UNIT-1 Curriculum Designing

.1.1 Meaning, Definition, Concept and Principles of Curriculum

. 1.2 Types and Approaches of Curriculum Designing
. 1.3 Curriculum Domains - Personal, Social, Academics, Recreational
and Community Living
. 1.4 Steps in developing curriculum, challenges of developing
curriculum for inclusion
. 1.5 Curriculum evaluation, Implementation in inclusion

1.1 Meaning, Definition, Concept and Principles of Curriculum

Curriculum is the heart and soul of any educational process. It is the sum total of all that
is rendered by an educational institution in bringing out the required changes in the
child. The activities range from classroom to playground, and beyond. every society
tries to socialise her child through the process of adjustment with the environment in
which s/he lives. The curriculum is an instrument to fulfil such an objective.

Concept of curriculum

· Curriculum as written 'courses of study'. The curriculum is always pre-planned. It

is documented for reference by the teachers and students.
· Curriculum as intended 'learning outcomes'. Curriculum is always purposive, i.e. to
achieve certain objectives set by the society. The objectives are reflected in terms of
learning outcomes.
· Curriculum as 'experience'. Curriculum prescribes a set of learning experiences for
the students at a particular level, say for example curriculum for disabled children at
the secondary school level. These learning experiences vary from one class to
another.
· Curriculum as 'planned learning experiences' offered to students in a school. The
curriculum is not an ad hoc arrangement. The learning experiences to be imparted
to the students are planned/designed in advance. The objectives and intended
outcomes are specifically stated in the curriculum.
Social context : Human beings live in a society and a community, and interact with the
community members and also outside the community. While interacting within the
family, community and outside, one learns many things which are not possible within
the classroom. The social context or situations include one's thinking and contribute to
one's learning. This is more important for children who grow up through the process of
socialisation.
Learning experiences : As noted above, one learns within and outside the class.
Everytime one interacts with the social environment, one learns from each encounter.
Activity-based teaching-learning leads to generation of more experiences; so also
problem-based learning, especially if problems are related to real-life situations.
Learning outcomes : This is the most important aspect of the curriculum, i.e.
specification of what is to be achieved - may be after one activity or one class period, or
even after one year of learning. Learning outcomes are expressed in terms of
achievements (and changes in the child due to education) in knowledge,
comprehension, skills, attitude, values, etc.

Definitions of Curriculum

1. "A Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes" (Johnson,

1967).
2. "Curriculum is the sum total of student objectives which the school sponsors for the
purpose of achieving its objectives" Alberty and Alberty, 1959).
Principles Of Curriculum Development
A good curriculum should aim at bringing out the maximum possible potentials of a
child
1. **Clarity of Purpose**: Begin by clearly defining the overarching goals of the
curriculum. These goals should articulate what students should know, understand, and
be able to do by the end of the curriculum.
- **SMART Objectives**: Break down these goals into specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, and time-bound (SMART) objectives. This ensures clarity and helps in
assessing whether the curriculum has been effective in achieving its intended
outcomes.
2. **Alignment with Standards**: Align the curriculum with relevant educational
standards or guidelines provided by educational authorities, such as state or national
standards. This ensures that the curriculum meets established expectations for what
students should learn at specific grade levels or subject areas. Ensure that the learning
outcomes specified in the curriculum are aligned with these standards, reflecting the
knowledge, skills, and competencies students are expected to demonstrate.
3. **Relevance**: Design the curriculum with consideration for the backgrounds,
experiences, interests, and developmental stages of the students it serves.
Include content and activities that are relevant to students' lives and future aspirations.
This enhances engagement and motivation by demonstrating the practical significance
of what they are learning.
4. **Coherence**: Structure the curriculum in a logical sequence that builds upon prior
knowledge and skills. This ensures that students progress from foundational concepts
to more complex ideas in a systematic manner.
5. **Flexibility**: Design the curriculum to accommodate diverse learning styles,
abilities, and interests. Provide options for students to engage with content in ways that
best suit their individual needs. It Allow flexibility in assessment methods to accurately
measure student learning. This might include performance assessments, projects,
portfolios, as well as traditional tests and quizzes.
6. **Integration of Assessments**:
Integrate both formative assessments (ongoing checks for understanding) and
summative assessments (evaluations of student learning at the end of a unit or course).
These assessments should align with the curriculum objectives and provide meaningful
feedback to students and educators.
7. **Engagement**: Incorporate active learning strategies that encourage students to
participate actively in their learning. This might include collaborative projects,
discussions, hands-on activities, simulations, and problem-solving tasks.
Foster curiosity and critical thinking by designing learning experiences that prompt
students to ask questions, investigate topics, and draw their own conclusions.
8. **Reflective Practice**: Regularly evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculum in
achieving its goals and objectives. Seek feedback from students, educators, and other
stakeholders to identify strengths and areas for improvement.
Use evaluation findings to revise and refine the curriculum as needed. This ensures
that the curriculum remains responsive to changing educational needs and best
practices.
9. **Collaboration**: Collaborate with educators, administrators, curriculum
specialists, and other stakeholders throughout the curriculum design process. This
collaborative approach ensures diverse perspectives are considered and enhances the
quality of the curriculum.
10. **Continuous Improvement**: Engage in ongoing professional development to stay
informed about current research, best practices, and emerging trends in education.
1.2 Types and Approaches of Curriculum Designing
Types of Curriculum
Following are some of the important types of curriculum :
Subject-Centred Curriculum

this type of curriculum is subject-based. It is a traditional curriculum and most of the

schools still follow such curriculum. This curriculum includes different branches of
knowledge, such as, Language, Mathematics, History, Geography, Science, etc. Subjects
are included according to the learning levels of the learners. Subjects are presented in
suitable units or branches. Though the teacher makes efforts to effectively teach the
subject concerned

Activity-Centred Curriculum
According activity-centred curriculum, students should learn by engaging themselves
in various activities which is desirable and purposeful. It stresses the practical aspects
of life. Emphasis is given on "learning by doing" and "learning by relating to life".
Laboratory work and field work are given more importance. Activity-centred
curriculum may consist of activities such as making a dress, constructing a box, building
a miniature house, etc. The activities become the focus (rather than the fixed content),
which are intended to achieve the pre-stipulated objectives.

Learner Centred Curriculum

In learner-centred curriculum, the learner occupies the central position in the teaching-
learning exercise. Stress is given on the all-round development of the learner. Provision
is made for the varying abilities and interests of learners. They have choices and
options to fulfil their needs and interests. Importance is given to the 'process' of
acquiring knowledge or facts, rather than simple acquisition of knowledge.

Integrated Curriculum
Integrated curriculum involves judicious mix of subject-centred, learner-centred and
activity-centred curriculum. It enables the students to get a comprehensive view of the
concepts to be learnt. For example, a course like "History of Civilization" may be an
integrated curriculum representing history, literature, art, music, and sociology.

Core Pattern Curriculum

The core-pattern curriculum is a problem-centred curriculum. It gives importance to
preparation for living in a democratic society. So, emphasis is laid on the all round
development - physical, mental, moral, emotional and spiritual - development of the
learner. According to the core-pattern of curriculum, a long block of two of three
periods at a time is desirable. A long block of two to three periods allows time for field-
trips and short excursions without disturbing other classes.

Approaches to Curriculum Development

There are various approaches to curriculum development. The Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU, 1997) has grouped them into in four categories:
 o Subject-centred approach.
o Broadfields approach.
Problem centered approach.
o Learner-centred approach.

Approaches to Curriculum Development

Subject-centred approach : According to the subject-centred approach, curriculum is
organized around separate subject areas of knowledge. This is one of the most widely
used approaches in curriculum development. The main responsibility of curriculum
planner is to determine the different subject areas to be offered and different learning
experiences from each subject to be offered. The programme of studies may be divided
into different subjects like, language, mathematics, science, social studies, etc.
Broadfields approach : In this approach, curriculum is organized by combining two or
more subject areas into a single broad field. Two or more closely related subjects/
disciplines are integrated to form a broad field. For example, a broad subject Biology is
developed by combining the knowledge of subjects like, botany, zoology, physiology,
Social problems approach : In this approach, we organize curriculum around major
problems found in the society. The curriculum developed through this approach creates
an awareness among the learners regarding the social problems, and enables them to
solve these problems. Through this approach, courses such as environmental problems,
religion, population, communication, technology, etc. can be developed.
Learner-centred approach : This approach focuses on the personal and social needs
of the learners in the course content. This approach prepares the children to face the
present, rather than future. Psychologically sound and purposeful learning experiences
should be planed to meet the learners needs. The learning experiences should be
related to the developmental stages of the learners like, peer group interaction,
developing personal values, developmental changes during puberty, adolescents, etc.

1.3 Curriculum Domains - Personal, Social, Academics, Recreational

and Community living
Personal Domain: The purpose of the personal management strand is to enable
students to develop skills conducive to keeping a job and being a productive member of
society. Any career development program designed to educate and prepare students
for work has personal management skills as its foundation. These personal
management skills provide a bridge between behaviours in the classroom, the
community, and on-the-job that are conducive to being a productive member of society.
Personal domain includes themes such as managing behaviour and conduct, social
skills, sensory awareness and management, self-awareness, self-esteem, personal
safety, time management, building relationships, , self-advocacy, organization and
personal hygiene.
Social Domain: The Social and Emotional Behavior Domain focuses on working in
groups and developing interpersonal relationships. Functioning effectively in formal
and informal group situations requires that individuals understand the implicit and
explicit rules and expectations. Using effective interpersonal skills is the key to success
in this area. Social skills can be broadly defined as any responses that are interactive
with another person. Many of the personal care, home living, community and
employment skills are interactive. There are four primary social interactions that
should be addressed:
• social initiation
• social responsiveness to others
• turn taking
• duration of social interaction
. **Recreational Domain**:
- The recreational domain focuses on activities and experiences that promote leisure,
enjoyment, and physical well-being among students.Encourages students to engage in
activities that promote relaxation, stress relief, physical fitness, and social interaction.
Sports, arts and crafts, outdoor activities, games, dance, drama, and other forms of
recreational pursuits that contribute to holistic development beyond academic
learning.
**Community Domain**:
- The community domain emphasizes the development of social responsibility, civic
engagement, and understanding of one's role within various communities. Prepares
students to become active and responsible members of society, fostering empathy,
respect for diversity, and a sense of belonging. Community service projects, volunteer
opportunities, partnerships with local organizations, cultural exchanges, and activities
that promote environmental stewardship and social justice.
**Academic Domain**:
- The academic domain encompasses the traditional aspects of formal education
focused on cognitive development and intellectual skills. Equips students with
knowledge, critical thinking abilities, problem-solving skills, and academic
competencies necessary for future academic pursuits and careers. Subject-specific
content areas such as mathematics, science, language arts, social studies, and
interdisciplinary studies that form the core of educational curricula.
1.4. Steps in developing curriculum, challenges of developing
curriculum for inclusion
Process of Curriculum Development
o Assessment of educational needs.
o Formulation of objectives.
o Selection of learning experiences.
o Determination of the content.
o Preparation of learning materials/activities.
o Implementation.
o Evaluation.

Assessment of Educational Needs

As a first step, the curriculum planners should make a job analysis of different
categories of learners. The job analysis involves a detailed description of activities and
the requirements of a job. Here, job involves the learning experiences. It provides
details of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by students/individuals to
perform the tasks involved in a job.
After the job analysis of different categories of students has been undertaken, an
assessment of their educational needs is undertaken. A need is a discrepancy or
deficiency between what is and what ought to be (Wilson, 1987). Educational needs are
felt when a student lacks requisite knowledge, skills or attitudes.

Formulation of Objectives

We have to transform the complete information and needs of the learners into
objectives, which can be short-term, mediatory and long-term objectives. While
formulating objectives, we should take the following factors into consideration:

· The objectives should be grouped in terms of three domains – cognitive, affective

and psychomotor. Proper grouping of objectives will help us in planning and
developing a meaningful curriculum in terms of the suitability and relevance of
its content and evaluation.
Objectives should be modified, changed, updated or eliminated according to the
changing needs of the society. This would help maintain the quality of education.
· The statement of objectives should be worded properly so that the learner is able
to understand the intended outcomes. Vagueness or ambiguity, if any, should be
avoided.
Selection of Learning experiences

Learning experiences include physical, mental and emotional experiences or their

integration. These experiences bring desirable changes in behaviour of the learners.
And, change in the learners’ behaviour leads to the attainment of curricular objectives.
· A learning experience should satisfy a recognized need of the learner.

· It should be appropriate to the maturity and understanding of the learner.

· It should be realistic.
· It should be efficient.
· It should be feasible for accomplishment.
Determination of the Content

'Contents' refer to the subject matter or the compendium of facts, concepts,

generalizations, principles, and theories. The subject-matter to a large extent,
contributes to the growth and development of a democratic, secular and socialist
society. So, the content is considered one of the most important components of
curriculum development.

· It should suit to the personality and intellectual capabilities of the students.

· It should be useful in the job situation of the learners.
· It should be feasible in terms of time, costs, and contemporary social climate.
Preparation of Learning Materials/Activities

At this stage, we have to sequence educational activities based on learning experiences

and contents. This is done by preparing learning materials/activities. Learning
materials organize and integrate learning experiences and contents in printed or
recorded form.. Learning materials include textbooks, supplementary readers,
workbooks, teacher guides, audio and video programmes, etc.
Preparation of learning materials is a complex task. It demands a thorough
understanding of the teaching – learning process

Implementation

After the preparation of learning materials/activities, the next step is the

implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. This is the stage of actual teaching-
learning or transaction of curriculum. Teachers, principals, supervisors and members
of school management are given training in the proper implementation of the
curriculum

Evaluation

An essential aspect of good curriculum is the evaluation of curriculum, which should be

continuous. The primary purpose of evaluation of curriculum is to ensure quality
control and for suitable modification in the curriculum. Evaluation may be 'qualitative'
or 'quantitative'. It may be done both at 'macro' level as well as 'micro' level. It also may
be done both at 'formative' and 'summative' stage. Curriculum evaluation determines
the worth of curriculum. It determines, whether curriculum fulfils its purposes for
which it is planned.

