OCR Research Methods

Information booklet
Positivism: • patterns • trends • objectivity • value freedom • quantitative data
Interpretivism: • meanings and experiences • verstehen and empathy • rapport • -
subjectivity • researcher imposition • reflexivity • qualitative data

Key research concepts: • validity • reliability • representativeness • generalisability

* use these concepts in an evaluative way when considering the research process and
methodological theories.

* It is important to understand advantages and disadvantages including reference to the

practical, ethical and theoretical factors in relation to all research methods.
• aims/hypothesis/research questions
• primary data
• secondary data
• operationalisation
• pilot studies
• data collection
• respondent validation
• longitudinal studies
• interpretation of data
• the relationship between sociology and social policy
• random sampling
• systematic sampling
• stratified sampling
• snowball sampling
• volunteer sampling
• opportunity sampling
• purposive
• quota
• Access and gatekeeping: understand how samples are accessed and the issues with
access.
• understand ethical considerations such as those used by the British Sociological
Association and why ethical principles should be followed.
• questionnaires
• structured interviews
• statistical data (official and non-official)
• content analysis
• observations (participant, non-participant, covert, overt)
• unstructured interviews
• semi structured interviews
• ethnography
• quantitative and qualitative data
• mixed methods
• triangulation
• methodological pluralism
*consider the uses of research methods in the context of social inequalities

Positivism-
Group of sociologists who use quantitative methods. Believe that sociology is a science and
that sociological research can be free from bias. They look at causes and effects as well as
patterns and trends.

• patterns • trends: People behave in very similar ways as the results of social structure.
Trends in human behaviour can clearly be seen because human behaviour is predictable,
their behaviour is the result external forces such as the way society is organised. Durkheim
called these social facts. Positivists take a ‘macro’ approach to the study of society as they
are concerned with studying how different parts of society effect its members rather than
focusing on individuals. For example, positivists interested in why groups of people are
wealthy would focus on how forces such as racism interact with social structures such as
global economies. Functionalism, Marxism, and feminism are positivists theories because
they focus on society rather than individual behaviour.
• Positivists see sociology as science and believe humans can be studied in the same way as
subject matters of the natural sciences, for example plants. They believe that sociological
research methods should test hypotheses (testable statements) should exhibit several
features if they are to be considered scientific. Some are included below:
-Objective or value free: This means the sociologist should not let their personal opinions or
values (beliefs) bias any aspect of the research method.
-Quantitative data: Numerical data, this allows patterns and trends to be revealed, these
patterns can help to discover cause and effect relationships. A cause-effect relationship is a
relationship in which one event (the cause) makes another event happen (the effect).
-Representativeness: Positivists aim to select a sample that represents the wider
population.
-Generalisations: Representative samples allow generalisations to be made based on the
data they have collected.
-Reliability: Methods should be replicable (repeatable) so that reliability can be assessed.
Scientific research is reliable.
Valid: All sociologists aim for validity, meaning the research gives a true picture of what is
being studied. Positivists think they approach is the most valid because their research is well
designed.

Interpretivism-
Group of sociologists who use qualitative methods. They believe sociological research can
never be free from bias, but this allows you to gain in-depth and rich data. They want to
know meanings and feelings of their participants and they seek to understand experiences
and will aim to build a rapport with participants. Although Interpretivists recognise that this
approach creates subjective research, they do not believe this is a problem.
• meanings and experiences: Interpretivists reject the idea that humans are predictable,
they believe that people feelings matter and influence society. People’s interpretations of
events matter.

• verstehen and empathy: Weber introduced the word ‘verstehen’ which is the German
verb ‘to understand’. We sometimes call this ‘empathy’. Interpretivists argue that to
understand society we must see the world from different people’s viewpoints.

• researcher imposition: They believe that the scientific approach is not central to good
sociological research. They suggest that there is too much focus on what the sociologist
thinks is important, for example, reliability and therefore the research may neglect what the
subject thinks.

• rapport: To gather valid data, sociologists must develop trusting relationships with their
subjects. This is the only way to get a true picture of whatever is being studied.

