EXODUS

INTRODUCTION

35
Introduction
We have divided the Book of Exodus into Four Parts:
• Part One (1:1 – 15:21) tells to story of Israel in slavery in Egypt, the birth and mission
of Moses, the confrontation between Moses and the Pharaoh, and Israel’s escape across
the Red Sea.
• Part Two (15:22 – 18:27) tells the story of their journey through the wilderness
• Part Three (19:1 – 24:18) recounts the revelation given to Moses on Mount Sinai
• Part Four (25:1 – 40:28) gives the directions for the erection and furnishing of the tab-
ernacle (25:1 – 31:18), tells the story of the breaking of the covenant and its renewal
(32:1 – 34:35), and concludes with the building of the tabernacle (35:1 – 40:38).
The cultic material, which makes up half the book, is from the Priestly School. The rest
consists mostly of stories that are traditional, and that have been shaped by the various
schools, including the Priestly School and the Deuteronomic School, and reveal a rich
and hard-won consensus, the result of much dialogue, discussion and debate on how best
to communicate the essence of the covenant revealed by YHWH to Moses. Nowhere do
we find more beautifully expressed the essence of what it is to be YHWH’s ‘treasured
possession’, a priestly kingdom and a holy nation’(Exodus 19:5-6).

36
LIBERATION FROM OPPRESSION

EXODUS 1,1 - 15,21

37
The Israelites in Egypt

1
These are the Verses one to four summarise the account already given in
names of the sons Genesis 46:8-25. The number ‘seventy’(1:5) comes from there
of Israel who came (46:27). Verse six recalls Joseph’s death, mentioned in the final
to Egypt with verse of Genesis, and adds the statement that all his brothers
Jacob, each with also died, ‘that whole generation’.
his household: Verse seven marks a new situation. Jacob’s family (1:1) has
2
Reuben, Simeon, become ‘the Israelites’. A family has become a nation. ‘The
Levi, and Judah, land was filled with them’(1:7) – not the land of promise, but
3
Issachar, Zebulun, the land of Egypt. We are meant to recall God’s blessing of
and Benjamin, humankind at the beginning:
4
Dan and Naphtali,
God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and
Gad and Asher. multiply, and fill the earth.”
5
The total number – Genesis 1:28
of people born to We recall also God’s blessing when humankind had a new
Jacob was seventy. beginning after the purification of the flood:
Joseph was already God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, “Be fruit-
in Egypt. ful and multiply, and fill the earth.”
– Genesis 9:1
6
Then Joseph died,
and all his broth- We remember God’s promise to Abraham when he called him
ers, and that whole to journey to the Promised Land:
generation. YHWH said to Abram, “Go from your country and your
kindred and your father’s house to the land that I will show
7
But the Israelites you. I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you,
were fruitful and and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I
prolific; they mul- will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you
tiplied and grew I will curse; and in you all the families of the earth shall be
exceedingly strong, blessed.”
so that the land – Genesis 12:1
was filled with Is God blessing Egypt through Israel? But what about God’s
them. promise to Jacob?
I am God, the God of your father; do not be afraid to go
down to Egypt, for I will make of you a great nation there.
I myself will go down with you to Egypt, and I will also
bring you up again”
– Genesis 46:3-4
Jacob was taken back (Genesis 50:7-13), but what about the
Israelites? When will Joseph’s final words be realised?
I am about to die; but God will surely come to you, and
bring you up out of this land to the land that he swore to
Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob … When God comes to
you, you shall carry up my bones from here.
– Genesis 50:24-25
When will God come?

38
 Exodus 1:8-19
The Pharaoh who knew Joseph recog- Now a new king arose over Egypt,
8

nised him as ‘one in whom is the spirit who did not know Joseph.
of God’(Genesis 41:38), and put him in 9
He said to his people, “Look, the
charge of administering Egypt. In this way
Israelite people are more numer-
the Pharaoh opened Egypt to receive the
ous and more powerful than we.
blessing offered by YHWH. He welcomed 10
Come, let us deal wisely with
Jacob and his family, offering them ‘the best
them, or they will increase and, in
of the land of Egypt’(Genesis 45:18). Jacob
the event of war, join our enemies
blessed him (Genesis 47:10). Egypt was a
and fight against us and escape
recipient of YHWH’s promise to Abraham:
from the land.” 11Therefore they set
‘In you all the families of the earth shall be
taskmasters over them to oppress
blessed’(Genesis 12:3).
them with forced labour. They built
Now ‘a new king arose over Egypt, who did supply cities, Pithom and Rameses,
not know Joseph’(1:8). He is afraid because for Pharaoh. 12But the more they
‘the Israelite people are more numerous and were oppressed, the more they
more powerful than we’ (1:9) and is im- multiplied and spread, so that the
mediately portrayed as stubbornly opposed Egyptians came to dread the Israel-
to God’s promise: ‘they might escape from ites. 13The Egyptians became ruth-
the land’(1:10). He is also portrayed as a less in imposing tasks on the Isra-
tyrant. He decides on a policy of oppression, elites, 14and made their lives bitter
forcing the Israelite people into slavery. with hard service in mortar and
‘Pithom’ means the ‘House of Atum’(the brick and in every kind of field la-
sun-god). ‘Rameses’ (see Genesis 47:11) bour. They were ruthless in all the
was the royal delta residence of Rameses tasks that they imposed on them.
II (1279-1213BC). His policy fails, for the 15
The king of Egypt said to the
Israelites continue to multiply and spread
Hebrew midwives, one of whom
(1:12). A power greater than the king of
was named Shiphrah and the other
Egypt is at work.
Puah, 16“When you act as midwives
Oppression increases and the king secretly to the Hebrew women, and see
determines to wipe out male babies. This is them on the birthstool, if it is a boy,
a folk tale. They thought that life came from kill him; but if it is a girl, she shall
the male. We are being prepared for the birth live.” 17But the midwives feared
of a special male child. This stubborn and God; they did not do as the king of
tyrannical king, the repository of wisdom Egypt commanded them, but they
(1:10), is also a comic figure, naive enough let the boys live. 18So the king of
to be outwitted by the midwives. ‘Shiphrah’ Egypt summoned the midwives and
means ‘beauty’; ‘Puah’ may mean ‘radiant’ said to them, “Why have you done
or perhaps simply ‘girl’. The women outwit this, and allowed the boys to live?”
him because they ‘fear God’: they obey God’s 19
The midwives said to Pharaoh,
will, not the will of Pharaoh. In this dramatic “Because the Hebrew women are
folk tale, the first character on stage is the not like the Egyptian women; for
dark ‘demon’. There is no point in trying to they are vigorous and give birth
identify him with an historical Pharaoh. before the midwife comes to them.”

39
The birth of Moses
20
So God dealt well with the mid- Pharaoh’s second attempt also fails, and
wives; and the people multiplied and God gives the midwives a share in the
became very strong. 21And because blessing. The oppressor commands ‘all
the midwives feared God, he gave his people’ to kill every male child of the
them families. 22Then Pharaoh com- Hebrews. When ‘the earth was filled with
manded all his people, “Every boy violence’ (Genesis 6:11), God brought on
that is born to the Hebrews you shall the flood to ‘blot out from the earth the
throw into the Nile, but you shall let human beings that I have created’(Gen.
every girl live.” 6:7). This time, God sends a saviour: a
2:1
Now a man from the house of Levi new birth to counter the violence of the
went and married a Levite woman. new king. We are introduced to the second
2
The woman conceived and bore a character of the dramatic story.
son; and when she saw that he was a The word translated ‘basket’(ḥëbâ) is
fine baby, she hid him three months. also used for Noah’s ‘ark’, and only in
3
When she could hide him no longer these two situations. This ‘basket’ is the
she got a papyrus basket for him, and new ark of salvation, floating among the
plastered it with bitumen and pitch; ‘reeds’(sûp). In human terms, God’s re-
she put the child in it and placed it sponse appears weak. Again it is a woman
among the reeds on the bank of the whose compassion (2:6) thwarts the will
river. 4His sister stood at a distance, of the pharaoh, and the irony is that the
to see what would happen to him. woman is his daughter. At the heart of
5
The daughter of Pharaoh came down the empire all is not evil.
to bathe at the river, while her at- As is customary in the folk tales of the
tendants walked beside the river. Bible, a name is explained by a similar
She saw the basket among the reeds sounding word, māšâ (‘draw out’, 2:10).
and sent her maid to bring it. 6When In fact ‘Moses’ is the second part of an
she opened it, she saw the child. He Egyptian name, such as Thutmose or
was crying, and she took pity on him, Rameses, meaning ‘son of …’. Presum-
“This must be one of the Hebrews’ ably an Egyptian god’s name has been re-
children,” she said. 7Then his sister moved from the beginning of his name.
said to Pharaoh’s daughter, “Shall I go
and get you a nurse from the Hebrew In the New Testament, Matthew models
women to nurse the child for you?” his portrait of Herod on Pharaoh. Herod,
8
Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, “Yes.” too, tries to eliminate the Saviour by kill-
So the girl went and called the child’s ing all the male children (Matthew 2:16).
mother. 9Pharaoh’s daughter said to Once again ‘Rachel [the mother of the
her, “Take this child and nurse it for Israelites] is weeping for her children;
me, and I will give you your wages.” she refuses to be comforted for her chil-
So the woman took the child and dren, because they are no more’(Jeremiah
nursed it. 10When the child grew up, 31:15; see Matthew 2:18). The Samaritan
she brought him to Pharaoh’s daugh- Version and Rabbinic midrashim speak
ter, and she took him as her son. She of cosmological wonders at the birth of
named him Moses, “because,” she Moses. Matthew draws on these, too, in
said, “I drew him out of the water.” his story of the star guiding the wise men.

40
 Exodus 2:11-22
We are left to imagine the life of privi- 11
One day, after Moses had grown
lege led by Moses since his adoption by up, he went out to his people and
Pharaoh’s daughter. Here we see him saw their forced labour. He saw an
coming face to face with his enslaved Egyptian beating a Hebrew, one of his
people, and with courage taking their kinsfolk. 12He looked this way and
side against their oppressors. that, and seeing no one he killed the
However, we have heard nothing from Egyptian and hid him in the sand.
God. We are watching Moses acting from
13
When he went out the next day, he
his own sympathy and sense of justice, but saw two Hebrews fighting; and he
without a mission from God. His first in- said to the one who was in the wrong,
stinctive reaction is a violent one, and one “Why do you strike your fellow He-
that he is forced to hide. It does not work. brew?” 14He answered, “Who made
A Hebrew (‘ibri; from ‘abiru: a stateless you a ruler and judge over us? Do
person?) asks the pertinent question: you mean to kill me as you killed the
‘Who made you a ruler and judge over Egyptian?” Then Moses was afraid
us?(2:14). The answer is clearly ‘No one’. and thought, “Surely the thing is
Moses has no authority. His privileged known.” 15When Pharaoh heard of it,
upbringing does not give it to him, and he sought to kill Moses.
his choice to side with his people means But Moses fled from Pharaoh. He
that he has to flee from Pharaoh. settled in the land of Midian, and sat
Acts 7:23-29,35 sees the rejection of Mo- down by a well.
ses as part of a tradition which culminated
16
The priest of Midian had seven
in the rejection of Jesus. The Letter to daughters. They came to draw water,
the Hebrews 11:24-27 uses this story to and filled the troughs to water their
portray Moses as a man of faith. father’s flock. 17But some shepherds
came and drove them away. Moses
Moses is a fugitive in Midian (see Gen-
got up and came to their defense and
esis 25:2,4). Again his sense of justice
watered their flock. 18When they
is shown when, though an unprotected
returned to their father Reuel, he said,
foreigner, he defends the rights of the
“How is it that you have come back
daughters of the priest of Midian, Reuel
so soon today?” 19They said, “An
(‘kinsman [rēa‘] of God [’el]’), against the
Egyptian helped us against the shep-
shepherds. In Genesis 36 the name ‘Reuel’
herds; he even drew water for us and
is connected with clans of Edom. Only
watered the flock.” 20He said to his
here and in Numbers 10:29 is Reuel given
daughters, “Where is he? Why did you
as the name of Moses’ father-in-law.
leave the man? Invite him to break
He is welcomed into Reuel’s household, bread.”
marries one of the daughters, Zipporah 21
Moses agreed to stay with the man,
(‘bird’), and has a son whom he names and he gave Moses his daughter Zip-
Gershom (‘a wanderer [gēr] there [šām]’), porah in marriage.
stressing the fact that Moses (like the pa- 22
She bore a son, and he named him
triarchs, Genesis 26:3; 35:27) is dwelling
Gershom; for he said, “I have been an
in a foreign land.
alien residing in a foreign land.”

41
God remembers his covenant
23
After a long time the Finally, the unseen power whose will determines every-
king of Egypt died. The thing that happens in our story is introduced. It is God,
Israelites sighed under introduced as One who hears and responds to those who
their slavery, and cried ‘sigh’ ‘cry out’, ‘cry for help’ ‘groan’ (four different verbs
out. Out of the slavery in two verses). The psalmist proclaims:
their cry for help rose up He did not despise or abhor the affliction of the af-
to God. flicted; he did not hide his face from me, but heard
24
God heard their groan- when I cried to him.
ing, and God remem- – Psalm 22:24
bered his covenant with This poor soul cried, and was heard by YHWH, and
Abraham, Isaac, and was saved from every trouble.
Jacob. – Psalm 34:6
25
God looked upon the YHWH hears the needy, and does not despise his own
Israelites, and God took that are in bonds.
notice of them. – Psalm 69:33
YHWH lifts up the downtrodden.
– Psalm 147:6
The instrument of God’s compassion, as we are about
to see, is Moses. Moses has the background that fits
him for the task, and the personal courage to stand up
for justice that the task will require. But on their own
these cannot help the oppressed. Their situation requires
the action of God ‘remembering’. It was when ‘God
remembered Noah’(Genesis 8:1) that the flood receded,
and God promised to ‘remember’ his commitment to
Noah (Genesis 9:15-16). Redemption came when God
‘remembered’ Abraham (Genesis 19:29), and when he
‘remembered’ Rachel (Genesis 30:22). Now we are
told that ‘God remembered his covenant with Abraham
(Genesis 15:18; 17), Isaac (Genesis 17:21), and Jacob
(see Genesis 50:24-25)’. God is about to ‘come to’ his
people (Genesis 50:24-25).
Matthew echoes this scene, too, in his portrayal of Jesus
as the new Moses. Just as the death of the oppressor king
is the occasion for God’s redeeming action in Egypt, so
it is the death of Herod (Matthew 2:19) that brings the
Saviour back from Egypt to redeem his people.
The stage is set for the confrontation between violence
and compassion, between Pharaoh of Egypt and YHWH,
the God of Israel. For, though one king has died, it is the
oppressive system that is the problem, and we will soon
see that nothing has changed.