Challenges of developing curriculum for inclusion

Inclusive education can be defined as ‘the disabled and non-disabled young people
learning together in colleges and universities, with appropriate networks of support’.
Here, inclusion means enabling students to participate in the life and work of
mainstream institutions to the best of their abilities in accordance to their needs. At the
same time, accessible Curricula refers to the designing of programmes/courses and
educational materials barrier-free (fully accessible for all) without affecting the content
and standard. If course content is well designed, disabled students will be able to gain
access to it. It will enable them to receive the same learning experience as their
classmates get.
Following are some barriers of developing curriculum for inclusion:
· The inefficiency of teachers to develop and use instructional materials for
inclusion students.
• Attitudes towards inclusion and disability among teachers, administrators and
policy planners.
• Attitudes of parents of children without disabilities.
• Lack of awareness about children with disabilities among general teachers.
• Improper curriculum adaptation.
• School environment.
• School management.
• Support services.
• Family collaboration.
• Insufficient and improper pre-service teacher education.
• Negative self-perceptions of children with disabilities.
• Negative attitudes of normal peers.
• ICT availability and related competencies.
• Improper policy planning and lack-luster implementation.
• Difficulties in physical access.
• Expenses involved.

1.5. Curriculum evaluation, Implementation in inclusion

In order to see the effectiveness of a curriculum, it is important to evaluate its strengths
and weaknesses. Curriculum is evaluated from various aspects, viz.

· assessment of students to see as to what extent the objectives of the curriculum

have been achieved;
· what happens in the classroom during curricular transaction;
· evaluation of curricular materials, etc.; and
· curriculum evaluation determines the worth or value of curriculum, i.e. whether the
curriculum is fulfilling its purposes for which it was formulated.
A defective curriculum may cause serious problems. The curriculum design based on
wrong assumptions may not be suited to the needs of society. To know whether
curriculum is serving the very purpose for which it was designed, it needs to be
evaluated periodically.
Broadly, curriculum can be evaluated form two aspects:
· Assessment of students to find out how much of the instructional objectives are
achieved.
· What actually happens in the classroom when the students are engaged in learning
activities, for acquiring learning experiences. These learning experiences are not
confined to four walls of the classroom within stipulated time period. It also includes
other activities like, wearing school uniform, activities of the students in the school
exhibition, participation in the school prayer, field trips, study tour, debate, etc.
Curriculum evaluation is a continuous process. Getting feedback from the evaluation,
the curriculum is modified or changed.
Need and Importance of Curriculum Evaluation

Our society is changing very rapidly. Beginning from an agrarian society, now we have
entered into the information age. Curriculum development is not a one-time process. It
is a continuous process; and on the basis of evaluation, we modify or change the
curriculum according to the present demands of the society.
New developments are taking place in any given content areas. If the current changes
are not incorporated in the present curriculum, students would be unable to cope with
the society. In order to incorporate the changes or developments in the curriculum,
there should be a definite provision of evaluation and renewal of present curriculum.
You might agree that there are certain concepts and practices which are outdated and
have no use in the present content. Such concepts or practices need to be detected from
the curriculum. This is possible only when curriculum is evaluated periodically.
To improve the efficiency of the curriculum, there is a need to analyse all the
components i.e. inputs, processes and outputs, of an educational system so that further
modification can be possible. This is possible only through evaluation of the curriculum.
Curricular materials is should be effective, meaningful and need-based. These should
contribute to desirable changes in the learners’ behaviour, and be acceptable to both
the teachers and the learners. The curriculum should be of practical use to the learners
in particular and the society in general, and fit well into the existing curricular setting.
This can be assured through systematic evaluation of curriculum.
Evaluation of the existing curriculum is also necessary to make an objective decision on
the development of the new curriculum. Suppose we want to develop a new curriculum
for computer education for the students at the secondary stage. For this we have to
review the existing curriculum in the area at various school settings or at various
regions. Curriculum evaluation will find out the new developments and requirements
to be incorporated in the existing curriculum on computer education.
1.5 Models/4.2 Approaches of Curriculum Evaluation

1. Tyler's Model
Probably the best known model of curriculum evaluation is proposed by Tyler
(1950) who described education as a process in which three different foci should be
distinguished. They are educational objectives, learning experiences, and
examination of achievements. Tyler’s model is shown schematically in the following
figure

In above, evaluation of this type is represented by the arrow marked with letter
(c). This model is primarily used to evaluate the achievement level of either
individual learners or of a group of learners. The evaluators working with this
model are interested in the extent to which learners are developed in the desired
way. Both cognitive and affective domains are given importance in this model.
In the Tyler’s model, the relationship between educational objectives and learner
achievement constitutes only a portion of the model. The systematic study of the
other relationship is also described in the model. The arrow (b) refers to the
correspondence between the objectives and the learning experiences suggested
in the curriculum and realized in the actual school situation. Arrow (L) refers to
the examination of the relationship between the actual learning experiences and
educational outcomes.

2. Shake’s Countenance Model

Stake (1969) explained curriculum evaluation in terms of ‘antecedents’,
‘transactions’ and ‘outcomes’. Let us first understand these terms. The term
‘antecedents’ refers to those aspects in which curriculum is taught, such as: time
available and the other sources provided. The term ‘transactions’ refers to what
actually happens in lessons, including what is done by both the teachers and
learners. The term ‘outcomes’ connotes learner’s achievements, the effects of the
curriculum on the attitudes of the students, as well as teacher's feelings about
teaching the curriculum.
This model is known as countenance model because different people look at the
curriculum and appraise it accordingly.
Stake’s evaluation model is explained as below:

Terms Kind on Information Methods

Antecedents * Organisational background * Time table

* Resources * Syllabus and
* Attitudes of administrators and textbooks
 parents * Interview
* Examinations available
* Content in Curriculum
* Knowledge and skills of pupils

Transactions(in Teachers : * Activity Records

lessons) * Roles adopted * Observations of class
* Use of time and resources * Self-report by
* Contact with pupils teachers
Pupils : * Self-report by pupils
* Cognitive processes
* Interest and involvement
* Use of Time

Outcomes * Pupil’s achievements * Test and written

* Pupil’s attitudes, interpretations work
* Teachers’ attitudes, interpretation * Questionnaires
* Effects on other parts of institutions * Interviews

3. The CIPP Model

Stufflebeam (1971) proposed CIPP model stressing the need for attention to context
(c), Input (i), Process (p), and Product (pr). The first three terms refer to formative
evaluation, while the product refers to summative evaluation. Let us discuss each of
the terms, used by Stufflebeam, below.
Content evaluation : Here the curriculum evaluator is engaged in studying the
environment (context) in which the curriculum is transacted. It provides the
rationale for selection of objectives. Content evaluation is not a one-time activity. It
is a continuous process for furnishing baseline information for the operations of the
total system.
Input evaluation : The purpose of input evaluation is to get information for how to
utilize resources optimally to meet the objectives of the curriculum. It includes
evaluation of some sort of physical and non-physical inputs such as availability of
physical and human resources, time and budget. It also includes previous
achievement, education and aspirations of pupils.
Process evaluation : This is the most critical component of the overall model.
Quality of the product largely depends on this component. It addresses the
curriculum implementation decisions. Stufflebeam presents the following three
strategies for process evaluation:

1. To detect or predict defects in the procedural design or its implementation during

the diffusion stages: In dealing with plan or curriculum defects, we should identify
and monitor continually the potential sources for the failure of the curriculum. The
source may be logistical, financial, etc.
2. To provide information for curriculum decisions: Here, we should make decisions
regarding test development prior to the actual implementation of the curriculum.
 Some decisions may require that certain in-service activities be planned and carried
out before the actual implementation of the curriculum.
3. To maintain a record of procedures as they occur: It addresses the main features of
the project design; for example: the particular content selected, the instructional
strategies planned, or the time allotted to the planing for such activities.
4. Hilda Taba Model
Hilda Taba’s Social Studies Model emphasizes on the cause and effect relationship in
the curriculum process. The evaluation process is based on experimental control
over the study materials and its effect on the achievement of the students. The
researcher prepares different sets of study materials, each set having certain
variations from the other. The materials are exposed to different groups of students.
After exposition, the curriculum is evaluated. The outcomes of curriculum
evaluation will determine the principles of developing the new programmes
Curriculum evaluation monitors and reports on the quality of education. Cronbach
(1963) distinguishes three types of decisions for which evaluation is used.
1. Course Improvement: deciding what instructional material and methods are
satisfactory and where changes are needed.
2. Decisions about individuals: Identifying the needs of the pupil for the sale of
planning of instruction and grouping, acquainting the pupil with his own
deficiencies.
3. Administrative regulations: Judging how good the school system is, how good
individual teachers are. The goal of evaluation must be to answer questions of
selection, adoption, support and worth of educational materials and activities. It
helps in identifying the necessary improvements to be made in content, teaching
methods, learning experiences, educational facilities, staff-selection and
development of educational objectives. It also serves the need of the policy makers,
administrators and other members of the society for the information about the
educational system.
Implementation in Inclusion
· Valuing all students and staff equally by increasing the participation of students,
reducing their exclusion from learning activities and by Restructuring the
cultures policies and practices.
· Planning the teaching and learning strategies which make the delivery of the
programme as inclusive as is reasonably possible.
· Viewing the difference between students as resources to support learning, rather
than as problems to be overcome.
· Developing a more student-centered approach to course/programmes,
encouraging dialogue and collaboration amongst the students.
· Facilities to get student’s feedback and incorporating them in further course
· Improving facilities for staff as well as for students.
· Inclusion of disability issues not only in the disability related trainings but also in
all other training programs.
 · Emphasizing the role of institutions in building community and developing
values, as well as in increasing academic achievements.
· Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between institutions and
communities.
· Recognizing that inclusion in education as one aspect of inclusion in society.
Universal Design principles can be applied to make the courses/programmes more
accessible for people with a wide range of abilities and disabilities, ethnic backgrounds,
language skills and learning styles:
1. Inclusiveness creates a classroom environment that respects and values diversity.
The institutions should invite students to meet and discuss disability-related
accommodations and other special learning needs. Segregating or stigmatizing any
student should be avoided. The privacy of all students should be taken care off.
2. Physical access assures the accessibility of classrooms, laboratory classes and field
work to individuals with a wide range of physical abilities and disabilities. The safety
of all students should be assured.
3. Delivery methods use multiple modes to deliver content. Alternate delivery
methods, including lecture, discussion, hands-on activities, Internet-based
interaction and fieldwork each needs to be made accessible to students with a wide
range of abilities, disabilities, interests, and previous experiences.
4. Web pages provide printed materials in electronic formats. Printed and webbased
materials in simple, intuitive, and consistent formats should be prepared. Text
descriptions of graphics presented on Web pages and Arranging content in order of
importance should be entertained.
5. Interaction encourages different ways for students to interact with each other and
with the institution. These methods may include in-class questions and discussion,
group work, and Internet-based communications.
6. Feedback provides effective input for further accessibility.
7. Multiple ways for students to demonstrate knowledge For example, besides
traditional tests and papers, group work, demonstrations, portfolios, and
presentations as options for demonstrating knowledge should be provided.
UNIT-2 Curriculum at Pre-School and Primary School level

. 2.1 Significance of Early Childhood Education and School Readiness

. 2.2 Early Childhood Education Curricular domains - Enhancement of

domain in Motor, Personal, Cognitive and Communication areas

.2.3 Curriculum Domains for Early Childhood Education and Sensory

Mechanism

.2.4 Sensitization of family, involvement in pre-school and primary

level

. 2.5 Implication of pre- school and primary levels for Intervention,

documentation, record maintenance and report writing

Currieulum at Secondary, Pre-vocational and Vocational level

.2.6 Curriculum domains at Secondary level

.2.7 Curriculum domains at Pre- vocational level

.2.8 Curriculum domains at Vocational level

. 2.9 Rehabilitation of PwIDs under National Skill development Scheme

(NSDS by MSJ&E)

.2.10 Implications of placement for inclusion in Community,

Documentation, Record Maintenance and Reporting

2.1 Significance of Early Childhood Education and School Readiness

The all-round capacities that emerge in 3 to 6 years age group are the pre-requisites for
later success in school and life. Through creative play, well thought out games with
suitable adaptations for children with special needs, and developmentally appropriate
activities, children develop their working memory, focus their attention and acquire
self-control. These skills of executive functions and self regulation provide children
with the foundations which help them to become as confident and efficient learners in
the later years. They also learn to accommodate naturally the differences (learning
styles) among themselves.
It is also important that children should be provided emotionally supportive and
enabling environment to develop safe and secure relationships with teachers. Children
need to feel free to explore, express, learn and build positive self concept. Research
shows that participation in preschool programmes is beneficial because it leads to
improved outcomes, including better nutrition, health, and education in both the short
and the long run. Moreover, from an economic point of view, investment in preschool
programmes offers a high pay-off in human capital making a strong case for public
intervention. Preschool programmes not only benefit children and families, they reduce
social inequality, and benefit communities and societies at large.

Objectives of Preschool Education

· To ensure child friendly environment where each child is valued, respected, feels

safe and secure and develops a positive self-concept.

· To enable a sound foundation for good health, well being, nutrition, healthy habits

and hygiene.

· To enable children to become effective communicators and foster both receptive

and expressive language.

· To help children become involved learners, think critically, be creative, collaborate,

communicate and connect with their immediate environment.

· To enable a smooth transition of children from preschool to primary schools.

· To work as partners with parents and community to enable each child to flourish.

Benefits of Early Childhood Education

The young mind is like a sponge. It has the potential to absorb a great deal of
information, making it important for children to have guidance while learning. There
are many aspects related to early childhood education, here we have listed out the
many benefits:

· Socialization: Humans are very social beings and the main concept of socialisation
takes root in early childhood. In a safe environment away from family, children meet
other people of their age, sowing the seeds of ‘socialization’ and ‘friendship’ in young
minds. This helps to develop self-confidence in your children by eliminating their
shy nature.

· Cooperation: During this phase, children learn to share, cooperate, take turns and
so on. These are all part of a secure social life. This is especially beneficial for an only
child, who is not familiar with having to share things. In the safe environment
provided, the child will learn to cooperate with guidance from professionals.
· Holistic Development: As a human being, it is important to have a strong
foundation in every aspect of the personality such as emotional, social, mental and
physical. Teachers who handle young children are well trained to identify the
weaker aspects of a child and to encourage them to improve through practical
sessions. Interaction amongst peers is extremely important in this context.

· Enthusiasm for Lifelong Learning: Children will develop a hunger for learning if
they are taught through fun and exciting activities. This eagerness and enthusiasm
for learning will remain with them their entire lives!

· Value of Education: The new environment provided in preschool gives children an

entirely different perspective on the requirement of education. Grasping knowledge
and applying them to their lives demonstrates the value of education.

