 2.50E- 2.47E-02 2.50E-
100C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (100- 2.81E- 2.81E- 0 2.57E- 2.57E- 2.21E-02 2.61E-
110C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (110- 2.85E- 2.85E- 0 2.61E- 2.61E- 1.96E-02 2.68E-
120C*) 02 02 02 02 02

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Comp Mole Frac (120- 2.87E- 2.87E- 0 2.63E- 2.63E- 1.71E-02 2.73E-
130C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (130- 2.86E- 2.86E- 0 2.62E- 2.62E- 1.47E-02 2.74E-
140C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (140- 2.82E- 2.82E- 0 2.59E- 2.59E- 1.24E-02 2.72E-
150C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (150- 2.75E- 2.75E- 0 2.52E- 2.52E- 1.04E-02 2.67E-
160C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (160- 2.65E- 2.65E- 0 2.43E- 2.43E- 8.54E-03 2.59E-
170C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (170- 2.45E- 2.45E- 0 2.25E- 2.25E- 6.71E-03 2.41E-
180C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (180- 2.28E- 2.28E- 0 2.09E- 2.09E- 5.28E-03 2.25E-
190C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (190- 2.17E- 2.17E- 0 1.99E- 1.99E- 4.24E-03 2.15E-
200C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (200- 2.07E- 2.07E- 0 1.89E- 1.89E- 3.39E-03 2.05E-
210C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (210- 1.97E- 1.97E- 0 1.81E- 1.81E- 2.71E-03 1.96E-
220C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (220- 1.95E- 1.95E- 0 1.78E- 1.78E- 2.21E-03 1.95E-
230C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (230- 1.96E- 1.96E- 0 1.80E- 1.80E- 1.84E-03 1.96E-
240C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (240- 1.90E- 1.90E- 0 1.75E- 1.75E- 1.47E-03 1.91E-
250C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (250- 1.84E- 1.84E- 0 1.69E- 1.69E- 1.17E-03 1.85E-
260C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (260- 1.78E- 1.78E- 0 1.63E- 1.63E- 9.20E-04 1.79E-
270C*) 02 02 02 02 02

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Comp Mole Frac (270- 1.72E- 1.72E- 0 1.58E- 1.58E- 7.20E-04 1.73E-
280C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (280- 1.66E- 1.66E- 0 1.52E- 1.52E- 5.59E-04 1.67E-
290C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (290- 1.59E- 1.59E- 0 1.46E- 1.46E- 4.31E-04 1.61E-
300C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (300- 1.53E- 1.53E- 0 1.40E- 1.40E- 3.31E-04 1.54E-
310C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (310- 1.47E- 1.47E- 0 1.34E- 1.34E- 2.52E-04 1.48E-
320C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (320- 1.41E- 1.41E- 0 1.29E- 1.29E- 1.90E-04 1.42E-
330C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (330- 1.35E- 1.35E- 0 1.23E- 1.23E- 1.43E-04 1.36E-
340C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (340- 1.29E- 1.29E- 0 1.18E- 1.18E- 1.06E-04 1.30E-
350C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (350- 1.23E- 1.23E- 0 1.13E- 1.13E- 7.86E-05 1.24E-
360C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (360- 1.14E- 1.14E- 0 1.05E- 1.05E- 5.60E-05 1.15E-
370C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (370- 1.09E- 1.09E- 0 1.00E- 1.00E- 4.09E-05 1.10E-
380C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (380- 1.05E- 1.05E- 0 9.58E- 9.58E- 2.97E-05 1.06E-
390C*) 02 02 03 03 02
Comp Mole Frac (390- 1.00E- 1.00E- 0 9.16E- 9.16E- 2.14E-05 1.01E-
400C*) 02 02 03 03 02
Comp Mole Frac (400- 9.48E- 9.48E- 0 8.68E- 8.68E- 1.52E-05 9.58E-
410C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (410- 8.99E- 8.99E- 0 8.24E- 8.24E- 1.07E-05 9.09E-
420C*) 03 03 03 03 03