42
 Exodus 3:1-6
God ‘took David from the sheepfolds … to be the shepherd 1
Moses was keeping
of his people’(Psalm 78:70-71). So it is here with Moses. the flock of his fa-
In Exodus 2:28 Moses’ father-in-law was called ‘Reuel’. ther-in-law Jethro, the
Here, however, and in 4:18 and again in chapter 18, he is priest of Midian; he
called ‘Jethro’. The authors of Exodus are drawing on two led his flock beyond
traditions. Likewise with the ‘mountain of God’, called the wilderness, and
‘Horeb’ here (3:1), in Exodus 33:6, and regularly in Deu- came to Horeb, the
teronomy, but for the rest of the Torah called ‘Sinai’. Sirach mountain of God.
combines the traditions:
2
There the angel of
You [Elijah] heard rebuke at Sinai YHWH appeared to
and judgments of vengeance at Horeb. him in a flame of
– Sirach 48:7 (see 1Kings 19:8) fire out of a bush; he
looked, and the bush
The expression ‘the angel of YHWH’ is first employed in was blazing, yet it was
Genesis 16:7-11 when Hagar is encountered at a spring by not consumed. 3Then
a stranger through whom YHWH gives her a message. It is Moses said, “I must
YHWH who encounters Hagar, but through a messenger. turn aside and look at
The next time Hagar is banished, it is ‘the angel of God this great sight, and
from heaven’ who speaks to her (Genesis 21:17). It is ‘the see why the bush is
angel of YHWH’ who calls to Abraham ‘from heaven’ in- not burned up.”
structing him not to kill Isaac (Genesis 22:11-15). When 4
When YHWH saw that
Abraham sends his servant to Haran to find a wife for Isaac,
he had turned aside
he promises him that YHWH will ‘send his angel before
to see, God called to
you’(Genesis 24:7, 40). Jacob tells his wives of a dream
him out of the bush,
in which ‘the angel of God’ spoke to him (Genesis 31:11),
“Moses, Moses!” And
and, as he blesses Joseph’s sons, he identifies ‘the angel
he said, “Here I am.”
who has redeemed me from all harm’ with ‘the God before 5
Then he said, “Come
whom my ancestors Abraham and Isaac walked, the God
no closer! Remove
who has been my shepherd all my life to this day’(Genesis
the sandals from your
48:15-16). ‘The angel of YHWH’ is a way of speaking of
feet, for the place on
YHWH while preserving YHWH’s transcendence. In our hu-
which you are stand-
man experience, God’s communication is always mediated.
ing is holy ground.”
In this scene the medium experienced by Moses is a fire 6
He said further, “I
blazing in, but not consuming, a bush (senê - some specu-
am the God of your
late that ‘Sinai’ may come from this word). To find what
father, the God of
is ‘of YHWH’ here we must attend to the message. Moses
Abraham, the God of
is on ‘holy ground’(’adāmâ qodeš, 3:5; compare Jacob at
Isaac, and the God of
Bethel, Genesis 28:16-17). The God who breaks into his
Jacob.”
life is the God of his people (for ‘God of my father’, see
Genesis 31:5,42; 32:9), the God of the patriarchs (Genesis And Moses hid his
50:24), the God who hears the cry of his people in Egypt face, for he was afraid
and ‘remembers his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and to look at God.
Jacob’(Exodus 2:24). Moses removes his sandals, acknowl-
edging that he is the slave of this awesome God.

43
YHWH, the Redeemer
7
Then YHWH said, For the first time we hear YHWH speak of the ‘Israelites’(3:9)
“I have observed as ‘my people’(3:7). Verses seven and nine repeat what we
the misery of my have already heard in 2:23-24: God has heard his people’s
people who are in cry and has ‘come down to deliver them’(3:8). The word
Egypt; I have heard ‘deliver’(nāzal) is found in Jacob’s prayer when he cried out
their cry on account to YHWH: ‘Deliver me, please, from the hand of my brother,
of their taskmas- from the hand of Esau’(Genesis 32:11). Here it is applied to
ters. the whole of the enslaved people. Genesis ends with Joseph’s
Indeed, I know words: ‘God will surely come to you, and bring you up out of
their sufferings, this land to the land that he swore to Abraham, to Isaac, and to
8
and I have come Jacob’(50:24). The moment of redemption is at hand.
down to deliver For the first time we hear the Promised Land described as ‘a land
them from the flowing with milk and honey’(3:8; food of the gods; not bee’s
Egyptians, and to honey, but sweet syrup from grapes or dates) – an expression
bring them up out that will recur throughout the Torah. The nations listed in verse
of that land to a eight recall YHWH’s promise to Abraham in Genesis 15:19-21.
good and broad
Following Egyptian practice the indigenous inhabitants are
land, a land flow-
referred to as ‘Canaanites’. ‘Amorite’ means ‘westerner’, and
ing with milk and
was a term in general use in the ancient Near East for the people
honey,
to the west of Mesopotamia. With the complete breakdown of
to the country of law and order in the late Bronze Age (thirteenth century BC),
the Canaanites, the Amorites seem to have migrated south and taken control
the Hittites, the of various parts of Canaan and Transjordan. The other ethnic
Amorites, the Per- groups seem to have migrated into Canaan at about the same
izzites, the Hivites, time. In his Deuteronomy 1-11 (Anchor Bible, 1991, 363)
and the Jebusites. Weinfeld writes:
The Hittites constituted an empire in Anatolia [central
Turkey] and Syria in the fifteenth and fourteenth century
B.C.E. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire at the end of
the thirteenth century, when the ‘sea peoples’ attacked the
Anatolian and Syrian coast, there came down to Palestine
hosts of refugees and immigrants consisting of various eth-
nic groups including Hittites, Jebusites, Hivites and Girgas-
hites, who settled in the densely populated areas in the hill
country. They seized power in the few existing cities in the
mountains such as Shechem, Gibeon, and Hebron.
The three main ethnic groups are reflected in Ezekiel:
Thus says the Lord YHWH to Jerusalem: Your origin and
your birth were in the land of the Canaanites; your father
was an Amorite, and your mother a Hittite.
– Ezekiel 16:3
The Jebusites controlled Jerusalem till David captured the city and
made it the capital of the United Kingdom (see 2Samuel 5:6-10).

44
 Exodus 3:9-15
Moses’ immediate response is to be expected. He was 9
The cry of the Israelites has
unable to sort out a problem between two Hebrews now come to me; I have also
and had to flee for his life from Pharaoh (2:13-15). seen how the Egyptians op-
How can he possibly do what God is asking of him? press them.
God’s reply goes to the heart of all mission. It is not 10
So come, I will send you
about who you are. It is about who I am, and ‘I will to Pharaoh to bring my
be with you’(3:12). The mission will succeed because people, the Israelites, out of
it is God’s mission. Moses (like Abraham) will have Egypt.”
to walk in faith. It will only be when he returns to 11
But Moses said to God,
this sacred mountain that he will see that God is,
“Who am I that I should go
indeed, with him.
to Pharaoh, and bring the
There are times in Genesis where God appears Israelites out of Egypt?”
and gives his name. In Genesis 17:1 it is ‘God 12
He said, “I will be with
Almighty’(’ēl šaddāy). In Genesis 26:24 it is ‘The you; and this shall be the
God of your father Abraham’. In Genesis 28:13 it is sign for you that it is I who
‘YHWH’. Throughout Genesis, God has been identi- sent you: when you have
fied as YHWH. However, according to the Priestly brought the people out of
School the first one to have the name YHWH revealed Egypt, you shall worship
to him was Moses. God on this mountain.”
The Hebrew translated as ‘I AM’ in verse fourteen, is 13
But Moses said to God, “If
’ehyeh, already found in verse twelve in the expres- I come to the Israelites and
sion ’ehyeh ‘immāk (‘I will be with you’; see also say to them, ‘The God of
Genesis 26:3; 31:3). One could also translate verse your ancestors has sent me
fourteen: “I WILL BE WHO I WILL BE’. The Greek to you,’ and they ask me,
Version has ‘I Am the One Who Is’(egō eimi ho ōn). ‘What is his name?’ what
Exodus is not offering an abstract metaphysical title. shall I say to them?”
It is linking the title YHWH with the verb ‘to be’ as a 14
God said to Moses, “I AM
way of addressing God because of what God is doing. WHO I AM.” He said fur-
Perhaps the future ‘will be’ captures the meaning best. ther, “Thus you shall say to
When Moses arrives, announcing God’s redemption, the Israelites, ‘I AM has sent
the people will want to know his credentials. Their me to you.’”
God cannot be ‘named’ in the sense of defined, but 15
God also said to Moses,
Moses is told that they can call him YHWH, as a re- “Thus you shall say to the
minder to watch, and keep watching, for what God Israelites, ‘YHWH, the God
is doing in their midst. It is an assurance that God of your ancestors, the God
‘will be’ with them. They will come to know YHWH of Abraham, the God of
by journeying in trust and experiencing his presence Isaac, and the God of Jacob,
and action in their midst. This is the assurance that has sent me to you’:
Moses is to give them. It is these same actions of God This is my name forever,
among them that will confirm that God has chosen and this my title for all gen-
Moses to speak and act for him as his intermediary. erations.

45
Moses the Mediator
16
Go and assemble the elders of Israel, In this passage the authors of Exodus
and say to them, ‘YHWH, the God of highlight the mediatory role that Moses
your ancestors, the God of Abraham, of is to have in God’s liberation of the Is-
Isaac, and of Jacob, has appeared to me, raelites. It also highlights the fact that
saying: I have given heed to you and to Moses is not to mediate on his own, but
what has been done to you in Egypt. with ‘the elders of Israel’(3:26). Moses
17
I declare that I will bring you up out is to persuade them first, and then to go
of the misery of Egypt, to the land with them to Pharaoh. This is our first
of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the introduction to ‘the elders of Israel’, the
Amorites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, older men (zāqën) who play a leading
and the Jebusites, a land flowing with role in the running of the community.
milk and honey.’ This passage summarises what is to come
18
They will listen to your voice; and in the following scenes.
you and the elders of Israel shall go Moses (with Aaron) will assemble the
to the king of Egypt and say to him, elders and will repeat to them what God
‘YHWH, the God of the Hebrews, has has said to him (see 4:29-30).
met with us; let us now go a three days’
journey into the wilderness, so that we Moses (with Aaron, but not the elders
may sacrifice to YHWH our God.’ – we will look into this later) will
19
I know, however, that the king of speak to Pharaoh as instructed in verse
Egypt will not let you go unless com- eighteen (see 5:1,3). The point of
pelled by a mighty arm. 20So I will identifying YHWH as ‘the God of the
stretch out my arm and strike Egypt Hebrews’(3:18) is that he cannot be
with all my wonders that I will per- worshipped in Egypt, and so the people
form in it; after that he will let you go. must be allowed to ‘journey into the
wilderness’(3:18).
21
I will bring this people into such
favour with the Egyptians that, when Pharaoh will not listen (3:19; see 5:4).
you go, you will not go empty-handed; YHWH speaks of his mighty ‘arm’(3:19).
22
each woman shall ask her neighbour The Hebrew yād includes the forearm
and any woman living in the neigh- and the hand. The reference to power
bour’s house for jewelry of silver and in battle (6:1) points to ‘arm’ as a better
of gold, and clothing, and you shall rendering than ‘hand’.
put them on your sons and on your Chapters seven to eleven show ‘the won-
daughters; and so you shall plunder ders that I will perform in Egypt’(3:20),
the Egyptians.” and 12:35-36 fulfils the promise given
here in verses twenty-one and twenty-
two. They will ‘plunder the Egyptians’.
YHWH is waging a liberating war against
the dark power of Egypt, and the Israel-
ites will take the spoils of war.

46
 Exodus 4:1-9
This is Moses’ third objection (see 3:11 and 1
Then Moses answered, “But sup-
3:13). What if the people refuse to believe pose they do not believe me or
him? We watch with delight as God endows listen to me, but say, ‘YHWH did
Moses with ‘divine powers’. He instructs not appear to you.’”
Moses to throw his staff on the ground, where 2
YHWH said to him, “What is that
it turns into a snake (nāḥāš). This is the third in your hand?” He said, “A staff.”
time a snake has played a significant role in 3
And he said, “Throw it on the
the story. The first was in the garden where it
ground.” So he threw the staff
successfully tempted Eve, and, through her,
on the ground, and it became
Adam (see Genesis 3:2ff). There will be at-
a snake; and Moses drew back
tempts made to thwart God’s will, but God
from it. 4Then YHWH said to
demonstrates to Moses that if he confronts
Moses, “Reach out your hand,
the ‘snake’ it will lose its power. The second
and seize it by the tail”—so he
time we heard the word nāḥāš it is translated
reached out his hand and grasped
‘divination’(Genesis 30:27; 44:5,15). Snake
it, and it became a staff in his
charming was common. What Moses is able
hand— 5“so that they may be-
to do here is much more exciting.
lieve that YHWH, the God of their
The second piece of magic is rather more dif- ancestors, the God of Abraham,
ficult to interpret. The translation ‘leprous’ is the God of Isaac, and the God of
not correct. There is no evidence of leprosy Jacob, has appeared to you.”
(Hansen’s disease) in the Ancient Near East 6
Again, YHWH said to him, “Put
prior to the period of Greek colonisation. The
your hand inside your cloak.” He
condition hinted at here is described in greater
put his hand into his cloak; and
detail in Leviticus 13, which describes a scaly
when he took it out, his hand was
skin disease with symptoms of various skin
leprous, as white as snow. 7Then
conditions that rendered people ‘impure’ in a
God said, “Put your hand back
cultic sense and prevented them from mixing
into your cloak”—so he put his
with the community while the symptoms were
hand back into his cloak, and
present. The point here is to show that God
when he took it out, it was re-
has power to inflict disease and to cure (see
stored like the rest of his body—
Deuteronomy 32:29), and that this power will 8
“If they will not believe you
be exercised through Moses.
or heed the first sign, they may
The third ‘sign’(4:9) points towards the first believe the second sign.
of the ‘plagues’ that will strike Egypt (see 9
If they will not believe even
7:15-25).
these two signs or heed you,
We are dealing here with a dramatic folk tale. you shall take some water from
Those listening to it would get the same kind the Nile and pour it on the dry
of excitement that today’s readers have when ground; and the water that you
reading The Lord of the Rings. Moses (Gandalf) shall take from the Nile will be-
is being prepared for his decisive encounter come blood on the dry ground.”
with the Evil Empire.