· Respect: The environment in preschool helps children learn to become civil

towards one another and they start to understand that the concept of respect is not
just limited to people and belongings, but also to their environment.

Preschool Learning Experiences structures learning through play and meaningful

activities in a developmental sequence. The mark of a superior teacher is the ability to
select materials and interact with children in ways that help them learn through their
own play and these planned activities. Young children need many and varied
opportunities to:
· Plan: children consider what they are going to do with materials and how they
are going to do it.
· Play: children use materials and equipment in ways that best suit their personal
curiosity and understanding.
· Reflect: children recall things that happened to them, reinforcing or questioning
their understandings.
· Revisit: children practice skills and replay experiences in many different ways,
with each activity refining or modifying previous learning.
· Connect: children, with the help of staff, connect new knowledge with past
experiences, creating links among subject areas and areas of skill development.
Early childhood educators need to become aware of children’s individual interests and
strengths and find ways to engage and expand them. They can do so by arranging for a
rich variety of learning experiences that appeal to all the senses — visual, auditory, and
physical — and by alternating individual, partnered, small group, and large group
activities so that children experience various kinds of social interaction.
In early childhood programs, assessment takes place by observing children in daily
activities and taking note of their skills, understandings, interests, vocabulary, and
attitudes toward various tasks. It includes communicating with families regularly to
learn about the circumstances that may affect classroom behaviors or interactions, such
as personal or family illness, injury, and child-rearing beliefs and practices. While
children exhibit a broad range of individual differences and personal interests,
assessment should ensure that both boys and girls have opportunities to participate in
a range of activities, from block building to musical, artistic, or dramatic play, in order
to stimulate the development of spatial, artistic, musical, and verbal abilities in all
children.
School readiness
School readiness refers to whether a child is ready to make an easy and successful
transition into school. The term ‘preschool readiness’ might be used in the same
manner in reference to beginning preschool (Kindergarten). School readiness can be
actively facilitated with a little forward planning to ensure that children regularly
participate in activities that develops the appropriate skills required to help optimal
learning when they start school. While many people think of academics (e.g. writing
their name, counting to 10, knowing the colors) as the important school readiness
skills, school readiness actually refers to a much broader range of skills. In addition to
some academic basics, school readiness skills also include self care (independent
toileting and opening lunch boxes), attention and concentration, physical skills (e.g.
having the endurance to sit upright for an entire school day), emotional regulation,
language skills and play and social skills.

Importance of school readiness skills

The development of school readiness skills allows school teachers to expand and
further develop a child’s skills in the specific areas of social interaction, play, language,
emotional development, physical skills, literacy and fine motor skills. Without these
basic skills already established upon entry to school, children can very quickly find
themselves playing ‘catch up’ compared to their peers that are advancing more quickly.
Students that begin school with the build block (or foundation) skills in place advance
quickly as opposed to those that start school only to then begin the slow process of
developing school readiness.

Building blocks necessary to develop school readiness

· Self Regulation: The ability to obtain, maintain and change emotion, behaviour,
attention and activity level appropriate for a task or situation.
 · Sensory processing: Accurate processing of sensory stimulation in the
environment as well as in one’s own body that influences attention and learning
that effects how you sit, hold a pencil and listen to the teacher.
· Receptive language (understanding): Comprehension of spoken language (e.g.
the teachers instructions).
· Expressive language (using language): Producing speech or language that can
be understood by others (e.g. talking to friends).
· Articulation: The ability to clearly pronounce individual sounds in words.
· Executive functioning: Higher order reasoning and thinking skills (e.g.What do I
need to pack to take to school?).
· Emotional development/regulation: The ability to perceive emotion, integrate
emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions and regulate emotions (for a
child’s own responses to challenges).
· Social skills: Determined by the ability to engage in reciprocal interaction with
others (either verbally or non-verbally), to compromise with others and to be able
to recognise and follow social norms.
· Planning and sequencing: The sequential multi-step task/activity performance
to achieve a well-defined result (e.g. a cut and paste task or a simple maths
worksheet).

2.2 Early Childhood Education Curricular domains – Enhancement of

domain in Motor, Personal, Cognitive and Communication areas
Motor skills

Gross Motor
Here children learn to use the big muscle groups of their body. Crawling, walking,
jumping, climbing are all examples of this. We are all excited by those first steps, but
they lead to greater things like biking, kicking, dancing and swinging.

Fine Motor
Learning hand-eye coordination is the focus here. Kids learn how to control precise
muscle movement in their hands to build fine motor skills. Coloring, cutting with
scissors, tearing paper are all activities which reinforce this development. Legos,
origami, knitting, drawing, whittling and sewing help keep the mind and hands engaged
as partners as the children get older.

Language
This domain centers on the child’s ability to speak, read, and write, involving alphabetic
and phonetic learning. Reading and talking regularly with your kids when they are very
young is important, and the conversations you continue to have around the table or in
the car enhance their ability to communicate their opinions, wants, and needs with
others. Watching and hearing Mom and Dad speak is the first exposure children have to
language, and navigating family interactions gives them skills to carry into the wider
world. Learning the ABC’s, the “magic” words like “please” and “I’m sorry”, and the
wonder of a simple thank you note are all prime examples.
Cognitive
Children learn cause and effect and reasoning here, as well as early math skills and
counting and patterning during pre-school years. We all know the game our little ones
love to play when they drop the spoon from his or her high-chair so Mom or Dad can
pick it up. When we do that, we’re teaching cause and effect.

Social/Emotional
We are all social beings and our kids are no different. Learning to play with others is a
skill that is taught. Making sure a child feels safe and nurtured is part of this
development as is using manners and modeling kind behavior. Kids learn what they see
and we are their first examples. The things they learn to do reflexively become self-
reinforcing habits as they grow older and see the effects of their manners and
behavior.

Self-Help/Adaptive
In this domain children begin to show a little independence and learn how to take care
of themselves. Learning to dress and eat on their own, how to tie their own shoes and
brush their own teeth are all examples of becoming less dependent on Mom and Dad.

Eating and drinking

 Give opportunity to children to understand that we eat food when we feel hungry
and we drink water when we feel thirsty.
 Use lunch time and break time to teach.
 Let children identify their lunch boxes/bags. After completing the meals, let them
take care of their belongings.
 Ask parents to give a plate and glass for each student which can be kept in school.
 Prepare a duty chart indicating the name of the student and the activity to be
performed.
Specific skill related points
Drinking:
 Use a cup/glass with handles on both sides if the child has difficulty in holding
the glass.
 Take one fourth of water in the glass in the initial stages of teaching and later
increase the water level.
 Use fruit juice, or buttermilk (in addition to water) while teaching drinking.
Child’s choice of drink motivates him to drink.
 Give a small jug/bottle with less water while teaching pouring water into glass
for drinking. Eating:
 Begin teaching independent eating with non-sticky food items like poori/dosa.
  See that the children eat chapatti with curry, dosa/idli with sambar/chatni; rice
and dall/curry and other items to be eaten with side dish. Often it is noticed that
children with mental retardation have difficulty in taking proper proportion of
the food along with the side dish. They tend to eat curry and chapatti or rice
separately.
 Before teaching the student to mix and eat rice, mix rice and curry/dall and make
small balls for student to pick up with fingers and eat. If he needs physically guide
by placing your hand on top of his right hand and help in picking. Be behind the
child so that your right hand and his right hand are in same direction.
 Tell students what they are eating during training.
 See that you do not serve all the food in the plate at a time. Serve a little. Name
the food items. After he finishes the food first served, ask the student whether he
would like to be served more food
 Tell the parents to give opportunity to their son/daughter to ask for food and also
which item he/she wants. Generally parents serve the rice/chapatti with all side
dishes and keep in front of the child, not giving him a choice. Before serving, if we
ask the child to name the food items, the child will be able to associate the name
to the food item in the long run. It facilitates learning language.
 Eating activity also involves washing and wiping hands, washing plate and glass,
tiffin box and wiping table. These activities should also be taught to students as
part of training in eating skills.
Toileting skills: Teaching of toileting skills should happen at appropriate time in
school and at home.
 Teaching privacy is an important step in teaching toileting skills. Always
remember to teach the student to close the toilet door while he uses the toilet.
When you are teaching him to remove pants to use the toilet or wear pants after
using toilet, see that you teach him with door closed.
 Make an effort to teach him to unfasten. In case, it is beyond the students capacity
to learn, use adaptations such as elastic velcro in place of buttons/hooks.
 Some children refuse/hesitate to use the toilet with the fear of falling. You can fix
the handles on either side of the walls in the toilet so that the child can hold the
handles and sit without fear.
 Washing after defecation, pouring water/flushing toilet, washing hands after
toileting are part of toileting skills and to be taught to the students.
 Train independent use of left hand for cleaning after toileting when adult pours
water. When he perfects that train in pouring water by himself using right hand.
It he can not do both together adapt by attaching hosepipe for use by right hand.
Bathing skills: Teaching of bathing skills is generally done at home by parents/family
members as it may not be possible for teachers to teach bathing skills in day care
centers. Inform parents/family members on the following points:
  It is always important to see that children select and take their clothes and towel
to the bathroom before they take bath. This activity will help in identifying their
own clothes and naming of the clothes.
 Children should be allowed to mix cold water and hot water to check the required
temperature.
 Privacy needs to be maintained while training in taking bath and wearing clothes.
 Initially sponge can be used for applying soap on the body to avoid more usage of
soap or slipping of soap from hands.
 Use a napkin or small towel fixed to rings at the two edges for cleaning the back
for those children who have difficulty in reaching the back with hands.
Brushing: This activity can be taught in schools after lunch to those children who have
difficulty in brushing teeth.
 Thicken the brush handle with cloth/plaster/fix a wood handle for holding in
case there is a need for good gripping.
 Use mirror as far as possible (standing in front of the mirror) while training
children in brushing.
 Initially children may eat the paste. A little paste swallowed does not harm
children. Gradually train to spit.
 Give a small mug or glass of water for gargling after brushing teeth.
 Teach children to identify their brush, and paste. Teach squeezing the paste from
the tube, as the last step as it needs fine motor coordination. Waste of paste
should be avoided.
 Children should also be taught to brush their teeth without reminder as it is
expected of any non-retarded child above the age of 6 years.
Dressing skills: Dressing activities include removing and wearing clothes including
unzipping/zipping, unbuttoning, buttoning, unhooking and hooking and tying
lace/ribbon.
 Use stool/chair/box (size depending on the height of children) to sit while
teaching children to remove or wear pants. For example the child removes pants
upto knee level and sits on the stool, or box. He can remove the pants easily
without having to balance on one foot. Often children with mental retardation
have problems in balancing on one foot and may fall. In case of children with
cerebral palsy with mental retardation, this method of teaching is very useful.
 First teach removing of clothes after unfastening (by trainer) and then wearing of
clothes.
 Use large buttons on shirts while teaching unbuttoning and buttoning of clothes.
  Teach fastening of buttons, zips, hooks directly on self after wearing clothes
rather than teaching using frames. If needed, give physical prompt by standing
behind the child and extending hands.
 Use stickers/labels already on shirts, banians or pants for teaching identification
of correct and wrong side of clothes.
 Use adaptations such as Velcro/elastic bands if children have difficulty in
buttoning, zipping/tying.
Grooming skills: Applying oil, combing hair, applying powder, fixing bindi (in case of
girls) wearing chappal/shoes are all activities to be taught under grooming. Generally,
by the time children are 8-9 years, they learn all the above mentioned activities by
themselves through observational learning. However, children with mental retardation
need to be taught all the activities using special methods.
 For children, who do not know to identify left and right, fix stickers/marking on
the inside of heel of the footwear to help in identifying left and right chappal or
shoes.
 Tying shoe lace is a very complex activity. There are variety of shoes available in
the market without shoe lace, which can be bought for use. Our aim of education
is to train students to take care of their personal needs by themselves.
 Use cloth puff to teach applying powder evenly on face. Encourage children
(girls) to use bindi stickers which are easy to fix.
 Select comb with a thick handle convenient to hold convenient to hold for
teaching combing hair.
 In case of children with low ability, plaiting hair which is a complex activity may
be avoided keeping the hair short where one can use rubber band to fix the hair.
 To teach plaiting hair, follow the sequence:
1. Ribbons of 3 colours fixed on undo grill.
2. Wool of three colours.
3. Wool of same colour.
4. False hair.
5. Plaiting other’s hair.

Children between the age group of 6 to 9 years are considered as belonging to the
primary level. Due to the intellectual impairment, children with mental retardation
show delays in all developmental areas, which reflects in learning academics and
deficits in adaptive behaviour. Hence curricular emphasis should be learning skills and
behaviours that are necessary to function independently as far as possible and in a
socially acceptable manner.
Curriculum for the primary group is an extension of that of the pre-primary class.
Therefore emphasis will continue to be on the areas like self-help, language,
communication, social, functional academics, domestic/occupational and recreational
skills. The extent of coverage of activities to be stressed at primary level again depends
on the exposure and achievement at the pre-school level by the children and also the
activities have to be age appropriate.

2.3 Curriculum Domains for Early Childhood Education and Sensory

Mechanism
The preschool years (3-5) are important for laying a solid foundation for children’s
later academic achievement. Children with special needs face numerous obstacles and
their development often lags behind that of their peers, so early intervention during the
preschool years may be crucial to their later success in school and to reaching their full
academic potential.
An effective curriculum is essential in providing these opportunities, and early
childhood special education teachers are often presented with a multitude of curricula
choices. In recent years, curricula and teaching materials that emphasize sensory
experiences have been heavily advocated to special education teachers at conferences
and workshops. Multi-sensory teaching methods and materials attempt to improve the
academic abilities of students with disabilities and provide an environment of
relaxation and enjoyment.
Numerous curricula based on multi-sensory experiences have been developed to teach
academic skills to children with disabilities. For example, “Multisensory Structured
Language Programs” are aimed at teaching students with dyslexia and related
disorders to read and write by “using all learning pathways in the brain
(visual/auditory, kinesthetic-tactile) simultaneously in order to enhance memory and
learning”
Sensory processing/integration
Sensory Processing – or Integration as it is also known – is the effective registration
(and accurate interpretation) of sensory input in the environment (including one’s
body). It is the way the brain receives, organises and responds to sensory input in order
to behave in a meaningful & consistent manner.

Children who have difficulty processing sensory information have what is known
as Sensory Processing Disorder.