• reflexivity: Researchers perform self-evaluation and consider how the design of their
research may have affected the validity of their researcher, for example they could consider
how the researchers own social background could impact how they interacted with subjects
and analysed data, or consider mistakes made during the research process. This is to
counter the criticisms that research using the interpretivist approach lacks validity.

• qualitative data: Interpretivists prefer qualitative data, data in the form of words.

• ethnography: Interpretivists use ethnographic methods where they insert themselves into
the world of the of the research subject with minimal fuss and disturbance to get a valid
view.
Quantitative key terms
Patterns / trends Trends are general directions of data, such as an overall increase or
decrease in something over time. Patterns don't necessarily involve data
going one way or the other, but rather describe a repeated observation

Objectivity Research / data that is factual – no bias in the research. The researcher
does not have an influence over the findings.
Value-free Personal opinions should not influence research

Quantitative data Numbers, amounts, statistical data

Macro-approach Positivists usually research large samples and aim for generalisable data.

Qualitative key terms

Subjectivity Researchers views can / may influence research
Verstehen Understanding – to put yourself in someone else’s shoes and truly
understand them (empathy)
Rapport To build a relationship with a participant so that they feel comfortable
opening up to the researcher
Researcher effect When the researcher influences the responses the participants give e.g.
through their social characteristics / body language / leading questions etc
Researcher imposition Measuring what the researcher thinks is important, rather than the subject.
A major issue when the researcher maps about the questions and
predetermines the answers.
Hawthorne effect When a person acts differently when they know they are being watched
(use for overt observations)
Micro-approach Interested in small scale research (small samples)

Reflexivity Researcher reflect and consider evaluate how they carried out research,
they might consider
-mistakes that took place during the research
-how their own culture could influence how they got on with the subjects
and collect the data
-how power inequalities between the researcher and subject could affect
the research
Qualitative data Rich detailed (often personal) data
Value-laden Personal opinions can influence research
Key research concepts
Validity The extent to which research measures what it is supposed to measure
and gives a true picture of whatever is being studied.
Reliability The consistent of results, replicable methods are more likely to produce
reliable results.
Representativeness A sample that represents the wider population.
Generalisability The ability to apply findings to the wider population.
What are the main stages of the research process?
5x factors influencing the choice of research topic PIFAD
1. Problems Research aims to DESCRIBE issues, EXPLAIN issues, EVALUATE issues (e.g.
poverty, e.g. evaluate the success of Sure Start Centres in supporting
single mother’s back into the workplace). Sociologists are interested in
social problems (aspects of social life that cause misery) and sociological
problems (how societies and social institutions work). Often social policies
are linked to sociological research e.g poverty surveys of Townsend in the
1990s influences social policies of labour in regard to benefits and tackling
child poverty. This is referred to as the relationship between sociology and
social policy.
2. Interests and Sociologists may carry out research if they feel there are inequalities that
values of the they want to be corrected.
sociologists However, sociologists cannot be biased with the research they conduct,
even though they have an interest in it. Will they have a positivist
approach or an interpretivist approach? This is the research method.
3. Funding Most research is funded by universities and take a neutral stance and no
political agenda. Some sociological research is funded by charities and
think tanks that are interested in a particular area e.g The Runnymede Trust
focuses on racism. Some think tanks are politically motivated and therefore
only funds research that supports its perspective.
4. Access to If a sociologist wants to study a certain group of people, will they agree to
research be a part of the study. Some people are more difficult to study than
subjects others, for example powerful people or those in close institution such as
hospitals and prisons.

5. Debates What is fashionable in the academic world, this will influence what the
(current) researcher get funding for. For example, women's position in society
became very popular in the 1970’s. Now? Mental health, Covid-19, race,
knife crime
Research aim / hypothesis
The second stage of the research process is where the sociologist decides what they would like to
find out. They would establish an aim (e.g. to understand why teenagers in gangs form anti-school
subcultures), research questions (e.g. why do teachers label black boys as disruptive?) or a
hypothesis (e.g males are more likely to underachieve in education than girls). A hypothesis is a
prediction and testable statement, usually based on sociiological knowledfe.
Operationalism
Breaking down a key concept into smaller concepts so that they can be measured. This is how a
researcher breaks down & defines an aspect of society they want to study. Examples would be
class, gender or educational attainment.

