Sure, here are descriptions and examples for each of the four natures of marginalization:

1. Multidimensional, Multicausal Nature:

- Description: Marginalization is a complex phenomenon influenced by various interconnected

factors, including social, cultural, economic, and political conditions.

- Example:

- Marginalization of indigenous communities may stem from historical colonization, economic

exploitation, cultural discrimination, and lack of political representation.

2. Variation in Different Settings:

- Description: The nature of marginalization varies across different geographical locations, cultural
contexts, and societal structures.

- Example:

- The marginalization of women in conservative societies like Afghanistan differs significantly from
their treatment in more liberal countries like Canada, due to varying social norms and legal
frameworks.

3. Variation in Relation to Elderly People:

- Description: Marginalization of elderly individuals varies based on cultural attitudes towards

aging, availability of support systems, and societal values.

- Example:

- In Japan, where there is a strong tradition of filial piety, elderly people are often respected and
cared for by their families. In contrast, in some Western countries where individualism is prominent,
elderly individuals may face isolation and neglect.

4. Level of Awareness Among Marginalized Groups:

- Description: The awareness and organization of marginalized groups significantly influence their
ability to advocate for their rights and challenge systemic injustices.

- Example:

- Disabled rights organizations in countries like the United States and the United Kingdom have
successfully campaigned for accessibility laws and policies, improving the rights and inclusion of
disabled individuals. In contrast, in countries with limited civil liberties and suppression of dissent,
marginalized groups may struggle to organize and assert their rights effectively.
Type of marginalization:

1. Social Marginalization

Description: Social marginalization refers to the exclusion of individuals or groups from societal
opportunities, leading to stigmatization and limited participation in societal structures.

This can be either ascribed, such as being born into marginalized groups, or acquired later in life due
to changes in societal and economic systems.

Examples:

 Individuals with severe disabilities from birth facing societal barriers and discrimination.

 Members of marginalized groups, like lower castes in India or indigenous peoples, enduring
lifelong marginalization.

 Communities dispossessed of their lands, livelihoods, or systems of social support due to

globalization and capitalist expansion.

Impact:

 Limited access to essential services like education, healthcare, housing, income, and leisure
activities.

 Development of low self-esteem and confidence due to societal stigma and exclusion as well
as negative social attitudes.

 Social exclusion leading to marginalization from mainstream development processes.

 Lack of social and cultural capital hindering participation in broader societal activities and
opportunities.

2. Economic Marginalization

Description: Economic marginalization involves exclusion from economic structures and

opportunities, often due to discrimination or market segmentation.

Examples:

 Segmentation in economic markets based on non-economic and non-financial origins such as

gender, caste, ethnicity, or disability status (Intersectional lens)

 Individuals or groups with limited involvement in the formal economy, relying on precarious
or informal sources of income.

Impact:

 Direct impacts on individuals’ and communities’ economic wellbeing, leading to poverty and
financial instability.

 Indirect effects on health and overall quality of life due to lack of resources and access to
essential services.

 Differential impacts based on gender, age, and other intersecting factors exacerbating
economic disparities.
  Individuals with lack of engagement in global markets- leading to unequal access to
resources and opportunities.

3. Political Marginalization

Description: Political marginalization occurs when certain groups are systematically excluded from
participating in democratic decision-making processes.

Examples:

 Women’s limited representation in political leadership roles globally, with men dominating
positions of power.

 Marginalization experienced by ethnic minorities, migrants, disabled persons, and the

elderly, limiting their access to political influence and resources.

Impact:

 Denial of social, economic, and political benefits due to lack of representation and
participation in decision-making processes.

 Hindrance to accessing other social and economic privileges, perpetuating cycles of

marginalization.