Importance of sensory processing/integration

A new born is able to see, hear and sense their body but is unable to organise these
senses well; therefore this information means very little. They are unable to judge
distances or feel the shape of one object versus another. As the child is exposed to
various sensory inputs, they gradually learn to organise them within their brain and are
able to give meaning to them. They become better able to focus in on one sensation and
as a result performance improves. Their movement changes from being jerky and
clumsy, to more refined and they are able to manage multiple amounts of sensory input
at one time. By organising sensations the child is able to modulate their response and
as a result they seem to be more connected with the world and in control of their
emotions.

When children are efficient in their processing, appropriate responses to the

environment around them occurs and is demonstrated by appropriate skill mastery,
behaviour, attention and self regulation (controlling their physical activity, emotional
and cognitive responses). Children are able to sit and attend to the important pieces of
information in a classroom and therefore have a good chance at achieving their
academic potential. Furthermore, the child is able to understand their body’s
movement in relation to their surroundings and themselves. This allows for success in
whole body (gross motor) activities. This in turns aids the social development of the
child.

Building blocks necessary to develop efficient sensory processing/motor

integration

All the sensory systems need to work together for effective sensory processing. It is
important to recognise that there are in fact 7 senses that make up the sensory system
and it is these sensory systems that process information as the building blocks to many
other skills.
· Visual sense: is the ability to understand and interpret what is seen. The visual
system uses the eyes to receive information about contrast of light and dark,
colour and movement. It detects visual input from the environment through light
waves stimulating the retina.
· Auditory Sense: is the ability to interpret information that is heard. The auditory
system uses the outer and middle ear to receive noise and sound information.
They receive information about volume, pitch and rhythm. It is important for the
refinement of sounds into meaningful syllables and words.
· Gustatory Sense: is the ability to interpret information regarding taste in the
mouth. It uses the tongue to receive taste sensations, and detects the chemical
makeup through the tongue to determine if the sensation is safe or harmful.
· Olfactory Sense: is the ability to interpret smells. It uses the nose to receive
information about the chemical makeup of particles in the air to determine if the
smell is safe or harmful.
 · Tactile sense: is the ability to interpret information coming into the body by the
skin. It uses receptors in the skin to receive touch sensations like pressure,
vibration, movement, temperature and pain. It is the first sense to develop (in the
womb), and as such is very important for overall neural organisation.
· Proprioceptive Sense: is the ability to interpret where your body parts are in
relation to each other. It uses information from nerves and sheaths on the muscles
and bones to inform about the position and movement of body through muscles
contracting, stretching, bending, straightening, pulling and compressing.
· Vestibular sense: is the ability to interpret information relating to movement and
balance. The vestibular system uses the semi-circular canals in the inner ear to
receive information about movement, change of direction, change of head position
and gravitational pull. It receives information about how fast or slow we are
moving, balance, movement from the neck, eyes and body, body position, and
orientation in space.

2.4 Sensitization of family, involvement in pre-school and primary

level

Parental involvement refers to the amount of participation a parent has when it comes
to schooling and her child's life. Some schools foster healthy parental involvement
through events and volunteer opportunities, but sometimes it's up to the parents to
involve themselves with their children's education.

The Benefits of Parent Involvement in Early Education

Some of a child’s most important cognitive development happens during their

preschool years. By taking an active role in the early childhood education process,
parents can help ensure that their child has all the support they need to develop to
their full potential.
Parent involvement helps extend teaching outside the classroom, creates a more
positive experience for children and helps children perform better when they are in
school.
It is essential for parents to support the learning that happens in preschool settings at
home as well. Parents who are in tune with what is happening in their child’s preschool
classroom or child care facility are better able to establish a connection between what
is learned at school and what takes place in the home. This connection is a key
component of a child’s development and supporting further learning.
Not only does family or parental involvement help extend teaching outside the
classroom; it creates a more positive experience for children and helps children
perform better when they are in school.
Home and School Connection: Parents who are involved in their child's education
create a connection between the home and school. Those who participate along with
their child are privy to the many aspects of their child's day. At home, they are able to
replicate and extend activities that their child experiences in school.
Positive Association: For kids whose parents regularly involve themselves in school
activities, parental visits are a positive adjunct to the child's day. Teachers and school
staff appreciate assistance with a myriad of duties that many parents can easily fulfill
while also adding a new face to the mix. On a deeper level, involvement in this capacity
shows your child and your child's teacher that you view education as an important
aspect of life - one worth participating in.
Development: Early childhood education is just the beginning of your child's
educational career. Involving yourself in a classroom setting allows you to get a peek
into the world of young children. Taking the time to objectively determine where your
child stands in his development is a key factor in getting to know and appreciate your
child for who he is. Discover his strengths, interests and areas that need refining. If
your child is struggling with certain aspects of his education, it is an ideal time to
discuss concerns with your child's teacher or doctor.
Social Networks: Establishing a social network is one benefit of parental involvement
that should not be underestimated. Parents of other children of similar age provide
solace, sources of information and family connections that can be lifelong. Kids are apt
to become friends with parents who are on a friendly basis. Social connections between
children provide security when transitions, such as kindergarten, occur. A child may be
more willing to join a group or activity if he has a friend willing to participate. Parents
who are involved in their child's schooling can oil the social cogs for their children by
demonstrating friendly openings.

2.5 Implication of pre- school and primary levels for Intervention,

documentation, record maintenance and report writing
It is important to implement the curriculum the way it was intended to be implemented
by the developers. Implementing a program or intervention exactly as described is
referred to as implementation fidelity. Children tend to make more gains when
teachers faithfully implement the teaching strategies or curriculum.
The most effective programs included an ongoing assessment component for teachers
to assess whether or not children were learning and to make adjustments if
expectations were not being met.
Inclusion provides an opportunity to treat children with disabilities equally and focus
on their abilities. This empowers them with adequate facilities, infrastructure and
personal support. Hence,
· Carry out the early developmental screening of all children and identify their
strengths.
· Understand the significance of early identification and intervention.
· Make adjustments in the physical environment to ensure it is barrier free.
· Make curriculum flexible and accessible to children with different impairments.
· Develop appropriate assessment and evaluation procedures.
· Build the capacity and empower all the stakeholders to revisit their own attitudes
and work towards changing them if required. Gradually encourage them to use
positive terminology when working with children with disabilities.
· Use age appropriate play and learning material.
· Sensitization; orientation; training; and counseling of parents and community
should be done.
Documentation typically includes samples of a child’s work at several different stages
of completion: photographs showing work in progress; comments written by the
teacher or other adults working with the children; transcriptions of children’s
discussions, comments, and explanations of intentions about the activity; and
comments made by parents.
An effective piece of documentation tells the story and the purpose of an event,
experience, or development. It is a product that draws others into the experience—
evidence or artifacts that describe a situation, tell a story, and help the viewer to
understand the purpose of the action.
When used effectively, consistently, and thoughtfully, documentation can also drive
curriculum and collaboration in the early childhood classroom setting.
There are several important reasons for using documentation in early childhood
classrooms.
· Showing accountability: Accountability is one reason for documentation. Teachers
are accountable to administrators, families, community members, and others, and
documentation helps to provide evidence of children’s learning. In addition,
documentation can improve relationships, teaching, and learning. Use of this tool
helps educators get to know and understand children, and it allows them to reflect
on the effectiveness of their teaching practices.
· Extending the learning: Consider the following example of how one thoughtful
teacher could use documentation to prolong and extend an unexpected learning
opportunity. A group of children finds some miscellaneous nuts and bolts on a
playground, and their teacher, noting their curiosity, carefully observes their
responses and listens to and documents their conversations (by using written notes,
photographs, and video). She listens to learn what the children know about the
items and what they wonder, such as “Where do these come from?” Then she
facilitates a conversation with the children to learn more about their ideas and
theories behind the purpose of the nuts and bolts and how they came to be on the
playground. Later the teacher incorporates the initial comments, the photographs,
and the conversations in a documentation source (panel, notebook, PowerPoint, or
other creative product). The children and teacher revisit the encounter through the
documentation and reflect on the experience, which helps the children continue
their conversation and drives forward their interest. This back-and-forth
examination of the documentation helps the teacher and children negotiate a
curriculum that is based on the children’s interests.
· Making learning visible: When expected to provide evidence that children are
meeting learning standards, documentation is a natural way to make learning
visible. Helm, Beneke, and Steinheimer (1998) call this idea “windows on learning,”
meaning that documenting offers an insight into children’s development and
learning. Moreover, they observe, “When teachers document children’s learning in a
variety of ways, they can be more confident about the value of their teaching”.
Documentation can be a rewarding process when educators understand the value
associated with collecting evidence and producing a summary presentation, whether in
a bulletin board, panel, video, or other format. To become a documenter, one must first
understand what to observe and what to do with the information collected. It takes
time and practice to learn which experiences support effective documentation and how
to collect artifacts and evidence.
Finally, the documenter learns how best to interpret and display the information
gathered. Often the documentation provides insights into children’s thinking and helps
drive the future curriculum. Deepening children’s learning is the ultimate reward of
documentation.
2.6 Curriculum domains at Secondary level
Children between the ages of 10 to 13 or 14 years are grouped under secondary level.
Once the primary group of children achieve 80% of the curriculum content in the
primary level, they can be promoted to secondary level. In case of children with low
ability the teachers have to continue teaching in those tasks which the students have
not achieved. They are grouped as Primary II. Though the same domains/.core areas as
in the primary level are included in curriculum at secondary level, the content and
complexity of the activities is increased keeping in mind the learning characteristics of
children at this level. This is also noticed in general education. For example, in every
class, students have to study the subjects English, regional language, Hindi,
mathematics, science and social studies/environmental science. The complexity of
content in each subject is increased in every class keeping in mind the learning
characteristics of children. Similarly, for children with mental retardation also, the
curriculum content in each domain/core area is the extension of curriculum at primary
level.

Personal skills
With systematic planning and teaching, the high ability group of children with mental
retardation learn to eat and drink, dress, brush and bathe on their own by the time they
reach secondary level. However, some of them may require minimum assistance in
bathing and dressing. At this level the following curriculum content needs to be
covered as an extension of primary curriculum.

The curriculum content should cover activities such as eating of different types of
breakfast items and sweets appropriately (eg. Eating gulab jamon/rasagulla/payasam
with spoon, taking a small piece of chapatti with right hand and taking a small quantity
of curry/dal and eating), showing appropriate eating/table manners when children
participate in social functions and cafeteria, carrying water, filing water in bottles,
folding manageable clothes, bed covers/sheets, cutting pictures, pasting, folding papers
and inserting them into covers and the other routine activities. Never underestimate
student’s ability. Expose him to various activities and assist in learning.

 Provide opportunity to children to eat different types of breakfast and snacks

items which are commonly prepared at home and available outside as eating of
different items need different skills.
 Take them to eating places as a part of school activity to expose them to various
types of eating environments.
 Allow children to decide what they want to eat and order the items.
 Give them an experience of folding letters and inserting them into envelops and
pasting. Every organization has a lot of correspondence to do. The students can
be given them activity after initial training.
 Folding of napkins, towels, aprons or table cloth can be taught at school as these
materials are used during organizing various programmes at school.
  Schools celebrate national festivals, birthday parties, sports day, annual day and
such functions through out the year. Students at this level can be involved in
decoration, seating arrangement, food/snacks arrangements.
 Inform parents/family members to involve their children in all these activities at
home also so that transfer of training and generalization is achieved.
Social skills
To be accepted as a member of the group and part of the community, one needs to have
smooth interpersonal relationships for which adequate language and communications
skills are required. Often children with mental retardation fail to interact with groups
meaningfully in an acceptable manner. It is observed that most of the children with
mental retardation have limited vocabulary and have difficulty in speaking in
sentences, understanding and following instructions and narrating incidents in a
sequence. Various activities should be planned to develop these skills at secondary
level.
Acceptable behaviour towards persons of opposite sex needs to be taught subtly and
constantly during social situation at this state. Do’s and dont’s should be clearly
specified to avoid embarrassment. This training should be continued into prevocational
stage also.
 Take students on trips to various places (shops, cafeteria, railway station, post
office, place of worship, place of entertainment) during the year. Let students
narrate their experiences after you return from the trip. Write it on the board in
simple words at their level of undersanding and let children copy in their
notebooks. This can become a reading journal for students. As they are real life
experiences, children enjoy narrating the events.
 On rotation teachers can assign to students, the job of delivering messages to
other staff members in school, taking telephone messages, talking of current
news, conducting group games.
 Plan games which require listening skills.
 Teach students short plays wherein students have to speak 2-3 sentences
relevantly.
Occupational skills
At this level the children start helping parents/family members in many of the
household activities. Performing these activities require application of functional
reading, writing and arithmetic skills. For example, when the student is asked to
measure two cups of rice, he should have learned counting as a part of number skills
which he applies while performing the activity. In case of low ability children (Primary
II – 7-14 years, Prevocational-II – 15-18 years) measuring of two cups of rice can be an
activity for teaching counting. Identifying and reading labels on edible items/writing a
shopping list are other examples. Similarly activities such as washing clothes, moping
floor, wiping, storing, or packing requires knowledge of functional academics and fine
motor skills.
  Sweeping, mopping, dusting, and washing utensils can be regular activities in
school. After completion of art and craft/cooking activities children need to be
taught to clean up.
 Include classes in home science at least once a week, which involves pealing,
cutting, cleaning of pulses and rice, arranging for lunch, cleaning up after lunch,
washing and stacking utensils.
 On rotation, the students can be made responsible for maintaining cleanliness of
space outside classrooms and playground.
 A small kitchen garden can be maintained by students. This can be a part of
teaching environmental science, as well as an occupational activity.

2.7 Curriculum domains at Pre- vocational level

Students with mental retardation within the age range of 15 to 18 years belong to
prevocational group. At prevocational level children are of two different groups -
prevocational-I (high ability group) and prevocational-II (low ability group) as
discussed earlier. However, the major focus of curriculum at this level is to prepare
students to acquire skills which prepare them to live independently as far as possible.
Independence implies personal, social and occupational independence. Hence, much
stress is given on a more functional curriculum. As it is a preparatory stage for the
future of the young people with mental retardation, most of the training emphasis is
application oriented and should include training in natural environments. The
curriculum is naturally the extension of secondary level curriculum.

Personal skills
The extension of secondary level curriculum under each domain is discussed below.

Once the child learns eating and drinking by self, the skills can be further extended to
make them a part of independent living skills.

