Outbreak of WW1- 1899-1914:

At the end of 19th Century-European powers were eager to grow and expand their naval
competence but also to develop large army capacities.

First and Second Naval Law:

• In the mid 90s German emperor Wilhelm the 2nd time ordered expansion of
German naval fleet which was passed by the Reichstag in 1899 known as “First
Naval Law” and in 1890 as “Second Naval Law”

Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty 1890:

• British government did not approve the idea of Germany growing their naval
fleets, so they issued a warning demanding to stop challenging their naval
predominance, as they had good relations due to “Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty”,
which was pretty much exchange of territory in African colonies of the two
mentioned countries

Wilhelms despise for Britain:

• Due to his bad relationship his mother, who was British, emperor Wilhelm
developed a personal problem with Britain, but State Secretary for Foreign
Affairs Bernhard von Bülow saw the Britain rather as an ally then an enemy. Still
emperor Wilhelm didn't really have any interest in good relationship and by
pushing development of naval fleets there was no chance for alliance between
the Germany and Britain

Krüger Telegram 1896:

• The Kruger Telegram was a message sent in 1896 by German Kaiser Wilhelm II to
the Boers in South Africa, congratulating them on their resistance against the
British during the Second Boer War. It was seen as a provocative move that
angered Britain and increased tensions between Germany and Britain,
contributing to the growing hostilities leading up to World War

Fashoda Incident in 1898:

• “Fashoda Incident” was a tense standoff that happened in 1898 between Britain
and France in the region of Fashoda, which is in present-day South Sudan. At
that time, both countries were competing for influence and control over parts of
Africa, especially in the area known as the "Scramble for Africa”. In later years
the two powers made peaceful agreements which showed a possibility to
cooperate:
Hatzfeld Report 1901:

• In 1901, German Ambassador Count Hatzfeld wrote a report to Berlin expressing

concerns about the growing influence and activities of the British in South Africa
and that Germany should have strong partner on the European continent
(Because Britain would choose Russia over Germany in case if Triple Alliance
would fail). He was worried about British expansion and the potential threat it
posed to German interests in the region. His communication reflected
Germany's cautious stance and interest in monitoring British colonial ambitions

Between 1898-1909:

• Britain offered an alliance several times, but Germany rejected it every time, and
the reason for it is that they thought that the alliance as weak

Baghdad Railway 1903:

• Germany opposed French and British interest in that region, which was under
the predominance of Wilhelm, who was personally involved in the construction
of that railway with the idea of connecting Konya, Turkey and Baghdad

Entente Coridale 1904:

• The agreements between them made a positive effect on both sides, being free
action of the British in Egypt and French preserve order in Morocco and free
passage through Suez Canal

The First Moroccan Crisis 1905:

• in 1905, created by Wilhelm acknowledging Morocco as an independent state

and that France can only engage in northern Africa if Germany is too. France
wanted to create an agreement

Conference of Algeciras 1906:

• A diplomatic meeting held in 1906 in Algeciras, Spain. It was convened to

address tensions between European countries, particularly focusing on the
situation in Morocco. At that time, France and Germany had conflicting interests
in Morocco, and there were concerns about potential conflict over control and
influence in the region. Germany got support “only” by A-H
Daily Telegraph Affair in 1908:

• Was a complete disaster, where Wilhelm claimed to be Pro-British, but that

Germans were not, which was not seen positive on any side

Bosnian Crisis in 1908:

• Where Austria declared annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was seen
as a threat to Pan-Slavic claim by Russia and Serbian nationalists. Russia
withdrew from the conflict and Austria paid the compensation to Ottoman
Empire

Second Moroccan Crisis took place 1911:

• France occupied two Moroccan forts in Fes and Rabat in spring 1911 and
advanced further in Morocco, which was seen as violation of Algeciras treaty by
Germany and sent a gunboat named Panther into the Moroccan harbor of Agadir
so that France would pull back the claim. That action led to an agreement where
Germany got a Part of Congo and France claimed their predominance of
Morrocco. After that Britain and France empowered the Entente Cordiale
because of German course of actions

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand June 28th,1914:

• Gavrilo Princip murdered archduke of Austria and Hungary Franz Ferdinand in

Sarajevo

Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28 th ,1914:

• The ultimatum given by Austria demanded that Serbia should undertake several
strict measures, including suppressing anti-Austrian propaganda, dismissing
certain officials, and allowing Austrian officials to participate in investigations.
Serbia accepted most of the demands but rejected some, particularly those
infringing on its sovereignty. Austria-Hungary, considering the response
insufficient, declared war on Serbia shortly afterward, which contributed to the
outbreak of World War I.

Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium on August 3 rd,1914:

• “Schlieffen Plan” was a military operation with goal to quickly defeat France by
invading through Belgium, which was considered a neutral country, to avoid a
two-front war with France in the west and Russia in the east. Germany believed
 that a swift victory in France would allow them to then turn their attention to
fighting Russia.

Great Britain declares war on Germany August 4 th,1914:

• Britain had treaties with Belgium that promised to protect its neutrality, and
when Germany violated that neutrality by invading Belgium as part of the
Schlieffen Plan, Britain felt compelled to respond. Additionally, Britain
wanted to uphold the international agreements that guaranteed Belgian
neutrality and to prevent Germany from gaining too much power in Europe

Post War Germany and Weimer Republic:

Fisher-Germany was fully responsible, bcs of long preparation for war, encouraging
Austria to fight on the Balkans, aggressive and territorial aims

Clark-Multiple causes for the WW1, meaning every country has played its part in
Outbreak of the war, WW1 is a tragedy

By late 1918, many German citizens were fed up with the war. There were major food
shortages, protests and rallies throughout the country. The population blamed
Emperor Wilhelm II for the war and demanded his abdication. Most soldiers were
tired of fighting as well and wanted the war to end

9th November 1918:

• Social Democrats chairman Scheidemann announced the birth of what would

become Weimer Republic (SPD) -Power struggle between the SDP and
Communist Party

January 1919:

• Spartacus uprising (left-wing radical revolution) Freikorps was called up to

fight the revolutionaries in the street

On 15 January 1919:

• Members of a Freikorps arrested the two leaders of the uprising, Karl

Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg, assaulted and murdered them

19th January 1919:

• First democratic elections

11th February 1919:

• Friedrich Ebert became first president of the democratic regime

June 28th, 1919:

• The Treaty of Versailles was signed by Germany and the Allied Nations. The
terms of the treaty required that Germany pay financial reparations, disarm,
lose territory, and give up all its overseas colonies

14th August 1919:

• Weimer Constitution was established-ultimate authority for the president

voted every seven years, different from previous monarchy

13th March 1920:

• Klapp Putsch- liberalist coup d’état that attempted to overthrow the fledgling
Weimar Republic. Its immediate cause was the government’s attempt to
demobilize two Freikorps brigade

April 16, 1922:

• Treaty of Rapallo-between Germany and Soviet Union where financial claims

were canceled, and economic and military ties strengthened

January 1923:

• Ruhr occupation by the French

August 1923:

• Hyperinflation-Money lost its value

9th November 1923:

• Hitler Putsch (Beerhall) = Coalition group led by Hitler aimed to seize

control of the government. But it ultimately failed and nine participants,
including Hitler, were arrested by Bavarian authorities. This action was seen as
a heroic effort to save the nation from its leaders

15th November 1923:

• Gustav Stresemann introduces a new currency

16th August 1924:

 • Dawes regulates reparations (Charles Dawes)

26th April 2025:

• Paul von Hindenburg is elected as the new president

August 1925:

• Treaty of Locarno-Germanys western frontier was guaranteed by bordering

states of France and Belgium (hopeful new era of peace and cooperation)

1926:

• Germany joins the League of Nations

1st September 1929:

• Young Plan (Owens Plan) - the reparations that Germany had to pay should
have been lowered but it failed because of the Great Depression, therefore
Germanys ability to pay vanished

3rd October 1929:

• Death of Stresemann

24th October 1929:

• Black Thursday-Great Depression caused by the crash of the Wall Street-

Decline in industry and trade, worldwide which affected other industrial
countries too, but America refused to take responsibility for it, ultimately it led
to more instability in Germany