47
Aaron
10
But Moses said to YHWH, “O my Moses’ fourth and final objection enables
Lord, I have never been eloquent, the authors to make a key statement con-
neither in the past nor even now that cerning prophecy. God needs the willing
you have spoken to your servant; cooperation of the prophet, but the power
but I am slow of speech and slow of of the words spoken does not depend on the
tongue.” natural gifts of the prophet. It is God who
11
Then YHWH said to him, “Who inspires the words, and it is God who is the
gives speech to mortals? Who makes source of their power. We are reminded of
them mute or deaf, seeing or blind? Jesus’ promise:
Is it not I, YHWH? 12Now go, and I I will give you words and a wisdom
will be with your mouth and teach that none of your opponents will be
able to withstand or contradict.
you what you are to speak.”
– Luke 21:15
13
But he said, “O my Lord, please
send someone else.” 14Then the Using the special form of ‘lord’ that is
anger of YHWH was kindled against kept for God (’adonāy), Moses pleads with
Moses and he said, “What of your YHWH to send someone else. God is angry
brother Aaron, the Levite? I know but will not be deflected from his determina-
that he can speak fluently; even now tion to redeem the people, and so he tells
he is coming out to meet you, and Moses that he can take his brother, Aaron,
when he sees you his heart will be with him. This is the first mention of Moses’
glad. 15You shall speak to him and brother, introduced into the story here to
put the words in his mouth; and I prepare the reader for the mediatory role of
will be with your mouth and with the priesthood in Israel’s cult. Aaron is to
his mouth, and will teach you what speak only the words given him by Moses,
you shall do. 16He indeed shall and God will inspire and guide them both.
speak for you to the people; he shall Aaron will speak on Moses’ behalf, but
serve as a mouth for you, and you will serve Moses as he would serve God.
shall serve as God for him. 17Take in Moses is reminded by God to take his staff
your hand this staff, with which you with him ‘with which you shall perform the
shall perform the signs.” signs’(4:17, see 4:1-9).
18
Moses went back to his father-in- Jethro allows Moses to return to Egypt
law Jethro and said to him, “Please ‘in peace’(4:18), and the scene ends with
let me go back to my kindred in YHWH telling Moses that he can go back
Egypt and see whether they are still to Egypt now, ‘for those who were seeking
living.” And Jethro said to Moses, your life are dead’(4:19). We already know
“Go in peace.” that this includes Pharaoh (2:23). Matthew
19
YHWH said to Moses in Midian, includes this line in his portrayal of Herod
“Go back to Egypt; for all those who as Pharaoh and Jesus as Moses. Jesus’
were seeking your life are dead.”20So father is told to take the child back ‘to the
Moses took his wife and his sons, land of Israel, for those who were seeking
put them on a donkey and went the child’s life are dead’(Matthew 2:20).
back to the land of Egypt; and Moses Armed with divine power, Moses returns
carried the staff of God in his hand. to Egypt.

48
 Exodus 4:21-31
‘I will harden (ḥāzaq) his heart’(4:21). Usually 21
And YHWH said to Moses,
this Hebrew word is used positively in the sense “When you go back to Egypt, see
of making a person courageous. However, in that you perform before Pharaoh
Ezekiel 2:4 and 3:7, when used with ‘heart’, it all the wonders that I have put in
means ‘stubborn’, as in this text. It emerges in your power; but I will harden his
the narrative that Pharaoh stubbornly refuses heart, so that he will not let the
to ‘let the people go’. Since the assumption is people go.
that God controls everything, it must be God’s 22
Then you shall say to Pharaoh,
will that Pharaoh’s heart be hardened. ‘Thus says YHWH: Israel is my
The result of this hardening is that YHWH’s firstborn son. 23I said to you,
‘firstborn son’(4:22), Israel, will live, while “Let my son go that he may wor-
Egypt’s ‘firstborn son’ (4:23) will die. Egypt ship me.” But you refused to
saw itself as the firstborn of the gods, but let him go; now I will kill your
Pharaoh cannot prevail against the power of firstborn son.’”
YHWH and YHWH’s choice of Israel.
24
On the way, at a place where
When Israel was a child, I loved him, and they spent the night, YHWH met
out of Egypt I called my son. him and tried to kill him. 25But
– Hosea 11:1 Zipporah took a flint and cut off
I have become a father to Israel, her son’s foreskin, and touched
and Ephraim is my firstborn. Moses’ ‘feet’ with it, and said,
– Jeremiah 31:9 “Truly you are a bridegroom of
Verse 24 introduces a story of an encounter blood to me!” 26So he let him
with death that Moses undergoes on his way alone. It was then she said, “A
back to Egypt. On the same assumption that bridegroom of blood by circumci-
we noted above, namely that God controls sion.”
everything that happens, it is assumed that it
27
YHWH said to Aaron, “Go into
is YHWH who is threatening Moses’ life. The the wilderness to meet Moses.”
story gives as the reason that Moses is not So he went; and he met him at the
circumcised (see Genesis 17:10-27). Zipporah mountain of God and kissed him.
circumcises the son, symbolically smears the
28
Moses told Aaron all the words
blood on Moses’ penis (‘feet’), and so saves of YHWH with which he had sent
Moses’ life. He is now set apart ritually for his him, and all the signs with which
mission. Verse 25 describes elements of the rite, he had charged him. 29Then Mo-
including words that the authors responsible ses and Aaron went and assem-
for the comment in verse 26 seem to have as bled all the elders of the Israel-
much trouble understanding as do we. ites. 30Aaron spoke all the words
that YHWH had spoken to Moses,
Verses 29-31 give Aaron a more important role and performed the signs in the
than the elders (see 3:16). Do we have here an sight of the people. 31The people
indication of the rivalry of the elders and the believed; and when they heard
priests in post-exilic Judah, with the present that YHWH had given heed to the
text coming from the priests? Israelites and that he had seen
The first part of Moses’ mission is successfully their misery, they bowed down
accomplished: ‘the people believed’(4:31). and worshiped.

49
Oppression increases
1
Afterward Moses and Aaron went to God’s initial instructions to Moses
Pharaoh and said, “Thus says YHWH, the were:
God of Israel, ‘Let my people go, so that You and the elders of Israel shall
they may celebrate a festival to me in the go to the king of Egypt and say
wilderness.’” 2But Pharaoh said, “Who to him, ‘YHWH, the God of the
is YHWH, that I should heed him and let Hebrews, has met with us; let
Israel go? I do not know YHWH, and I us now go a three days’ journey
will not let Israel go.” into the wilderness, so that we
may sacrifice to YHWH our
3
Then they said, “The God of the He- God.’
brews has revealed himself to us; let us – Exodus 3:18
go a three days’ journey into the wilder- Here we have ‘celebrate a festival’(ḥāg).
ness to sacrifice to YHWH our God, or Like the Arabic equivalent (ḥājj) this
he will fall upon us with pestilence or includes the idea of a pilgrimage.
sword.” Note that it is Aaron who accompanies
4
But the king of Egypt said to them, Moses, not the elders (see comment on
“Moses and Aaron, why are you taking 4:29-31). YHWH told Moses:
the people away from their work? Get I know, however, that the king of
to your labours!” 5Pharaoh continued, Egypt will not let you go unless
“Now they are more numerous than the compelled by a mighty arm.
people of the land and yet you want – Exodus 3:19
them to stop working!”
‘Thus says YHWH’(5:1) is an expres-
6
That same day Pharaoh commanded sion frequently found in the prophets
the taskmasters of the people, as well when they are confronting their own
as their foremen, 7“You shall no longer king – as is the use of the first person
give the people straw to make bricks, as in giving the prophetic message. ‘Let
before; let them go and gather straw for my people go’ recurs seven times in
themselves. the following chapters.
8
But you shall require of them the same
Pharaoh’s refusal begins here, and we
quantity of bricks as they have made
are also introduced to the theme: ‘I do
previously; do not diminish it, for they
not know YHWH’(5:2). Pharaoh ech-
are lazy; that is why they cry, ‘Let us
oes the statement of his predecessor:
go and offer sacrifice to our God.’ 9Let
The Israelite people are more
heavier work be laid on them; then they
numerous and more powerful
will labour at it and pay no attention to than we.
deceptive words.” – Exodus 1:9 (see 5:5)
So the taskmasters and the foremen of
10
Typical of a highly organised oppres-
the people went out and said to the peo- sive regime, the response to complaints
ple, “Thus says Pharaoh, ‘I will not give is to increase oppression. If they have
you straw. 11Go and get straw yourselves, more work they will have less time to
wherever you can find it; but your work complain. The taskmasters are clearly
will not be lessened in the least.’” 12So Egyptian. The foremen are Israelite
the people scattered throughout the land (see 5:14), used to supervise their
of Egypt, to gather stubble for straw. own people.
50
 Exodus 5:13 - 6:1
The narrative brings out the utter 13
The taskmasters were urgent, saying,
helplessness of the oppressed, in a “Complete your work, the same daily as-
description of oppressive behaviour signment as when you were given straw.”
that goes on repeating itself through- 14
And the foremen of the Israelites, whom
out history. Pharaoh’s taskmasters had set over them,
were beaten, and were asked, “Why did
you not finish the required quantity of
bricks yesterday and today, as you did
before?”
15
Then the Israelite foremen came to Phar-
aoh and cried, “Why do you treat your
servants like this? 16No straw is given to
your servants, yet they say to us, ‘Make
The foremen are telling Pharaoh that bricks!’ Look how your servants are beat-
he is hurting his own people. They en! You are unjust to your own people.”
are the ones losing out. 17
He said, “You are lazy, lazy; that is why
you say, ‘Let us go and sacrifice to YHWH.’
18
Go now, and work; for no straw shall
be given you, but you shall still deliver
the same number of bricks.” 19The Isra-
elite foremen saw that they were in trou-
ble when they were told, “You shall not
lessen your daily number of bricks.”
Unable to make any headway with As they left Pharaoh, they came upon
20
the oppressor, the Hebrew foremen Moses and Aaron who were waiting to
turn on Moses. His talk of liberation meet them. 21They said to them, “YHWH
has only worsened their plight. look upon you and judge! You have
Moses pleads with YHWH, whose brought us into bad odour with Pharaoh
response picks up the rest of his first and his officials, and have put a sword in
announcement to Moses: their hand to kill us.”
I will stretch out my arm and 22
Then Moses turned again to YHWH and
strike Egypt with all my won- said, “O YHWH, why have you mistreated
ders that I will perform in it;
this people? Why did you ever send me?
after that he will let you go. 23
Since I first came to Pharaoh to speak in
– Exodus 3:20 your name, he has mistreated this people,
We will see where real power lies. It is and you have done nothing at all to de-
not with the ‘all-powerful’ oppressor. liver your people.”
It is with YHWH who takes the side of Then YHWH said to Moses, “Now you
6:1
the oppressed. Perhaps ‘mighty arm’ shall see what I will do to Pharaoh: In-
refers to Pharaoh’s power as well as deed, by a mighty arm he will let them go;
God’s. Without realising it, Pharaoh’s by a mighty arm he will drive them out of
way of exercising his power is aiding his land.”
YHWH’s design.

51
I will be your God
2
God also spoke to Mo- A key feature of the Priestly School is that they do
ses and said to him: “I am not use the name YHWH prior to God’s self-revela-
YHWH. tion to Moses (Exodus 3:15). They call God ‘God
3
I appeared to Abraham, Almighty’(’ēl šaddāy) in the patriarchal narrative (see
Isaac, and Jacob as God Genesis 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3). When the
Almighty, but by my name post-exilic authors of Genesis use the name YHWH
‘YHWH’ I did not make they are identifying the God of the patriarchs as
myself known to them. 4I the God their contemporaries know as YHWH. The
also established my promise priest writers makes this identification clearly here
to them, to give them the in verse three.
land of Canaan, the land YHWH identifies himself in a solemn proclamation,
in which they resided as repeated three times: ‘I am YHWH’(6:1,6-8; see also
aliens. 6:29). The ‘name’(6:3) functions as an acoustic icon.
5
I have also heard the groan- Using it brings a person into communion with the
ing of the Israelites whom One who promised a land to the patriarchs (Abraham:
the Egyptians are holding as Genesis 12:1,7; 13:5; 15:7,18; 17:8; Isaac: Genesis
slaves, and I have remem- 26:3; Jacob: Genesis 28:13; 35:12; 48:4). This promise
bered my promise. (berît) is about to be realised (6:8). We recall Joseph’s
final words:
6
Say therefore to the Israel-
ites, ‘I am YHWH, and I will God will surely come to you, and bring you
up out of this land to the land that he swore to
free you from the burdens
Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob.
of the Egyptians and deliver – Genesis 50:24
you from slavery to them.
YHWH renews his promise to demonstrate his power
I will redeem you with an
and deliver his people from slavery (6:7; see 3:20),
outstretched arm and with
a promise reinforced in the light of Pharaoh’s stub-
mighty acts of judgment.
born resistance.
7
I will take you as my peo-
ple, and I will be your God. And now, for the first time, the solemn commitment
You shall know that I am made with the patriarchs is made with the people:
YHWH your God, who has ‘I will take you as my people, and I will be your
freed you from the burdens God’(6:7). This is not strictly a ‘covenant’, as no
of the Egyptians. corresponding commitment is asked of them in this
passage. The focus is on God. We recall the words
8
I will bring you into the
of the prophet of the exile:
land that I swore to give to
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; I Thus says YHWH, he who created you, O Jacob,
he who formed you, O Israel: ‘Do not fear, for I
will give it to you for a pos-
have redeemed you; I have called you by name,
session. I am YHWH.’”
you are mine.’
9
Moses told this to the Isra- – Isaiah 43:1
elites; but they would not The people’s spirit is so broken that even this mag-
listen to Moses, because of nificent statement of YHWH fails to make an impres-
their broken spirit and their sion. Ezekiel recalls this scene, highlighting God’s
cruel slavery. revealing of his name and adding: ‘but they would
not listen’(Ezekiel 20:5-9).
52
 Exodus 6:10-12 and 7:1-7
When God first commissioned Moses at Horeb Then YHWH spoke to Moses,
10

to ‘go to Pharaoh to bring my people, the Israel- “Go and tell Pharaoh king of
11

ites, out of Egypt’(3:10), Moses kept throwing Egypt to let the Israelites go out
up objections. His fourth and last objection was of his land.” 12But Moses spoke
his lack of eloquence (4:10). God told him to to YHWH, “The Israelites have
take Aaron with him: not listened to me; how then
He indeed shall speak for you to the peo- shall Pharaoh listen to me, with
ple; he shall serve as a mouth for you, and uncircumcised lips?”
you shall serve as God for him.
[Insert 6:13-30 - see following page]
– Exodus 4:16
7:1
YHWH said to Moses, “See, I
At first everything went well: ‘the people have made you like God to Phar-
believed … they bowed down and worshi- aoh, and your brother Aaron
ped’(4:31). However, Pharaoh refused to let the shall be your prophet. 2You shall
Israelites go and increased the oppression. speak all that I command you,
In a solemn way, God renewed his commitment, and your brother Aaron shall tell
but this time ‘the Israelites would not listen to Pharaoh to let the Israelites go
Moses’(6:9). YHWH renews his commission, out of his land.
but Moses, once again, states his lack of abil- 3
But I will harden Pharaoh’s
ity to carry it out, reinforced by his experience heart, and I will multiply my
of being criticised and rejected by his own signs and wonders in the land of
people: ‘How then shall Pharaoh listen to me, Egypt. 4When Pharaoh does not
with uncircumcised lips?’(6:12). The focus listen to you, I will lay my hand
this time is on his lack of purity. upon Egypt and bring my people
Once again YHWH speaks of Aaron. Before, the Israelites, company by com-
he was to speak for Moses to the people (4:16). pany, out of the land of Egypt by
Now he is to speak for Moses to Pharaoh. great acts of judgment.
5
The Egyptians shall know that I
This is the second time that God has spoken
am YHWH, when I stretch out my
about hardening Pharaoh’s heart (7:3). In 4:21
hand against Egypt and bring the
the verb used was ḥāzaq (see commentary).
Israelites out from among them.”
Here it is qāšâ. The adjective has appeared
twice in relation to the ‘hard’ nature of their
6
Moses and Aaron did so; they
slavery (see 1:14; 6:9). did just as YHWH commanded
them.
As the confrontation between YHWH (acting 7
Moses was eighty years old and
in and through Moses and Aaron) and Pharaoh Aaron eighty-three when they
is about to be played out, YHWH repeats to spoke to Pharaoh.
Moses his commitment to liberating his people
through ‘great acts of judgment’(7:4).
‘The Egyptians shall know that I am YHWH’
(7:5, see 5:2).