Generally, when the child grows older, we do not provide glass of water to him/her,
rather we expect him/her to get water from the filter, refrigerator or pot and drink on
his own. Children with mental retardation also are expected to learn all these skills. In
the school, teacher can train the students to:

 Pour water in the glass form the water bottle during lunch time.
 Get water in a glass form the water-cooler.
 Fill the bottles of the teachers from the water cooler.
 Help the younger children in getting or pouring water in the glass.
 Clean up if spilt without reminder.
 Serving water to everyone during meal times.
  Identifying/asking for drinking water during outing.
In order to practice and maintain the learnt skills, these activities should be carried out
at home. Family members can be informed to carry out the activities at home.
By regular practice at home and in school these activities can be made as part of routine
activities of the students during pre-vocational period.
Eating: In addition to self-feeding, eating behaviour includes
(a) appropriate manners while eating, (b) serving food to others; (c) arranging table (d)
cleaning the table, (e) storing the left over food, (f) cleaning the utensils, (g) giving
order for food at restaurant, etc.
Parents can be informed to train the students at home in serving food for self as well as
for others. While training, the sequence in serving can be:
 Roti, puri, bread, idly, which do not spill.

 Pickle or chutney, which is not hot (temperature).

 Fried dishes, rice, curry, dal.
While serving the food, the amount to be served need to be indicated to the
students.
As part of regular activity, the parents can instruct the child to:
 Arrange the dinner table (again non spilling, not hot items first).
 Clean the table after meals.
 Store the left over food in bowls and keep them in storing place/fridge.
During the initial stage of training, unbreakable bowls may be used to avoid possibility
of damage of the utensil.
Students should also be taught to clean the utensils. Begin with, simple dishes like
plates and small bowls (unbreakable) can be used.
Points to remember while teaching washing utensils:
Dressing: The students with mental retardation need to learn how to maintain their
own clothes. This includes:
 Washing clothes.

 Drying clothes.
 Folding clothes.
 Ironing clothes.
 Keeping the clothes in the cupboard.
 Stitching broken buttons/mending it torn.
 Giving clothes for stitching.
In the school, the teacher can train the prevocational group students by instructing
them to: ? Keep the dress neat (by using napkins for wiping).
 Use of apron while engaged in cooking activities.
  Stitch buttons in the dress/mending.
 Iron napkins, towels, aprons, and gradually their dress.
Students during prevocational period should also be taught to select their clothes, for
themselves. Hence, the family members can be informed to give them opportunity to:
 Select their clothes for different occasions.

 Dress appropriately to attend different parties and functions.

 Choose dress materials for themselves in the shop.
 Select appropriate seasonal dresses.
 Maintain the seasonal dresses properly to use them when needed.
In class, initiative conversation on above topics and elicit responses from the students.
Social skills: Social behaviour of the students plays a vital role in their vocational
habilitation. Limitations in social skills of the disabled students form the major barrier
in the process of integration. During the pre-vocational stage, students are expected to
behave appropriately in different settings, use public places appropriately, be able to
seek permission for using belongings of others and should be able to participate in
social functions independently. All these behaviours require student’s competency in
language and communication.

In school, focus on:

 Wishing everyday.

 Involving in group games.

 Story telling.
 Narrating experiences.
 Discussing important news (TV/newspaper/neighbourhood).
 Receiving and passing on telephonic message to appropriate person.
 Getting involved in various functions celebrated in the school.
Home activities can include:
 Greeting the guests.

 Interacting with family members and guests.

 Attending social functions.
 Sharing experiences with siblings.
 Receiving telephone calls and taking message.
 Participating actively in various festivals celebrated by family members.
 Going for outing with family.
In addition to developing appropriate social behaviours, we have to reduce the socially
inappropriate behaviour through behaviour management techniques.
Menstrual hygiene: An important skill to be taught to the girls with mental retardation
during secondary/prevocational level is menstrual hygiene. To make the girl
independent (as far as possible) in personal skills, lessen the burden on the mother and
avoid embarrassing situation, right type of training can be provided to the young
adolescents at home. While providing training on menstrual hygiene, take care of the
following points.
 Pads, available in the market can be used (If the parent cannot afford, make pad
using cloth/cotton).
 Well fitting panties are to be used.
 Two strips of cloth like pockets or elastic strip can be stitched at the lower base
of panties (which are to be used during menstruation) to hold the pads in place.
 Dates in the calendar can be marked and the child sensitized to it.
 Too much of exhaustion can be avoided during the periods.
While training in menstrual hygiene, instruct the student to -
 report when there is stain in the panty.

 Change the panty immediately after noticing the stain.

 Insert the pads into the strips stitched in the panty.
 Change the pads when it is adequately stained.
 Roll the paid, put in nontransparent (paper/plastic) bags and throw it in proper
place.
 Clean the panty and dry in separate place.
 All the way through, ensure privacy.
Shaving: Proper fine motor skill and eye-hand coordination are important pre-
requisite skills for teaching shaving. Following points are to be considered while
training.
 Task analysis should be done carefully watching an adult (father/elder brother)
performing and then taught with appropriate prompts.
 Use a mirror. Provide assistance from behind.
 If the student has motor difficulties or uncontrolled epileptic fits, it is better not
to train in shaving. InN such cases, train them to recognize when it is time to
shave and ask for help from adult at home/go to the shop and get done. Teaching
him the competency to get the shaving done.
Occupational
As the name – “prevocational” indicates, this stage is most important for “preparing the
students for suitable vocations”. Through the joint efforts of school and home,
appropriate work habits (punctuality, regularity, sincerity, persistence), proper work
behaviour, hand functioning, eye hand coordination, and required community living
skills (travelling, shopping, banking skills) can be developed in the students.
Eye hand coordination and hand functioning which are important prerequisite skills for
any vocation can be improved by:
 cutting, pasting.

 Using different hand tools (hand saw, files, pliers, etc.)

 Screwing, unscrewing.
 Stitching, knitting.
 Garland making.
In the school, engage the students in various simulated activities to assess the interests
of the student.
 wood polishing, cutting, nailing, screwing.

 Assembling work.
 Labeling different items/tools (in the workshop).
 Binding and printing work.
 Hand stitching, machine stitching.
 Packaging work.
 Gardening work (cleaning gardens, watering plants, plantation, etc.)
 Operation of different machines.
 Management of school canteen.
Teach various community living skills by organizing following activities for students –
 preparation of list of items to be purchased.

 Making the budget for the items to be purchased.

 Going to the shop.
 Going to the bank.
 Tying the leafy-vegetables into bundles for selling among the school staff.
 Completing group assignment on time. Family members can be instructed to
discipline the students and develop proper work behaivour by entrusting
responsibilities such as:
 getting milk packets from the milk booth.
 Packing lunch boxes for everyone.
 Getting vegetable once a week.
  Giving clothes in laundry and keeping an account of it.
 Getting postal items form post office and dropping letters.
 Stitching the broken buttons.
 Decorating the house during festivals.
 Giving complaints when telephone is out of order.
 Booking for gas when it gets over.
 Paying electric bills, telephone bills etc.
Parents can be instructed to follow a daily activity schedule for their child (with
disability) at home. Depending on the improvement in various skills, the activities can
be increased. This schedule will help to discipline the students behaviour and improve
work habits in them. While selecting the activities for the students, the socio-cultural
factors, socio-economic status, sex and abilities of the students need to be considered.
Domestic skills:
Under domestic skills the prevocational group of students can be taught housekeeping
skills by involving them in the domestic activities like:
 Dusting, sweeping, mopping.

 Making bed and folding bed.

 Cooking.
- keeping the grocery items in proper bottles/tins.
- Sorting and storing the vegetables.
- Cleaning and washing rice for cooking.
- Washing the cut vegetable before cooking.
- Measuring required quantity of item (eg. Rice, dal, salt, sugar, etc.) for cooking.
- Preparing tea/coffee.
- Kneading wheat flour.
- Rolling chapatti.
- Frying chapatti.
- Preparing meal (rice, dal and curry).
While involving the students in cooking proceed form simple to complex task.
Before teaching the students to light the stove they should be taught to switch off the
stove. To begin training in cooking activities the mother/family members should be
near the student throughout the training period and should give necessary physical and
verbal assistance. Of course, for many of the cooking activities, (preparing idly, dosa,
tea, coffee, etc.) the students need to learn functional academics (measurement) which
is discussed in detail in part II of this unit.
Recreation skills:
Like us, persons with disabilities also require time for recreation. Many a time, they are
unable to decide the activities for their recreation.
At school, fix a particular time for recreational activities when students can be given
opportunity to participate in various activities like:
  arts and crafts.
 music/dance.
 decoration.
 gardening.
 embroidery/knitting.
 making decorative pieces out of wood.
 indoor and outdoor games.
Family members can involve students in:
 house decoration.

 participation in family functions/festivals.

 going for movie/picnic.
 listening music.
 indoor games.
 watching television.
· playing with siblings

2.8 Curriculum domains at Vocational level

Curriculum for vocational education can be defined as a systematic organization of
instructional content designed to provide students with a sequence of meaningful
vocational and related activities conducted by an agency for the benefit of the student
for an economically useful vocation.
It prepares the learners for jobs that are based in manual or practical activities,
traditionally non-academic in nature, and related to specific trade, occupation or
vocation.
Also, In terms of development of adaptable vocational curriculum, there should be
account of an individual’s cognitive capacities, needs, abilities as well as his/her
interests.
Vocational curriculum methods include questionnaires, analysis of basic vocational
behaviors and direct observations of community job situations.
While preparing the curriculum for vocational education, a combination of all these
methods can be been used. After identifying the suitable job, important areas of
curriculum are identified by conducting interviews and collecting questionnaire
response from employers, supervisors and others regarding the requirement of the
specific skills for employment success.
Objectives
· To develop and exhibit an understanding and enhance current level of aspects
related to self.
· To learn and apply occupational skills.
· To imbibe work appropriate behaviors and expectations as well as complete the
level appropriate work.
· To develop skills and competencies of employability.
· To develop an understanding of self advocacy and its related skills.
· To develop skills related to leisure and recreation.

Domains of Curriculum Development

1. Basic Academics
2. Occupational
3. Workplace behavior
4. Employability
5. Self- advocacy
6. Leisure time and recreational activities
1. Basic Academics
a) Self-Awareness
i. Tells own name, address and phone numbers
ii. Aware of own age and Date of birth
iii. Knows emergency helpline numbers
iv. Aware of own interests and abilities
b) Family information
i. Tells name and contact information of family members
ii. Tells contact information of family members in case of emergency
c) Job-site information
i. Designation
ii. Tells the address and phone numbers of job site(s)
iii. Recognizes coworkers by name
iv. Writes leave letter
v. Familiar with the workplace infrastructure
vi. Uses clock/watch to follow work schedule

d) Personal finance
i. Identifies money
ii. Is able to do basic cash transactions
iii. Knows basic banking (withdrawal, deposits and e-banking)
2. Occupational
a) Independent travelling
i. Identifies route to and from work
ii. Identifies traffic signals
iii. Follows traffic rules independently
b) Dresses appropriately
 i. Wears clean and proper dress which is appropriate to the
situation independently
c) Maintains personal hygiene
i. Shaves regularly/maintains menstrual hygiene
ii. Keeps fingernails neat
iii. Takes care of toilet needs
iv. Takes clean food and follows meal time manners
3. Workplace Behavior
a) Etiquettes and manners
a) Respects supervisor
b) Cooperates with coworkers
c) Controls emotions
d) Requests help if necessary
e) Respects others belongings and takes care of personal belongings
b) Communication and social behavior
a) Maintains friendship
b) Follows instructions
c) Communicates needs
d) Uses mobile phone
e) Knows basic social dealings and greetings
f) Accept criticism
g) Joins social activities in the workplace
c) Regularity and punctuality
a) Comes to work regularly and on time
b) If late, follows job site rules
c) Informs when takes leave and provides reason
d) Follows departure routine
d) Quality and quantity of work
a) Completes assigned work effectively and efficiently
b) Allows improvement in quality of work
c) Reports work problems
d) Keeps work area clean
4. Employability
a) Career preparation
a) Preparation of bio data and portfolio
b) Development of soft skills(interview skills- appearance, body language,
confidence and fluent communication skills)
b) Job exploration
a) Visits job sites
b) Maintains contacts
c) Looks at advertisements and fixes interview independently
d) Discusses with parents and friends
5. Self-Advocacy
 a) Basic rights
a) Appeals when rights are denied
b) Aware of need of voting
c) Asks for explanation
d) Aware of right of an employee(wages, leave and leisure)
e) Expresses freely the needs and rights
b) Decision making
a) Aware of what’s happening in society
b) Looks at alternatives/choices
c) Decides while voting
c) Organizing self-advocacy groups
a) Arranges and conducts meeting and activities with friends(like minded
individuals)
b) Discusses own problems
c) Finds solutions
d) Visits the other group members who need support
e) Plans and chooses appropriate activities
6. Leisure time and Recreational Activities
a) Communicates his/her interest outside of work
b) Is able to pursue his/her interest areas independently
c) Plans and goes out with friends and families
d) Attends religious functions and ceremonies

2.9 Rehabilitation of PwIDs under National Skill development Scheme

(NSDS by MSJ&E)
Persons with disability in India face many challenges when looking to develop
employable skills and in gaining meaningful employment. While India has ratified the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with disability (UNCRPD), persons
with disability continue to face many difficulties in the labour market.
According to census 2011, there are 2.68 Crore Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) in
India (1.50 crore male and 1.18 crore female PwDs). Even though, disabled people
constitute a significant percentage of the population of India, their need for meaningful
employment largely remains unmet, in spite of implementation of “The Persons with
Disability Act, 1995”. In the overall population, the number of disabled is
proportionately higher in rural areas, accentuated by general poverty considerations
and poor access to health services. The rural disabled are significantly disconnected
from skills and markets.
The Scheme of the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Govt. of India, simplifies
and facilitates procedure for easy access to Govt. support for NGOs with the aim to
widen the scope and range of programmes. It will address the unmet need of over 95
percent Indian citizens with disabilities who have not had access to services so far.
The existing Skill Training Landscape for PwDs
· National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC).
· Vocational training courses offered by National Institutes of Department of
Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities and its affiliate organisations like
National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation (NHFDC), National
Trust etc.
· Ministry of Labour and Employment supervising more than 20 Vocational
Rehabilitation Centres for Handicapped (VRCHs), more than 10,000 ITIs and more
than 1000 Employment Exchanges.
· Technical and Vocational courses, being offered through Community colleges, IITs
and Universities, affiliated with Ministry of Human Resources Development.
· NGOs focusing on vocational training and skill development.
· Private sector training organizations: Under the CSR initiative, many organizations
have done exemplary work.
· Public Sector Undertakings have also contributed substantially to vocational
training of persons with disabilities.
· National Rural Livelihood Mission of Ministry of Rural Development.
· National Urban Livelihood Mission of Ministry of Urban Development.
· Vocational training / livelihood programs of other Central Govt. Ministries
The National Action Plan For Skill Training Of Pwds
A National Action Plan for Skilling the Persons with Disabilities has been prepared by
the Department of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) with the following main
components:-
A Project Monitoring Unit (PMU) to be set up in the Department of Empowerment of
Persons with Disabilities. The PMU would have the following components :
· Training need assessment unit
· Content Generation unit
· Training Monitoring and Certification unit
· Employer Connect unit
· IT Unit to provide support for creation of E-learning modules, monitoring of
training, Ecertification and training centres / creation and maintenance of a job
portal.
The vocational / skill training would be provided by a network of skill training
providers led by NGOs, private training institutions and Public Sector/Govt. Sector
training institutions like VRCs. The vocational training would be provided by a cluster
of training providers scattered over the country, having an established track record of
providing skill training with high employability ratio. These training partners would be
provided outcome based financial support by Deptt. Of Empowerment of Persons with
Disabilities (DEPwD) and Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE).
Synergistic support would be provided to these training providers by the National
Institutes of DEPwD, training institutions of Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises, other Central Ministries and State
Governments.
NSDC has already granted a provisional approval for creation of a Sector Skill Council
for PwDs. Staffing and fully operationalising the Sector Skill Council is likely to take 5 to
6 months. Once, the Sector Skill Council is fully operational, it will through interactions
with industry and other Sector Skill Councils, devise the job roles and occupational
standards for PwDs, which will become a basis for deciding the training curricula for
various skill training courses. Till the Sector Skill Council is fully operational, the
Committee referred to above, will, while approving the training partners, also decide on
the curriculum to be adopted by the training provider for the skill training of PwDs.
Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) and National Institutes (NIs), associated with
DEPwD will be associated by the Committee in creating a homogenous training
curriculum for various jobs.