 Particularly pronounced in societies with entrenched power structures that favor dominant
groups, such as patriarchal or ethnocentric systems.
Causes/ Factor Leading to Marginalization

1. Exclusion

 Exclusion as a cause of marginalization refers to the deliberate denial of opportunities and

resources to certain individuals or groups based on various factors such as race, ethnicity,
gender, religion, disability, or socioeconomic status.
 It involves the systematic reinforcement of power dynamics that favor certain privileged
groups while marginalizing others, leading to unequal access to education, employment,
healthcare, housing, and other essential services.
 Exclusion often perpetuates cycles of poverty and inequality, as marginalized individuals and
communities face barriers to social mobility and economic advancement.

Example:

o Discriminatory practices such as redlining, which historically denied mortgage loans and
insurance to residents of certain neighborhoods based on race, contributed to the systemic
marginalization of African American communities in the United States.
o Gender-based exclusion in patriarchal societies can limit women’s access to education,
employment opportunities, and decision-making positions, perpetuating their economic and
social marginalization.

2. Globalization

 Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and integration of economies,

societies, and cultures across the world, driven by advances in technology, communication,
and transportation.
 While globalization has led to economic growth and development in many parts of the
world, it has also exacerbated inequalities and marginalized certain groups, particularly in
low-income and developing countries.
 The unequal distribution of benefits from globalization, coupled with neoliberal economic
policies that prioritize market deregulation and privatization, has widened the gap between
the rich and the poor, leading to increased marginalization.

Example:

o The outsourcing of manufacturing jobs to low-wage countries in Asia and Latin America,
driven by globalization, has led to deindustrialization and job loss in many Western countries,
contributing to economic marginalization and social unrest among affected communities.
o Free trade agreements and liberalization policies promoted under globalization have often
undermined local industries and agriculture in developing countries, further marginalizing
rural communities and exacerbating poverty and inequality.

Displacement

 Displacement occurs when individuals or communities are forced to leave their homes or
lands due to various factors such as conflict, development projects, natural disasters, or
environmental degradation.
  Displacement often leads to the loss of livelihoods, social networks, and cultural heritage,
deepening the marginalization of affected populations who may face barriers to
resettlement, integration, or recovery.
 Marginalized groups such as indigenous peoples, ethnic minorities, blue-collar workers
(contractors, businessmen, industrialists) and rural communities are disproportionately
affected by displacement, as they often lack legal protections and political power to resist or
negotiate with authorities.

Example:

o Large-scale infrastructure projects such as dams, highways, or mining operations often result
in the displacement of indigenous communities and rural populations, leading to loss of land,
livelihoods, and cultural identity.
o The National Rehabilitation Policy drafted in 1994 acknowledged the displacement of 15.5
million persons due to development projects, highlighting the scale of the issue.
o Climate change-induced environmental disasters such as sea-level rise, desertification, or
extreme weather events can force communities to relocate, exacerbating their vulnerability
and marginalization, especially in developing countries with limited resources for adaptation
and mitigation.

Disaster - Natural and Unnatural

 Disasters hinder development, worsening inequalities. They historically obstruct economic

progress and survival.
 Damage severity links to socioeconomic status. Vulnerability depends on poverty, education,
health, and gender.
 Marginalized groups, like the poor and women, suffer disproportionately. Their preparedness
and recovery are often inadequate.
 Disasters can be classified into three main categories:

1. Natural Disasters:

o Examples include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, tornadoes, ice storms,

floods, flash floods, landslides, wildfires, insect infestations, and disease outbreaks.
o Further subcategories are meteorological (e.g., hurricanes), oceanographic (e.g.,
tsunamis), hydrological (e.g., floods), or biological events.

2. Technological Disasters:

o Associated with technological advances, they encompass incidents like explosions,

unexploded ordnance, toxic spills, emissions of radio-isotopes, and transportation
accidents.
o Hazmat incidents involving carcinogens, mutagens, or heavy metals, as well as
structural failures of devices, machines, or installations (e.g., bridges, dams, power
plants), are included.