29th March 1930:

• Brüning was appointed as Chancellor

16th July 1930:

• Hindenburg dissolves the Reichstag (§25)

14th September 1930:

• New elections where Nazis and Communists made major gains

February 1932:

• Unemployment peaks at 6,128,000

10th April 1932:

 • Hindenburg defeats Hitler in presidential elections

13th April-30 May 1932:

• Brüning bans the SA but resigns a month later where Franz von Papen took over
the power and took the ban off

9th July 1932:

• Lausanne Conference ended reparations

31st July 1932:

• Nazis became the largest party in Reichstag with 37 per cent of votes, but Hitler
was not appointed as Chancellor, as Hindenburg rejected him

12th September 1933:

• Reichstag was dissolved as Papen lost

November/December 1932:

• NSDAP lost votes and Papen resigned as chancellor, whose place was taken by
General Schleicher

1933:

• NSDAP grows-Hitler, together with Papen, tried to make a deal to form a

government which ultimately happened when Hindenburg refused to back
Schleicher and appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30th January 1933

1933-1934 Hitlers Rise:

30 January 1933:

• Hitler was appointed as chancellor, only 3 NSDAP members (Hitler, Goering and
Frick) in the presidential cabinet with Franz von Papen as vice-chancellor

1 February 1933:

• Hindenburg dissolves the Reichstag, meaning new elections must take place
where Hitler aims for two thirds majority

27 February 1933:
 • Reichstag building burned down (it was trusted to be done by young Dutch
communist) This unfortunate event was used by Nazis for their propaganda

28 February 1933:

• ”Reichstagsbrandverordnung” took place which meant the suspension of

articles 114-118,123-24 and 153 of the constitution, changing the right of
personal freedom and press, but also punishment for those resisting the new
rule by either imprisonment, fine or in case of an attack on the Führer, death

5 March 1933:

• ” March Elections” took place where the government used radio, police and
pressure for their propaganda as they had power to do so (88,8% of public
voted but Nazis only get 44% but nationalist allies get 8%)
• Slogan “The battle against Marxism”

24 March 1933:

” Enabling Act”
• Article 1. Reich Cabinet can change national laws and establish them into the
constitution
• Article 2. The laws may be taken out of the constitution if it doesn't affect the
positions of Reichstag, -rat and president
• Article 3. Laws come into the effect the day after the publishment
• Article 4. The cabinet can implement treaties with other nations

7 April 1933:

• Law for the restoration of Professional Civil Service happened, meaning

Isolation of Jews and political enemies and dismission of non-Aryan civil
servants and people who oppose the system

1 May 1933:

• Mayday holiday

14 July 1933:

• Law against the formation of new parties, with KPD and SPD being banned, other
parties got dissolved by themselves, but also no new parties are allowed “One
Party State”

20 July 1933:
 • Vatican Concordat-Pope and German Reich wanted to maintain friendly intern
relations, religion in German education, those who are active in church and
study religion or philosophy do not have to undertake military service

14 October 1933:

• Reichstag got dissolved but got Nazis reelected on 12 November with 92% of
votes for Nazi candidates

1 December 1933:

• Law to secure the unity of party and state, meaning that the Nazi party is
inseparable from the statesperson of other parties and members loyalty to the
Reich and SA, if not there will be punishment

January 1934:

• Law of reconstruction of the state: local governments being overthrown by SA

and replaced by new commissioners of Reich and new Governers of Reich (often
Nazi)

30 June 1934:

• Night of long knives took place where SS shot and killed many of SA leaders
(threat to people)

2 August of 1934:

• Hindenburg dies on 2 August, formation of new leadership under new position of

Führer (President and Chancellor), army takes oath of loyalty to Hitler

Appeasement policy 1933-1939

Autumn 1933:

• Germany withdraws from the League of Nations

26 January 1934:

• Germany signs a non-aggression pact with Poland (Germany's will to have

friendly relations)

January 1935:
 • Saarland rejoins Germany after a plebiscite

March 1935:

• Hitler promised an army of 750k soldiers

1935:

• Hitler concluded the naval agreement with GB (permission for a fleet 35 per
cent the size of GBs, which also meant that GB left the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles)

March 1936:

• The Rhineland was demilitarized by Germany, and France did not bother
(which only strengthened Hitler's plans for 1940)

Rome-Berlin axis 1936:

• Coalition between Germany and Italy, a formal one too, as Italy joined the Anti-
Comintern pact between Germany and Japan against the Soviets in 1937

5 November 1937:

• “Hossbach Memorandum”- Hitler makes his plans clear to his best

commanders and ministers (Interference necessary? Germany's armament is
still in its infancy!)