2.10 Implications of placement for inclusion in Community,

Documentation, Record Maintenance and Reporting
Documentation-
It is an act or an instance of providing official information or evidence or that serves as
a record. It should provide evidence of a process with a purpose, whatever the format it
should fully explain the process, highlighting various aspects of the experiences or
events.
At vocational level, the following are the stages and areas of documentation-
Assessment-
It involves assessment of the vocational trainee or the student using the checklist as
mentioned in the curriculum. This includes documenting-
· Demographic data
· Prevocational records and performances using information gathered through
interviews of parents, the vocational trainee, the educator, observations, teacher
made tests (CRT) and use of tools like VAPS.
Prioritization of goals-
It involves selection of goals for the student on the following basis-
· Interests
· Strengths
· Abilities
Implementation – The work at this stage can be undertaken applying various
principles, methodologies and strategies like experiential learning, learning by doing,
adopting workshop method for developing skill sets for leisure and recreational
activities and creating real life situations by providing internship opportunities to the
student.
Evaluation –This last step involves documenting the various methods and techniques
used for evaluation.
Under it, the following methods can be used by the trainer for evaluating the trainee-
· Time limited work trial (in all curriculum domains - skill wise)
· Internship opportunities
· Mock interviews
Also, the techniques that can be used are the following-
· Observation (in all generic and specific skill areas)
· Interview (of student trainee, potential co-workers and employers)
In the process of documentation, an integral part to be considered is -
Report Writing- It is a process of preparing a formal written document that describes
in detail an event, situation or occurrence, usually as the result of observation or
inquiry.
Or simply, it is a written record of the vocational trainee based upon his/her initial
assessment done, goal selected, implementation process and subsequent evaluation.
Report writing includes two basic aspects that need to be considered. They are-
1. Report Maintenance –It involves maintaining records of the trainee in written
form wherein time duration taken is 6 months.
The purpose of report maintenance is the following-
· It is important for further program planning, implementation and evaluation.
· It is used as a baseline data estimate for long term changes related to
performance of the trainee.
· It acts as a proof for administrative purposes.
· It is useful for parents who want to see the level of performance of their
children.
· It is used to meet the information needs for other educators.
2. Reporting- We are taking this aspect to be done on annual/yearly basis. At
vocational level, it is focused mainly on reporting to the administration of the
training institution, parents of the trainee and the prospective employer. However,
this approach (of reporting to prospective employers) is not followed at
prevocational and secondary level.

Conclusion
The development of and subsequent documentation of a Curriculum for Vocational
Education serves a crucial purpose. It provides a continuum to the needs of the student
and removes the challenge and doubt of the general teacher in the inclusive setup to let
‘no child be left behind’ in the school system regardless of ability or disability. It also
ensures that all students are able to unfurl their potential and receive equal and
accessible high quality training in a vocation to make them economically independent.
UNIT-3 Curriculum Adaptations
3.1 Need for Curricular Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification
3.2 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Pre-academic
Curriculum
3.3 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Academics
Curriculum
3.4 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Co-Curriculum
3.5 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for School Subjects

3.1 Need for Curricular Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification

Curricular Adaptations are changes permissible in educational environments which
allow the student equal opportunity to obtain access, results, benefits, and levels of
achievement. These adaptations consist of both accommodations and modifications.
· Some curricular adaptations do not fundamentally alter or lower standards or
expectations in either the instructional or assessment phases of a course of study
and can be designated as “accommodations.” These accommodations provide
access to participate in the L.R.E. and an opportunity to demonstrate mastery of
performance standards.
· Accommodations are changes in course content, teaching strategies, standards,
test presentation, location, timing, scheduling, expectations, student responses,
environmental structuring, and/or other attributes which provide access for a
student with a disability to participate in a course/standard/test, which DO NOT
fundamentally alter or lower the standard or expectations of the
course/standard/test.
· Some adaptations do alter or lower standards or expectations and can be termed
“modifications.” These modifications, although providing access, will necessitate
careful selection of assessment components to achieve accountability for
performance.
· Modifications are changes in course content, teaching strategies, standards, test
presentation, location, timing, scheduling, expectations, student responses,
environmental structuring, and/or other attributes which provide access for a
student with a disability to participate in a course/standard/test, which DO
fundamentally alter or lower the standard or expectations of the
course/standard/test
Nine Types Of Accommodations
1. SIZE/QUANTITY - Adapt the number of items that the student is expected to learn
or complete. (modification)
2. TIME - Adapt the time allotted and allowed for learning, task completion, or testing.
(accommodation)
3. LEVEL OF SUPPORT - Increase the amount of personal assistance with a specific
student. (accommodation)
4. INPUT - Adapt the way instruction is delivered to the student (differentiated
instruction). (accommodation)
5. DIFFICULTY - Adapt the skills level, problem type, or the rules about how the
student may approach the work. (modification)
6. OUTPUT - Adapt how the student can respond to instruction. (accommodation)
7. PARTICIPATION LEVEL - Adapt the extent to which a learner is actively involved in
the task. (accommodation)
8. ALTERNATE GOALS - Adapt the goals/expectations while using the same materials.
(modification)
9. PARALLEL/ALTERNATIVE CURRICULUM - Provide different instruction/materials
and alternate activities to meet a student’s individual outcomes. (modification

NEEDS OF CURRICULUM ADAPTATION

· Curriculum adaptation is a form of reasonable accommodation as mandated by the
UNCRPD 2006, which facilitates the teaching-learning process when there are
students with learning difficulties in the mainstream classroom.
· Curriculum adaptations are made to simplify and reduce the content so that learners
with difficulties can absorb the most critical part of the curriculum.
· Adaptation of the curriculum ensures that all learners get access to quality and
meaningful learning experiences.
· Children with learning difficulties do not feel excluded when it comes to
understanding the subject matter.

3.2 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Pre –academic

Curriculum
To be successful in adapting activities and materials for young children with
disabilities, the following Key Ideas must be considered.
PLANNING FOR INCLUSION: Inclusion is a term that refers to involving young children
with disabilities and their families in all activities that are typical for children of that
age. Inclusion is a value that says that all children belong, regardless of their abilities,
gender, race, or ethnic background. When including young children in typical early
childhood settings, some planning will be needed to make sure it is successful for
everyone. While you may not be able to predict every adaptation needed, work as a
team with the family to plan for as many of the necessary adaptations as possible.
Develop your plan by reviewing a typical day and identifying any potential times when
adaptations might make an activity more successful. Review your adaptation plan after
you have had an opportunity to observe the child in that activity.
ONLY AS SPECIAL AS NEEDED: One of the keys to adapting activities for young
children with disabilities is to make the materials or activity only as special as needed.
Materials for young children with disabilities don’t have to come from special catalogs
or cost a lot of money. Often regular age-appropriate toys can be used with little or no
adaptations. Use your own expertise and common sense!
YOU’RE NOT IN IT ALONE: Adapting materials involves a lot of creative thinking and is
often easier when a team of people brainstorm ideas together. More people with more
expertise provides more ideas! Talk to other teachers, therapists, or specialists working
with the child and find out what ideas they have. The best resource for adaptation ideas
is the child’s family. The family can provide years of experience and knowledge about
their child. They may have already found the adaptation answer!
INDIVIDUALIZATION: Not all children with same disability label need the same
adaptations. Children who have the same label are usually more different than they are
alike. Therefore, it is important to think of adaptations for a particular child, not a
disability. Have a number of different ideas available so that you always have a new
idea.
DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE: One key characteristic of a quality
early childhood program is a curriculum that is based on developmentally appropriate
practice. A developmentally appropriate curriculum focuses on the learning
characteristics of children at different developmental levels but individualizes for the
unique interests, strengths and personalities of the child. When young children with
disabilities are included in programs that use a developmentally appropriate approach,
the types of individualizations that are already used for young children without
disabilities must just be extended to meet the needs of all children.
PARTIAL PARTICIPATION: Partial participation refers to involving a child in an
activity even if he can not perform all the steps of the activity. A child is partially
participating in dressing if she pulls the shirt on over her head, but needs help to put on
the sleeves. Some children with disabilities may not be able to do all the steps of an
activity that their typically developing peers can do. However, the child with disabilities
should still be involved in as much of the activity as possible. Identify what parts of that
activity the child can do, and then develop adaptations or teaching strategies for the
other parts of the activity.
TRANSITION TIMES:
• Make sure that there are clear paths between activity areas for children who may
have difficulty moving from one place to another.
• Tape down edges of rugs so that little feet, wheelchairs or crutches don’t get caught
on the edges.
• To make transition time easier for children who need to be in adapted chairs, place
the chair on platform with wheels or in wagon. Make sure that the chair is safely
attached to the platform or wagon before moving it.
• Have tactile path between areas for children who have difficulty seeing their way
from one area to another. The tactile path may be a bookcase or wall that is trailed,
or a different floor covering that is used to indicate the borders of an area.
• Allow children who move slowly the opportunity to leave an area first in order to
minimize moving time and obstacles.
• Use a cue or cues to indicate the time to transition to another area. The cues used
should be adapted to the needs of the individual children. Don’t be afraid to use
combinations of cues. Playing a bell, musical instrument, or singing a clean-up song
might be helpful for children who need an auditory cue. Turning the lights on and off
or developing a picture cue for transition time might be a cue for child who needs a
visual cue.
BLOCKS:
• Make sure there is a way for the child to be on the same level as the other children.
If a child needs assistance in sitting on the floor to play with blocks, have adapted
equipment available. Cut the legs off of a chair with arms and a high back. Use a bean
bag chair that can be molded to the child’s needs. Have all children build with blocks
on a table if no floor seating is available.
• Mark off the block area with bright tape or a texture to mark boundaries of the
block area. This adaptation may be helpful for children who have difficulty seeing or
staying in the boundaries without enhanced cues.
• Attach Velcro to blocks to help them stay together easily.
• Use a variety of types of blocks to match the physical needs of each child.
Experiment with different types of blocks to find out what properties they have.
Some blocks are easier to stack, some are easier to grab, some are light, some are
heavy, some make noise, etc. Examples of different blocks are bristle blocks,
magnetic blocks or marbles, blocks that fasten together using snaps, cloth blocks, or
covered shoe boxes. Collect a variety.
ART:
• When using paint brushes, adapt handles to make them easier to grasp. Handles
may be lengthened, shortened, built up with pipe insulation, attached to the hand
using a velcro strap, or attached to a glove with velcro on the palm.
• Experiment with using other materials in painting projects that may be easier to
grasp. Examples include: raw potatoes, sponges, squeeze paints, drinking straws to
blow paint, or spin art with a switch adaptation. Line a shallow bucket with art
paper and place a marble dipped in paint in the bucket. Tip the bucket to make the
marble “paint” the paper.
• Tape drawing paper to table if more stability is needed. On an easel, use tape or
paper clips to hold on to surface.
• Use large sized or finger tip crayons for children who have difficulty holding on to
small crayons.
• Plan together. Parents, consultants, and caregivers need to set goals together. Ask
to be a part of the team that develops and tracks the child’s Individualized Education
Plan (IEP) so you can discuss activities, exercises, and supports needed to reach
goals. Goals should be simple and should match the abilities of the child. Always
discuss your ideas and plans with the family.
• Modify toys and equipment. Simple changes often can be made to regular toys.
For example, you can help a child who has difficulty with stacking rings by simply
 removing every other ring. For a child who has difficulty holding a bottle, cover the
bottle with a cloth sock so little hands can grasp it better.
• Make small changes in your child care environment. Slight adjustments in your
child care environment may make the time that a child with special needs spends
with you easier and more enjoyable for everyone. A quiet, private space for play may
help an overactive child. A child with poor vision may benefit from an extra lamp in
the play area. Removing a rug that slips will help a child who has trouble walking.
• Model appropriate behaviors. Children with special needs are sometimes timid
about playing with others. You can show them how by being a play partner yourself.
You might play a game with the child or pretend to go shopping together. As the
child becomes more comfortable, you can invite other children to join your play
activity.
• Teach specific words and skills that will show how to find a playmate and how
to be a playmate. Learning how to look directly at another child when speaking or
to say “May I play?” are big steps for some children.
• Teach typically developing children how to talk and play with children who
have a disability. Talk to the children about what to do. For instance, gently
touching the shoulder of a child with a hearing impairment or looking directly at him
while talking are effective ways of getting that child’s attention.
• Look for strengths as well as needs. Avoid becoming too focused on a child’s
disability. Treat each child as a whole person. Provide activities that will support a
child’s strong points. Every child needs to feel successful and capable.
• Consult with parents, health care professionals, and early childhood
specialists. Parents and specialists can provide specific information and
suggestions for working with a child who has a disability. Do not be afraid to ask
questions. Parents sometimes take it for granted that caregivers will know what to
do.