53
Moses, Aaron, and the levitical priestly office
Thus YHWH spoke to
13 This verse puts the narrative on hold in order to present
Moses and Aaron, and the following genealogy which speaks briefly of Jacob’s
gave them orders regard- first two sons, and then focuses on Levi, from whom
ing the Israelites and Aaron and Moses and the levitical priestly families are
Pharaoh king of Egypt, descended. The priest writers are tracing the priestly office
charging them to free the back to Levi, through Aaron. The mention of women in a
Israelites from the land genealogy is rare. Their names are given here to reinforce
of Egypt. the purity of the line from which Aaron came.

14
The following are the heads of their ancestral houses: the sons of Reuben,
the firstborn of Israel: Hanoch, Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi; these are the fami-
lies of Reuben. 15The sons of Simeon: Jemuel, Jamin, Ohad, Jachin, Zohar,
and Shaul, the son of a Canaanite woman; these are the families of Simeon.
16
The following are the names of the sons of Levi according to their
genealogies: Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, and the length of Levi’s life was
one hundred thirty-seven years. 17The sons of Gershon: Libni and Shimei,
by their families. 18The sons of Kohath: Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel,
and the length of Kohath’s life was one hundred thirty-three years. 19The
sons of Merari: Mahli and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites ac-
cording to their genealogies.
20
Amram married Jochebed his father’s sister and she bore him Aaron
and Moses, and the length of Amram’s life was one hundred thirty-seven
years. 21The sons of Izhar: Korah, Nepheg, and Zichri. 22The sons of Uzziel:
Mishael, Elzaphan, and Sithri. 23Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Am-
minadab and sister of Nahshon, and she bore him Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar,
and Ithamar. 24The sons of Korah: Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph; these
are the families of the Korahites. 25Aaron’s son Eleazar married one of the
daughters of Putiel, and she bore him Phinehas. These are the heads of the
ancestral houses of the Levites by their families.

26
It was this same Aaron and Moses to In verses 26-27 the editors are link-
whom YHWH said, “Bring the Israelites out ing the inserted genealogy back
of the land of Egypt, company by com- into the narrative. ‘Company by
pany.” company’ translates ‘al ṣebā’ōt,
27
It was they who spoke to Pharaoh king of an image taken from the battlefield
Egypt to bring the Israelites out of Egypt, (see Genesis 21:22,32; 26:26).
the same Moses and Aaron. It is also used of God’s creation
28
On the day when YHWH spoke to Moses (Genesis 2:1), and may refer here
in the land of Egypt, 29he said to him, “I am to God’s heavenly hosts that are on
YHWH; tell Pharaoh king of Egypt all that the side of Israel against Egypt.
I am speaking to you.” 30But Moses said Verses 28-30 recapitulate 6:2-13
in YHWH’s presence, “Since I am a poor in order to lead on to 7:1-7 (see
speaker, why would Pharaoh listen to me?” previous page).
54
 Exodus 7:8-13
Here the post-exilic authors of Exodus are drawing on 8
YHWH said to Moses
ancient folklore and other fragments of written material. and Aaron, 9“When
Somewhere along the line emerged this entertaining folk Pharaoh says to you,
tale that begins here and goes to the end of chapter eleven. ‘Perform a wonder,’ then
It is drama to demonstrate God’s power over evil. you shall say to Aaron,
The first round in the conflict between Moses-Aaron and ‘Take your staff and
Pharaoh takes us back to YHWH’s response to Moses’ throw it down before
concern that he would not be believed. YHWH showed Pharaoh, and it will be-
him that he could turn his staff into a snake (nāḥāš), and come a snake.’”
then take hold of it again, when it would turn back into 10
So Moses and Aaron
a staff (see 4:2-4, and the commentary there). YHWH went to Pharaoh and did
told him: ‘Take in your hand this staff, with which you as YHWH had command-
shall perform the signs’(4:17) – which Moses did (4:20). ed; Aaron threw down
his staff before Pharaoh
Here he (or rather Aaron at his command – the priests are
and his officials, and it
keen to feature Aaron as prominently as possible) puts
became a snake.
the staff to use. It turns into a snake (tannîn). The use
of a different word for ‘snake’ may indicate a different
11
Then Pharaoh sum-
source. On the other hand, the authors may want to evoke moned the wise men and
the image of ‘sea monsters’(the meaning of tannîn in the sorcerers; and they
Genesis 1:21; Isaiah 27:1 and Psalm 74:13). also, the magicians of
Egypt, did the same by
However, Pharaoh is not concerned. He has a range of their secret arts. 12Each
‘wise men’, ‘sorcerers’ and ‘magicians of Egypt’ and one threw down his staff,
is confident that they can match anything that Moses and they became snakes;
can come up with. His opening words ‘Perform a won-
but Aaron’s staff swal-
der’(7:9) is the equivalent of ‘Try your tricks. I couldn’t
lowed up theirs.
care less’. As the narrative progresses we will see that
he will get more than he bargains on.
13
Still Pharaoh’s heart
was hardened, and he
Even though ‘Aaron’s staff’ (snake) swallows up the would not listen to them,
snakes of the Egyptian magicians, Pharaoh is not im- as YHWH had said.
pressed. His ‘heart was hardened’ (ḥāzaq, as in 4:21);
that is to say, ‘he would not listen’, ‘as YHWH had
said’(see 4:21).
YHWH chose this ‘sign’. It was obviously not meant to
succeed. We have already been given the key reason. God
intends to perform ‘great acts of judgment’ in Egypt, so
that ‘the Egyptians shall know that I am YHWH’(7:4-5).
There is a lot more excitement still to come, but it has a
serious message: it is about who is truly God.
In Jewish tradition Pharaoh’s magicians are named
Jamnes and Jambres (see 2Timothy 3:8).

55
The first plague
14
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Pharaoh’s heart A third word is used here for
is hardened; he refuses to let the people go. ‘hardened’(kābēd, ‘inflexible’;
15
Go to Pharaoh in the morning, as he is going see 7:3).
out to the water; stand by at the river bank to
Moses is portrayed here as a
meet him, and take in your hand the staff that
prophet. As God’s ambassador,
was turned into a snake. 16Say to him,
he speaks God’s words in the first
‘YHWH, the God of the Hebrews, sent me to person: ‘Let my people go’, that
you to say, “Let my people go, so that they they may worship ‘me’; ‘I am
may worship me in the wilderness.” But YHWH’; ‘I will strike the water’.
until now you have not listened.’ 17Thus says The introductory phrase ‘Thus
YHWH, “By this you shall know that I am says YHWH’(7:17; see 5:1) is
YHWH.” See, with the staff that is in my hand typical of the prophetic oracles
I will strike the water that is in the Nile, and (1Kings 14:7; 21:19).
it shall be turned to blood. 18The fish in the
river shall die, the river itself shall stink, and When Moses and Pharaoh meet
the Egyptians shall be unable to drink water ‘at the river bank’(7:15), are we
from the Nile.’” to recall the baby Moses floating
there (2:5)?
19
YHWH said to Moses, “Say to Aaron, ‘Take
your staff and stretch out your hand over the The imagery here comes from a
waters of Egypt—over its rivers, its canals, recurring natural phenomenon.
and its ponds, and all its pools of water—so When the Nile does not flood,
that they may become blood; and there shall decaying algae mix with the red
be blood throughout the whole land of Egypt, soil and redden the Nile. There
even in vessels of wood and in vessels of may also be ironic mythical
stone.’” overtones here. YHWH, ‘the
20
Moses and Aaron did just as YHWH com- God of the Hebrews’(7:16) is
manded. In the sight of Pharaoh and of his defeating Hapi, the god of the
officials he lifted up the staff and struck the Nile (hence the ‘blood’). If so
water in the river, and all the water in the riv- no one in Egypt picks up the
er was turned into blood, 21and the fish in the irony. This plague was foretold
river died. The river stank so that the Egyp- in God’s initial encounter with
tians could not drink its water, and there was Moses (see 4:9). The scene
blood throughout the whole land of Egypt. described is, indeed, revolting.
22
But the magicians of Egypt did the same by Once again Moses is to tell
their secret arts; so Pharaoh’s heart remained Aaron to carry out the action;
hardened, and he would not listen to them; as once again ‘the magicians of
YHWH had said. 23Pharaoh turned and went Egypt do the same by their secret
into his house, and he did not take even this arts’(7:22; see 7:11); and once
to heart. 24And all the Egyptians had to dig again Pharaoh’s heart remains
along the Nile for water to drink, for they hardened (ḥāzaq). The plague
could not drink the water of the river. lasts seven (symbolic) days.
25
Seven days passed after YHWH had struck This plague is celebrated in Psalm
the Nile. 105:29 and Psalm 78:44.

56
 Exodus 8:1-15
The pattern here has many 1
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh
parallels with the first plague. and say to him, ‘Thus says YHWH: Let my
Moses is God’s ambassador, people go, so that they may worship me. 2If you
God’s prophet: he begins with refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole
the traditional formula ‘Thus country with frogs. 3The river shall swarm with
says YHWH’(8:1), and he uses frogs; they shall come up into your palace, into
the first person in his message. your bedchamber and your bed, and into the
Once again it is Aaron that houses of your officials and of your people, and
performs the ritual, and once into your ovens and your kneading bowls.
again the magicians duplicate 4
The frogs shall come up on you and on your
the ‘magic’ ‘by their secret people and on all your officials.’”
arts’(8:7; see 7:11,22). 5
And YHWH said to Moses, “Say to Aaron,
Pharaoh shows the first signs ‘Stretch out your hand with your staff over
of weakening. He even asks the rivers, the canals, and the pools, and make
Moses and Aaron to ‘pray frogs come up on the land of Egypt.’” 6So Aaron
to YHWH to take away the stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt;
frogs’(8:8). It is important for and the frogs came up and covered the land of
the reader-listener to enter into Egypt. 7But the magicians did the same by their
the creepy, slimy, revolting secret arts, and brought frogs up on the land of
scene, and ‘enjoy’ the misery Egypt.
of the Pharaoh. This is how it 8
Then Pharaoh called Moses and Aaron, and
was read in Judah! said, “Pray to YHWH to take away the frogs
Once again the aim of the from me and my people, and I will let the
whole exercise is made clear. It people go to sacrifice to YHWH.” 9Moses said to
is ‘so that you may know that Pharaoh, “Okay, you win. Tell me when I am to
there is no one like YHWH our pray for you and for your officials and for your
God’(8:10). people, that the frogs may be removed from you
and your houses and be left only in the Nile.”
However, once the plague is 10
And he said, “Tomorrow.” Moses said, “As
stopped by YHWH, Pharaoh you say! So that you may know that there is no
‘hardened his heart, and one like YHWH our God, 11the frogs shall leave
would not listen to them just you and your houses and your officials and
as YHWH had said’(8:15; see your people; they shall be left only in the Nile.”
4:21; 7:13 and 7:22). 12
Then Moses and Aaron went out from Phar-
This action of YHWH is aoh; and Moses cried out to YHWH concerning
celebrated in Psalm 105:30 the frogs that he had brought upon Pharaoh.
and Psalm 78:45. Revelation 13
And YHWH did as Moses requested: the frogs
draws on the imagery of this died in the houses, the courtyards, and the
plague in its symbolic depict- fields. 14And they gathered them together in
ing of God’s judgment (see heaps, and the land stank.
Revelation 16:13); just as it 15
But when Pharaoh saw that there was a res-
drew on the imagery of the pite, he hardened his heart, and would not
previous plague (see Revela- listen to them, just as YHWH had said.
tion 16:3-4).
57
The third plague
16
Then YHWH said to This story leaves out YHWH’s first instruction to Moses
Moses, “Say to Aaron, about what he is to say to Pharaoh, and moves straight to
‘Stretch out your staff what he is to tell Aaron to do. Moses and Aaron instantly
and strike the dust obey (8:17; compare 7:10; 7:20). Once again, it is Aaron
of the earth, so that who performs the ritual.
it may become gnats
For the first time, the Egyptian magicians are unable to
throughout the whole
reproduce the ‘magic’, and they inform Pharaoh that ‘this
land of Egypt.’”
is the finger of God’(8:19). The power they are facing goes
17
And they did so;
beyond their magical arts. There must be a god involved.
Aaron stretched out
his hand with his staff However, Pharaoh is still unmoved and the conclusion (8:19)
and struck the dust of is the same as for the prior two plagues (see 7:22; 8:15). This
the earth, and gnats plague (gnats? lice?) is celebrated in Psalm 105:31.
came on humans and Let us pause here to examine Paul’s brilliant use of the
animals alike; all theme of God hardening Pharaoh’s heart in his treatment of
the dust of the earth God’s mercy in Romans 9. Were he focusing on the human
turned into gnats dimension he would have spoken of human freedom and of
throughout the whole Pharaoh’s rejection of grace. However, Paul does not want to
land of Egypt. deflect attention from God, and so he insists that God, in his
18
The magicians tried mercy, uses even the effects of Pharaoh’s refusal as a means
to produce gnats by of revealing God’s mercy. This could lead to an objection. If
their secret arts, but Pharaoh’s stubborn resistance in refusing to listen to God is
they could not. There part of God’s providence in revealing his mercy, why should
were gnats on both we accuse Pharaoh of sin? Why should we accuse anyone
humans and animals. of sin? It would seem that we are just puppets in God’s plan
19
And the magicians for the world, fulfilling the role assigned to us and quite
said to Pharaoh, “This unable to resist God’s will: ‘Why does God still find fault?
is the finger of God!” For who can resist God’s will?’(Romans 9:19)
But Pharaoh’s heart
was hardened, and he Paul takes up this problem and reasserts that everything
would not listen to willed by God is with a view to his ultimate purpose,
them, just as YHWH which is to show mercy. Even when – as is the case with
had said. Pharaoh – we stubbornly resist God’s will, God uses this
very hardness of heart to bring about his merciful purpose.
Such stubborn resistance calls down God’s wrath, but God’s
mercy patiently holds back even the punishment which sin
deserves, in order to effect God’s transcendent purpose,
which is to show mercy.
In terms of the Exodus story, God’s mercy is to redeem
Israel. It is also that ‘the Egyptians shall know that I am
YHWH’(Exodus 7:5).