E.g. Operationalising ‘working class’ as people who didn’t got to university.

Target population and sampling
The researcher must decide who their target population are. This is all of the people that they are
wanting to study.

It would be too time consuming to ask everyone in the target population their views, so the
researcher would select a small amount of them to research. This is called the sample.
Ethics
Moral issues a sociologist will have to consider when carrying out research. Issues include consent,
right to withdraw, anonymity, sensitive issues, causing distress etc (see below)
Pilot studies
A small scale study carried out by the sociologist to test whether the method works e.g. do the
questions make sense? Used to test ethics and to test whether the method gives the researcher
the information that is relevant to the research.
Check-
Are the questions understood?
Do the questions upset the subjects?
Is the sampling technique appropriate?
Are the interviewers trained?
Data collection
Primary data Research that the sociologist themselves will carry out
Secondary data The sociologist analyses existing data / research that has already been
collected
Respondent validation
The researcher will go back to the participant once they have analysed their data and check that
they have understood their answers correctly and interpreted their meanings correctly.
This is mainly used for Interpretivist research as the possibility of researcher bias is greater due to
the methods used.
However, Bryman notes that respondent validation may not work as the subjects may have
misunderstood the research or be unwilling to validate as they may interpret this as being critical
of their actions.
Interpretation of data
For numerical data, this requires presenting the data into tables and graphs in order to look for
trends and patterns.

For written data, the researcher must draw out key themes and create a theory around these.
Ethics in research
The researcher must consider ethical rules alongside all of the factors we have already
discussed above… DRIPS-L
Informed consent Tell the paricipants / or parents the full details of the study before
they start; get their permission.
Deception The BSA insist that the sociologst should not engage in any form of
this e.g withholding information about the aims of research or the
way the research will be carrued out.
Confidentiality Keep participants’ personal details private and when writing about
someone, keep them anonymous.
Right to withdraw Allow participants to leave the study at any time.
Protecting against Ensure participants do not get offended / upset or experience
harm physical or psychological harm with sensitive questions, harm to a
reputation or dangerous experiments.
Legal behaviour Ensuring that the behaviour of the sociologist is never illegal or
immoral.
Safety (personal Sociologists need to have a plan in place to ensure that they don’t
safety) end up in siutations which put themselves or their research team at
risk of any kind of harm.

Sampling key terms

Target population List of people that could meet the characteristics of who you want
to study. The group of people or institutions (family, schools etc) at
the heart of the research.
Sampling frame A list of the members of the population (e.g. school register or
postcode list).
Sample The specific people selected to complete the research.
Representativeness The sample reflects the characteristics of the rest of the target
population.
Generalisability Sociologists can apply their findings to the rest of society.
Access and gatekeeping in research (and sampling)
Access How easy it is to find the people you need for your sample
Gatekeeper A person who can help a sociologist gain access to a group of people
who fit the sample needs. This is often used when a group of people
are difficult to get hold of e.g. drug users/ gangs.
Random sampling techniques
Random Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being
chosen. Generally used by Positivists.
 +No researcher bias, as every person in the target population has an
equal chance of being chosen, the subjects are not chosen by the
researcher.
-The sample may still be unrepresentative, a particular type of
person may be overrepresented through random selection e.g
women.
-Practical issues: Time consuming as the names of everyone in the
target population has to be gathered before random selection can
occur.
Stratified random A researcher will divide the population according to the number of
people with the social characteristics needed for the study e.g.
gender or ethnicity and then make a random selection of people
from within the group. Generally used by Positivists.
+ Very representative because of the process...(see above)
+No researcher bias, as every person in the target population has an
equal chance of being chosen, the subjects are not chosen by the
researcher.
-Practical issues: Very time consuming because of the process...(see
above)
Systematic random Every nth name from the sampling frame.
+Likely to be representative because of the method used,
particularly if the sample is large.
+No researcher bias, as every person in the target population has an
equal chance of being chosen, the subjects are not chosen by the
researcher.
-The sample may still be unrepresentative, a particular type of
person may be overrepresented e.g women.