3.3 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Academics

Curriculum
A curriculum includes the academic subjects and the sum total of experiences that a
pupil receives through a variety of activities in the school, in the classroom, library,
laboratory, play grounds, in informal contact between teachers and pupils.
Creating an inclusive culture in classroom will involve attending to the curriculum,
which includes the components of a course of study. These consist of the syllabus,
textbooks and needed teaching learning materials, teaching strategies/processes and
assessment and evaluation processes.
The teachers in an inclusive school have to teach all children together in a class. It is the
responsibility of the school to provide a flexible curriculum that can be accessed by all
students including CWSN. It is important that the school should provide enabling
experiences so that children experience success in learning and achievement up to their
potential. This is only possible if the teachers respond to the diversities present in an
inclusive classroom through curriculum adaptations.
Curriculum adaptation involves differentiation to meet the needs of all students. The
content, the teaching process, assessment and evaluation, and the physical
environment may be modified to help students to achieve success in the classroom. The
kind of activities chosen by the teacher, including group activities, must be flexible and
reflect the background knowledge of small groups or individual students. The following
shows the adaptations that are required in different areas for inclusive pedagogy.
Teachers teaching content using diverse strategies-These include strategies like
verbal, visual, kinesthetically, written, proceeding from simple to complex, concrete to
abstract, step by step, scaffolding, concept maps, projects, group work, peer tutoring,
using prior knowledge, brainstorming, dramatisation, giving extra time, giving
alternative activities, drill activities, shortening assignments, organizing excursions/
trips, using large fonts, Braille or tacitly coded material, toys or blocks, carbon or xerox
copy of notes, hand puppets, real life experiences, real objects, multiple choice
questions, children’s literature, magazines and journals, etc.
Students expressing learning in diverse ways- These include strategies like oral,
written, tactual, gestures, drawing, acting, ICT, framing questions, paired reading,
storytelling, song, rhymes, role play, discussions, debates, language games, flash cards,
quizzes, graphic organizers, outlining passages, highlighting, and paper cutting/ folding,
etc.
Using supplementary material like artifacts, calculators/talking calculators, Taylor
frame, abacus, Brailler, geometrical kit, Geo – board, Tactile board, Geometric shape
board (for circle, graph, representation), Tactile graph sheet (for bar-graph, histograph
etc), 3-d blocks and figures, manipulatives, flash cards or pictures on paper, posters,
chalkboard, projection screens, computers, books on tape and computerized text
reader, screen readers, voice synthesis, scanners, daisy books,
Language
• Long lessons/stories can be divided into smaller parts with a meaningful beginning
and ending.
• Poems can be taught through actions and repetitions.
• Students with autism need more real experiences and activities in order to learn
something. For example, the concept of ‘turning’ can be taught by doing simple
activities like using the fan regulator, tap, gas-stove knob, etc.
• New words can be taught using a visual dictionary.
Mathematics
• For place value use scale with unit place having 9-blocks in one colour and another
colour at ten’s place.
• Fractions can be taught through paper folding. While teaching the concept of
money, children with ID can be introduced to rupees as paisa but its conversion may
sometimes be difficult for them to understand.
• Concepts of measurement (tall, short), capacity/ volume (full, empty), weight
(heavy, light), shapes (circle, triangle), etc., can be understood better through
concrete things/objects, flash cards.
EVS
• Group activities will facilitate active participation and experiential learning. Activity
based learning facilitates understanding scientific characteristics of the materials
around, for example, different houses.
• The concept of rain can be demonstrated by playing recorded sound effects of
thunder and rainfall with associated animal and insect sounds.
• Make use of graphic organizers.

3.4 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for Co-Curriculum

Children with Disability seem to have an even harder time participating in
extracurricular activities then classroom activities. Not only are there fewer activities
catering to them, they also constantly face seclusion or discrimination from their peers.
The purpose of education is to foster all round development of the individual.
Therefore all-round development means intellectual, physical, and social development.
Education plays a fundamental role but for an all-round development there is a need
for striking a balance between classroom teaching and also co-curricular activities. Co-
curricular activities are those which are undertaken side by side with the curricular
activities. A co-curricular activity essentially takes place outside a typical reading and
writing classroom experience. It gives the student an opportunity to develop skills that
are not possible in a classroom setting.
The most important thing to remember is that co-curricular activities should be fun and
enjoyable.
Using Co-Curricular Activities for Facilitating Learning
Co-curricular activities facilitate in the development of various domains of mind and
personality such as intellectual development, emotional development, social
development, moral development and aesthetic development. It also facilitate in
Creativity, Enthusiasm, and Energetic domain. Co-curricular activities are defined as
the activities that enable to supplement and complement the curricular or main syllabi
activities. These are the very important part and parcel of educational institutions to
develop the students’ personality as well as to strengthen the classroom learning.
· Co-curricular activities enhance creativity: It gives students a chance to think out
of the box and get creative ideas of their own. These activities give students a richer
learning experience by giving them a chance to think in new ways to solve a problem
or answer a question. Co curricular activities provide challenges for students that
are different from academic challenges. Students have to come up ideas that are not
always found in books.
· Enhancement of Motor Coordination: Eye-hand Coordination, Gross & fine Motor
Skills improve, as a result of taking part in different types of co curricular activities.
This automatically helps to improve other major skill areas like, Self-help, Writing
and Leisure Skills. Most of the co-curricular activities are physically active and get
 the students out their desks to try out new things in a practical way. Sports, yoga
and Dance enhances body & space awareness.
· Enhancement of Social Skill: Peer interaction, Social Rules, both Verbal & Non-
verbal Communication, sharing, turn-taking, understanding group or team effort,
leadership quality can be developed by participating in co-curricular activities. It can
facilitate emotional development through winning, loosing, preparing and trying.
Children learn to deal with authority and peer relationship in a structured and safe
environment. Extracurricular activities channelize energy and in a way that is
beneficial for the child.
· Enhancing Academic Skills: The class room curriculum teaches and educates the
child about academic theories while co-curricular and extracurricular activities help
the child to apply what he / she has learnt. Different Co-curricular activities enhance
academic skills, like- science, math, language, geography etc, and make these
subjects more meaningful in their daily life. For example through Games, children
can learn concepts in math by keeping scores and time. Children learn languages like
with words like - jump, run, throw, catch, speed etc. Children learn the concept of
timing and number, through dance and music.
· Learn time management skills: Students participating in co-curricular activities
learn to manage their time effectively, prioritize among different competing
commitments, and be proactive and creative problem-solvers. Often, the students
most engaged in co-curricula’s also have the strongest time management skills.
· Enabling participation in Co-curricular activities of children with special
needs: When considering co-curricular activities, teachers need to consider any
assistance or adaptation the child may need. For playing music, a child with a visual
impairment may be helped by scanning the music and then converting it to Braille.
Students with a physical disability can find many musical instruments that have
been modified in a wide variety of ways.
Assembly Time: For most schools, Assembly Time is a very important occasion. It is an
opportunity to come together as a community, to share achievements and stories and
to nurture a positive school ethos, where children feels valued and respected. Assembly
time is a calm, happy, yet purposeful space where there are high expectations in terms
of behavior.
Purposes of a school assembly include the following:
· To develop a feeling of affiliation and unity among students. b. To acquaint students
with the school program more clearly.
· To develop in students a sense of identity with the school.
· To enable students to share their experiences, stories, anecdotes with others.
· To provide them training in good social behavior desired in public life.
Recess time can be difficult for children with disabilities. Peers may avoid them and
therefore they are left alone during this unstructured and mostly unsupervised time.
Without proper structures in the playground, students may feel stressed and anxious. It
is a time where some children with disabilities are at risk of being bullied and teased.
Teachers can appoint a play ground buddy or circle of friends (that is few children who
have a more inclusive attitude) to watch out for such children. The playground buddy’s
or circle of friends can be encouraged to try to include the children with disability in
their games.
The following strategies will help these children to participate:-
· Putting the playground activities on individualized schedules.
· Giving visual choices (Schedule) to the students during playground activities.
· Developing appropriate social stories for the students to describe the playground,
the games or activities played there, the game rules.
· Organize a quiet place in the playground where students can go if feeling
overwhelmed. This should be somewhere that is easily accessible and is linked to
the play areas.
· All children can be praised for socially appropriate behaviors or for following rules
during the playground activities.
Games, Sports and Physical Activities; Communication is key for all relationships,
and the lack of speech cum language can hinder the way children interact with their
peers and caregivers. Finding adaptive ways to communicate and play with your
nonverbal children can help possibly stimulate speech or facilitate cognitive growth.
Like all children, children with disability need access to sports and games. Sporting
games and activities can be modified to include people with disability.
Modification may include:
· Reducing the size of the court or playing in an area the where boundary has been
redrawn with chalk to reduce the area of play.
· Playing in a closed of area that is surrounded by wall or fence also helps children
with certain disabilities like visual impairment and Autism to play safely and
comfortably.
· Practicing games indoor in a modified form and then taking it outdoors.
· Lowering heights of basketball hoops , badminton net & volleyball nets .
· Using balls that may be easier to control.
· Using balls with bells inside or very bright so it is easier to track.
Enhancing skills Some sports require multiple skills like throwing, catching, dribbling,
aiming at a goal. These skills can be enhanced in short sessions targeting the specific
skill areas. These skills can be made into simple games with rules and scoring points. As
skills improve children can participate more easily in the larger games.
Yoga and exercise
· Rhythmic music can make Yoga and free-hand exercises interesting and fun to do.
· Visual cues, for example- the pictures of ‘Ashanas’ or exercise can be used as a visual
instruction, so that the students can follow which ‘Ashana’ or exercise they are
supposed to do next.
· Use of cut-out mount boards on the floor, so that the individual’s disability will know
where to place their head while lying down on the floor before starting the
‘Ashanas’.
· Use of pictures to show how “Ashanas” should be.
3.5 Adaptation, Accommodation and Modification for School Subjects

Adapting to Difficult Subjects

This is the most common problem for new teachers to encounter with their curriculum,
but we'll explore some ways to balance your time later.
Some topics are just difficult for students to understand. They may be particularly
abstract, or perhaps they bring together many smaller topics in a complicated way.
Whatever the cause, you have to adapt, and you probably already have the tools
available to do so.
There are four main tools that already exist in your curriculum which you can use to
break difficult subjects down into manageable chunks. These are:
 Lesson Content - The actual principles and ideas taught in your lessons, and the
teaching techniques used to present them.
 In-class Activities - Out-of-lecture structure and teacher-led exercises, often
during class or office time, such as grouping students together or giving them set
amounts of time to master a subject and present it.
 Projects- Out-of-class assignments to an individual student or group that allow
students a chance to apply the principles they are trying to learn and present
their work publicly.
 Classroom Atmosphere - Your classroom's structure, layout, general attitude,
and level of participation, all of which contribute to the way your students
receive your teaching.
Adapting to difficult subjects is probably going to require you to allot more time to
those subjects, but make sure that you don't just end up talking more. This is not likely
to give you the results you're looking for in your students.

Adapting for Easily-understood Subjects

Despite sounding simple, this kind of curriculum-adapting is not necessarily the

opposite of adapting for difficult subject matter.
It may come as a relief that some things you teach will take less time than planned.
Perhaps your students have studied the subject before, or some insightful activities
earlier in the semester allowed them to be well-prepared to digest some new topic
quickly.
The key here is to always be verifying understanding with your students. You can do
this through active listening, in-class quizzes, or group discussion. If you can see that a
huge majority of your class understands a topic acceptably well, and you're willing to
work one-on-one with the few that don't, you can move the class along faster than
anticipated.
NCF (2005)
Language Education: Language skills such as speech and listening, reading and writing
– cut across school subjects and disciplines. Their foundational role in children’s
construction of knowledge right from elementary classes through higher secondary
classes needs to be recognised. A renewed effort should be made to implement the
three language formula, emphasizing the recognition of children’s home language(s) or
mother tongue (s) as the best medium of instruction. This includes tribal languages.
English needs to find place along with other Indian languages. The multilingual
character of Indian society should be seen as a resource for the enhancement of school
life.
Mathematics: Teaching of Mathematics, it is proposed, should enhance the learner’s
resources to think and reason, visualise and handle abstractions, to formulate and solve
problems.
Science: Content, process and language of science teaching must be commensurate
with the learner’s age-range and cognitive reach. Science teaching should engage the
learners in acquiring methods and processes that will nurture their curiosity and
creativity, particularly in relation to the environment. Concern for the environment
should be emphasized in every subject and through a wide range of activities involving
outdoor project work. For any qualitative change from the present situation, science
education in India must undergo a paradigm shift. Rote learning should be discouraged.
Inquiry skills should be supported and strengthened by language, design and
quantitative skills. Schools should place much greater emphasis on supporting
curricular activities aimed at stimulating, investigative ability, inventiveness and
creativity, even if these are not part of the external examination. The development of
science corners and providing access to science experimentation kits and laboratories
in all the schools are important ways of equitable provisioning for science learning. A
large-scale science fair at the national level (with feeder fairs at cluster/district/state
levels) may be organised to encourage schools and teachers to participate in the
movement of popularising and strengthening science at secondary level.
Social Sciences: Social Science learning in the NCF proposes to recognize the
disciplinary markers while emphasising integration in Social Sciences from the
perspective of marginalized groups. Gender justice and sensitivity towards tribal and
dalit issues and minority sensitivities must inform all areas of Social Sciences.
Work, Arts, Heritage Crafts, Health and Peace: The NCF also draws attention to the
four other curricular areas: work, arts and heritage crafts, health and physical
education and peace. Certain radical steps to link learning from the primary stage
upwards with work are suggested on the ground that work transforms knowledge into
experience and generates important personal and social values such as self-reliance,
creativity and co-operation. Art as a subject at all stages is recommended, covering all
four major spheres, i.e. music, dance, visual arts and theatre with an emphasis on
interactive approaches rather than instruction. The goal of art education is to promote
aesthetic and personal awareness and the ability to express oneself in different forms.
The importance of India’s heritage crafts both in terms of their economic and aesthetic
values should be recognised as being relevant to school education. The success of the
child at school depends on the nutrition and a well-planned physical activity
programme. The NCF recommends that resources and school time must be deployed
for the strengthening health and physical education dimension at secondary and senior
secondary stage both for boys and girls.. Peace has been recognized as a pre condition
for national development and as a social temper.
UNIT-4 Curriculum Evaluation

.4.1 Concept, Meaning, Definition of Curriculum Evaluation

. 4.2 Types and Approaches of Evaluation

.4.3 Emerging trends in evaluation -CCE, Teacher Made Tests,

Grading System

. 4.4 Differential evaluation of PwID in inclusive sctup

.4.5 Implications of evaluation for inclusion

4.1 Concept, Meaning, Definition of Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is an essential component in the process of adopting and
implementing any new curriculum in any educational setting. Its purpose is to decide
whether or not the newly adopted curriculum is producing the intended results and
meeting the objectives that it has set forth. Another purpose of curriculum evaluation is
to gather data that will help in identifying areas in need of improvement or change.
Purpose of curriculum evaluation
Curriculum evaluation monitors and reports on the quality of education.
1. Course Improvement : deciding what instructional material and methods are
satisfactory and where changes are needed.
2. Decisions about individuals : Identifying the needs of the pupil for the sale of
planning of instruction and grouping, acquainting the pupil with his own deficiencies.
3. Administrative regulations : Judging how good the school system is, how good
individual teachers are. The goal of evaluation must be to answer questions of
selection, adoption, support and worth of educational materials and activities. It helps
in identifying the necessary improvements to be made in content, teaching methods,
learning experiences, educational facilities, staff-selection and development of
educational objectives. It also serves the need of the policy makers, administrators and
other members of the society for the information about the educational system.
Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
1. To determine the outcomes of a programme.
2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme.
3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.
4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous
improvement.
5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.
4.2 Types and (1.5)Approaches of Evaluation
Types of Curriculum Evaluation
According to Scriven, following are the 3 main types

1. Formative Evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum

development. Its purpose is to contribute to the improvement of the
educational programme. The merits of a programme are evaluated during the
process of its development. The evaluation results provide information to the
programme developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the
programme.
2. Summative Evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final effects of a
curriculum are evaluated on the basis of its stated objectives. It takes place
after the curriculum has been fully developed and put into operations.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two
purposes either for placement of students properly at the outset of an
instructional level (such as secondary school),or to discover the underlying
cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study.