58
 Exodus 8:20-32
There are a number of vari- 20
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Rise early in the
ations in the way this fourth morning and present yourself before Pharaoh,
plague (disease carrying as he goes out to the water, and say to him, ‘Thus
worms) is presented when says YHWH: Let my people go, so that they may
compared to the first three. worship me. 21For if you will not let my people
No instructions are given to go, I will send swarms of flies on you, your of-
Aaron because his role as ficials, and your people, and into your houses;
mediator is not mentioned. and the houses of the Egyptians shall be filled
with swarms of flies; so also the land where
Also, for the first time, the they live. 22But on that day I will set apart the
plague strikes Egypt, but land of Goshen, where my people live, so that
leaves Goshen untouched. no swarms of flies shall be there, that you may
This time Pharaoh is directly know that I YHWH am in this land. 23Thus I will
affected and appears to give make a distinction between my people and your
in: ‘Go, sacrifice to your people. This sign shall appear tomorrow.’”
God’(8:25). 24
YHWH did so, and great swarms of flies came
However some shrewd nego- into the house of Pharaoh and into his officials’
tiation goes on till Pharaoh houses; in all of Egypt the land was ruined be-
lets Moses take the people cause of the flies.
into the wilderness as long
25
Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron,
as he does not go far away and said, “Go, sacrifice to your God within the
(8:28). land.” 26But Moses said, “It would not be right
to do so; for the sacrifices that we offer to YHWH
Once again Pharaoh asks for our God are offensive to the Egyptians. If we of-
prayers (see 8:8). fer in the sight of the Egyptians sacrifices that are
However, as we have come offensive to them, will they not stone us? 27We
to expect, as soon as YHWH must go a three days’ journey into the wilder-
stops the plague in response ness and sacrifice to YHWH our God as he com-
to Moses’ prayers, Pharaoh mands us.” 28So Pharaoh said, “I will let you go
reneges on his permission: to sacrifice to YHWH your God in the wilderness,
‘Pharaoh hardened his heart provided you do not go very far away. Pray for
this time also, and would not me.” 29Then Moses said, “As soon as I leave you,
let the people go’(8:32). I will pray to YHWH that the swarms of flies may
depart tomorrow from Pharaoh, from his offi-
This plague is celebrated in
cials, and from his people; only do not let Phar-
Psalm 105:31, and Psalm
aoh again deal falsely by not letting the people
78:45.
go to sacrifice to YHWH.”
We are meant to be asking 30
So Moses went out from Pharaoh and prayed
‘What’s next?’ to YHWH. 31And YHWH did as Moses asked:
he removed the swarms of flies from Pharaoh,
from his officials, and from his people; not one
remained. 32But Pharaoh hardened his heart this
time also, and would not let the people go.

59
The Fifth and Sixth Plagues
1
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Go to Phar- As in the earlier plagues, Moses is
aoh, and say to him, ‘Thus says YHWH, God’s ambassador and prophet – see
the God of the Hebrews: Let my people ‘Thus says YHWH’ and the use of the
go, so that they may worship me. 2For if first person in the words Moses is to
you refuse to let them go and still hold address to Pharaoh.
them, 3the hand of YHWH will strike with As in the previous plague, Aaron’s
a deadly pestilence your livestock in the mediation is not mentioned. As in
field: the horses, the donkeys, the camels, the third plague, the dialogue with
the herds, and the flocks. Pharaoh is presumed by the story-
4
But YHWH will make a distinction be- teller who goes straight to YHWH’s
tween the livestock of Israel and the live- inflicting the plague. As in the previ-
stock of Egypt, so that nothing shall die of ous plague Egypt is affected, but not
all that belongs to the Israelites.’” the Israelites.
5
YHWH set a time, saying, “Tomorrow Another level of meaning is per-
YHWH will do this thing in the land.” haps being suggested, for the Calf
6
And on the next day YHWH did so; all the of Ur-Mer (incarnation of Ra) was
livestock of the Egyptians died, but of the worshipped at Heliopolis, the Bull
livestock of the Israelites not one died. Bakis was worshipped at Thebes and
7
Pharaoh inquired and found that not one the Bull Apis at Memphis. YHWH
of the livestock of the Israelites was dead. is more powerful than the gods of
But the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, Egypt. Pharaoh is unmoved. This
and he would not let the people go. plague is not mentioned in Psalm
105 or Psalm 78.
8
Then YHWH said to Moses and Aaron, Interestingly, in this sixth plague,
“Take handfuls of soot from the kiln, and though Moses and Aaron are both
let Moses throw it in the air in the sight of mentioned (9:8), it is Moses, not
Pharaoh. Aaron, who performs the rite (9:10).
9
It shall become fine dust all over the land In the first two plagues, Pharaoh’s
of Egypt, and shall cause festering boils magicians were able to duplicate
on humans and animals throughout the YHWH’s action ‘by their secret
whole land of Egypt.” arts’(7:22; 8:7). Then they found
that it was beyond them (8:18).
10
So they took soot from the kiln, and
In the last two plagues they fail to
stood before Pharaoh, and Moses threw it
get a mention, and here they are
in the air, and it caused festering boils on
back on stage being affected by
humans and animals.
the plague (9:11). I’m afraid we
11
The magicians could not stand before are meant to enjoy the comedy in
Moses because of the boils, for the boils watching this. The conclusion picks
afflicted the magicians as well as all the up the refrain of 7:22; 8:15 and 8:19.
Egyptians.
This plague is not mentioned in Psalm
12
But YHWH hardened the heart of Phar-
105 or Psalm 78. The imagery is
aoh, and he would not listen to them, just
used in Revelation 16:2,11 for God’s
as YHWH had spoken to Moses.
judgment.
60
 Exodus 9:13-21
Once again Moses is God’s ambassador 13
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Rise
and prophet. Note the formula: ‘Thus says up early in the morning and present
YHWH’(9:13), and use of the first person yourself before Pharaoh, and say to
in the words Moses is to speak. Aaron does him, ‘Thus says YHWH, the God of
not feature in this plague. the Hebrews: Let my people go, so
The storyteller uses this longer speech to that they may worship me. 14For this
remind us of the purpose of the plagues: time I will send all my plagues upon
‘so that you may know that there is no one you yourself, and upon your offi-
like me [YHWH] in all the earth’(9:14; cials, and upon your people, so that
compare 8:10); ‘to show you my power, you may know that there is no one
and to make my name resound through like me in all the earth.
all the world’(9:16). To know YHWH is to 15
For by now I could have stretched
be open to welcome YHWH’s offer of life, out my arm and struck you and your
blessing and faithful love. people with pestilence, and you
would have been cut off from the
The delay in achieving total victory over
earth. 16But this is why I have let
Egypt is not an indication of YHWH’s
you live: to show you my power, and
lack of power. It is to give Pharaoh an op-
to make my name resound through
portunity to repent, and to ‘stop exalting
all the world. 17You are still exalting
yourself against my people’(9:17). In the
yourself against my people, and will
drama of the folk tale, it is also to entertain
not let them go.
and reinforce YHWH’s care for his people.
18
Tomorrow at this time I will cause
the heaviest hail to fall that has ever
fallen in Egypt from the day it was
founded until now.
19
Send, therefore, and have your
This time God not only gives a warning, he livestock and everything that you
also offers the Egyptians the opportunity to have in the open field brought to a
defend themselves and their stock against secure place; every human or animal
the destructive power of the hail. that is in the open field and is not
brought under shelter will die when
the hail comes down upon them.’”
20
Those officials of Pharaoh who
Those who ‘fear the word of YHWH’(9:20) feared the word of YHWH hurried
– that is to say, those who respect and obey their slaves and livestock off to a
YHWH – take advantage of the warning. secure place. 21Those who did not
The others take no notice. Not everyone in regard the word of YHWH left their
Egypt is as stubborn as Pharaoh! slaves and livestock in the open
field.

61
The Seventh Plague
22
YHWH said to Moses, “Stretch out your hand
toward heaven so that hail may fall on the whole
land of Egypt, on humans and animals and all
the plants of the field in the land of Egypt.”
23
Then Moses stretched out his staff toward
heaven, and YHWH sent thunder and hail, and
fire came down on the earth. And YHWH rained
hail on the land of Egypt; 24there was hail with
fire flashing continually in the midst of it, such
heavy hail as had never fallen in all the land
Once again, ‘the land of
of Egypt since it became a nation. 25The hail
Goshen, where the Israelites
struck down everything that was in the open
were’ is spared (compare
field throughout all the land of Egypt, both hu-
8:22; 9:4).
man and animal; the hail also struck down all
the plants of the field, and shattered every tree It would appear that at
in the field. 26Only in the land of Goshen, where last Pharaoh repents (9:27).
the Israelites were, there was no hail. When the previous Pharaoh
27
Then Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron, increased his oppression of
and said to them, “This time I have sinned; the Israelites, the foremen ac-
YHWH is in the right, and I and my people are cused him of sinning against
in the wrong. 28Pray to YHWH! Enough of God’s his own people (see 5:16).
thunder and hail! I will let you go; you need Apart from that verse twenty-
stay no longer.” 29Moses said to him, “As soon seven is the first mention of
as I have gone out of the city, I will stretch out ‘sin’(ḥāṭa’) in Exodus.
my hands to YHWH; the thunder will cease, Moses agrees to pray for the
and there will be no more hail, so that you may ending of the plague, but is
know that the earth is YHWH’S. 30But as for you too shrewd to accept Phar-
and your officials, I know that you do not yet aoh’s repentance as genuine:
fear YHWH God.” ‘I know that you do not yet
31
(Now the flax and the barley were ruined, for know YHWH God’(9:30).
the barley was in the ear and the flax was in bud. Moses is right. Pharaoh goes
32
But the wheat and the spelt were not ruined, back on his word, and the
for they are late in coming up.) scene ends with the custom-
33
So Moses left Pharaoh, went out of the city, and ary refrain (see 7:22; 8:15;
stretched out his hands to YHWH; then the thun- 8:19; 9:12). Verses 31-32
der and the hail ceased, and the rain no longer are added to leave something
poured down on the earth. 34But when Pharaoh alive for the next plague.
saw that the rain and the hail and the thunder
This plague is celebrated in
had ceased, he sinned once more and hardened
Psalm 105:32-33 and Psalm
his heart, he and his officials.
78:47-48. Revelation 16:21
35
So the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, and he uses it as a symbol of God’s
would not let the Israelites go, just as YHWH judgment.
had spoken through Moses.

62
 Exodus 10:1-11
Since in fact Pharaoh does not 1
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh;
repent, the divine purpose as for I have hardened his heart and the heart of
presented in this tale is, in the his officials, in order that I may show these
final analysis, to demonstrate signs of mine among them, 2and that you may
YHWH’s power over Egypt so tell your children and grandchildren how I
that Israel will ‘know that I am have made fools of the Egyptians and what
YHWH’ and will ensure that signs I have done among them—so that you
the memory of what YHWH is may know that I am YHWH.”
doing in Egypt will never be 3
So Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh, and
lost (10:2). said to him, “Thus says YHWH, the God of the
Moses and Aaron are not told Hebrews, ‘How long will you refuse to hum-
what to say to Pharaoh. This ble yourself before me? Let my people go, so
is assumed when they begin that they may worship me. 4For if you refuse
their message with ‘Thus says to let my people go, tomorrow I will bring
YHWH’, and speak God’s words locusts into your country. 5They shall cover
in the first person. the surface of the land, so that no one will be
able to see the land. They shall devour the
This time they threaten a plague last remnant left you after the hail, and they
of locusts. shall devour every tree of yours that grows in
By now Pharaoh stands alone, a the field. 6They shall fill your houses, and the
pathetic figure in his refusal to houses of all your officials and of all the Egyp-
bow to God’s will. His officials tians—something that neither your parents
advise him to give in. nor your grandparents have seen, from the
day they came on earth to this day.’” Then he
Moses speaks from a position of
turned and went out from Pharaoh.
power, but Pharaoh knows there
is more to this than the desire to
7
Pharaoh’s officials said to him, “How long
celebrate a pilgrimage-festival shall this fellow be a snare to us? Let the peo-
(ḥag; see 5:1). ple go, so that they may worship YHWH their
God; do you not yet understand that Egypt is
Pharaoh insists that Moses go, ruined?”
but only with the men. This is 8
So Moses and Aaron were brought back to
his final offer and Moses and
Pharaoh, and he said to them, “Go, worship
Aaron are ‘driven from his
YHWH your God! But which ones are to go?”
presence’(10:11). 9
Moses said, “We will go with our young and
our old; we will go with our sons and daugh-
ters and with our flocks and herds, because we
have YHWH’S festival to celebrate.”
10
He said to them, “YHWH indeed will be with
you, if ever I let your little ones go with you!
Plainly, you have some evil purpose in mind.
11
No, never! Your men may go and worship
YHWH, for that is what you are asking.” And
they were driven out from Pharaoh’s presence.

63
The Eighth Plague
12
Then YHWH said to Moses, Moses is YHWH’s instrument in bringing
“Stretch out your hand over the land on this plague.
of Egypt, so that the locusts may
come upon it and eat every plant in
the land, all that the hail has left.”
13
So Moses stretched out his staff
over the land of Egypt, and YHWH
brought an east wind upon the land
all that day and all that night; when
morning came, the east wind had
brought the locusts. 14The locusts
came upon all the land of Egypt
and settled on the whole country of
Egypt, such a dense swarm of lo-
custs as had never been before, nor
ever shall be again. 15They covered Pharaoh is forced to eat humble pie. Hav-
the surface of the whole land, so ing thrown Moses and Aaron out, he has
that the land was black; and they ate to recall them, admit his sin, and beg for
all the plants in the land and all the pardon. He asks them to pray ‘just this
fruit of the trees that the hail had once’ (10:17) that God will end the plague.
left; nothing green was left, no tree, YHWH changes the direction of the wind
no plant in the field, in all the land and drives the locusts into the Red Sea
of Egypt. (yam sûp). The last time we met the word
16
Pharaoh hurriedly summoned sûp was when Moses as a baby was placed
Moses and Aaron and said, “I have in a basket ‘among the reeds (sûp) on the
sinned against YHWH your God, and bank of the river’(2:3; see also 2:5). There
against you. 17Do forgive my sin are a number of literary links between
just this once, and pray to YHWH what happens to the locusts here and what
your God that at the least he remove happens later to the Egyptian army in the
this deadly thing from me.” same area (see 14:21ff). Elsewhere in the
18
So he went out from Pharaoh and Bible armies are likened to an invasion of
prayed to YHWH. locusts (see Joel).
19
YHWH changed the wind into a As noted in the Introduction (page 14),
very strong west wind, which lifted one tradition may imagine the crossing in
the locusts and drove them into the the marshy wetlands between the Red Sea
Red Sea; not a single locust was left and the Mediterranean – the ‘Reed’ Sea?
in all the country of Egypt. The priests, however, have the crossing in
20
But YHWH hardened Pharaoh’s the Red Sea.
heart, and he would not let the Isra- Again Pharaoh goes back on his word.
elites go.
This plague is celebrated in Psalm 105:34-
35 and Psalm 78:46. Revelation 9:3-11
draws on the imagery of locusts when
speaking of God’s judgment.