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Comp Mole Frac (420- 8.54E- 8.54E- 0 7.83E- 7.83E- 7.49E-06 8.63E-
430C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (430- 8.13E- 8.13E- 0 7.45E- 7.45E- 5.21E-06 8.22E-
440C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (440- 7.75E- 7.75E- 0 7.10E- 7.10E- 3.61E-06 7.83E-
450C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (450- 7.39E- 7.39E- 0 6.78E- 6.78E- 2.48E-06 7.48E-
460C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (460- 1.38E- 1.38E- 0 1.27E- 1.27E- 2.80E-06 1.40E-
480C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (480- 1.26E- 1.26E- 0 1.16E- 1.16E- 1.27E-06 1.28E-
500C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (500- 1.16E- 1.16E- 0 1.06E- 1.06E- 5.59E-07 1.17E-
520C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (520- 1.12E- 1.12E- 0 1.03E- 1.03E- 2.52E-07 1.13E-
540C*) 02 02 02 02 02
Comp Mole Frac (540- 1.02E- 1.02E- 0 9.36E- 9.36E- 1.04E-07 1.03E-
560C*) 02 02 03 03 02
Comp Mole Frac (560- 9.27E- 9.27E- 0 8.49E- 8.49E- 4.11E-08 9.37E-
580C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (580- 8.35E- 8.35E- 0 7.65E- 7.65E- 1.57E-08 8.44E-
600C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (600- 9.20E- 9.20E- 0 8.43E- 8.43E- 6.32E-09 9.30E-
625C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (625- 7.89E- 7.89E- 0 7.23E- 7.23E- 1.70E-09 7.98E-
650C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (650- 6.67E- 6.67E- 0 6.11E- 6.11E- 4.27E-10 6.74E-
675C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (675- 5.55E- 5.55E- 0 5.08E- 5.08E- 1.01E-10 5.61E-
700C*) 03 03 03 03 03

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 Comp Mole Frac (700- 4.53E- 4.53E- 0 4.15E- 4.15E- 2.30E-11 4.58E-
725C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (725- 3.64E- 3.64E- 0 3.34E- 3.34E- 5.04E-12 3.68E-
750C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (750- 2.91E- 2.91E- 0 2.67E- 2.67E- 1.05E-12 2.94E-
775C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (775- 2.31E- 2.31E- 0 2.12E- 2.12E- 2.10E-13 2.34E-
800C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (800- 1.83E- 1.83E- 0 1.68E- 1.68E- 4.06E-14 1.85E-
825C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac (825- 1.44E- 1.44E- 0 1.32E- 1.32E- 7.84E-15 1.45E-
850C*) 03 03 03 03 03
Comp Mole Frac 4.96E- 4.96E- 0 4.55E- 4.55E- 3.05E-16 5.02E-
(850+C*) 03 03 03 03 03

A.3: Separator V-100

Separator V- Values
100

Separator Separator
Type
Vessel 232.2 C
Temperature
Vessel 18.94 bar
Pressure
Liquid Molar 1985.192 kgmole/h
Flow
Duty 0 MW

A.3.1: Material balance of the separator V-100

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 Material balance of the Separator V-100
𝒏𝒊𝒏 2190 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
𝒙𝒏−𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 0.0096
𝒙𝒊−𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 0.0374

𝒙 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 0.0838
𝒏𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 205.3 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ
𝒙𝒏−𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 0.0277

𝒙𝒊−𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 0.0812

𝒙 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 0.4775

𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 1985 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ

𝒙𝒏−𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 0.0078

𝒙𝒊−𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 0.0329

𝒙 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 0.0430

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A.3.2: Energy Balance of the Separator V-100

Energy Balance of the Separator V-100

𝒏̇ 𝒊𝒏 2190 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ

̂ 𝒊𝒏
𝑯 −37070 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑸𝒊𝒏 −225 𝑀𝑊

𝒏̇ 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 1985 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ

̂ 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑯 −37070 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑸𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 −215.1 𝑀𝑊