Techniques Of Evaluation :
a) Observation : It is related to curriculum transaction. Observation schedule helps the
evaluator to focus his attention on the aspects of the process that are most relevant to his
investigation. This method gains credibility when it contains both subjectives and objective
methods. Interviews and feed-back and other documentary evidences may supplement
observations.
b) Questionnaire : It is used to obtain reaction of curriculum users namely pupils, teachers,
administrators, parents and other educational workers concerning various aspects of
prescribed curriculum are to be ascertained
c) Check-list : It can be used as a part of questionnaire and interview. It provides numbers of
responses out of which most appropriate responses are to be checked by the respondent.
d) Interview : It is a basic technique of evaluation and for gathering information. It may be
formal or informal in nature. The information required should be suitably defined and the
presentation of questions should in no case betray and sort of bias the part of the interviewer.
e) Workshops & Group discussion : In this technique, experts are invited at one place to
deliberate upon syllabi, materials etc; and to arrive at a consensus regarding the quality of the
same. The materials may be evaluated against a set of criteria that might have been prepared
by the evaluator

4.3 Emerging trends in evaluation –CCE, Teacher Made Tests, Grading

System
What is CCE?
CCE refers Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation, a system of school based assessment tha
covers all the aspects of a student’s development. It was designed to reduce the student stress
related to board exams, and to introduce a uniform and comprehensive pattern for student
evaluation across the country. It emphasizes on two broad objectives: (a) Continuity in
Evaluation and (b) Assessment of broad based learning. it attempts to shift emphasis from
‘testing’ to ‘holistic learning’ with an aim of creating young adults, possessing appropriate skill
and desirable qualities in addition to academic excellence.
Objectives of CCE -
· Encourage development of congnitive skills and de-emphasize rote learningØ
· Make the entire education process a student-centeric activityØ
· Help develop cognitive, psychomotor and interpersonal skillsØ
· Make holistic evaluation an integral part of entire education processØ
· Improve student's accomplishments through regular diagnostics and remedial
instructionsØ
· Use evaluation to control quality and maintain desired performanceØ
· Take decisions about the learner, learning process and learning environment by
determining social utility, desirability & effectiveness of the programme

Comprehensive Evaluation
1. Scholastic Evaluation
2. Co- Scholastic Evaluation
The ‘comprehensive’ component of CCE takes care of assessment of all round development of
the child’s personality. It includes assessment in Scholastic as well as Co-Scholastic aspects of
the pupil’s growth.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school-based evaluation

of students that covers all aspects of students development.
In this scheme the term `continuous' is meant to emphasise that evaluation of identified
aspects of students `growth and development' is a continuous process rather than an event,
built into the total teaching-learning process and spread over the entire span of academic
session. It means regularity of assessment, frequency of unit testing, diagnosis of learning gaps
use of corrective measures, retesting and for their self evaluation.
The second term `comprehensive' means that the scheme attempts to cover both the scholastic
and the coscholastic aspects of students' growth and development. Since abilities, attitudes an
aptitudes can manifest themselves in forms other then the written word, the term refers to
application of variety of tools and techniques (both testing and non-testing) and aims at
assessing a learner's development in areas of learning like :
· Knowledge · Understanding/Comprehension
· Applying · Analyzing
· Evaluating · Creating
The scheme is thus a curricular initiative, attempting to shift emphasis from testing to holistic
learning. It aims at creating good citizens possessing sound health, appropriate skills and
desirable qualities besides academic excellence. It is hoped that this will equip the learners to
meet the challenges of life with confidence and success

Teacher Made Test

Teacher-made tests are normally prepared and administered for testing classroom
achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching adopted by the teacher and
other curricular programmes of the school.+ Teacher-made test is one of the most
valuable instrument in the hands of the teacher to solve his purpose. It is designed to
solve the problem or requirements of the class for which it is prepared. + It is prepared
to measure the outcomes and content of local curriculum. It is very much flexible so
that, it can be adopted to any procedure and material. It does not require any
sophisticated technique for preparation.

Features of Teacher-Made Tests:

· The items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty. · These are prepared by
the teachers which can be used for prognosis and diagnosis purposes.

· The test covers the whole content area and includes a large number of items. · The
preparation of the items conforms to the blueprint. · Test construction is not a
single man’s business, rather it is a co-operative endeavour. · A teacher-made test
 does not cover all the steps of a standardised test. · Teacher-made tests may also
be employed as a tool for formative evaluation.

Uses of Teacher-Made Tests:

· To help a teacher to know whether the class in normal, average, above average or
below average.

· To help him in formulating new strategies for teaching and learning.

· A teacher-made test may be used as a full-fledged achievement test which covers

the entire course of a subject.

· To measure students’ academic achievement in a given course.

· To assess how far specified instructional objectives have been achieved.

· To know the efficacy of learning experiences.

· To diagnose students learning difficulties and to suggest necessary remedial

measures.

· To certify, classify or grade the students on the basis of resulting scores.

· Skillfully prepared teacher-made tests can serve the purpose of standardised test.

· Teacher-made tests can help a teacher to render guidance and counseling.

· Good teacher-made tests can be exchanged among neighbouring schools.

· These tests can be used as a tool for formative, diagnostic and summative
evaluation.

· To assess pupils’ growth in different areas.

What is a Grading System?

A grading system in education is a system that is used to assess the educational
performance of a child which is entirely based upon points alone.

Grading system does not provide an opportunity to make the child think out of the box
or freely develop the thinking about any inkling of an idea or get involved with any of
the intellectual speculation. +But still, this method is widely regarded in many of the
schools across the world and is kept as a strong and a viable medium to adjudge a
child’s grasping and reciprocating ability by grading them.

In India the general pattern is as follows

· A1: 91 to 100· A2 : 81 to 90· B1: 71 to 80

· B2: 61 to 70· C1 : 51 to 60· C2 : 41 to 50

· D for 33 to 40 and lesser for E’s.

Advantages of Grading System in Education:

1. Takes the pressure off from the students at certain levels: In a general grading
system as considered above, a student’s real scores and it’s associated marks are not
accounted on the official transcript, which denotes that their GPA will not have an effect
on either a pass or a fail mark category.

2. Grading Pattern description:

One of the main advantages of this method is that the studious children are clearly
discriminated from the average and below average type of students but this led to the
development and mounting up of an intense pressure amidst the students.

The advantages of the grading system are that the development of pressure upon the
students in terms of studying has appreciably reduced.
3. Gives the students an obvious idea about their weaknesses and
strengths: Knowing precisely which subject(s) are their weak spots, students can
easily decide where to toggle their focal point on. In a grading system where the
alphabets are the scales, a grade of C or grade of D is known to speak a lot. So, when the
total grades arrive these students can easily get to know their forte.

4. Make class work easier: Suppose if a student knows that getting a D is enough to
scrape through the class assignments section in the marking division, he or she will
only focus on getting a D without any fuss.

Disadvantages of Grading System in Education:

1. It doesn’t instill a sense of competition: When all that required is a mere pass
mark, we would neither have the urge to outperform others nor do we want to excel
with the overall grades.

2. Not an accurate representation of the performance and the knowledge

gained: As we have said already, passing in an examination cannot be considered as
plausible enough to declare that the same student has gained an immense amount of
knowledge by these exams. An alphabet cannot explain the inner knowledge gained by
a student and there is no easy way of gauging a student’s level of performance and
knowledge in the examinations.

3. It is not an exact scoring system: Suppose, let us consider that the science subject is
your weak point and with a tremendous effort, let us say that you got an A or a C for all
your attempts, which would have made a vast disparity in your sense of
accomplishment.
4. Lack of incentives: The traditional letter grade system considers that every
alphabet is an inducement to perform good or better or the best.

Getting a B could kindle the students to put an extra effort to get an A and is a step
closer to getting the highest mark in a class. But, the highest rank in class tag is going to
do no good for the students.

4.4 Differential evaluation of PwID in inclusive setup

Differential evaluation of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (PwID) in an inclusive
setup involves assessing their individual needs, capabilities, and progress in a way that
recognizes their unique challenges and strengths.

### 1. **Individualized Assessments** Each person with an intellectual disability is

unique, so assessments should be tailored to their specific abilities, learning style, and
communication preferences. Standardized tests may need to be adapted or
supplemented with alternative assessment methods (e.g., observational assessments,
portfolios, performance-based assessments).

- The primary goal is to gather comprehensive information about the individual's

abilities, skills, and areas needing support.

- Assessments should be tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of each

person with an intellectual disability.

- **Methods**:

- **Standardized Tests**: Adapted versions may be used where appropriate,

ensuring fairness and validity.

- **Alternative Assessment Methods**: These include observational assessments,

checklists, portfolios, and performance-based assessments that better capture real-
world abilities.

### 2. **Functional Assessment** Focus on assessing functional skills that are

relevant to daily life and participation in inclusive settings. This could include
communication abilities, social skills, self-care skills, and adaptive behavior.

-Evaluate skills that are directly relevant to daily functioning and participation in
inclusive settings.
 - **Examples**: Communication abilities (verbal and non-verbal), social skills
(interaction with peers and adults), self-care skills (hygiene, dressing), and adaptive
behavior (problem-solving, decision-making).

### 3. **Collaborative Approach** Inclusive evaluation involves collaboration

among various stakeholders, including educators, therapists, caregivers, and the
individual with the disability (where possible). This collaborative approach ensures a
comprehensive understanding of the person’s strengths and needs across different
environments.

-Engage educators, therapists, caregivers, and the individual (where possible) in the
evaluation process.

-Provides a holistic view of the person’s strengths and needs across different
environments (school, home, community).

### 4. **Accommodations and Modifications** Assessments should consider

necessary accommodations or modifications to ensure equitable participation. This
might involve providing additional time, simplifying instructions, using assistive
technology, or adjusting the testing environment.

- Ensure assessments are accessible and equitable for individuals with intellectual
disabilities.

- **Examples**: Additional time, simplified language, visual aids, assistive

technology, and supportive testing environments.

### 5. **Strengths-Based Perspective** Emphasize strengths and abilities rather

than focusing solely on deficits. Highlighting strengths can inform appropriate support
strategies and promote self-esteem and confidence in the individual.

- Emphasize the individual’s strengths, interests, and capabilities rather than deficits.

- Fosters a positive self-image, encourages growth in areas of strength, and informs

support strategies.

### 6. **Progress Monitoring** Continuous monitoring of progress is crucial to

adjust interventions and supports as needed. Progress should be measured not only
academically but also in terms of social integration, independence, and quality of life
indicators.

- Continuously track progress to gauge the effectiveness of interventions and

supports.
 - Academic progress, social integration, independence in daily activities, and quality of
life improvements.

### 7. **Cultural Sensitivity** Consider cultural factors that may influence

assessment and support needs. Understanding the cultural context of the individual
and their family can enhance the relevance and effectiveness of the evaluation process.

-Recognize and respect cultural differences that may impact assessment and support
needs.

-Understand the cultural context of the individual and their family to enhance
relevance and effectiveness of assessments.

### 8. **Transition Planning** For older students or adults, evaluations should

include planning for transitions to post-school settings, such as vocational training,
employment, or independent living. Assessments should focus on skills that promote
successful transition outcomes.

-Prepare older students or adults with intellectual disabilities for transitions to post-
school settings.

- Assess skills relevant to vocational training, employment readiness, independent

living, and community participation.

1.5/4.5 Implications of evaluation for inclusion

Successful inclusive education requires school transformation and systems change.
However, much of this reform is design-focused, and not resource-intensive. It is
important to emphasise that inclusive education means that all children are together in
mainstream classrooms for the majority of their day. This has demonstrated positive
effects on student achievement and social wellbeing – for all children – and is far more
efficient and effective than special schools and special classrooms. Often, the term
‘inclusive education’ becomes synonymous with education for children with
disabilities. Whilst this may still be the primary motivation for inclusive education,
successful inclusive practice will be successful for all children with many different
attributes such as ethnicity, language, gender, and socio-economic status.
· Concrete inclusive education targets, indicators, measures, and outcomes;
· An understanding of existing structural, educational, and cultural challenges to
successful
· A well-designed implementation strategy that includes a clear plan, evaluation, an
school review process;
· Providing inclusive education training, sustained support, and resources for all
teachers and school leaders; and
· National leadership on inclusive education policy, education management
information systems, curricular-reform, and coordinating social systems such as
inclusive education and inclusive employment.