Non-random sampling techniques

Quota The researchers identify the proportion of social characteristics in
the population (age, gender, ethnicity etc) and work out the
numbers of each category that are required to be representative.
The researchers then go out to find people who fit the criteria.
Generally used by interpretivists.
+ Practical issues: Convenient, takes less time than random
stratified sampling a researcher will divide the population according
to the number of people with the social characteristics needed for
the study e.g. gender or ethnicity and then make a random
selection of people from within the group.
- Researcher bias, the subjects are not chosen by the researcher,
this could create a biased sample. For example, the researcher
might only pick people that look suitable or helpful.
+Unlikely to be representative because of the researcher selecting
participants, the subjects for example might all be from a location
close to the research.
 Purposive You simply find participants that fit your criteria – often you will
choose people you know / easy to get hold of. Generally used by
interpretivists.
+Practical issues: Convenient, takes less time than many other
sampling methods for example...
- Researcher bias, the subjects are not chosen by the researcher,
this could create a biased sample. For example, the researcher
might only pick people that look suitable or helpful.
Opportunity Similar to purposive sampling. Makes the most of situations or
opportunities where the research population is likely to be found
and includes people that are available and willing e.g. churches for
Christians, Mosques for Muslims.
+Practical issues: Convenient, it is relatively easy for researcher to
go to a location and ask people to take part in their research.
- Researcher bias, the subjects are not chosen by the researcher,
this could create a biased sample. For example, the researcher
might only pick people that look suitable or helpful.
Snowball The interviewer gains the trust of one member of a group
(gatekeeper) and is then introduced to another one, and so on, like
rolling a snowball. Generally used by interpretivists.
+Practical issues: This allows the researcher to access people that
may be difficult to find, for example people that are deviant in some
way.
- There is no guarantee about the representativeness of samples. It
is not possible to determine the actual pattern of distribution of
population.

Volunteer When people respond to an advert and willingly volunteer.

+Practical issues: Convenient, subjects approach the researcher and
so the researcher does not need to spend time approaching people
are carrying out random sampling methods
-Representativeness: Certain types of people may be more likely to
volunteer for example people that are educated and interested in
sociological research.

What methods are used in sociological research?

Research methods
Questionnaires Questionnaires are the most common form of survey and can be
distributed and returned by post or in person. Respondents provide
answers to pre-set questions which are usually ‘closed’ (where
respondents pick between a set of pre-coded answers).
Questionnaires are a primary data collection method and are
preferred by Positivists.
Structured Structured interviews are like a questionnaire but face-to-face or
interviews over the phone. They contain standardised questions which are
asked to every participant in the same order and in the same way.
 Structured tend to use closed questions. They are a primary,
quantitative method preferred by Positivists.
Statistical data Official statistics is numerical data compiled and often commissioned
(official and by the government. They are owned by the government but can be
unofficial) accessed and used by the public. The most commonly available
source of official statistics are those from the Census.

Unofficial- collects by non-governmental sources such as employers,

professional bodies, trade unions, political parties, think tanks,
charities and salt fish.

They are a secondary method and produce quantitative data which is

preferred by Positivists.
Content analysis Content analysis is a method used to analyse the content of a media.
It is a way of quantifying sounds, pictures or text, often through
using a tally chart to count the number of times a particular issue
occurs, these are referred to as coding units. This is a primary
quantitative method as it gives statistical results and is preferred by
Positivists.