3. Social Disasters:

o These incidents primarily involve social unrest, including hijackings, riots,

demonstrations, crowd rushes, stampedes, terrorist incidents, bombings, shootings,
and hostage-taking.
o The 2010 earthquake in Haiti, one of the poorest countries in the Western
Hemisphere, resulted in widespread destruction, loss of life, and displacement,
exacerbating existing poverty and inequality in the country.
o The Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986 led to the displacement of thousands of
people and caused long-term environmental and health impacts, disproportionately
affecting marginalized communities in the affected regions.
Most Vulnerable Marginalized Groups:

1. Women

o Description: Women’s marginalization is a result of various historical, cultural, legal,

and religious factors, leading to job exclusion, work undervaluation, and
discrimination.

o Example: Women from lower classes, castes, or regions often face varying levels of
marginalization compared to their more privileged counterparts.

2. People with Disabilities

o Description: People with disabilities have been socially and economically

marginalized for centuries due to biased assumptions and stereotypes, leading to
impoverishment and exclusion.

o Example: Disabled individuals often face barriers and societal stigmatization when
accessing opportunities and resources.

3. Ethnic Minority

Usually a minority group has the following characteristics:

1) It suffers from discrimination and subordination.

2) They have physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved
of, by a dominant group.

3) They share a sense of collective identity and common burdens.

4) They have shared social rules about who belongs, and who does not.

5) They have a tendency to marry within the group

o Description: Ethnic minorities are marginalized groups sharing a common race or

nationality with distinct cultural traits. They lack political dominance in society and
may face discrimination and subordination.

o Example: In some cases, ethnic minorities may constitute a numerical majority, such
as Blacks in South Africa during Apartheid.

o Types: Ethnic minorities can include migrant, indigenous, or landless nomadic

communities. Marginalized ethnic groups may suffer from discrimination, physical
segregation, and limited access to resources and rights.

o Legal Protection: International criminal law can safeguard the rights of racial or
ethnic minorities, emphasizing the right to self-determination.

4. Religious Minorities

o Description: Religious minorities, having different faiths from the majority, may face
restrictions on religious freedom in some countries.

o Example: Despite global acceptance of religious freedom, some nations impose

limitations, as seen in Egypt’s restrictive system of identity cards.
5. Caste

o Description: The caste system is a hierarchical social structure based on notions of

purity and pollution, with Brahmins at the top and Shudras or Dalits at the bottom.
Dalits in India face structural discrimination, social disability, and poor living
conditions, with limited access to resources and healthcare.

o Impact on Dalits: Dalits face marginalization across all aspects of life, violating their
basic human rights. They experience low literacy rates, meager purchasing power,
poor housing conditions, and limited access to resources and entitlements.

o Global Impact: Caste-based marginalization affects over 260 million people, primarily
in India. It involves social and economic exclusion, housing segregation, and denial of
access to public and private services and employment.

o Progress and Challenges: Affirmative action and legal protections have led to a
reduction in caste-based marginalization in recent years. However, challenges persist
in addressing deep-rooted discriminatory practices and achieving full equality for
Dalits.

6. Tribes

o Description: Tribes across nations, whether in advanced or developing countries, face

marginalization and socio-economic disadvantages.

o Global Context: Tribes face marginalization across nations, including advanced

countries like the USA, Australia, as well as developing and underdeveloped
countries in Asia and Africa.

o Situation in India: India’s Scheduled Tribes population is approximately 84.3 million,

facing social and economic disadvantages. They are predominantly landless and have
limited control over resources such as land, forest, and water.

7. Elderly

o Description: Elderly individuals experience neglect and marginalization, especially in

terms of healthcare and social support, due to changing demographics and societal
attitudes. The elderly face neglect as their care is viewed as wasteful by some
families, and stereotypes about their susceptibility to illness worsen this neglect,
leading to emotional distress and abandonment in extreme cases.
1. Social Exclusion:

o The concept of social exclusion is multifaceted and can be defined in various ways.

o In Europe, the term “social exclusion” gained prominence in the late twentieth
century as analysts and policymakers sought to address negative social effects
resulting from economic restructuring.

o Social exclusion extends beyond mere poverty; it encompasses a process of social

disintegration.

o Factors contributing to social exclusion include long-term unemployment, challenges

faced by unskilled workers and immigrants, barriers preventing young people from
entering the job market, family instability, isolated single-member households,
homelessness, and rising tensions.

o Addressing social exclusion requires a holistic approach:

 Promoting community involvement for excluded populations.