March 1938:

• Austria was annexed by Germany (Unification)

May 1938:

• The Sudeten Germans got encouraged to start a turmoil, which caused

Czechoslovakia to prepare for the worse, in this case war

September 1938:

• Hitler met with GBs prime minister Neville Chamberlain, where Sudetenland
transfer to Germany got arranged

30 September 1938:

• Confirmation of Sudetenland transfer to Germany “Munich Agreement”

10 October 1938:

• Sudetenland was handed over to Germany (peace at all costs?)

State at the end of 1938:

• 79 million inhabitants almost as many as GB and France tgh. (Political power

shift in Europe and ‘Treaty of Versailles’ was strongely regulated) Worries and
fears are fueled, but also respect

Spanish Civil War 36-39:

• German military power was shown supporting the fascist leader General Franco
(against the Republicans). Germany destroyed the town of Guernica

• Germany was successful in domestic and foreign policy, but Communism was
not the main threat, National Socialism became one. (Due to the UK's conviction
that Germany was the stronghold against communism)

Wartime Conferences: 1941-1945

Atlantic Conference August 1941:

• President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met
secretly and drew up an eight-point statement of war aims known as the
“Atlantic Charter” (Rejecting territorial changes in Europe bcs. of the war)

Casablanca Conference January 1943:

• Roosevelt and Churchill met in Casablanca and agreed to fight until the Axis
powers surrendered unconditionally

Egypt Meeting November 1943:

• A meeting in Egypt between Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek, Roosevelt and

Churchill happened where the representatives agreed to an exceptionall role for
China in postwar Asia

The Tehran Meeting and Cairo Conference 1943:

 • “The big three” being, Roosevelt, Churchill, and the leader of the Soviet Union,
Joseph Stalin the launching of the cross-channel invasion was confirmed a
promise from Stalin that the Soviet Union would eventually enter the war against
Japan was made

Bretton Woods and Dumbarton Oaks Conference In 1944:

• Conferences at Bretton Woods and Dumbarton Oaks created the framework for
international cooperation in the postwar world

Yalta Conference in February 1945:

• The “Big Three” met at the former Russian czar’s summer palace in the Crimea
at Yalta Conference where:
1) Strong position of Soviet Army was recognized
2) Churchill and Roosevelt agreed on large number of compromises allowing
Soviet hegemony to stay in Poland and other Eastern countries
3) The measures against Germany were outlined
4) Stalin guaranteed war declarance on Japan within six months

Potsdam Conference Potsdam July 1945:

• Last meeting of the “Big Three” occurred, where the tension, that would erupt
into the cold war, became evident and despite the end of the war and atomic
bomb existence no one came to Agreement with Stalin! Still Japan was issued a
surrender demand and if they do not obey Japan would feel destruction!

The wartime alliance became a source of bitterness on both sides

Conflicts and Peace after the Second World War 1946-1949:

Poland:

• No success in developing a democratic state due to the exile of the government

Czechoslovakia:

• Communist Party suppressed democracy

Greece:

• Civil war between western and communist-oriented parties

Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria:

 • No impact on democratic development due to Stalin's power in the states
mentioned

Soviet Union:

• Achievements in newly created satellite states with marionette governments in

most Eastern European states, which means that the regimes were only for
show, but the actual control was in Stalin's hands

The Allies:

• Security requirements, punishment plans, and compensation demands, the

Potsdam Treaty did not contain strict provisions for the administration of the
zones of occupation. Although the future of Germany was clear in terms of
economic and social status and political structure, tensions rose between the
US and the USSR due to differing ideas about political and social structure.
(Democracy and Communism)