For example, content analysis could be used to analyse how ethnic

minorities are presented in news programmes. The coding units
include presented as ‘expert’ ‘criminal’ ‘news reader’ and then the
sociologist would watch the news programmes and record each time
there was evidence of a coding unit.
Observations Observations watch people in their natural environment. In an
(participant, non- unstructured observation the researcher will write down what see.
participant, This primary method produces qualitative data and is preferred by
covert, overt) interpretivists.
Unstructured Like an informal conversation, the interviewer has the freedom on
interviews how to conduct the interview, they can adjust the interview as they
go along. To gain some control over the interview they will go with a
set of topic areas to cover. This is a primary method that produces
qualitative data and is preferred by interpretivists.
Semi-structured Seen as halfway between structured and unstructured interviews.
interviews They contain some pre-set standardised questions but have the
opportunity for the researcher to ask additional questions if they
wish. They are a primary method and can be seen as obtaining both
quantitative and qualitative data and they cancel out the major
disadvantages of structured and unstructured interviews.
Focus groups A group of people who are asked to discuss a particular topic or
issue, they are sometimes given stimulus to aid discussion e.g. a
video or article
Ethnography Ethnography is an in-depth understanding of a social group.
Ethnographic studies will usually use participant observations and
sometimes unstructured interviews. Usually preferred by
interpretivists.
 Longitudinal A longitudinal study is carried out over a period of years in order to
studies study changes over time. There are no set methods used in
longitudinal studies. Often, they include interviews / questionnaires
and at times use a mixed method or ethnographic approach.
Probably the most famous example of a longitudinal study was 7up!
Where a group of sociologists have been back to the same group of
children every 7 years to see how their lives have progressed.
Case studies A case study is an in-depth investigation. It can often be on a specific
event, place or social group. A variety of methods could be used for a
sociologist to build up their case study e.g. unstructured interviews
and questionnaires.
Mixed methods Mixed methods refer to the use of more than one sociological
method to check findings.

Mixed methods terms

Triangulation The use of two or more methods to verify the validity of findings. For
example, conducting an observation and then interviewing subjects
to so the researcher can check that their interpretations of the
observations were correct.
Methodological The use of two or more methods to gain a fuller picture – one
pluralism quantitative and one qualitative. Involves using primary and
secondary methods, and qualitative and quantitative methods.

Case studies involve studying one person or case using a variety of

methods. For example, observing, interviewing someone over
multiple years.
Fit for purpose Choosing a research method that best fits the aims of the study.

Why used?
To check validity of data from one source against another. Alternative methods may
provide data which could not be obtained from just one method. To increase reliability of
findings e.g. by checking consistency of findings. To improve representativeness e.g. by
using methods which involved formal sampling alongside less representative forms of data.
To generate ideas to be investigated further using other methods. To fill in gaps left by
one method with data from others

Advantages of questionnaires Disadvantages of questionnaires

Reliability - Different researchers can use No rapport built-The researcher is less
the same questions, this makes likely to get valid data as the respondent
questionnaires replicable (repeatable) and may be less likely to be open and honest
so more reliable. and may to try to present themselves in a
No researcher effect – There is no contact certain way.
from the researcher to effect results Researcher imposition
making the research valid. Closed questions suffer from the
Representative - Can gather data from large imposition problem, they measure what
numbers, so results are more likely to be the sociologist thinks is important rather
 representative of the wider population. than the subject. The respondent may
Questionnaire findings therefore allow have to select answers from options that
accurate generalisations to be made about don’t necessarily reflect how they feel but
the wider population are based on the researchers perspective.
Practical - questionnaires are a cheap and Subjects misinterpret questions-
easy way to collect data from large -There is no direct contact between the
numbers of people. Data is easy to quantify researcher and the respondent creates
because the answers are the pre-coded and detachment and therefore lacks validity as
therefore patterns and trends can be easily the researcher cannot clarify any issues the
identified. respondent might have. For example,
Quantitative data is easy to analyse, trends respondents could misinterpret the
and patterns can be revealed easily. meaning of questions.
Quantitative data may lack depth, real life
is too complex to be measured using closed
questions and short responses, this measns
the research may lack validity.
Practical issues - Questionnaires must be
brief as respondents unlikely to complete
long ones. Major problem with postal
questionnaires of low return rate.
Sometimes questionnaires are written
badly resulting in a low response rate
Ethical issues-if the questions are sensitive

Structured interviews which might include: Questions are administered face-to-face by an

interviewer. Questions are usually standardised/same for all respondents. Typically
include a large proportion of closed questions. Usually used to generate quantitative data.
Favoured by positivist sociologists as more scientific/precise/objective.