𝒏̇ 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 205.3 𝐾𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ

̂ 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑯 −18330 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑸𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 −10.45 𝑀𝑊

A.4: Energy balance of the vauum distillation unit

Energy balance of the vauum distillation unit
QLVGO condenser 7.67 MW
QHVGO condenser 18.74 MW
Q net 0 MW
𝒎𝑳𝑽𝑮𝑶 136424,3125 kg/h
𝒎𝑯𝑽𝑮𝑶 320602,98 kg/h
𝑪𝒑𝑳𝑽𝑮𝑶 2,43119583 J/Kg/K
𝑪𝒑𝑳𝑽𝑮𝑶 2,623838864 J/Kg/K

114 | P a g e
A.4.1: Material balance of the vacuum distillation unit
Material balance of the vacuum distillation unit
Ms10 2.920 × 105 kg/h
Mvacuum steam 9072 kg/h
Mfuel gas 1.006 × 105 kg/h
Mvac btm 1.065 × 105 kg/h
MLVGO 1.223 × 104 kg/h
MHVGO 8.180 × 104 kg/h
H2O mass fraction
ws10 0.0314
wvacuum steam 1
wfuel gas 0.1813
wvac btm 0
wLVGO 0
wHVGO 0
460-480 C* mass fraction
ws10 0.0407
wvacuum steam 0
wfuel gas 0.0014
wvac btm 0.0001
wLVGO 0.0478
wHVGO 0.1362
500-520 C* mass fraction
ws10 0.0376
wvacuum steam 0
wfuel gas 0.0001
wvac btm 0.0013
wLVGO 0.0131
wHVGO 0.1305

115 | P a g e
A.4.2: Enthalpy of the existing components
Heat of
Formation
Component (kJ/kmol) a b c d
Hydrogen 0 -49,68312 13,83761 0,00029998 3,46E-07
Nitrogen 0 2,888634 0,9827466 9,71E-05 -4,16E-10
-
CO -110590 -2,269 1,0739 0,00017265 3,02E-07
-
Oxygen 0 -2,2834 0,952 0,00028113 6,55E-07
-
Methane -74900 -12,98 2,36459 0,00213247 5,66E-06
-
Ethylene 52329,80078 1,12E-09 1,137 0,00024462 2,92E-06
Ethane -84738 -1,7675 1,1429 -0,0003236 4,24E-06
CO2 -393790 1,25E-09 0,618139 0,00048449 -1,49E-07
H2S -20179 -1,435 0,9985 -0,0001843 5,57E-07
Propene 20429 1,93E-08 0,0881636 0,0027863 -9,19E-07
Propane -103890 39,4889 0,395 0,00211409 3,96E-07
i-Butane -134590 30,903 0,1533 0,00263479 7,27E-08
i-Butene -16909 2,02E-08 0,28605 0,00249875 -6,48E-07
1-Butene -125,9700012 8,30E-09 -0,0533615 0,0031475 -1,18E-06
13-Butadiene 110190 47,206 0,059928 0,002823 -8,75E-07
n-Butane -126190 67,721 0,00854058 0,00327699 -1,11E-06
cis2-Butene -6989,790039 5,42E-09 0,00783491 0,00263154 -6,05E-07
tr2-Butene -11178,90039 2,68E-08 0,3265 0,00228487 -4,17E-07
i-Pentane -154590 64,25 -0,131798 0,003541 -1,33E-06
1-Pentene -20929 -1,44E-08 -0,0019105 0,00308619 -1,10E-06
-
2M-1-butene -36339 0 0,03422665 0,00321429 -1,29E-06