USA:
• Three political streams of thought developed after President Rosevelt died in
1945, first one being” isolationist approach”, second one “one world” policy and
work with USSR, and the third was rather a “realist” one, which pursued the
balance between the powers in Europe. First sketch of the latter policy was
written by American diplomat George. F Kennan named “Long Telegram”. USA
planned a rapid progressive development of Europe, and the instrument for this
was a long-lasting and costly support bricked by the liberal idea = Europe as a
political partner

Paris Conference in Spring 1946:

• The negotiations between the foreign secretaries failed, and it became clear
that the solution for the Ruhr region, the realization of reparations and the
treatment of Germany would not be easy to achieve

Second Conference in July 1946:

• The US Secretary of State proposed merging of all occupied zones into a single
economic unit. France and the Soviet Union rejected this offer, but at the same
time the UK was pleased about this welcome opportunity

Autumn 1946:
 • Verdicts were published in which 12 war criminals were sentenced to death and
one person was sentenced to many years or life imprisonment. Each occupation
zone prosecuted doctors, lawyers, members of the Foreign Ministry,
industrialists and the High Command of the Wehrmacht. In the end, 668 death
sentences were handed down in the western zones alone

February 1947:

• Peace treaties were signed between Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and
Finland, but there was still no real solution for Germany. According to Winston
Churchill's definition, an Iron Curtain was built over Europe due to Soviet policy
(1946- PM of GB Winston Churchill)

Truman Doctrine of 12 March 1947:

• In case of communist threat (or USSRs) American support is guaranteed to those

who need it. USA saw communism as the fundament of danger to democratic
and free world (Harry S. Truman)

May 1947:

• The Bizonia (Merger of GBs and American zones) has forged its own political
system and the function of it . But to be safe that it doesn't leave an idea of new
German state, the administrative work was done at several locations (Stuttgart,
Bielefeld, Minden, Bad Homburg and Frankfurt am Main), still it became
groundwork for later West Germany

2 July 1947:

• USSR rejected the aid given by USA and other Eastern European countries, but
made own program made soon after. Soviet Union proposed own program where
it was stated that US policy is of aggressive and imperialist nature and how the
communist way is the one of peace and true democracy=America as danger to
the USSR

European Recovery Program or Marshal Plan (3 April 1948/Idea started in 1947):

• Introduced three months after the Truman Doctrine and named after George
Marshall, the US Secretary of State at the time, the doctrine pledged to help
European countries with goods and money for the reconstruction of their state.
As every country needed the help to rebuild, it became an instrument for the
division of the West and the East

London Conference February to June 1948:

 • According to the Truman Doctrine, the European powers had to choose sides. At
the conference, the Western European countries (UK, France, Benelux) and the
USA decided the fate of Western Europe and the situation of Germany in the
occupation zones. The USSR was not invited to this conference!

Allied Control Council 20 March 1948:

• Soviet representatives left the council due to plans for economic integration of
West Germany (ERP)

20 June 1948:

• Deutsche Mark replaced the Reichsmark in the western zones (Every citizen gets
40 DM and after four more weeks 20 DM more)

Soviet Reaction:

• Introduction of its own currency 3 days later after the introduction of the DM and
blockade of West Berlin on the same day, which was the most radical measure
taken by the USSR up to that point

Response of the Allies:

• The Berlin Airlift was the method for supplying West Berlin with goods, which
was a proposal by the American military governor Lucius D. Clay. Clay did not
want to risk losing West Berlin. He wanted to demonstrate the political power of
the USA. The people in West Berlin were also under a lot of pressure, but they
stood their ground and passed these opsticles

Council for Mutual Economic Aid, COMECON 25 January 1949:

• USSR introduced own economic institution

12 May 1949:

• Blockades came to end, and Stalin was soon compared to Hitler due to use of
his imperialist tolls for Cold War such as psychological propaganda

Division of East and West:

Conflicting interests such as antagonistic ideology, federal structure, weak central

government, multi-party system, extensive economy, democracy and capitalism of the
USA, among the others, led the USSR to see America as the antagonist of history, just
as the USA saw the USSR (own system = best system or at least the right one)