 Ensuring access to basic services.

 Encouraging behavioral change.

 Increasing income.

 Addressing other key elements of exclusion.

o Discrimination is a specific form of exclusion, leading to indirect deprivation through

factors like discouragement, lower self-confidence, and limited access to income or
education.

o Social exclusion denies equal opportunities to certain groups, hindering their

participation in political, economic, and social aspects of society.

Dimensions of Social Exclusion:

o Social exclusion involves two critical dimensions:

 Societal Institutions: These are the structures that perpetuate exclusion.

 Outcome (Deprivation): Refers to the impact on excluded individuals.

o Understanding exclusion requires exploring societal interrelations and institutions

across multiple spheres (civil, cultural, political, and economic).

o Amartya Sen highlights various meanings and manifestations of social exclusion,

particularly related to discrimination and deprivation.

o Exclusion can occur directly (violating fair norms) or indirectly (through unfavorable
conditions).

o In India, social exclusion is embedded in societal structures based on caste and

ethnicity.

Specific Examples:
 o Civil and Cultural Spheres:

 Untouchables may face discrimination and exclusion in accessing public

services (e.g., roads, temples, water bodies) and institutions (education,
health services).

o Political Spheres:

 Untouchables may encounter discrimination in exercising political rights and

participating in decision-making processes.

o General Societal Exclusion:

 Due to physical segregation and the notion of untouchability, untouchables

may suffer from overall societal exclusion.

 Societal mechanisms enforcing caste norms can lead to opposition,

economic boycotts, violence, and hinder their right to development.

2. Extreme Poverty:

o Approximately 1.3 billion people, nearly a quarter of the world’s population, live in
extreme poverty.

o They survive on less than US$ 1 per day per person to meet all their needs.

o 70% of these individuals are women.

o They lack access to health services and education.

o Poverty significantly impacts human dignity and self-esteem.

Dimensions of Poverty:

o Absolute Poverty:

 Also known as indigenous or primary poverty.

 Refers to those who lack access to basic necessities for human survival.

 Households cannot afford a specific bundle of essential requirements (both

food and non-food).

 World Bank defines absolute poverty based on a welfare standard below a

certain threshold.

o Relative Poverty:

 Occurs when individuals cannot afford a bundle of basic needs available to a

reference group (e.g., people within a median income level).

 Compares the lowest segments of a population with upper segments, often

measured in quantities or percentiles.
 o Trends in absolute and relative poverty may move in opposite directions.

 Relative poverty can decline while absolute poverty increases if the gap
between upper and lower strata narrows due to declining well-being among
the upper strata.

o Poverty analysis focuses on identifying poor households, individuals, or groups.

o Poverty encompasses material, economic, social, political, and cultural resources

needed to satisfy basic needs.

Viewing Poverty:

o Absolute Poverty:

 Defined by subsistence below socially acceptable living conditions.

 Typically based on nutritional requirements and other essential goods.

o Relative Poverty:

 Compares the lowest population segments with upper segments (often

measured by income quintiles).

 Key indicators include the share of national wealth or income held by the
poorest 20% of a country’s inhabitants.

o Poverty results from lacking income, food, clothing, and shelter.

Sociological Perspective:

o Poverty, viewed from a sociological deprivation perspective, is rooted in underlying

structural inequalities and inherent disadvantages.

3. Inequality:

o Inequality refers to the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different
positions or statuses within a group or society.

o It can manifest as differences in size, degree, circumstances, and fairness.

o Common factors impacting inequality include:

 Labor Market Outcomes: Suppressed wages in low-skill jobs due to an

excess of low-skilled labor in developing countries.