Advantages of structured interviews Disadvantages of structured interviews

 Reliability - All respondents are faced with Further questions cannot be asked - Pre-
the same questions in the same order and coded and standardised questions mean
format and therefore the answers and that the interviewer cannot follow leads
questions are standardized – this increases and delve deeper into feelings reducing the
the reliability. This makes it easy to identify validity.
patterns and trends. Lack of rapport and verstehen-It is difficult
Practical - Due to pre-coded questions a for the researcher to develop a rapport and
high level of skill by the interviewer isn’t verstehen due to the rigid nature of the
required as they don’t need to amend interview. The subject may be more likely
questions based on answers given to be dishonest when compared to an
Quantitative data- Easy to analyse, allows for unstructured or semi-structured interview
patterns/trends to be revealed. due to the lack of rapport.
Researcher bias is unlikely-Questions are set Researcher effect – The subject may
and so the researcher cannot amend the answer differently due to the presence of
questions based on their own opinions leading
the researcher e.g. through body language,
to more objective data.
tone of voice in questioning or due to the
Qualitative data
Rapport and Verstehen- More so when social characteristics of the interviewer for
compared to a questionnaire example their race, gender.
Practical issues - Interviews are time-
consuming and trained interviewers are
often expensive.
Risk of researcher imposition- Questions
are set and decided by the researcher,
before the interviewee has given any
answers, therefore the questions may
measure what the researcher thinks is
important, not the subject
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Ethical issues-If the questions are sensitive

Unstructured interviews which might include: Questions are administered face-to-face by

an interviewer. Questions are not standardised/same for all respondents. Typically
include a large proportion of open questions. Usually used to generate qualitative data.
Favoured by interpretivist sociologists as more unstructured, qualitative approach,

Advantages of unstructured interviews Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Validity - Unstructured interviews are Lacks reliability - Unstructured interviews
believed to provide a deeper and truthful are unreliable as each interview is unique
picture and are therefore valid due to the and are therefore difficult to replicate
detailed qualitative data produced. his is Unrepresentativeness - Small numbers
achieved through a number of ways: makes sample less representative and as a
- Interviewer builds up a relationship result it makes it harder to make
with the interviewee creating trust (for generalisations
example a female interviewer is likely to
 find it easier to build up trust with a Researcher effect - The subject may answer
woman who has been a victim of differently due to the presence of the
domestic violence, this is known as researcher e.g. through body language,
rapport tone of voice in questioning or due to the
- Can build empathy for the person they social characteristics of the interviewer for
are interviewing (verstehen) example their race, gender. Additionally
- No set questions give interviewer the interviewers can lead interviewees into a
chance to speak about things that are particular answer, they may influence the
really important to the interviewee and response effecting the validity. This often
explore new leads. known as the researcher effect. This is more
- The subject can explain questions so no of an issue then a structured interview as
danger of interviewee misunderstanding the interviewer can change and amend the
questions questions.
-Less risk of researcher imposition, as the Ethics - More likely to suffer from ethical
researcher can amend the questions based issues such as asking sensitive questions
on the answers given Impractical - Interviews take a long time
and interviewers need training to make
sure they have good personal skills. Costs
are usually high due to the length of time it
takes to carry out the interviews and the
cost to train interviewers
Qualitative data- Difficult to analyse and so
more likely to suffer from researcher bias

*Semi-structured, combination of the advantages and disadvantages of structured and

unstructured

Advantages of statistics Disadvantages of statistics

Reliability – Official statistics are collected Quantitative - not possible to identify
in a systematic, standardised way. reasons and meanings behind the data as
Representative - usually deal with a large you cannot find out how the respondents
sample that is representative of the felt. Furthermore, as the data is secondary
population and therefore generalisations the researcher has not met the subjects
can be made. themselves in order to develop an
Objective – likely to be value free as the understanding of their experiences.
researcher does not have the opportunity Bias- Some argue that statistics can be
to influence the results that create the biased. For example, they could and show
data. This is because the data is secondary what the government want them to – they
and so isn’t collected by the researcher can be manipulated. For example, the way
themselves, the researcher has no contact the government defines poverty could be
with the subjects. different to sociologists, sociologists are
Practical – due to the data being secondary, more like to use ‘relative’ whereas the
it is easy and cheap for sociologists to government will use absolute. Or an
access (e.g. from a website). employer may want to present their
Quantitative- Easy to analyse, interpret, see company in a particular way, so they only
trends, patterns etc publish some statistics and not others.