64
 Exodus 10:21-29
The storyteller dispenses with the warning 21
Then YHWH said to Moses,
and goes straight to the plague (as in 8:16- “Stretch out your hand toward
19 and 9:8-12). heaven so that there may be dark-
In the first plague, YHWH defeated Hapi, ness over the land of Egypt, a dark-
the god of the Nile. Here in the ninth plague ness that can be felt.”
he defeats the sun-god, Amen-Ra. This is 22
So Moses stretched out his hand
the personal god of Pharaoh. The eclipse toward heaven, and there was dense
of the sun signifies the end of Pharaoh, the darkness in all the land of Egypt for
son of Ra (Rameses). three days. 23People could not see
one another, and for three days they
An angry exchange between Moses and
could not move from where they
Pharaoh (Aaron plays no part in this plague)
were; but all the Israelites had light
is followed by a complete breakdown of
where they lived.
negotiations.
24
Then Pharaoh summoned Moses,
‘Sacrifices’(10:25; zebāhîm), refers to meat and said, “Go, worship YHWH. Only
sacrifices that are only partly burned and your flocks and your herds shall
then consumed in a communion meal. remain behind. Even your children
‘Burnt offerings’(‘ōlôt) refers to meat sac- may go with you.”
rifices where the whole animal is consumed 25
But Moses said, “You must also let
in fire, and the smoke rises to heaven. us have sacrifices and burnt offer-
The priests have a special interest in the ings to sacrifice to YHWH our God.
distinction. 26
Our livestock also must go with
Pharaoh threatens to kill Moses if he ever us; not a hoof shall be left behind,
sees him again, and Moses is just as strong: for we must choose some of them
‘I will never see your face again’(10:29). for the worship of YHWH our God,
and we will not know what to use
In its celebration of the signs given by
to worship YHWH until we arrive
God in Egypt, Psalm 105 puts this plague
there.”
at the head (Psalm 105:28). It is not listed
in Psalm 78, but is used as an image of
27
But YHWH hardened Pharaoh’s
God’s judgment in Revelation 16:10 (see heart, and he was unwilling to let
also 8:12). them go.
28
Then Pharaoh said to him, “Get
away from me! Take care that you do
not see my face again, for on the day
you see my face you shall die.”
29
Moses said, “Just as you say! I will
never see your face again.”

65
The first nine plagues
A reflection on the plagues
The imagery used in the first nine plagues is taken from experience: the reddening of
the Nile, plagues of frogs, gnats (lice), flies (vermin), pestilence, boils, hail, locusts, and
the eclipse of the sun. Some of these experiences (hail is an example) fit the Palestine
scene better than the Egyptian, but those who created the tales and those who enjoyed
them had no trouble imagining the horror of these plagues. In a culture which saw God
as controlling the world, the storyteller could present all such happenings as willed by
God. Since God was known to be just, the listener-reader would be looking for the sin
that was being punished, and for why God was punishing the sin in this way.
In the case of the plagues of Egypt, the sin was the violent oppression of the Israelites.
Pharaoh, therefore, is presented as being responsible for the plagues. He is portrayed as
a tyrant, and at the same time, he and his ‘magicians’ are comic figures. In spite of grow-
ing evidence of his powerlessness, he keeps exalting himself against YHWH’s people
(9:17), and refusing to humble himself before YHWH (10:3). His stubborn refusal to
let Israel go brings on the disasters, which would not have happened had he listened to
God’s word spoken to him through Moses.
Pharaoh’s stubborn refusal to repent is expressed in terms of his heart being hardened.
Three images are employed for this: ḥāzaq (to be/make adamant); kābad (to be/make
inflexible) and qāšâ (to be/make determined). This is looked at on two levels. On the hu-
man level, Pharaoh is responsible and this is expressed throughout. However, on another
level, since whatever happens is understood (in that culture) as willed by God, it must
be God who makes Pharaoh’s heart hard. Why?
The scenes of the dramatic folk tale offer as God’s reason for this God’s determination to
reveal his power, his power to redeem. YHWH is demonstrating his power so that Egypt,
indeed, the whole world (9:16), will know that YHWH is God. Throughout the various
scenes we hear that YHWH wants Egypt to ‘know’ him (5:2; 7:5,17; 8:19,22; 9:29). This
is consistent with the constant theme of Genesis, that through Abraham (through Israel)
‘all the families of the earth shall be blessed’(Genesis 12:3). This is the key point made
by Paul in his treatment of the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart in Romans 9 (see page 58).
Paul sees everything God does as being directed to the showing of mercy.
However, Pharaoh refuses to know YHWH, and so the plagues demonstrate YHWH’s
victory over Egypt. No earthly power, not even the power of the greatest empire in the
world, can thwart God’s determination to hear the cry of the oppressed. This is good
news for the Israelites, and those listening to these stories are meant to thank and praise
God for what God has done for them, and enjoy the humiliation of the evil Pharaoh.
In a special way, Israel must never forget what God has done and continued to do in order
to free them from slavery (10:2).
The stories we have heard encourage us to name the sins that cause so much suffering
in our world. They also encourage us to look for the ‘hand of God’, that is to say, the
grace and power of God calling us, through the plagues that affect us, to repentance and
to freedom.

66
 Exodus 11:1-10
Before he leaves, Moses has some final 1
YHWH said to Moses, “I will bring
words for Pharaoh. This time YHWH one more plague upon Pharaoh and
tells Moses that there will be no turning upon Egypt; afterwards he will let you
back: ‘when Pharaoh lets you go, he will go from here; indeed, when he lets
drive you away’(11:1). you go, he will drive you away. 2Tell
the people that every man is to ask his
This has been a battle between Egypt
neighbour and every woman is to ask
and YHWH. YHWH’s people are to enjoy
her neighbour for objects of silver and
the spoils of victory. This is something
gold.” 3YHWH gave the people favour
YHWH promised Moses on their first
in the sight of the Egyptians. Moreo-
emcounter at Horeb:
ver, Moses himself was a man of great
I will bring this people into such
importance in the land of Egypt, in the
favour with the Egyptians that,
when you go, you will not go
sight of Pharaoh’s officials and in the
empty-handed; each woman shall sight of the people.
ask her neighbour and any woman 4
Moses said, “Thus says YHWH: About
living in the neighbour’s house for midnight I will go out through Egypt.
jewelry of silver and of gold, and 5
Every firstborn in the land of Egypt
clothing, and you shall put them shall die, from the firstborn of Pharaoh
on your sons and on your daugh- who sits on his throne to the firstborn
ters; and so you shall plunder the
of the female slave who is behind
Egyptians.
– Exodus 3:21-22 the handmill, and all the firstborn of
the livestock. 6Then there will be a
Moses relays YHWH’s words to Pharaoh. loud cry throughout the whole land of
We were prepared for this at the burning Egypt, such as has never been or will
bush of Horeb: ever be again.
You shall say to Pharaoh, ‘Thus 7
But not a dog shall growl at any of
says YHWH: Israel is my first-born the Israelites—not at people, not at
son. I said to you, “Let my son go
animals—so that you may know that
that he may worship me.” But you
refused to let him go; now I will YHWH makes a distinction between
kill your firstborn son.’ Egypt and Israel.
– Exodus 4:22-23
8
Then all these officials of yours shall
come down to me, and bow low to
We have heard the Israelites cry (3:7,9). me, saying, ‘Leave us, you and all the
Now it is the turn of the Egyptians (11:6). people who follow you.’ After that I
This final plague is celebrated in Psalm will leave.” And in hot anger he left
105:36 and Psalm 78:51. Pharaoh.
For the last time the reason for the 9
YHWH said to Moses, “Pharaoh will
plagues is given: ‘in order that my not listen to you, in order that my won-
wonders may be multiplied in the land ders may be multiplied in the land of
of Egypt’(11:9; see 8:10; 9:14; 9:16; Egypt.” 10Moses and Aaron performed
10:1-2). all these wonders before Pharaoh; but
Pharaoh ignores the warning, and the YHWH hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and
scene is set for the final showdown. he did not let the people of Israel go
out of his land.
67
Three Rites connected with the Exodus
Exodus 12:1 - 13:16
To this point the authors of Exodus have presenting in narrative form the basic beliefs of
Israel in the nature of their God and in the ways in which this God, YHWH, has related
to them throughout their history. YHWH is a God who hears the cry of the oppressed.
YHWH is a God whose power to redeem cannot be thwarted even by the most oppressive
of regimes. YHWH is a God who promised their ancestors that they would be a great
nation and inhabit a land that God would give them. The post-exilic authors of Exodus
were reshaping earlier traditions to encourage their contemporaries to continue to live the
faith of their fathers in YHWH. Now, just as we approach the climax of God’s redemp-
tive action in liberating the Israelites from oppression, there is a dramatic interruption,
and the presentation of quite different material. The interruption is placed here, because
they want to link three ancient rites of the people to the story of the Exodus so that it will
never be forgotten. There is every reason to think that the link was made well before it
was expressed in writing by the Deuteronomic or the Priestly School.
Pasch
The first rite is the pasch (pesaḥ, from the verb ‘to spare). Its origins seem to go back to
an ancient pastoral rite, celebrated in autumn when the flocks were moving from their
summer pasture to the edges of the wilderness for winter, and again in spring, when
they were returning. Israel gave this ancient rite a new meaning by linking it to the ‘new
spring’, their beginnings as a people, celebrated in ‘the first month of the year’(12:2; see
13:4). In post-exilic Judah this feast was a public one, celebrated in connection with the
temple. In the passage we are about to read, it is presented in a simpler form, fitting for
the context, as a family celebration on the occasion of the Exodus.
Unleavened Bread
The second rite is the pilgrimage feast (ḥag, from ḥāgag, to ‘dance for joy’) of Unleavened
Bread (maṣṣôt). Its origins seem to go back to an ancient agricultural spring festival cel-
ebrating the beginning of the barley harvest. It is not surprising that in time this would
have been combined with the spring Pasch so that Pasch became the first night of the
seven day harvest celebration. The festival of Unleavened Bread thus reinforced the truths
about God expressed in the Exodus story.
Redemption of the Firstborn
The third rite that is linked with the Exodus is the rite of the sacrifice or redemption of
the firstborn. As with the Pasch and the Feast of Unleavened Bread, we are dealing here
with a custom that pre-dates Israel and originally had no connection with the Exodus.
In the case of animals the best animal from the previous season was sacrificed to God in
the hope that God would be pleased and would grant an abundant harvest in the current
season. In the case of humans, there may be a connection with the prohibition of child
sacrifice. In any case these ancient customs are linked here with the last plague, and so
with the Exodus. Each time the first male child was redeemed, the family remembered
and celebrated that Israel is YHWH’s firstborn (Exodus 4:22), his chosen people.

68
 Exodus 12:1-13
There are indications that the 1
YHWH said to Moses and Aaron in the
ancient Israelites celebrated the land of Egypt: 2This month shall mark for
beginning of the year in autumn you the beginning of months; it shall be
(perhaps in line with the resur- the first month of the year for you.
rection of the storm god, Baal, in 3
Tell the whole congregation of Israel that
Canaan) By the seventh century on the tenth of this month they are to take
BC they were celebrating it in the a lamb for each family, a lamb for each
spring (see Jeremiah 36:22, 2Kings household.
25:8, Ezekiel 40:1). 4
If a household is too small for a whole
As it stands, the text is basically a lamb, it shall join its closest neighbour in
cult-text developed in the sphere obtaining one; the lamb shall be divided
of cult-worship. It is insistent on in proportion to the number of people
involving everyone in Israel, ‘the who eat of it. 5Your lamb shall be without
whole congregation’(12:3). As pre- blemish, a year-old male; you may take
sented here, it is a family rite. Only if it from the sheep or from the goats. 6You
a lamb is clearly too much for a fam- shall keep it until the fourteenth day of
ily can they combine with another this month; then the whole assembled
family. The commemorative meal congregation of Israel shall slaughter it at
is to be celebrated between sunset twilight.
and dark on the fourteenth day, the 7
They shall take some of the blood and put
night of the full moon – the first full it on the two doorposts and the lintel of the
moon after the spring equinox. houses in which they eat it.
Details of the rite are spelt out.
8
They shall eat the lamb that same night;
Verses 7, 11-13 link it to the Exo- they shall eat it roasted over the fire with
dus. The name of the rite (pesaḥ) is unleavened bread and bitter herbs. 9Do
linked to the similar sounding verb not eat any of it raw or boiled in water, but
‘to spare’(pāsaḥ). They wear san- roasted over the fire, with its head, legs,
dals, carry a staff and eat hurriedly, and inner organs. 10You shall let none of
preparing for a hasty departure; the it remain until the morning; anything that
blood visible on the door will pro- remains until the morning you shall burn.
tect them from the plague. There is
11
This is how you shall eat it: your loins
evidence of such a practice among girded, your sandals on your feet, and your
the Bedouin and pre-Islamic Arabs, staff in your hand; and you shall eat it hur-
to protect the house-tent against riedly.
evil spirits. It is the pasch of YHWH. 12For I will pass
The solemn ‘I am YHWH’ takes through the land of Egypt that night, and I
us back to 6:2-6. We are left in no will strike down every firstborn in the land
doubt. God’s climactic victory over of Egypt, both human beings and animals;
‘the gods of Egypt’ is about the on all the gods of Egypt I will execute judg-
happen. YHWH Himself will ‘strike ments: I am YHWH. 13The blood shall be a
down every firstborn in the land of sign for you on the houses where you live:
Egypt’(12:12; see 4:22-23; 11:5). when I see the blood, I will pass over you,
and no plague shall destroy you when I
strike the land of Egypt.
69
Unleavened Bread
14
This day shall be a day of remem- The Pasch took on an extra importance in
brance for you. You shall celebrate the exile. When other rites had to cease
it as a festival to YHWH; throughout with the loss of the temple, this rite could
your generations you shall observe continue, and it became a strongly identify-
it as a perpetual statute. ing one for the exiles, separating them from
15
Seven days you shall eat the Babylonians in whose land they were
unleavened bread; on the first day forced to live.
you shall remove leaven from your Now the authors of Exodus follow tradition
houses, for whoever eats leavened in linking another festival to the Exodus
bread from the first day until the and to the pasch: the pilgrimage festival of
seventh day shall be cut off from Unleavened Bread (see page 68).
Israel. 16On the first day you shall
These verses continue under the rubric:
have a summoning to the sanctuary,
‘YHWH said’(12:1). Believing that they
and on the seventh day a summoning
belonged in a unique way to YHWH, who
to the sanctuary; no work shall be
was guiding them in everything they did,
done on those days; only what eve-
the people of Israel looked to YHWH as the
ryone must eat, that alone may be
source of their religious observances and
prepared by you. 17You shall observe
cultic institutions.
the festival of unleavened bread,
for on this very day I brought your The text gives meticulous rubrics for the car-
companies out of the land of Egypt: rying out of this rite as well. The important
you shall observe this day through- aspect of this celebration is not the eating
out your generations as a perpetual of unleavened bread, but the prohibition
statute. of having any leaven in the house (12:19-
18
In the first month, from the 20). This purging accents the fact that the
evening of the fourteenth day until community is experiencing a new start, a
the evening of the twenty-first day, further reminder of the new beginning that
you shall eat unleavened bread. God created when he brought them out of
19
For seven days no leaven shall be Egypt.
found in your houses; for whoever The punishment of being ‘cut off from
eats what is leavened shall be cut the congregation of Israel’(12:15, 19) is
off from the congregation of Israel, executed only by God. God will terminate
whether an alien or a native of the the offender’s line, and when he dies he
land. will not join his ancestors. There was no
20
You shall eat nothing leavened; in immediate way of verifying this threat, but
all your settlements you shall eat it was a powerful deterrent.
unleavened bread.