116 | P a g e
n-Pentane -146490 63,198 -0,0117017 0,0033164 -1,17E-06
3M-1-butene -28969 0 0,3098 0,0027728 -1,72E-06
2M-2-butene -42577,80078 0 0,168199 0,00250149 -9,55E-07
2M-13-C4== 75778 138,59 0,056018 0,002823 -6,71E-07
tr2-Pentene -31779 0 0,26349 0,00230989 -1,74E-07
cis2-Pentene -28089 0 0,0054891 0,0026993 -4,80E-07
Cyclopentan
e -77288 1,56E-08 -0,764518 0,00386825 -1,44E-06
Cyclopenten
e 33100 0 0,166132 0,00138023 1,47E-06
22-
Mpropane -166090 0 -0,021985 0,0032855 -8,71E-07
33M-1-
butene -61548 113,848 0,196 0,002811 -6,60E-07
-
H2O -241000 -5,7296 1,9145 0,00039574 8,76E-07
36-40C* -134712,7295 0 0,02076144 0,00321788 -7,02E-07
40-50C* -142097,911 0 0,07317905 0,00309261 -7,27E-07
50-60C* -149292,4876 0 0,10457612 0,00297661 -7,49E-07
60-70C* -156779,7993 0 0,0864781 0,00294286 -7,53E-07
70-80C* -164737,2268 0 0,04725739 0,00295857 -7,46E-07
80-90C* -174094,7284 0 0,00910904 0,00298259 -7,37E-07
-
90-100C* -183971,5113 0 0,01960925 0,00299871 -7,30E-07
-
100-110C* -194143,5295 0 0,03760903 0,00300338 -7,26E-07
-
110-120C* -204245,2639 0 0,04647813 0,00299826 -7,24E-07
120-130C* -214422,2694 0 -0,0485438 0,00298646 -7,24E-07

117 | P a g e
 -
130-140C* -224923,7938 0 0,04597092 0,00297093 -7,25E-07
-
140-150C* -235751,3209 0 0,04048443 0,00295393 -7,27E-07
-
150-160C* -246638,2255 0 0,03335946 0,00293704 -7,29E-07
-
160-170C* -258126,2249 0 0,02550087 0,00292123 -7,32E-07
-
170-180C* -270006,1175 0 0,01753495 0,00290702 -7,34E-07
-
180-190C* -282299,898 0 0,00988656 0,00289463 -7,37E-07
-
190-200C* -295030,9413 0 0,00283705 0,00288404 -7,39E-07
200-210C* -308223,4864 0 0,00194557 0,00287445 -7,40E-07
210-220C* -321902,2067 0 0,00509392 0,00286533 -7,42E-07
220-230C* -336091,5465 0 0,00783612 0,0028569 -7,43E-07
230-240C* -350815,1257 0 0,01020672 0,0028491 -7,44E-07
240-250C* -366094,6804 0 0,01223608 0,00284188 -7,45E-07
250-260C* -383068,7345 0 0,01395112 0,0028352 -7,46E-07
260-270C* -399486,9565 0 0,0153758 0,00282899 -7,47E-07
270-280C* -416407,5331 0 0,01653152 0,00282322 -7,48E-07
280-290C* -433812,6879 0 0,01743751 0,00281785 -7,48E-07
290-300C* -451673,9803 0 0,01801711 0,00281271 -7,49E-07
300-310C* -469950,3293 0 0,01832432 0,0028078 -7,50E-07
310-320C* -488585,2726 0 0,01843292 0,00280319 -7,50E-07
320-330C* -507504,0623 0 0,01836004 0,00279885 -7,51E-07
330-340C* -526611,0842 0 0,01812145 0,00279478 -7,52E-07
340-350C* -545785,6323 0 0,01773185 0,00279095 -7,52E-07
350-360C* -564879,3027 0 0,01720507 0,00278737 -7,52E-07