Advantages of content analysis Disadvantages of content analysis

Reliability - it follows systematic Subjective - Sometimes difficult to decide
procedures which can be repeated as other which categories texts, sounds and pictures
researchers can use the same categories. should be in, each researcher will interpret
Quantitative-This makes it possible to see these differently. Research also decides
patterns and trends. It quantifies the which coding units to use. Researcher bias
meaning of text, can uncover the frequency is an issue.
of which they occur. Quantitative - Not considered a valid
Practical - relatively cheap and easy to method as it doesn’t provide meanings or
conduct as sources are widely available reasons, just patterns and trend.
Extremely important in studying the mass Impractical -It can be time consuming as
media. media products may need to be checked
Comparative method-It is a comparative over a long period of time.
method and can be used to record changes
over time, as the results can be compared
over time or differences between different
media outputs.

Advantages of semi-structured interviews Disadvantages of semi-structured

interviews
Reliability – some elements of reliability as Lacks full validity – due to a number of the
some of the questions are standardised questions being pre-set it could prevent the
comparisons and patterns and trends can research fully gaining verstehen as the
be drawn interview is not in-depth enough
Validity – an opportunity to ask additional Lacks full reliability – as some of the
questions and probe for deeper meaning questions are not standardised, the
provides greater insight and possibility of researcher will not be able to fully compare
developing a rapport all elements of the interviews
Triangulation – gain positive elements from Researcher effect - could change results
gaining two types of data e.g. through body language, tone of voice in
questioning or due to the social
characteristics of the interviewer
Ethnography is an in-depth understanding of a social group. Ethnographic studies will
usually use participant observations and sometimes unstructured interviews. Usually
preferred by interpretivists.
*See advantages and disadvantages of unstructured interviews and participant observations

Advantages of primary data Disadvantages of primary data

Valid- Research is designed with a specific Practical- More expensive and time
aim in mind and so the research is more consuming than secondary data as the
likely to give a true picture of what is being research has to be designed and carried out
studied

Advantages of secondary data Disadvantages of secondary data

Practical- Cheaper and less time consuming Validity issues – Research may not quite fir
than primary data, the data already exists, the aims of the research and so might not
research doesn’t have to be carried out give a true picture of what is being studied
Ethical- If research/data is already in the
public domain, there is no need to gather
consent, additionally if data is already
anonymised, researcher don’t have to
anonymise the data to maintain
confidentiality

Advantages of focus groups Disadvantages of focus groups

Validity - respondents feel more Validity issues - Respondents may not
comfortable due to the group basis and disclose sensitive material in front of group
therefore are more likely to be honest and and respondents may over exaggerate or
members of the group can bounce ideas off not be honest due to being part of a group
each other which would decrease the validity
Practical - Interviewer can tailor the topic Researcher effect – as researcher is present
around the specific group and more Lacks reliability - very difficult to replicate
respondents are likely to take part due to the process and see patterns and trends
the group nature Practical issues - can be difficult for to
record the data

Advantages of observations Disadvantages of observations

Validity – gives rich, in-depth data as they Unrepresentative - Not representative as
see how they actually behave groups small and specific and therefore
cannot make generalisations
 Rapport – the researcher has the time and Lacks reliability - Unreliable as cannot be
opportunity to build a good relationship replicated and standardised and therefore
with the participants difficult to see patterns and trends
Verstehen – particularly if participant the Validity issues – researcher selects
researcher will truly understand their life information which they believe is worth
and gain empathy recording
Ecological validity – participants are ‘Hawthorne effect’ – subjects act differently
watched in their natural environment when being watched (overt)
which increases the likeliness that they will Subjective – researcher can become too
act naturally involved in the research which can reduce
validity
Impractical - Time-consuming, researcher
needs to be trained, personally stressful
and sometimes dangerous
Ethical problems – no consent, take away
privacy