70
 Exodus 12:21-30
Once again the role of the ‘elders’ 21
Then Moses called all the elders of Israel
(12:21) is highlighted (see Genesis and said to them,
50:7; Exodus 3:16, 18; 4:29). Pesaḥ is “Go, select lambs for your families, and
the name of the feast and also of the slaughter the paschal lamb.
animal that is sacrificed (12:21). 22
Take a bunch of hyssop, dip it in the
In verses 22-23 Moses elaborates on blood that is in the basin, and touch the
those elements of YHWH’s instruc- lintel and the two doorposts with the
tions (12:1-20) that bear on the last blood in the basin. None of you shall
plague (see 12:7, 12-13). go outside the door of your house until
morning.
23
For YHWH will pass through to strike
down the Egyptians; when he sees the
blood on the lintel and on the two door-
posts, YHWH will pass over that door and
will not allow the destroyer to enter your
houses to strike you down.
In verses 24-25, to YHWH’s instruc- 24
You shall observe this rite as a perpetual
tion of 12:14 Moses adds a reference ordinance for you and your children.
to ‘the land that YHWH will give you 25
When you come to the land that YHWH
as he has promised’(see 6:8). will give you, as he has promised, you
shall keep this observance.
Another rubric of the rite is added in 26
And when your children ask you, ‘What
verses 26-27. The accent is on telling do you mean by this observance?’ 27you
the story to one’s children. shall say, ‘It is the paschal sacrifice to
YHWH, for he passed over the houses of
the Israelites in Egypt, when he struck
down the Egyptians but spared our hous-
es.’” And the people bowed down and
worshiped.
The tenth and final plague strikes, 28
The Israelites went and did just as
the essential plague announced by YHWH had commanded Moses and Aaron.
YHWH when he first commissioned
Moses to be his instrument in lib-
29
At midnight YHWH struck down all the
erating Israel (see 4:22-23). This is firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the
the ‘one more plague’ we have been firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne
expecting (see 11:1-8; 12:12,23). It is to the firstborn of the prisoner who was in
the victory of the firstborn of YHWH the dungeon, and all the firstborn of the
over the firstborn of Egypt, the final livestock.
demonstration of where choice, au- 30
Pharaoh arose in the night, he and all his
thority and power lie. officials and all the Egyptians; and there
Our story began with the cry of the was a loud cry in Egypt, for there was not
oppressed (2:23-24). Now it is the a house without someone dead.
turn of the oppressor (12:30).

71
Israel leaves Egypt
31
Then he summoned Moses and Aaron It is as YHWH had said: ‘Indeed,
in the night, and said, “Rise up, go away when he lets you go he will drive you
from my people, both you and the Isra- away’(11:1). In asking for a blessing
elites! Go, worship YHWH, as you said. (12:32), Pharaoh is acknowledging
32
Take your flocks and your herds, as you his complete dependence of the God
said, and be gone. And bring a blessing of Israel.
on me too!” 33The Egyptians urged the Verse 34 prepares us for verse 39.
people to hasten their departure from the Verses 35-36 mark the fulfilment of
land, for they said, “We shall all be dead.” 3:21-22 and 11:2-3. The Israelites
34
So the people took their dough before it take the spoils of victory.
was leavened, with their kneading bowls There is no point in attempting to
wrapped up in their cloaks on their shoul- reconstruct the itinerary of the Is-
ders. raelites. Names are chosen because
35
The Israelites had done as Moses told they are familiar, not because they
them; they had asked the Egyptians for record an accurate historical memory.
jewelry of silver and gold, and for cloth- For Rameses see Genesis 47:11 and
ing, 36and YHWH had given the people Exodus 1:11).
favour in the sight of the Egyptians, so
‘Six hundred thousand men’ is an
that they let them have what they asked.
impossibly huge number, though
And so they plundered the Egyptians.
from the point of view of the nar-
37
The Israelites journeyed from Rameses rative we have frequently been told
to Succoth, about six hundred thousand of the immense growth of Israel in
men on foot, besides children. Egypt (see 1:9). See the comment in
38
A mixed crowd also went up with them, the Introduction (page 13). Rather
and livestock in great numbers, both than attempting to rationalise the
flocks and herds. number, it seems best to allow the
39
They baked unleavened cakes of the huge number to impress, without
dough that they had brought out of Egypt; expecting historical accuracy.
it was not leavened, because they were Does the ‘mixed crowd’(12:38)
driven out of Egypt and could not wait, contain vestiges of the memory that
nor had they prepared any provisions for those who escaped from Egypt were,
themselves. indeed, ‘ḥabiru’, stateless slaves of
40
The time that the Israelites had lived in mixed race?
Egypt was four hundred thirty years.
The priests did not have accurate
41
At the end of four hundred thirty years,
statistics for the figure of 430 years
on that very day, all the companies of
(Genesis 15:13 has 400), See the
YHWH went out from the land of Egypt.
comment in the Introduction (page
42
That was for YHWH a night of vigil, to 13). We cannot use the figure to create
bring them out of the land of Egypt. That an accurate time line.
same night is a vigil to be kept in honour
of YHWH by all the Israelites throughout For ‘all the companies of YHWH’
their generations. see 7:4.

72
 Exodus 12:43 - 13:2
The Israelites developed regulations con- 43
YHWH said to Moses and Aaron:
cerning who could and who could not take This is the statute for the passover:
part in the Pasch ritual. Foreigners are ex- no foreigner shall eat of it,
cluded, except for those who are actually 44
but any slave who has been pur-
residing in the land. These can take part chased may eat of it after he has
provided they are first circumcised. Here been circumcised; 45no bound or
these practices are traced back to Moses hired servant may eat of it.
and Aaron and given divine authority. 46
It shall be eaten in one house; you
The rubric ‘you shall not break any of its shall not take any of the animal
bones’(12:46) is a ritual demonstration of outside the house, and you shall not
the truth expressed in Psalm 34:19-20. break any of its bones.
Many are the afflictions of the right-
47
The whole congregation of Israel
eous, but YHWH rescues them from shall celebrate it.
them all. He keeps all their bones; not 48
If an alien who resides with you
one of them will be broken. wants to celebrate the passover to
YHWH, all his males shall be cir-
The people experience suffering, but their
cumcised; then he may draw near
‘bones’ will not be broken. Just as bones sur-
to celebrate it; he shall be regarded
vive death, so the nation will continue on.
as a native of the land. But no
John draws attention to this as he depicts uncircumcised person shall eat of it;
Jesus on the cross:
49
there shall be one law for the na-
These things occurred so that scripture tive and for the alien who resides
might be fulfilled: None of his bones among you.
shall be broken.’
50
All the Israelites did just as YHWH
– John 19:36 had commanded Moses and Aaron.
51
That very day YHWH brought the
Just as the Exodus was a beginning of a
Israelites out of the land of Egypt,
new life for a people whose freedom had
company by company.
been taken from them, so Jesus’ death will
issue in a resurrection.
13:2 introduces the third rite that is linked 13:1
YHWH said to Moses:
with the Exodus (see page 68). A detailed Consecrate to me all the firstborn;
2

explanation follows in 13:11-16. Here the whatever is the first to open the
ancient rite (see Genesis 4:3-4) is given womb among the Israelites, of hu-
divine authority. man beings and animals, is mine.

73
Handing on the Faith
3
Moses said to the people, “Remember this day Scholars draw attention
on which you came out of Egypt, out of the house to the similarities in lan-
of slavery, because YHWH brought you out from guage, style and content
there by strength of hand; no leavened bread shall between these verses and
be eaten. 4Today, in the month of Abib, you are the Book of Deuterono-
going out. 5When YHWH brings you into the land my. Verses 3-10 enlarge
of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the on the instructions given
Hivites, and the Jebusites, which he swore to your in 12:14-20, focusing
ancestors to give you, a land flowing with milk again on what ‘you shall
and honey, you shall keep this observance in this tell your child’(13:8; see
month. 6Seven days you shall eat unleavened 12:26). They are leaving
bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a in the season of the ‘new
festival to YHWH. 7Unleavened bread shall be grain’(hā’ābîb, 13:4). The
eaten for seven days; no leavened bread shall be use of phylacteries (tephi-
seen in your possession, and no leaven shall be lin) ritualises the admoni-
seen among you in all your territory. 8You shall tion of verse nine.
tell your child on that day, ‘It is because of what
YHWH did for me when I came out of Egypt.’ 9It Verses 11-16 parallel 5-9,
shall serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a giving details concerning
reminder on your forehead, so that the teaching of the consecration of the
YHWH may be on your lips; for with a strong hand firstborn to YHWH (see
YHWH brought you out of Egypt. 10You shall keep 13:1-2). Here again, part
this statute at its proper time from year to year. of the rite is a dialogue
with the children (13:14;
11
“When YHWH has brought you into the land of see 12:26; 13:8).
the Canaanites, as he swore to you and your ances-
The firstborn male among
tors, and has given it to you, 12you shall set apart
animals is offered in sacri-
to YHWH all that first opens the womb. All the
fice to God. The firstborn
firstborn of your livestock that are males shall be
donkey and the firstborn
YHWH’S. 13But every firstborn donkey you shall
child is ‘ransomed’(pādâ):
redeem with a sheep; if you do not redeem it, you
an offering is made as a
must break its neck. Every firstborn male among
substitute. The donkey
your children you shall ransom. 14When in the
is ‘unclean’, unfit for
future your child asks you, ‘What does this mean?’
sacrifice. Child sacrifice,
you shall answer, ‘By strength of hand YHWH
though part of ancient
brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.
Semitic religion (2Kings
15
When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go,
3:27), and not unknown
YHWH killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt,
in Israel (2Kings 16:3;
from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals.
Jeremiah 7:23) is forbid-
Therefore I sacrifice to YHWH every male that first
den (Leviticus 18:21).
opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I
Genesis 22 may be relat-
ransom.’ 16It shall serve as a sign on your hand and
ed to this issue.
as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of
hand YHWH brought us out of Egypt.”

74
 The Christian Pasch
The Christian Pasch
It is not surprising that the Jews who became disciples of Jesus saw him as revealing the
full meaning of the Pasch. The fact that he was crucified at the time of the Pasch gave
the immediate impetus to this connection. The Synoptic Gospels portray his last meal
with his disciples as a Pasch meal. Mark writes:
On the first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, when they sacrificed the Paschal
Lamb, Jesus’ disciples said to him, ‘Where do you want us to go and prepare for you to
eat the Passover?’’
– Mark 14:12
Luke introduces the meal with Jesus saying to his disciples:
I have eagerly desired to eat this Pasch with you before I suffer.
– Luke 22:15
The first Pasch took place after sunset on the night before the Israelites were redeemed
from slavery in Egypt and started out on their journey to freedom. It was a celebration
of God’s liberating action, of their brotherhood as a people, of their faith in God, their
hope in his promise and their commitment to his cause. It was to be celebrated as a
memorial. So it is with the last supper. This sacrificial rite took place after sunset in the
night before the culminating action of God’s redeeming action in history, to be sealed by
the blood of the new ‘Paschal Lamb’(1Corinthians 5:7). It too was a celebration of this
redemptive action of God, of the brotherhood of Jesus’ disciples, of their faith, hope and
love. It signified the fulfilment of God’s promise of a new covenant, and was to be kept
as a memorial (1Corinthians 11:25).
The Christian Pasch celebrates the love that Jesus gave, especially in his self-giving on
the cross. In his Gospel John highlights the connection between Jesus’ death and the
Pasch. He presents the last supper as being held ‘before the feast of Pasch’(John 13:1).
The Pasch in John’s portrayal takes place after sunset on the Friday, thus linking Jesus’
death with the killing of the paschal Lamb in preparation for the feast. As noted earlier,
he speaks of Jesus in terms taken from the Pasch rite:
When the soldiers came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not break
his legs. Instead, one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and at once blood and
water came out … These things occurred so that the scripture might be fulfilled, “None
of his bones shall be broken.”
– John 19:33-36 (quoting Exodus 12:46)
John also presents three other important moments of Jesus’ ministry in the context of the
Pasch: the clearing of the temple (John 2:13,23), the miracle of the loaves and the sub-
sequent discourse (John 6:4) and the triumphal entry into Jerusalem for the last segment
of his ministry (John 11:55). Throughout the New Testament, Jesus’ gift of himself to
God and to the world, culminating in his self-giving on the cross, is seen as inaugurat-
ing a new Exodus, the exodus from all forms of slavery that prevent us from ‘living to
the full’(John 10:10) in full communion with God. Jesus, ‘the Lamb of God who takes
away the sin of the world’(John 1:29), saw himself as ‘giving his life as a ransom for
many’(Mark 10:35; see Ephesians 1:7; 1Timothy 2:6; 1Peter 1:19; Revelation 5:6-14).

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YHWH leads his people through the wilderness
17
When Pharaoh let the people go, We already know that God intends them
God did not lead them by way of to go to Horeb (3:12). In speaking of the
the land of the Philistines, although coast road as going ‘by way of the land
that was nearer; for God thought, of the Philistines’(13:17), the authors are
“If the people face war, they may identifying the way in terms familiar to
change their minds and return to their contemporaries. It was well known
Egypt.” that this way, called by the Egyptians ‘the
18
So God led the people by the way of Horus’, was heavily defended by
roundabout way of the wilderness Egyptian forts. On the ‘Red Sea’ see 10:19.
toward the Red Sea. The Israelites When the Israelites are described as be-
went up out of the land of Egypt ing ‘prepared for battle’(13:18), we are
prepared for battle. 19And Moses again being reminded that there is going
took with him the bones of Joseph to be a final show down between YHWH
who had required a solemn oath and Pharaoh. The phrase recalls the refer-
of the Israelites, saying, “God will ence to ‘companies’ earlier (see 6:26; 7:4;
surely take notice of you, and then 12:17, 41, 51).
you must carry my bones with you
from here.” We are reminded of the oath taken at the
end of Genesis (50:25) to take Joseph’s
20
They set out from Succoth, and bones with them, so that he could be bur-
camped at Etham, on the edge of the ied in the Promised Land.
wilderness. 21YHWH went in front
of them in a pillar of cloud by day, As noted in relation to 12:39, there is no
to lead them along the way, and in a point in attempting to work out an itinerary
pillar of fire by night, to give them from the names given here. The authors are
light, so that they might travel by telling a story and using place names with
day and by night. 22Neither the pil- which they were familiar. The essence of
lar of cloud by day nor the pillar of this passage is that it is YHWH who is lead-
fire by night left its place in front of ing them (13:18, 21-22). We might recall
the people. the words of Hosea (applied by Matthew
14:1
Then YHWH said to Moses: to Jesus in Matthew 2:15):
2
Tell the Israelites to turn back and When Israel was a child, I loved him,
camp in front of Pi-hahiroth, be- and out of Egypt I called my son.
tween Migdol and the sea, in front – Hosea 11:1
of Baal-zephon; you shall camp op- An Israelite could not read verses 21-22
posite it, by the sea. 3Pharaoh will without thinking of the altar in the temple,
say of the Israelites, ‘They are wan- and the sacrifices lit from the fire, with
dering aimlessly in the land; the clouds of smoke ascending to heaven.
wilderness has closed in on them.’
4
I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and YHWH is setting a trap for Pharaoh, so that
he will pursue them, so that I will everyone who hears of this victory will
gain glory for myself over Pharaoh know that glory is to go to YHWH (not
and all his army; and the Egyptians Pharaoh), and so that ‘the Egyptians shall
shall know that I am YHWH. And know that I am YHWH’(14:4; see 7:5,
they did so. 8:22, 9:29).