118 | P a g e
360-370C* -583711,8995 0 0,01655423 0,00278402 -7,53E-07
370-380C* -602068,6716 0 0,01579182 0,00278089 -7,53E-07
380-390C* -622470,6407 0 0,01492981 0,00277797 -7,54E-07
390-400C* -645095,2941 0 0,01397972 0,00277525 -7,54E-07
400-410C* -670445,6999 0 0,01295262 0,00277272 -7,54E-07
410-420C* -695433,5977 0 0,01185921 0,00277038 -7,55E-07
420-430C* -720063,2112 0 0,01070976 0,00276821 -7,55E-07
430-440C* -744348,873 0 0,00944456 0,00276611 -7,55E-07
440-450C* -768315,4261 0 0,00797506 0,00276391 -7,55E-07
450-460C* -791997,3211 0 0,00646903 0,00276187 -7,55E-07
460-480C* -842431,5891 0 0,00416976 0,00275909 -7,56E-07
480-500C* -888849,969 0 0,00109555 0,00275593 -7,56E-07
-
500-520C* -935321,793 0 0,00189805 0,00275338 -7,56E-07
-
520-540C* -982518,198 0 0,00471655 0,00275144 -7,56E-07
-
540-560C* -1031186,941 0 0,00727076 0,00275011 -7,57E-07
-
560-580C* -1082132,938 0 0,00947765 0,00274938 -7,57E-07
-
580-600C* -1136199,154 0 0,01126109 0,00274927 -7,57E-07
-
600-625C* -1219156,782 0 0,01267599 0,0027499 -7,57E-07
-
625-650C* -1311075,211 0 0,01341355 0,00275159 -7,57E-07
-
650-675C* -1405941,377 0 0,01315397 0,00275442 -7,57E-07
-
675-700C* -1511842,861 0 0,01120354 0,00275928 -7,57E-07

119 | P a g e
 -
700-725C* -1663784,295 0 0,00868012 0,00276484 -7,57E-07
-
725-750C* -1828929,924 0 0,00568473 0,00277103 -7,57E-07
-
750-775C* -1995573,215 0 0,00239555 0,00277787 -7,57E-07
775-800C* -2172593,302 0 0,00109677 0,00278529 -7,57E-07
800-825C* -2359489,457 0 0,00473039 0,00279318 -7,57E-07
825-850C* -2553361,943 0 0,00845557 0,00280142 -7,56E-07
850+C* -2960447,907 0 0,02132962 0,00283053 -7,56E-07
Hi (kJ/kmol)
Vacuum
S10 Steam Fuel Gas LVGO HVGO Vac Btm
Hydrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0
Nitrogen 0 0 0 0 0 0
CO 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oxygen 0 0 0 0 0 0
Methane 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ethylene 0 0 0 0 0 0
4,4364E- -7,5806E- -1,9485E- 2,2265E-
Ethane 14 0 14 17 -8,22E-18 26
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2S 0 0 0 0 0 0
Propene 0 0 0 0 0 0
-2,4509E- -2,6631E- -1,2204E- -6,3401E- -4,9003E-
Propane 11 0 10 13 14 22
-4,4724E- -8,9156E- -6,2934E- -3,5031E- -6,5112E-
i-Butane 08 0 08 11 11 19
i-Butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
1-Butene 0 0 0 0 0 0

120 | P a g e
13-Butadiene 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1,0875E- -2,9004E- -2,3007E- -1,1957E-
n-Butane 07 0 07 10 10 -2,272E-18
cis2-Butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
tr2-Butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
-1,9437E- -3,2328E- -3,9423E- -2,0467E- -7,3185E-
i-Pentane 05 0 05 08 08 16
1-Pentene 0 0 0 0 0 0
2M-1-butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
n-Pentane 0 0 0 0 0 0
3M-1-butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
2M-2-butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
2M-13-C4== 0 0 0 0 0 0
tr2-Pentene 0 0 0 0 0 0
cis2-Pentene 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyclopentan
e 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyclopentene 0 0 0 0 0 0
22-
Mpropane 0 0 0 0 0 0
33M-1-
butene 0 0 0 0 0 0
- - - - -
39436,423 152841,42 36,594303 24,937945 33,731895
H2O 1 -179097,092 3 5 9 9
-7,0609E- -1,1539E- -1,5203E- -7,7294E- -2,7871E-
36-40C* 06 0 05 08 09 16
-4,4231E- -6,9833E- -5,1372E- -2,1133E-
40-50C* 05 0 05 -1,025E-07 08 15