 Market Size and Rewards: Increasing rewards for successful individuals and
firms, providing more investment opportunities for the already wealthy.

 International Influence: Globalization and its effects on economic dynamics.

 Domestic Influence: Changes in domestic policies and reforms.

o Social inequality encompasses various dimensions:

  Income: Earnings from work or investments.

 Wealth: Total value of money and assets minus debts.

 Power: Influence and control over resources.

 Occupational Prestige: Social status associated with specific occupations.

 Schooling: Educational attainment.

 Ancestry and Race/Ethnicity: Factors influencing social standing.

o Social inequality occurs when resources are distributed unevenly, often following
norms that favor specific social categories.

o Economic inequality, based on unequal income or wealth distribution, is a frequently

studied form of social inequality.

o Social inequality is interconnected with racial, gender, and ethnic disparities, and its
manifestations can be linked to corruption.

o Almost every society experiences some form of social inequality, shaped by

structural factors like geographical location and citizenship status.

o Cultural discourses and identities often define whether the poor are considered
“deserving” or “underserving.”

4. Exploitation and discrimination

Discrimination:

o Discrimination involves treating someone unfairly based on characteristics such as

race, sex, national origin, age, or other defining factors.

o It includes both illegal and unfair treatment.

o Discrimination can occur based on class or category (e.g., race or gender) rather than
individual merit.

o Example: A company refusing to hire women solely because of their gender.

o Legally, discrimination denies rights, benefits, justice, and equitable treatment to

individuals or groups due to their defining characteristics.

Exploitation:

o Exploitation refers to social relations where one actor or group uses others for their
own benefit.

o It arises from fundamentally asymmetric power relationships.

o Traditionally associated with consumption in social theory.

o Exploitation occurs when a person in an inferior position is used by someone with

more power.
 o Not unique to capitalism; present in all class societies.

o Two main classes:

 Exploited Class: Produces wealth.

 Exploiting Class: Expropriates wealth.

o Exploitation involves one social group benefiting from what another group produces.

o Central to the idea of social oppression, especially from a Marxist perspective.

o Can extend beyond economic forms, such as sexual exploitation of women by men
under patriarchy.

5. Relative deprivation

Deprivation refers to the state of being deprived, experiencing loss, or lacking essential resources.

o Relative deprivation was first coined by Sam Stouffer and associates during their
wartime study, The American Soldier (1949).

o W.G. Runciman rigorously formulated the concept in 1966.

o Despite rising living standards, relative deprivation became an explanatory variable

for the increase in crime in many industrial societies.

o It challenges the old equation that more poverty leads to more crime.

Understanding Relative Deprivation:

o Subjective Perception: Relative deprivation occurs when individuals or groups

perceive themselves as unfairly disadvantaged compared to others with similar
attributes.

o Contrast with Absolute Deprivation:

 Absolute deprivation relates to impaired biological health or objective

differences in wealth.

 Relative deprivation focuses on subjective experiences.

o Narrowing Differences:

 Relative deprivation is more likely when differences between two groups

narrow, allowing easy comparisons.

 Less likely in situations with caste-like differences.

o Consequences and Explanations:

 Relative deprivation has been linked to:

  Radical politics.

 Messianic religions.

 Rise of social movements.

 Industrial disputes.

 Crime and deviance.

 Religious fervor and demands for political change are collective responses to
relative deprivation.

 Crime tends to be an individualistic response.

Factors and T.R. Gurr’s Perspective:

o Values and Capabilities:

 T.R. Gurr considered relative deprivation in terms of expectations and

perceived capabilities.

 Three general value sets:

 Economic Conditions

 Political Power

 Social Status

o Three Conditions of Deprivation:

 Detrimental Deprivation: Expectations remain stable, but capabilities

decline.

 Progressive Deprivation: Expectations rise, but capabilities decline.

 Aspirational Deprivation: Expectations rise while capabilities remain

constant.