76
 Exodus 14:5-14
Pharaoh falls for the bait and rides 5
When the king of Egypt was told
out in pursuit with ‘all the chariots of that the people had fled, the minds
Egypt’(14:7) of Pharaoh and his officials were
changed toward the people, and
they said, “What have we done, let-
ting Israel leave our service?”
6
So he had his chariot made ready,
and took his army with him; 7he
took six hundred picked chariots
and all the other chariots of Egypt
with officers over all of them.
8
YHWH hardened the heart of Phar-
aoh king of Egypt and he pursued
the Israelites, who were going out
boldly. 9The Egyptians pursued
them, all Pharaoh’s horses and chari-
ots, his chariot drivers and his army;
they overtook them camped by the
sea, by Pi-hahiroth, in front of Baal-
Overtaken by the Egyptian army, the peo- zephon.
ple call out in fear to YHWH. Their words 10
As Pharaoh drew near, the Israel-
to Moses recall their reaction back in ites looked back, and there were the
Egypt when his talk of liberation led to an Egyptians advancing on them. In
increase in their oppression (5:21). Facing great fear the Israelites cried out to
the might of the Egyptian army, slavery YHWH. 11They said to Moses, “Was
seems a better option that what appears to it because there were no graves in
be certain death. Egypt that you have taken us away
to die in the wilderness? What have
you done to us, bringing us out of
Egypt? 12Is this not the very thing
we told you in Egypt, ‘Let us alone
and let us serve the Egyptians’? For
it would have been better for us to
serve the Egyptians than to die in
The key to the passage is in Moses’ re- the wilderness.”
sponse. They are not to be afraid, for they
will be saved, not because of anything that
13
But Moses said to the people, “Do
they can do, but because of what YHWH not be afraid, stand firm, and see the
will ‘accomplish for you today’(14:13). salvation that YHWH will accom-
‘YHWH will fight for you. You have only plish for you today; for the Egyp-
to be still’(14:14) - a message picked up in tians whom you see today you shall
Psalm 46:10. never see again. 14YHWH will fight
for you, and you have only to keep
Be still and know that I am God.
still.”

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Preparing for Victory
15
Then YHWH said to Moses, “Why The ‘you’ in verse sixteen is emphatic.
do you cry out to me? Tell the Israel- Moses has been commissioned to lead,
ites to go forward. 16But you lift up let him lead. The staff (13:16) featured
your staff, and stretch out your arm in the scene where YHWH first commis-
over the sea and divide it, that the sioned Moses to be his instrument in re-
Israelites may go into the sea on dry deeming Israel (Exodus 4). It featured in
ground. the preparatory encounter with Pharaoh
17
Then I will harden the hearts of and his magicians (Exodus 7), and in five
the Egyptians so that they will go in of the ten plagues, With the staff Moses’
after them; and so I will gain glory arm is an extension of the ‘mighty arm’ of
for myself over Pharaoh and all his YHWH (3:19; 6:1; Isaiah 63:12).
army, his chariots, and his chariot On the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart, see
drivers. 18And the Egyptians shall the commentary on pages 58 and 66. Vers-
know that I am YHWH, when I have es 17-18 repeat 14:4.
gained glory for myself over Phar-
aoh, his chariots, and his chariot
drivers.”
On ‘the angel of God’ as a way of speak-
19
The angel of God who was going ing of God while preserving God’s tran-
before the Israelite army moved and scendence, see the commentary on 3:2
went behind them; and the pillar of (page 43). The prophet of the exile speaks
cloud moved from in front of them of YHWH leading them on their return
and took its place behind them. from exile:
20
It came between the army of Egypt
YHWH will go before you, and the
and the army of Israel. And so the
God of Israel will be your rear guard.
cloud was there with the darkness,
and it lit up the night; one did not – Isaiah 52:12
come near the other all night. The cloud ‘lit up the nght’(14:21) because
21
Then Moses stretched out his hand of the mysterious fire of the divine pres-
over the sea. YHWH drove the sea ence that shone in it. The Egyptians were
back by a strong east wind all night, unable to see through it and so could not
and turned the sea into dry land; see the Israelites.
and the waters were divided.
When Moses stretched out his arm as in-
structed by YHWH (14:6), a strong east
wind from YHWH drove the sea back,
leaving a dry path through the sea.

78
 Exodus 14:22-31
In this magnificent climactic victory, the 22
The Israelites went into the sea on
evil, oppressive empire is utterly defeated dry ground, the waters forming a
by YHWH, the God who listens to the cry wall for them on their right and on
of the oppressed and rescues them ‘with their left.
mighty arm’. YHWH still uses Moses 23
The Egyptians pursued, and went
(15:26-27), but it is YHWH who throws into the sea after them, all of Phar-
the Egyptian army into panic (15:25), aoh’s horses, chariots, and chariot
who clogs their chariot wheels so that they drivers.
cannot turn back (15:25), who casts the 24
At the morning watch YHWH in the
Egyptians into the sea as it crashes back
pillar of fire and cloud looked down
over the path that YHWH had previously
upon the Egyptian army, and threw
caused to appear in the middle of the sea
the Egyptian army into panic.
(15:28). Pharaoh who drowned the chil- 25
He clogged their chariot wheels so
dren of Israel (1:22) is himself drowned.
that they turned with difficulty. The
YHWH is acting with the same power with Egyptians said, “Let us flee from the
which he conquered chaos in his act of Israelites, for YHWH is fighting for
creation. So it is that we read in the Isaiah them against Egypt.”
scroll: 26
Then YHWH said to Moses,
Awake, awake, put on strength, “Stretch out your hand over the sea,
O arm of YHWH! so that the water may come back
Awake, as in days of old, upon the Egyptians, upon their
the generations of long ago! chariots and chariot drivers.”
Was it not you who cut Rahab in 27
So Moses stretched out his hand
pieces, who pierced the dragon?
over the sea, and at dawn the sea
Was it not you who dried up the sea,
the waters of the great deep; returned to its normal depth. As
who made the depths of the sea a way the Egyptians fled before it, YHWH
for the redeemed to cross over? tossed the Egyptians into the sea.
– Isaiah 51:9-10
28
The waters returned and covered
the chariots and the chariot drivers,
Recalling this scene, Paul writes:
the entire army of Pharaoh that had
These things happened to them to followed them into the sea; not one
serve as an example … So if you think
of them remained. 29But the Israel-
you are standing, watch out that you
do not fall … God is faithful, and he
ites walked on dry ground through
will not let you be tested beyond your the sea, the waters forming a wall
strength, but with the testing he will for them on their right and on their
also provide the way out. left.
– 1 Corinthians 10:11-13 30
Thus YHWH saved Israel that day
from the Egyptians; and Israel saw
At last the people ‘fear YHWH’; that is the Egyptians dead on the seashore.
to say, they are ready to listen and obey 31
Israel saw the great work that
(see Genesis 22:12; 42:18; Exodus 1:17; YHWH did against the Egyptians. So
9:30). The believed in YHWH (see 4:31), the people feared YHWH and be-
and they believed in his servant Moses lieved in YHWH and in his servant
(see 4:1-9; also 14:13). Moses.
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A Song of Praise of YHWH
The whole of Israel is invited to join in this song (šîr) of praise to YHWH for the power
he showed in his victory at the Red Sea. They ‘believed’ (14:31). They burst into song.
1
Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to YHWH:
“I will sing to YHWH, for he has triumphed gloriously;
horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.
2
YH is my strength and my might,
and he has become my salvation;
The word ‘salvation’(yešû‘â) occurs only once in Genesis, in the prayer that is inserted
into the tribal slogans (Genesis 49:18), and only one other time in Exodus, when Moses
says to the people: ‘Do not be afraid, stand firm, and see the salvation which YHWH will
accomplish for you today’(Exodus 14:13). Compare Isaiah and the psalm:
Surely God is my salvation; I will trust, and will not be afraid, for YH YHWH
is my strength and my might; he has become my salvation.
– Isaiah 12:2
YH is my strength and my might; he has become my salvation.
– Psalm 118:14
this is my God, and I will praise him,
my father’s God, and I will exalt him.
The expression ‘my father’s God’ recalls 3:6. That the God of the Exodus is the God of
the patriarchs has been a constant theme in Exodus (see 2:24; 3:6,15,16; 4:5; 6:3).
YHWH is a warrior;
3

YHWH is his name.

Compare the following:
YHWH the God of hosts,YHWH is his name!
– Hosea 12:5
They lean on the God of Israel; YHWH of hosts is his name.
– Isaiah 48:2 (see Jeremiah 10:16; Amos 4:13)
“Pharaoh’s chariots and his army he cast into the sea;
4

his picked officers were sunk in the Red Sea.

5
The floods covered them;
they went down into the depths like a stone.
6
Your right arm, O YHWH, glorious in power—
your right arm, O YHWH, shattered the enemy.
7
In the greatness of your majesty you overthrew your adversaries;
you sent out your fury, it consumed them like stubble.
8
At the blast of your nostrils the waters piled up,
the floods stood up in a heap;
the deeps congealed in the heart of the sea.
9
The enemy said, ‘I will pursue, I will overtake,
I will divide the spoil, my gullet shall have its fill of them.
I will draw my sword, my arm shall destroy them.’
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 Exodus 15:10-13
10
You blew with your wind, the sea covered them;
they sank like lead in the mighty waters.
11
“Who is like you, O YHWH, among the gods?
There is hardly any mention of ‘gods’ in Genesis. There is the story of Rachel stealing
her father’s ‘household gods’(Genesis 13:19ff), and there is the story of Jacob telling
his household to put away their ‘foreign gods’ (Genesis 35:2). The only mention of gods
so far in Exodus is when YHWH said he would execute judgment ‘on all the gods of
Egypt’(Exodus 12:12).
Who is like you, majestic in holiness,
This is the only time we find ‘holiness’(qodeš) in Exodus. It evokes images of the tem-
ple, the mountain, and heaven itself.
awesome in splendour, doing wonders?
You are the God who works wonders;
you have displayed your might among the peoples.
– Psalm 77:14-15
With your strong arm you redeemed your people,
You stretched out your right arm,
12

the earth swallowed them.

The bloodthirsty Egyptians leaped into the attack, ready to ‘fill their gullets’ with the
slain Israelites (15:9). Here they are swallowed up by the earth and sucked into Sheol.
13
“In your steadfast love you led the people whom you redeemed;
This is the first time ‘steadfast love’(ḥesed) has been used in Exodus. It is one the
defining characteristics of God in Genesis (see 24:27; 32:10; 39:21). ‘Redeem’(gā’al)
is found only once in Genesis (48:16), and in Exodus only here and in 6:6 (see Psalm
77:15; Isaiah 52:9). Psalm 78 echoes this song:
God led out his people like sheep, and guided them in the wilderness like a flock.
He led them in safety, so that they were not afraid;
but the sea overwhelmed their enemies.
– Psalm 78:52-53
you guided them by your strength to your holy abode.
The ‘holy abode’ would have evoked different images depending on who was singing
and where they sang. If they sang a hymn of praise on Mount Sinai, that would have
been YHWH’s holy abode. If they sang it before the period of the monarchy in the shrine
at Shiloh, that would be the holy abode. In Jerusalem it would have been the temple.
The song placed here on the lips of ‘Moses and the Israelites’(15:1) goes beyond the
Exodus, for ‘salvation’ is not complete till they are at home in the Promised Land.

81
Song of Praise of YHWH
The peoples heard, they trembled;
14

pangs seized the inhabitants of Philistia.

15
Then the chiefs of Edom were dismayed;
trembling seized the leaders of Moab;
all the inhabitants of Canaan melted away.
16
Terror and dread fell upon them;
by the might of your arm, they became still as a stone
until your people, O YHWH, passed through,
until the people whom you acquired passed through.
‘Pass through’(‘ābar) was used of YHWH inflicting the final plague (Exodus 12:12,
23). YHWH ‘acquired’(qānâ) the people, capturing his firstborn back in his victory over
Egypt where they had been enslaved. qānâ is also used of God as the one who brought
heaven and earth into being (see Genesis 14:19). Israel belongs to God. God brought
them into being as his people in the wilderness.
17
You brought them in and planted them
on the mountain of your own possession,
In Judah ‘the mountain’ would have been understood as the temple mount.
‘Possession’(nāḥalâ, ‘inheritance’) occurs only here in Exodus (see Genesis 31:4; 48:6).
The image of ‘planting’ is developed in Psalm 80:
You brought a vine out of Egypt; you drove out the nations and planted it.
You cleared the ground for it; it took deep root and filled the land.
The mountains were covered with its shade, the mighty cedars with its branches;
it sent out its branches to the sea, and its shoots to the River.
– Psalm 80: 8-11
the place, O YHWH, that you made your abode,
the sanctuary, O YHWH, that your hands have established.
On the ‘abode’ and the ‘sanctuary’ see verse 13
18
YHWH will reign forever and ever.”
19
When the horses of Pharaoh with his chariots and his chariot drivers went
into the sea, YHWH brought back the waters of the sea upon them; but the
Israelites walked through the sea on dry ground.
20
Then the prophet Miriam, Aaron’s sister, took a tambourine in her hand;
and all the women went out after her with tambourines and with dancing.
21
And Miriam sang to them:
“Sing to YHWH, for he has triumphed gloriously;
horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.”
If ‘Miriam’ is an Egyptian name it means ‘beloved’. If it is Semitic it may mean ‘gift’.
Moses’ sister (unnamed) helped organise his care as a baby (see 2:4). Miriam is intro-
duced here as ‘Aaron’s sister’. This may be because he is her senior brother. It was
customary for the women to sing a victory song for the heroes of a battle.

82
 The New Exodus
The Christian Exodus
Paul begins his sermon in the synagogue at Antioch by referring to the Exodus:
The God of this people Israel chose our ancestors … with uplifted arms he led them out
of Egypt.
– Acts 13:17
He concludes:
Through Jesus release from sins is being proclaimed to you, in regard to everything
from which you could not be justified under the law of Moses. In him every believer is
justified.
– Acts 13:38-39

What God did through Moses at the Red Sea, he completed through Jesus, liberating the
whole world from every form of slavery that prevents us from enjoying full communion
with God.
As the first creation is described in terms of the victory of God over the chaos of the
primeval waters, and as the formation of Israel into God’s chosen nation begins with
God’s victory over Egypt at the Red Sea, so the new creation begins with the emergence
of the new Adam, Christ, from the waters of the Jordan.
Just as Jesus came up from the water … a voice from heaven said: ‘This is my Son, the
Beloved, with whom I am well pleased.’
– Matthew 3:16-17

Paul uses the Crossing of the Red Sea as a symbol of Baptism:

I do not want you to be unaware, brothers and sisters, that our ancestors were all under
the cloud, and all passed through the sea, and all were baptized into Moses in the cloud
and in the sea.
– 1Corinthians 10:1-2

He sees the disciples of Jesus, both Jews and non-Jews, as the true inheritors of the re-
demption that is signified in the crossing of the Red Sea. Baptised into Christ, the new
Moses, Christians are drawn into the mystery of God’s protective presence, and escape
from slavery to sin.
The Apocalypse was written to encourage Christians facing persecution. The third and
final sign revealed at the sounding of the seventh trumpet is concerned with ‘God’s
judgment’(14:7). The hymn of praise that rises up from the redeemed celebrates the
eternal redemption effected by Christ.
They sing the song of Moses, the servant of God, and the song of the Lamb:
‘Great and amazing are your deeds, Lord God the Almighty!
Just and true are your ways, King of the nations!
Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name? For you alone are holy.
All nations will come and worship before you,
for your judgments have been revealed.’
– Revelation 15:3-4

83