121 | P a g e
 - -
0,0001708 0,0002579 -4,4661E- -2,1951E- -1,1105E-
50-60C* 2 0 4 07 07 14
- -
0,0006881 0,0009809 -2,0179E- -9,7653E- -6,1773E-
60-70C* 1 0 2 06 07 14
- -
0,0017086 0,0023075 -5,6275E- -2,6797E- -2,1018E-
70-80C* 1 0 7 06 06 13
- -
0,0060214 0,0077544 -2,2391E- -1,0473E- -1,0112E-
80-90C* 5 0 4 05 05 12
- -
0,0198954 0,0246699 -8,4303E- -4,5611E-
90-100C* 5 0 5 05 -3,863E-05 12
- - - -
0,0620067 0,0746385 0,0003019 0,0001352 -1,9432E-
100-110C* 3 0 4 9 2 11
- - - -
0,1828157 0,2150377 0,0010313 0,0004502 -7,8512E-
110-120C* 2 0 1 3 6 11
- - - -
0,5126175 0,5918568 0,0033709 0,0014322 -3,0262E-
120-130C* 2 0 1 8 3 10
- - - -
1,3692170 1,5562108 0,0105508 0,0043556 -1,1152E-
130-140C* 7 0 7 8 8 09
- - - -
3,4785452 3,9001163 0,0315631 0,0126428 -3,9253E-
140-150C* 9 0 7 6 6 09

122 | P a g e
 - - - -
8,3716586 9,2762754 0,0898871 0,0348870 -1,3153E-
150-160C* 3 0 4 4 5 08
- - -
19,069618 20,900498 0,0913980 -4,1935E-
160-170C* 5 0 7 -0,2433202 7 08
- - -
39,656274 0,6040111 0,2193226 -1,2277E-
170-180C* 6 0 -43,027612 8 9 07
- - - -
78,448961 84,318675 1,4327783 0,5023445 -3,4409E-
180-190C* 1 0 9 5 4 07
- - - -
150,06154 159,85363 3,3015453 1,1164558 -9,3889E-
190-200C* 8 0 4 8 2 07
- - - -
270,69834 285,78678 7,2104206 2,3504170 -2,4419E-
200-210C* 1 0 4 7 7 06
- - - -
458,98138 480,28147 14,878080 4,6719075 -6,0316E-
210-220C* 2 0 2 2 2 06
- - - -
759,50733 788,01407 30,299660 9,1293220
220-230C* 9 0 7 8 1 -1,469E-05
- - -
1233,1674 58,916301 17,045522 -3,4374E-
230-240C* -1198,3341 0 2 8 2 05
- - - -
1718,9087 1754,8979 104,79151 29,067504 -7,3782E-
240-250C* 6 0 6 2 8 05

123 | P a g e
 - - - - -
2345,6620 2375,2389 178,41692 47,369783 0,0001520
250-260C* 5 0 9 4 7 4
- - - -
3059,7030 291,15922 73,827597 0,0003009
260-270C* -3044,5579 0 6 5 7 1
- - - -
3797,2101 3787,5258 460,27085 0,0005779
270-280C* 3 0 4 7 -111,17268 2
- - -
4534,0983 710,22823 162,86789
280-290C* -4580,3098 0 7 8 4 -0,0010845
- - - -
5381,3878 1079,1733 233,93074 0,0020038
290-300C* 2 0 -5285,4536 4 6 8
- - - - -
6204,0393 6042,8404 1630,5739 332,09749 0,0036738
300-310C* 5 0 7 8 6 3
- - - -
6822,4558 2476,0330 469,76828 0,0067322
310-320C* -7069,043 0 4 8 7 7
- - - - -
7987,5748 7627,6488 3809,7823 665,23211 0,0123767
320-330C* 7 0 9 7 1 5
- - - - -
8901,0175 8390,0410 5944,1535 939,60923 0,0227091
330-340C* 5 0 5 8 1 3
- - - - -
9665,7604 8955,7144 9353,9872 1311,6048 0,0411033
340-350C* 9 0 3 2 9 6