Types of observations
There are a number of different types of observations. Most of them share the same
advantages and disadvantages (in the table) but I have put below if there are specific ones:

Participant Observation – researcher joins in everyday life of group

Advantages –
Gives verstehen as you truly understand how they live/ feel, rapport, could be unethical
Disadvantages – Raises ethical issues if activities deviant, more likely to become too
involved and subjective.
Higher risk of researcher effect as the researcher may develop relationships with the
subjects and become biased.

Non-participant Observation – researcher observes group without taking part

Advantages - Observer less likely to influence group behaviour and researcher have more
opportunity to use researcher aids e.g. notebooks, voice recorders.
Disadvantages -Researchers have less opportunities for discovering meanings which direct
the actions of those they observe.

Covert Observation – ‘under cover’, researcher conceals real identity and purpose. Uses
false identity and often poses as a genuine member of the group
Advantages – Reduces the hawthorne effect.
Disadvantages – Ethical are more likely as subjects are observed watch without their
consent.

Overt Observation – researcher reveals true identity and purpose to group and asks
permission to observe
Advantages – more ethical and researcher can easily record findings
Disadvantages – increases hawthorne effect
Advantages of longitudinal studies Disadvantages of longitudinal studies
See changes – due to length of time Practical issues - extremely time consuming
studying group you can see and very expensive
developments over a period of time. Unrepresentative - Difficult to find a sample
Detail - High in validity as you get an in- that you can study for a long length of time
depth understanding of people’s lives and unlikely to be a large group.
due to the amount of time spent with Furthermore certain types of subjects may
them. drop out, leaving a biased sample.
Rapport and Verstehen – likely to build Subjective – researcher can become too
relationship with participants over time, heavily involved in the research and can
this can increase validity and therefore become biased affecting valifity.
the researcher can put themselves into Researcher effect – due to the amount of time
the subjects shoes. the researcher spends with the group. The
researcher may develop a relationship with
the subjects and become biased.
Lacks reliability – very difficult to make
comparisons with other groups or repeat the
study. Due to a lack of control of multiple
variables.

Advantages of case studies Disadvantages of case studies

Triangulation - using a variety of methods Unrepresentative - often a small sample
that give both quantitative and qualitative size that is not representative and therefore
data can create triangulation not generalisable
Validity – range of methods can build up an Ethical issues - can be raised when carrying
understanding of meanings, experiences out an in-depth study into vulnerable
and therefore achieve verstehen – have groups
understanding and empathy of the people Subjectivity – as researcher can become too
involved as can often build up rapport over involved in group and therefore is difficult
the long period of time to keep value freedom
Researcher effect – due to involvement of
researcher, they could affect the results

Advantages of mixed methods Disadvantages of mixed methods

Validity - By adding qualitative methods to Practical issues – more expensive/ time-
quantitative you can add meaning to consuming etc. to do more than one
numbers (increase validity) method and requires skill to analyse both
Reliability - By adding quantitative methods sets of results. The researcher has to
to qualitative you can add more accuracy to ensure that the methods complement each
words and may be able to increase other
reliability Theoretical issues - Sociologists who side
Therefore the strengths of the methods can with a particular methodological theory
cancel out the other disadvantages prefer to stick to certain types of methods
Practical - A broader range of research
questions can be explored
 Favour Critical of
Positivists Quantitative data All observations because they
Questionnaires tend to produce qualitative
Structured interviews data and are usually difficult to
Non-participant replicate
ONS Qualitative data
Content analysis Unstructured interviews
Case studies
Longitudinal research
Participant observations
Interpretivists Qualitative data ONS
Unstructured interviews Content analysis
Case studies Quantitative data
Longitudinal research Questionnaires
Participant observations Structured interviews
Ethnographic methods Non-participant
Focus groups
Observations in general
because the researcher
observes first hand and not
the product of what they think
is important which is often the
case with questionnaires and
interviews.

The relationship between sociology and social policy