124 | P a g e
 - - - - -
10166,088 9191,1948 14805,303 1806,1294 0,0729655
350-360C* 6 0 8 9 4 1
- - - - -
10087,584 8785,6770 22790,719 2406,8415 0,1237738
360-370C* 3 0 9 4 5 6
- - - - -
10148,416 8334,2781 35713,268 3376,3823 0,2156634
370-380C* 4 0 6 3 1 6
- - - -
10165,479 7619,2996 4989,1810 0,3790841
380-390C* 8 0 9 -53475,045 1 8
- - - - -
10162,837 6642,0898 73173,493 7925,7370 0,6739045
390-400C* 3 0 4 1 1 6
- - - - -
10066,253 5356,7393 87711,190 13304,145 1,2027924
400-410C* 5 0 1 1 7 1
- - - - -
9953,0498 3856,4519 90031,376 22301,899 2,1717216
410-420C* 3 0 6 8 7 4
- - - - -
9829,4190 2367,2633 77312,633 33915,405 3,9681598
420-430C* 1 0 2 4 9 8
- - - - -
9702,0471 1247,9037 56982,690 44364,060 7,3403162
430-440C* 8 0 2 3 5 9
- - - - -
9575,5113 606,54084 39120,954 51092,743 13,744628
440-450C* 1 0 3 1 5 2

125 | P a g e
 - - - - -
9445,6027 291,20357 26937,336 54530,512 26,006170
450-460C* 9 0 1 6 8 3
- - - -
18860,505 202,18705 33147,644 114833,20
460-480C* 6 0 8 6 7 -140,30255
- - - -
18287,283 47,776735 17753,363 114417,23
480-500C* 1 0 9 4 7 -522,52348
- - - - -
17707,363 10,315950 9182,3296 111201,54 1939,0457
500-520C* 5 0 6 5 6 1
- - - - -
18024,298 2,0414450 4567,6017 109965,26 7345,2742
520-540C* 7 0 8 7 9 4
- - - - -
17321,907 0,3081321 1810,8187 92185,752 25899,376
540-560C* 9 0 9 4 6 9
- - - - -
16539,072 0,0255697 411,52770 46808,072 81226,185
560-580C* 1 0 5 8 3 2
- - - - -
15686,999 0,0005870 26,951173 7180,6921 127951,30
580-600C* 7 0 1 6 8 7
- - - -
18602,508 -4,2452E- 0,6651057 485,07972 162600,12
600-625C* 7 0 06 9 1 4
- - -
-9,5711E- 0,0062186 14,665862 150995,20
625-650C* -17220,039 0 09 8 5 4

126 | P a g e
 - -
15658,665 -4,7312E- 0,3801702
650-675C* 1 0 -1,655E-11 05 1 -137229,59
- - -
14036,884 -2,2176E- -2,9569E- 0,0085010 122940,04
675-700C* 8 0 14 07 7 9
- - -
12649,656 -2,4954E- -1,6115E- 0,0001714 110705,78
700-725C* 2 0 17 09 1 9
- -
11218,007 -2,4223E- -7,7644E- -3,1243E- 98109,830
725-750C* 7 0 20 12 06 1
- -
9811,5271 -1,8209E- -3,0678E- -4,8897E- 85760,647
750-775C* 6 0 23 14 08 8
- -
8505,5105 -2,1633E- -1,0069E- -6,6407E- 74307,640
775-800C* 1 0 24 16 10 5
- -
7314,0894 -2,3501E- -2,8915E- -8,1237E- 63870,304
800-825C* 5 0 24 19 12 8
- -
6235,4076 -2,5438E- -7,8012E- -9,5217E- 54429,269
825-850C* 5 0 24 22 14 8
- -
24998,425 -2,9506E- -2,9469E- -1,7201E- 218079,41
850+C* 2 0 24 24 19 1

127 | P a g e
A.5: Storage tank
Storage tank V- Values
104
Separator Type Tank
Vessel 37.78 C
Temperature
Vessel Pressure 21.7 Bar
Liquid Molar 2007 kgmole/h
Flow
Duty 0 MW

A.5.1: Material balance of the storage tank V-104

Material balance of the storage tank V-104
𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅 459029 kg/h
𝒙𝟒𝟎𝑪,𝒇 0.01

𝒙𝟓𝑪,𝒇 0.0129
𝒙𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑪,𝒇 0.0143

𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒗 0

𝒙𝟒𝟎𝑪,𝒗 0.1132
𝒙𝟓𝑪,𝒗 0.2289

𝒙𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑪,𝒗 0.0166
𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕,𝒍 459029 kg/h
𝒙𝟒𝟎𝑪,𝒍 0.01
𝒙𝟓𝑪,𝒍 0.0129
𝒙𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑪,𝒍 0.0143

A.5.2: Energy Balance of the Heater E-100

Energy Balance of the Heater E-100
Q 30372854.7558 Kcal/h
𝑯𝒊𝒏 −102461.7591 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙

128 | P a g e
𝒏𝒊𝒏 2190 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ𝑟

𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒕 −88599.4 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙 /𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒕 2190 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ𝑟

129 | P a g e
 TABLE OF NOMENCLATURE

Abbreviation/Symbol Name Abbreviation/Symbol Name

N Actual number of trays IPC Iraq Petroleum Company
APC Advanced process control LEPAP Lebanon Environnemental Pollution
Abattement Program
Sd Allowable stress LVGO Light vacuum gas oil
API American Petroleum Institute LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
ASTM American Society for Testing Hl Liquid level
and Materials
AGO Automotive gas oil 𝜎 Liquid surface tension
ATF Aviation turbine fuel m Mass
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand M Mass flow rate
BFD Block flow diagram w Mass fraction
Csbf Capacity parameter Dinlet max Maximum inlet diameter of the
separator
CO Carbon monoxide Unoz max/min Maximum/Minimum nozzle
velocities
CRU Catalytic Reforming Unit Uvap max Maximum vapor velocity of the
separator
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand Merox Mercaptan Oxidation
DC Column diameter nS Minimum number of trays/stages
CCR Continuous Catalyst Rm Minimum reflux ratio
Regeneration
Ca Corrosion allowance 𝜌mix Mixture density of the separator
CDU Crude Distillation Unit Hin/out Molar enthalpy in/out
𝝆 Density x Mole fraction
ECC Environmental Compliance NFPA National Fire Protection Association
Certificate

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 EIA Environmental Impact NOSCP National Oil Spill Contingency Plan
Assessment
EU European Union D Nominal tank diameter
HAZOP Hazard and Operability Study n Number of mole
HSE Health, Safety, and wt% Percentage by weight
Environment
Q Heat flow P Pressure
HVGO Heavy vacuum gas oil PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
HC Height of the column PID Proportional Integral Derivate
pressure controller
Hroof Height of the external Roof r Radius of the tank
h Height of the tank R Reflux ratio
HDS Hydrodesulfurization Sf Separation factor of the separator
H2 Hydrogen DS Separator diameter
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide L Separator Vessel Tan-to-Tan Height
ICI Imperial Chemical Industries tD Shell thickness
U Internal energy K Souders-Brown Separator Sizing
Factor
IFR Internal floating roof SG Specific gravity
IMO International Maritime SEA Strategic Environmental
Organization Assessment

Abbreviation/Symbol Name Abbreviation/Symbol Name

SOx Sulfur oxides ΔU Variation of internal energy
TPH Total Petroleum ΔEc Variation of kinetic energy
Hydrocarbons
UV Ultraviolet ΔEp Variation of potential
energy
VDU Vacuum Distillation Unit ΔPV Variation of pressure and
volume

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VGO Vacuum gas oil V Volume
hv above Vapor height above the H2 O Water
center line of the inlet
nozzle to the top tan line of
the vessel
hv below Vapor height below the W Work
center line of the inlet
nozzle to the maximum
liquid level
ΔH Variance in molar enthalpy

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